WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM

Subject Code:-7EE5-11
 Unit 2

Physics of Wind Power

History of wind power

People used wind energy to propel boats along the Nile River as early as 5,000 BC. By 200
BC, simple wind-powered water pumps were used in China, and windmills with woven-reed
blades were grinding grain in Persia and the Middle East. New ways to use wind
energy eventually spread around the world.

Mechanical power generation: The earliest windmills recorded were vertical axis mills. These
windmills can be described as simple drag devices. They have been used in the Afghan
highlands to grind grain since the seventh century BC.

In Europe, windmill performance was constantly improved between the twelfth and
nineteenth centuries. By the end of the nineteenth century, the typical European windmill
used a rotor of 25 meters in diameter, and the stocks reached up to 30 meters. Windmills
were used not only for grinding grain but also for pumping water to drain lakes and marshes.
By 1800 about 20 000 modern European windmills were in operation in France alone, and in
the Netherlands 90 % of the power used in the industry was based on wind energy.
Industrialisation then led to a gradual decline in windmills, but in 1904 wind energy still
provided 11 % of the Dutch industrial energy and Germany had more than 18 000 installed
units. When the European windmills slowly started to disappear, windmills were introduced
by settlers in North America. Small windmills for pumping water to livestock became very
popular. These windmills, also known as American Windmills, operated fully selfregulated,
which means they could be left unattended. The self-regulating mechanism pointed the rotor
windward during high-speed winds. The European style windmills usually had to be turned
out of the wind or the sailing blades had to be rolled up during extreme wind speeds, to avoid
damage to the windmill. The popularity of windmills in the USA reached its peak between
1920 and 1930, with about 600 000 units installed. Various types of American Windmills are
still used for agricultural purposes all over the world.

Electrical power generation: In 1891, the Dane Poul LaCour was the first to build a wind
turbine that generated electricity. Danish engineers improved the technology during World
Wars 1 and 2 and used the technology to overcome energy shortages. The wind turbines by
the Danish company F. L. Smidth built in 1941–42 can be considered forerunners of modern
wind turbine generators. The Smidth turbines were the first to use modern airfoils, based on
the advancing knowledge of aerodynamics at this time. At the same time, the American
Palmer Putnam built a giant wind turbine for the American company Morgan Smith Co., with
a diameter of 53 meters. Not only was the size of this machine significantly different but also
the design philosophy differed. The Danish philosophy was based on an upwind rotor with
stall regulation, operating at slow speed. Putnam’s design was based on a downwind rotor
with variable pitch regulation. Putnam’s turbine, however, was not very successful. It was
dismantled in 1945. See Table 2.2 for an overview of important historical wind turbines.
After World War 2, Johannes Juul in Denmark developed the Danish design philosophy
further. His turbine, installed in Gedser, Denmark, generated about 2.2 million kWh between
1956 and 1967. At the same time, the German Hu¨tter developed a new approach. His wind
turbine comprised two slender fibreglass blades mounted downwind of the tower on a
teetering hub. Hu¨tter’s turbine became known for its high efficiency

Indian and Global statistics

Global

Overview of grid-connected wind power generation

Wind energy was the fastest growing energy technology in the 1990s, in terms of percentage
of yearly growth of installed capacity per technology source. The growth of wind energy,
however, has not been evenly distributed around the world. By the end of 2003, around 74%
of the worldwide wind energy capacity was installed in Europe, a further 18% in North
America and 8% in Asia and the Pacific.

Europe

Between the end of 1995 and the end of 2003, around 76 % of all new grid-connected wind
turbines worldwide were installed in Europe (see Tables 2.4 and 2.5). The countries with the
largest installed wind power capacity in Europe are Germany, Denmark and Spain.

North America

After the wind power boom in California during the mid-1980s, development slowed down
significantly in North America. In the middle of the 1990s the dismantling of old wind farms
sometimes exceeded the installations of new wind turbines, which led to a reduction in
installed capacity.

The overall capacity of all wind turbines installed worldwide by the end of 2018 reached 597
Gigawatt, according to preliminary statistics published by WWEA today. 50’100 Megawatt
were added in the year 2018, slightly less than in 2017 when 52’552 Megawatt were
installed. 2018 was the second year in a row with growing number of new installations but at
a lower rate of 9,1%, after 10,8% growth in 2017. All wind turbines installed by end of 2018
can cover close to 6% of the global electricity demand.

The by far largest wind power market, China, installed an additional capacity of 21 Gigawatt
and has become the first country with an installed wind power capacity of more than 200
Gigawatt. It has re-taken the growth path after a no-so-strong year in 2017 when a
comparatively modest 19 Gigawatt were installed. China continues its undisputed position as
the world’s wind power leader, with an accumulated wind capacity of 217Gigawatt.

The second largest market, the USA, saw an increase in new capacity from 6,7 Gigawatt in
2017 to 7,6 Gigawatt in 2018, in spite of less ambitious national climate and energy targets.
This positive development is certainly not only a result of the economics of wind power, but
also of strong and comprehensive support on the state and municipal level. Soon, the US will
be the second country after China reaching an installed capacity of more than 100 Gigawatt.

Indian

India had a record year and was the fourth largest market globally both in terms of
cumulative capacity and annual additions last year. 3,612 MW of new wind power was added
to reach a total of 28,700 MW at the end of December 2016. This total has risen to 31,177
MW at the end of March 2017.

The total renewable energy capacity installed in the country crossed the 50 GW mark at the
end of 2016. Among renewables, wind power accounted for over 57 percent of the installed
capacity.

India’s wind power installations accounted for a 6.6 percent share of the global market in
2016. Wind power capacity accounted for over 9.1 percent of total domestic installed
capacity.
In February 2015, India committed to installing 60 GW of wind and 100 GW of solar by
2022. Further, India made a commitment at COP21 to raise the share of non-fossil-fuel power
capacity in the country’s power mix to 40% by 2030.

Wind physics

Air has mass. Moving air has both mass and velocity. Wind is moving air and therefore wind
contains kinetic energy. The higher the velocity of the wind the greater the kinetic energy it
contains.

Consider an Eclectic D400 wind turbine. It has air blades with a diameter of 1.1 metres which
sweep out an area of about 1 square metre. Assume the wind is blowing at a velocity of 5 m/s
(10knots) and then visualise this as a cylinder of air 1.1 metre diameter and 5 metre long in
front of the air rotor. Air weighs about 1.2 kg per cubic metre at sea level, so our ‘cylinder’ of
air weighs 6kg. This ‘weight’ of air passes through the air rotor each second, and as it does
so, a proportion of the kinetic energy it contains is extracted by the D400’s air rotor. The
velocity of the wind is the critical element in this process because higher winds pass a greater
mass of air through the air rotor each second (imagine an ever longer cylinder of air!).
Because the amount of kinetic energy varies as the square of its speed, this results in a cubic
relationship between wind speed and available energy. The effects of this are dramatic. For
example, there is almost 75% more energy available in a 12-mph wind than at 10mph. Just as
available energy rises quickly with increasing velocity, so it diminishes rapidly at low wind
speeds.

There is very little useful energy in wind speeds below 6mph (3m/s).

Betz limit
The Betz limit is the theoretical maximum efficiency for a wind turbine, conjectured by
German physicist Albert Betz in 1919.Betz concluded that this value is 59.3%, meaning that
at most only 59.3% of the kinetic energy from wind can be used to spin the turbine and
generate electricity. In reality, turbines cannot reach the Betz limit, and common efficiencies
are in the 35-45% range.

Tip speed ratio

The tip-speed ratio, λ, or TSR for wind turbines is the ratio between the tangential speed of
the tip of a blade and the actual speed of the wind.

The tip speed of the blade can be calculated as times R, where is the rotational speed of the
rotor in radians/second, and R is the rotor radius in metres. Therefore, we can also write:

Stall and Pitch Control

Stall Control

Passive stall-controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed
angle.
Active stall control means that the turbine will actively change the shape of the blade to
begin slowing the rotor when wind speeds reach a certain level. Tip brakes, or speed brakes
can deploy mechanically on the blades when the turbine reaches a certain speed.

One of the advantages of active stall is that one can control the power output more accurately
than with passive stall, so as to avoid overshooting the rated power of the machine at the
beginning of a gust of wind.

Another advantage is that the machine can be run almost exactly at rated power at all high
wind speeds. A normal passive stall-controlled wind turbine will usually have a drop in the
electrical power output for higher wind speeds, as the rotor blades go into deeper stall.

Pitch Control

On a pitch-controlled wind turbine the turbine's electronic controller checks the power output
of the turbine several times per second. When the power output becomes too high, it sends an
order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns) the rotor blades
slightly out of the wind. Conversely, the blades are turned back into the wind whenever the
wind drops again.

The pitch mechanism is usually operated using hydraulics or electric stepper motors.

Wind speed statistics- probability distributions

The probability density function (PDF) of wind speed is important in numerous wind energy
applications. A large number of studies have been published in scientific literature related to
renewable energies that propose the use of a variety of PDFs to describe wind speed
frequency distributions. In this paper a review of these PDFs is carried out. The flexibility
and usefulness of the PDFs in the description of different wind regimes (high frequencies of
null winds, unimodal, bimodal, bitangential regimes, etc.) is analysed for a wide collection of
models.

The wind speed distribution determines the performance of wind energy systems for a
given location and time quite well. When the wind speed probability distribution is known,
the wind energy distribution can easily be obtained.

It has two parameters—the mean and the standard deviation. The Weibull distribution and
the lognormal distribution are other common continuous distributions. Both of
these distributions can fit skewed data. Distribution parameters are values that apply to
entire populations.

Weibull distribution

The Weibull distribution is often a good approximation for the wind speed distribution: A
is the Weibull scale parameter in m/s; a measure for the characteristic wind speed of
the distribution. A is proportional to the mean wind speed. k is the Weibull form parameter.

Lognormal Distribution
In probability theory, a log-normal (or lognormal) distribution is a continuous
probability distribution of a random variable whose logarithm is normally distributed.
Thus, if the random variable X is log-normally distributed, then Y = ln(X) has a
normal distribution.
WIND SPEED AND POWER-CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
To predict energy delivered by a wind turbine requires linking the power curve for the
machine to a statistical model of the wind regime. Beginning with a probability density
function, f(v), recall that the total area under a pdf curve is equal to one, and the area between
any two wind speeds is the probability that the wind is between those speeds. Therefore, the
probability that the wind is less than some specified wind speed V is given by

The integral F(V) in Equation above is given a special name: the cumulative distribution
function. The probability that the wind V is less than 0 is 0, and the probability that the wind
is less than infinity is 1, so F(V) has the following constraints:
 Unit 3
Wind Generator Topologies
Review of modern wind turbine technologies
WECS are classified in terms of our power yield, the type of machine, operating speed and
orientation of 4 turbine. Figure give the pictorial form of wind energy conversion systems
classification.

On the basis of their power delivering capabilities and type of machine involved wind
turbines are classified in following types:
1.Type A Fixed speed wind turbines
2. Type B Limited Variable Speed wind turbines
3.Type C Variable speed with partial scale frequency converter
4. Type D Variable speed with full scale frequency converter.

Type A Fixed speed wind turbines

A fixed-speed wind turbine always spins at the same generator/rotor speed during operation,
regardless of the wind speed. Thus, the tip-speed ratio (TSR) would change with wind
speed and the rotor aerodynamic performance would only be optimal at a given wind speed.
Type A turbines are structured turbines that are fair and electrically simple.
With the help of the gearbox, the number of RPMs has increased, driving the squirrel cage
induction generator (SCIG) to the step-up transformer of the power system.

Type B Limited Variable Speed wind turbines

A variable speed wind turbine is one which is specifically designed to operate over a wide
range of rotor speeds. It is in direct contrast to fixed speed wind turbine where the rotor speed
is approximately constant. The reason to vary the rotor speed is to capture the maximum
aerodynamic power in the wind, as the wind speed varies.
In order to achieve maximum aerodynamic efficiency at the wide range of wind velocity, the
turbine must have such a mechanism to vary its rotational speed according to variation in
wind velocity so tip speed ratio can be adjusted at optimal value corresponds to maximum
power coefficient.

Type C Variable speed with partial scale frequency converter

The stator of a generator is directly connected with grid delivering power to the grid while the
rotor is connected with back-to-back partial scale AC/DC & DC/AC power converters to
maintain the synchronization of rotor frequency and grid frequency.
Type D Fixed speed wind turbines
These are fully variable speed wind turbines equipped with synchronous generator either
excited electrically or by a permanent magnet.
Heavy Generator is connected to the grid through back-to-back full-scale AC/DC/AC power
converters to maintain frequency synchronization with the grid.

Induction Generators
An inductiongenerator or asynchronous generator is a type of alternating
current (AC) electrical generator that uses the principles of induction motors to produce
electric power. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotors faster than
synchronous speed. A regular AC induction motor usually can be used as a generator, without
any internal modifications. Induction generators are useful in applications such as mini
hydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower
pressure, because they can recover energy with relatively simple controls.
An induction generator usually draws its excitation power from an electrical grid. Because of
this, induction generators cannot usually black start a de-energized distribution system.
Sometimes, however, they are self-excited by using phase-correcting capacitors.
Induction generators are often used in wind turbines and some micro hydro installations due to
their ability to produce useful power at varying rotor speeds. Induction generators are
mechanically and electrically simpler than other generator types. They are also more rugged,
requiring no brushes or commutators.
Double-Fed Induction Generator
Double-fed induction generator (DFIG), a generating principle widely used in wind turbines.
It is based on an induction generator with a multiphase wound rotor and a multiphase slip
ring assembly with brushes for access to the rotor windings. It is possible to avoid the
multiphase slip ring assembly, but there are problems with efficiency, cost and size. A better
alternative is a brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine.
The principle of the DFIG is that stator windings are connected to the grid and rotor winding
are connected to the converter via slip rings and back-to-back voltage source converter that
controls both the rotor and the grid currents. Thus rotor frequency can freely differ from the
grid frequency (50 or 60 Hz). By using the converter to control the rotor currents, it is
possible to adjust the active and reactive power fed to the grid from the stator independently
of the generator's turning speed. The control principle used is either the two-axis
current vector control or direct torque control (DTC).[13] DTC has turned out to have better
stability than current vector control especially when high reactive currents are required from
the generator.[14]
The doubly-fed generator rotors are typically wound with 2 to 3 times the number of turns of
the stator. This means that the rotor voltages will be higher and currents respectively lower.
Thus in the typical ±30% operational speed range around the synchronous speed, the rated
current of the converter is accordingly lower which leads to a lower cost of the converter. The
drawback is that controlled operation outside the operational speed range is impossible
because of the higher than rated rotor voltage. Further, the voltage transients due to the grid
disturbances (three- and two-phase voltage dips, especially) will also be magnified. In order
to prevent high rotor voltages (and high currents resulting from these voltages) from
destroying the insulated-gate bipolar transistors and diodes of the converter, a protection
circuit (called crowbar) is used.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators
A permanent magnet synchronous generator is a generator where the excitation field is
provided by a permanent magnet instead of a coil. The term synchronous refers here to the
fact that the rotor and magnetic field rotate with the same speed, because the magnetic field is
generated through a shaft mounted permanent magnet mechanism and current is induced into
the stationary armature.
Synchronous generators are the majority source of commercial electrical energy. They are
commonly used to convert the mechanical power output of steam turbines, gas
turbines, reciprocating engines and hydro turbines into electrical power for the grid. Some
designs of Wind turbines also use this generator type.
In the majority of designs the rotating assembly in the center of the generator—the "rotor"—
contains the magnet, and the "stator" is the stationary armature that is electrically connected
to a load. As shown in the diagram, the perpendicular component of the stator field affects the
torque while the parallel component affects the voltage. The load supplied by the generator
determines the voltage. If the load is inductive, then the angle between the rotor and stator
fields will be greater than 90 degrees which corresponds to an increased generator voltage.
This is known as an overexcited generator. The opposite is true for a generator supplying a
capacitive load which is known as an underexcited generator. A set of three conductors make
up the armature winding in standard utility equipment, constituting three phases of a power
circuit—that correspond to the three wires we are accustomed to see on transmission lines.
The phases are wound such that they are 120 degrees apart spatially on the stator, providing
for a uniform force or torque on the generator rotor. The uniformity of the torque arises
because the magnetic fields resulting from the induced currents in the three conductors of the
armature winding combine spatially in such a way as to resemble the magnetic field of a
single, rotating magnet. This stator magnetic field or "stator field" appears as a steady
rotating field and spins at the same frequency as the rotor when the rotor contains a single
dipole magnetic field. The two fields move in "synchronicity" and maintain a fixed position
relative to each other as they spin.[1]
They are known as synchronous generators because f, the frequency of the induced voltage in
the stator (armature conductors) conventionally measured in hertz, is directly proportional to
RPM, the rotation rate of the rotor usually given in revolutions per minute (or angular speed).
If the rotor windings are arranged in such a way as to produce the effect of more than two
magnetic poles, then each physical revolution of the rotor results in more magnetic poles
moving past the armature windings. Each passing of a north and south pole corresponds to a
complete "cycle" of a magnet field oscillation. Therefore, the constant of proportionality is
P/120, where P is the number of magnetic rotor poles (almost always an even number), and
the factor of 120 comes from 60 seconds per minute and two poles in a single magnet;

F=Ns*P/120
Power electronics converters
Power electronic technology deals with processing and controlling the flow of electrical
energy in order to supply voltages and currents in a form that optimally suited for end user’s
requirements.

A power electronic converter uses power electronic components such as SCRs, TRIACs,
IGBTs, etc. to control and convert the electric power. The main aim of the converter is to
produce conditioning power with respect to a certain application.

Depending on the type of function performed, power electronic converters are categorized
into following types.

 AC to DC = Rectifier: It converts AC to unipolar (DC) current

 DC to AC = Inverter: It converts DC to AC of desired frequency and voltage
 DC to DC = Chopper: It converts constant to variable DC or variable DC to
constant DC
 AC to AC = Cycloconverter, Matrix converter: It converts AC of desired
frequency and/or desired voltage magnitude from a line AC supply.

AC to DC Converters or Rectifiers

An AC to DC converter is also called a rectifier, which converts AC supply from main lines
to DC supply for the load. The block diagram of an AC to DC converter is shown in figure
below.

Here, the transformer adjusts the primary AC source supply to the input of rectifier stage.
Usually, it is a step-down transformer that reduces the supply voltage to a circuit operating
range.
The rectifier converts the low voltage AC supply into DC supply.

It comprises diode and/or thyristors based on type of rectifier. The output of the rectifier is of
pulsed DC and hence it is filtered using filter circuit, which is usually made with a capacitor
or a choke.

The control block controls the firing angle of thyristors in case of phase-controlled rectifiers.
Since the diode is not a controllable device, control block is not needed in case of diode
rectifiers.

Rectifiers are majorly classified into two types

 Uncontrolled diode rectifiers

 Controlled rectifiers

DC to DC Converters

Many DC operated applications need different levels of DC voltage from a fixed DC source.

Some of these applications include subway cars, DC traction systems, control of large DC
motors, battery operated vehicles, trolley buses, etc. They require variable DC to produce
variable speed, so a power conversion device is needed.

The chopper circuit is connected between DC input source and DC load. This chopper
consists of power electronic switching devices such as thyristors which are connected in such
a way that they produce required DC voltage to the load.

The output voltage is controlled by adjusting ON time of the thyristor (or switch) which turn
changes the width of DC voltage pulse at the output. This method of switching is called as
pulse width modulation (PWM) control.
The output of the chopper can be less or greater than the input and also it can be fixed or
variable. These can be unidirectional or bidirectional devices based on the application it is
intended for.

DC choppers are mainly used in DC drives, i.e., electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles.

AC to AC Converters

AC/AC converters connect an AC source to AC loads by controlling amount of power

supplied to the load. This converter converts the AC voltage at one level to the other by
varying its magnitude as well as frequency of the supply voltage.

These are used in different types of applications including uninterrupted power supplies, high
power AC to AC transmission, adjustable speed drives, renewable energy conversion systems
and aircraft converter systems.

 AC/AC Voltage Converters

These converters control the rms value of output voltage at a constant frequency. The
common application of these converters includes starting of AC motors and
controlling power to heaters.

A single-phase AC/AC voltage converter consists of a pair of anti-parallel thyristors

along with a control circuit as shown in figure below.

The other names of this controller are single phase full wave converter and AC
voltage controller.

 AC/AC frequency Converters

These converters are mainly used for varying the frequency of the input source to
desired level of the load. An AC/AC frequency converter changes the frequency of
input voltage/current of the load compared to the frequency of the source.
 Some of these converters may control magnitude of voltage besides the frequency
control. These are mainly used for adjusting the speed of AC drives and also for
induction heating.

The two major classes of these converters include

1. Cyclo converters

and

2. Matrix converters.

DC to AC Converters or Inverters

These converters are connected between DC source of fixed input, and variable AC load.
Most commonly, these DC to AC converters is called as inverters. An inverter is a static
device that converts fixed DC supply voltage to variable AC voltage.

Here the fixed DC voltage is obtained from batteries or by DC link in most power electronic
converter. The output of the inverter can be variable/ fixed AC voltage with variable/fixed
frequency.

This conversion from DC to AC along with variable supply is produced by varying the
triggering angle to the thyristors. Most of the thyristors used in inverters are employed with
forced commutation technique.

Converter Control

The power converter controls the power delivered to the resistor using an uncontrolled
rectifier and a parallel DC–DC chopper. This design has the disadvantage of the current
having a higher harmonic content. This is caused by the rectangular rotor current
waveform in the case of a three-phase uncontrolled rectifier. This disadvantage can be
avoided using a six IGBT's controlled rectifier, however this topology increases the cost
significantly.
 Unit 4
The Solar Resource
Introduction
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into
useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. However,
the technical feasibility and economical operation of these technologies at a specific location
depends on the available solar resource.

Basic Principles

Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar
radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:

 Geographic location
 Time of day
 Season
 Local landscape
 Local weather.

Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0°
(just above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's rays are vertical, the
Earth's surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer
they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth
is round, the frigid polar regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of
rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year.

Solar Radiation Spectra

Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun. The three relevant bands, or ranges,
along the solar radiation spectrum are ultraviolet, visible (PAR), and infrared. Of the light that
reaches Earth's surface, infrared radiation makes up 49.4% of while visible light provides 42.3%.

The amount and intensity of solar radiation that a location or body of water receives depends
on a variety of factors. These factors include latitude, season, time of day, cloud cover and
altitude. Not all radiation emitted from the sun reaches Earth’s surface. Much of it is
absorbed, reflected or scattered in the atmosphere. At the surface, solar energy can be
absorbed directly from the sun, called direct radiation, or from light that has been scattered as
it enters the atmosphere, called indirect radiation.

Solar Geometry
“SOLAR GEOMETRY IS THE DETERMINING FACTOR OF HEAT GAIN, SHADING
AND THE POTENTIAL OF DAYLIGHT PENETRATION”

Temperature, precipitation, wind and sunshine have a direct effect on buildings. A deliberate
choice of surroundings may permit us to take advantage of the elements that make the
environment more favorable.

Earth Sun angles

As the earth makes its yearly revolution around the sun it rotates every 24 hours about its
axis which is tilted at an angle of 23 degrees 27.14 min (23.45o) to the plane of the elliptic
which contains the earth's orbital plane and the sun's equator.

The angle between the earth- sun line and the earth’s equatorial plane is known as the angle
of declination. This varies with the date; and the orbital velocity of the earth traveling around
the elliptic plane also varies slightly.

The two angles that completely describe the sun position are the solar altitude b, measured
from 0° to 90° above the horizon, and the solar azimuth f, measured from 0° to 180° from the
south with positive sign eastwards and negative sign westwards. To determine these two
angles from data on Latitude, date and time, the following calculation is carried out:
Instead of being expressed in time units, true solar time can be expressed in angular terms
related to the earth’s rotation as the hour angle, H, where

H = 0.25 X

where

H hour angle
X Number of minutes from true solar time noon
Since in one minute the earth rotates 0.25°. Values a.m. are +ve and p.m. +ve. Then,
sin b = cos L cos d cos H + sin L sin d
and
sin f = (cos d sin H) / cos b
LLatitude, degrees
D declination, degrees (northern hemisphere =+ve, southern hemisphere = -ve)

Observer Sun Angles

When we observe the sun from an arbitrary position on the earth, we are interested in
defining the sun position relative to a coordinate system based at the point of observation, not
at the center of the earth. The conventional earth-surface based coordinates are a vertical line
(straight up) and a horizontal plane containing a north-south line and an east-west line. The
position of the sun relative to these coordinates can be described by two angles; the solar
altitude angle and the solar zenith angle defined below. Since the sun appears not as a point in
the sky, but as a disc of finite size, all angles discussed in the following sections are measured
to the center of that disc, that is, relative to the "central ray" from the sun.

The hour angle is zero at solar noon (when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky).

At this time the sun is said to be 'due south' (or 'due north', in the Southern Hemisphere)

since the meridian plane of the observer contains the sun. The hour angle increases by

15 degrees every hour.

Exactly one-half of the disc is above the horizon, giving the day length as 12 hours. At noon,
the observer notes that the solar zenith angle is the same as the local latitude. The sun sets at
exactly 6:00 PM, at a solar azimuth angle of exactly 270 degrees or due west.

Solar Day Length

A solar day is the time it takes for the Earth to rotate about its axis so that the Sun appears in
the same position in the sky.
The sidereal day is measured with respect to the stars, while the solar day is the length of
time measured from noon to noon.

Solar time is a calculation of the passage of time based on the position of the Sun in the sky.
The fundamental unit of solar time is the day. Two types of solar times are apparent solar
time (sundial time) and mean solar time (clock time).

ESTIMATION OF SOLAR ENERGY AVAILABILITY

Accurate estimation of solar energy is necessary as the demand and dependency of solar
energy in total power is increasing worldwide. Moreover, accurate estimate is required by
energy planners and electric utilities to have the right balance of renewable and fossil fuels-
based generation.

Also, accurate forecast will lead to saving from excess fuel consumption or emergency purchases of
electricity and helpful in maintenance, energy storage and trading of electricity. The present review is
focused on various estimating techniques used for prediction of global solar irradiance.
 Unit 5
Solar Photovoltaic
Technologies
Amorphous
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) has been used as a photovoltaic solar cell material for devices
which require very little power, such as pocket calculators, because their lower performance
compared to conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells is more than offset by their
simplified and lower cost of deposition onto a substrate. The first solar-powered
calculators were already available in the late 1970s, such as the Royal Solar 1, Sharp EL-
8026, and Teal Photon.
Used as semiconductor material for a-Si solar cells, or thin-film silicon solar cells, it is
deposited in thin films onto a variety of flexible substrates, such as glass, metal and plastic.
Amorphous silicon cells generally feature low efficiency, but are one of the most
environmentally friendly photovoltaic technologies, since they do not use any toxic heavy
metals such as cadmium or lead.
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon used for solar cells and thin-
film transistors in LCDs.

Monocrystalline
A monocrystalline solar panel is a solar panel comprising monocrystalline solar cells.
These cells are made from a cylindrical silicon ingot grown from a single crystal of silicon of
high purity in the same way as a semiconductor. The cylindrical ingot is sliced into wafers
forming cells.
To maximize the utility of the cells, the circular wafers are wire cut to an octagonal shaped
wafer. These cells have a unique look because of the octagonal shape. These cells also have a
uniform colour.
When sunlight falls on the monocrystalline solar panel the cells absorb the energy and
through a complicated process create an electric field. This electric field comprises voltage
and current and generates power which is governed by the equation P (power) = V (voltage) x
I (current). This power can be used directly to power devices that run on direct current (DC).
This power can also be converted to alternating current (AC) using an inverter.
Monocrystalline solar cells are among the three types of materials that exhibit photovoltaic
properties. The other two are polycrystalline solar cells and amorphous or thin film solar
panels. Monocrystalline solar panels have features considered better than the other two types
of panels. They are as follows:

 These cells in the panel have a pyramid pattern which offers a larger surface area to
collect more energy from the sun’s rays.
 The top surface is diffused with phosphorous which helps to create an orientation that
is electrically negative as compared to the bottom which has a positive electrical
orientation, which in turn helps to create the electric field.
  To reduce reflection and thereby increase absorption, the cells are coated with silicon
nitride.
 The produced electricity is collected through metal conductors printed onto the cells.
 Because of the above features, the main advantage of monocrystalline solar cells is
the higher efficiency of conversion of solar energy into electric energy than its two
other counterparts.
 These panels have longevity up to 30 years.
 These panels exhibit greater heat resistance.
Polycrystalline
PolyCrystalline or MultiCrystalline solar panels are solar panels that consist of several
crystals of silicon in a single PV cell. Several fragments of silicon are melted together to form
the wafers of polycrystalline solar panels. In the case of polycrystalline solar panels, the vat
of molten silicon used to produce the cells is allowed to cool on the panel itself. These solar
panels have a surface that looks like a mosaic. These solar panels have a surface that looks
like a mosaic. These solar panels are square in shape and they have a shining blue hue as they
are made up of several crystals of silicon. As there are multiple silicon crystals in each cell,
so polycrystalline solar panels allow little movement of electrons inside the cells. These solar
panels absorb energy from the sun and convert it into electricity.
These solar panels are made of multiple photovoltaic cells. Each cell contains silicon crystals
which makes it function as a semiconductor device. When the photons from the sunlight fall
on the PN junction (junction between N-type and P-type materials), it imparts energy to the
electrons so that they can flow as electric current. Here, P-type materials are deficient of
electrons while N-type materials have an abundance of electrons. Two electrodes are
connected with the PV cells. The electrode that is on the top surface contains small wires
while the electrode on the bottom is a foil-like conductor.
V-I characteristics of a PV cell
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of
a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving a detailed description of its solar
energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more
importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s output
performance and solar efficiency.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation
of a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the
existing conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information
required to configure a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power
point (MPP) as possible.

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of
current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages
from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given
radiation level.
With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its
minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar
cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short
circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell
is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known
as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel
combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the
array panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if
connected together in parallel then the current increases. The electrical power in Watts,
generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still be the product of the voltage
times the current, (P = V x I). However, the solar panels are connected together, the upper
right-hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of the array.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current for
different levels of insolation and temperature and can tell you a lot about a PV cell or panel’s
ability to convert sunlight into electricity. The most important values for calculating a
particular panels power rating are the voltage and current at maximum power.
Some solar panels are rated at slightly higher or lower voltages than others of the same
wattage value, and this affects the amount of current available and therefore the panels MPP.
Other parameters also important are the open circuit voltage and short circuit current ratings
from a safety point of view, especially the voltage rating. An array of six panels in series,
while having a nominal 72-volt (6 x 12) rating, could potentially produce an open-circuit
voltage of over 120 volts DC, which is more than enough to be dangerous.
PV module, cell, array

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce
higher voltages, currents and power levels.

Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective

laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include
one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit.

A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV

modules and panels.
The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum
DC power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions
are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o F), and incident solar
irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these
conditions are not always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual
performance is usually 85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.

Today’s photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal failure
rates and projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major manufacturers offer
warranties of 20 or more years for maintaining a high percentage of initial rated power
output. When selecting PV modules, look for the product listing (UL), qualification testing
and warranty information in the module manufacturer’s specifications.

Power Electronic Converters for Solar Systems

One of the most important parts in PV system architecture is the power converters. The
reason is that they play an important role in transforming the different types of electricity, to
make the electricity convenient to the end users. Since the solar cell produces a DC type of
electricity, there’s room for various types of power converters. Here, some of the most
commonly used power converter types are briefly describe according to their topology,
function, efficiency, and the major global manufacturers.

1. Power optimizer: Commonly known as a DC-DC power optimizer in solar PV

markets, a power optimizer is a module-level power converter. It takes DC input from
the solar module and gives either higher or lower DC output voltage. Such a converter
is equipped with an MPPT technology to optimize the power conversion from the
solar panel to the DC load or a battery or central inverter. It is also considered one of
the most efficient power converters, delivering up to 99.5% efficiency. However, it
needs DC cabling from the array.
2. Module inverter/micro-inverter: This is also a module-level power converter. It takes
DC input from the solar module and converts it into AC electricity, which is then
ready to be connected to the load or single-phase main grid or to a central inverter. It
is also equipped with MPPT technology to detect the maximum power point of each
module. Even though it doesn’t requires any DC cabling, it is more expensive than the
power optimizer due to its advanced design. The efficiency of such a power converter
is about 96%.
3. String inverter: As an extension of a module-level power converter is the string
inverter, which is suitable for a string or parallel strings of modules connected in
series. Such a power converter is used for small PV systems up to 10 kW in capacity
and are usually connected to the main grid. The output of such a power converter is 3
phase lines which are ready to be connected to a low voltage main grid. Even though
it is incorporated with MPPT technology, due to the connection of a large PV array, it
has a global maximum power point (MPP) which then degrades the efficiency of the
PV system. In order to improve the efficiency, it would be wise to use a module
inverter first and then the string inverter. However such configurations are more
expensive. Apparently, one of the cons in such power converters is that the PV system
is highly affected by shadowing on PV modules, thereby pulling down the system
efficiency as low as possible. Meanwhile, many researchers are investigating a new
MPPT algorithm to get the most efficient global MPP to overcome the shadowing
affect.
 4. Central inverter: In large PV power plants (10 kW and higher), central inverters are
used instead of string inverters. However, the central inverters’ functionality remains
the same (i.e, to produce a 3-phase high voltage output for grid integration), which is
why this power converter is considered essential for connecting with the main grid. In
many large PV power plants, central inverters are inevitable. But there are many
losses within the PV system due to their large and complex configuration.

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is an algorithm implemented in photovoltaic (PV)

inverters to continuously adjust the impedance seen by the solar array to keep the PV system
operating at, or close to, the peak power point of the PV panel under varying conditions, like
changing solar irradiance, temperature, and load.

Engineers developing solar inverters implement MPPT algorithms to maximize the power
generated by PV systems. The algorithms control the voltage to ensure that the system
operates at “maximum power point” (or peak voltage) on the power voltage curve, as shown
below.

MPPT algorithms are typically used in the controller designs for PV systems. The algorithms
account for factors such as variable irradiance (sunlight) and temperature to ensure that the
PV system generates maximum power at all times.

The three most common MPPT algorithms are:

1. Perturbation and observation (P&O): This algorithm perturbs the

operating voltage to ensure maximum power. While there are several
advanced and more optimized variants of this algorithm, a basic P&O
MPPT algorithm is shown below.
 2. Incremental conductance: This algorithm, shown below, compares the
incremental conductance to the instantaneous conductance in a PV
system. Depending on the result, it increases or decreases the voltage
until the maximum power point (MPP) is reached. Unlike with the P&O
algorithm, the voltage remains constant once MPP is reached.

3. Fractional open-circuit voltage: This algorithm is based on the

principle that the maximum power point voltage is always a constant
fraction of the open circuit voltage. The open circuit voltage of the cells
in the photovoltaic array is measured and used as in input to the
controller.

Converter Control

DC-DC Boost Converter

DC-DC boost converter circuit consists of power switch (M), diode (D), inductor (L),
capacitor (C), switching controller and load (R). This topology can be used for interface
connection between low PV array voltage to a high battery bank input voltage or any DC
load. The DC-DC boost converter will boost up or step up the output voltage to be greater
than input voltage. Controller will control the switch for turnon and turn-off to boost the input
voltage to the needed value of output voltage. When the switch is turn-on, the diode will be in
reversed bias and electrical energy will be stored in the inductor. Thus, the capacitor will
supply current to the load. When the switch is turn-off, the stored electrical energy in the
inductor will be transferred to the capacitor and load. The DC-DC boost converters have two
type of operation which is continuous-conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous-
conduction mode (DCM). When the DC-DC boost converter operates in CCM, the inductor
current will be greater than zero at all time whereas during DCM, the inductor current will
drop to zero after each switching cycle. Current research trends for DC-DC boost converter
with PV based power quality management are reported for harmonic elimination, power
factor correction, zero voltage regulation and load balancing.

DC-DC Buck Converter

Similar to DC-DC boost converter, basic circuit topology of DC-DC buck converter also
consists of power switch (M), diode (D), inductor (L), capacitor (C), switching controller and
load as depicted. DC-DC buck converter operates as a step-down system that will step down
the high input voltage to the low output voltage which the magnitude of output voltage is
always lower than the input voltage. The objective of this circuit is to produce a purely DC
output by adding the LC low pass filter to the basic circuit of this converter. This DC-DC
buck converter can be connected to low voltage DC load or battery bank from a high PV
array voltage. DC-DC buck converters are commonly used in very high range step down
converters and low power range regulators because of its simple topology with low control
difficulty, less number of components and no isolation. Most of the DC-DC buck converters
are used in battery charging by modulating the high input voltage through PWM to generate
the low output voltage required by the batteries as well as MPP tracking in order to maximize
the output power obtained from the PV arrays. Several solar PV applications with DC-DC
buck converter are standalone solar PV pumping system for water supply in rural areas, solar
battery charger, MPPT tracking for grid-connected [36] and off-grid PV system.

DC-DC Buck-Boost Converter

The circuit topology for DC-DC buck-boost converter is very much similar to DC-DC boost
converter except for the placement of switching element before the inductor (L). The DC-DC
buck-boost converter or namely as step-up/down and bidirectional converter can generate
either lower or higher output voltage from its input voltage by in order to connect with
suitable PV array voltage, DC load or battery input voltage. DC-DC buck-boost converter is a
cascaded connection of two basic converters which are DC-DC buck and boost converters.
The output of this converter can be controlled by changing its duty cycle, D. If the duty cycle
is lower than 50%, the converter will be operated in buck mode and the output voltage will be
less than the input voltage. When the duty cycle is higher than 50%, the converter will be
functioned in boost mode and the output voltage will be greater than input voltage. The
design parameters that should be considered in designing this converter are the operating
frequency of the inductor, the maximum current and voltage that the inductor can withstand
as well as the gate driver circuit to generate the PWM switching signals for triggering the
power switch.
 Unit 6
Network Integration Issues
Grid Code
A grid code is a technical specification which defines the parameters a facility connected to a
public electric grid has to meet to ensure safe, secure and economic proper functioning of the
electric system. The facility can be an electricity generating plant, a consumer, or another
network.[1] The grid code is specified by an authority responsible for the system integrity and
network operation. Its elaboration usually implicates network operators (distribution or
transmission system operators), representatives of users and, to an extent varying between
countries, the regulating body.
The grid code can be divided into two main categories; normal operation and under grid
disturbance requirements.
A. Normal operation requirements
The normal operation requirements can be divided to frequency deviation, voltage
deviation, active power control,+ and reactive power control.
A.1. Frequency deviation
A small PV system connected to the LV grid side has to operate properly within a
frequency range of 59.3 Hz (98.83%) - 60.5 Hz (100.83%) based on nominal
frequency of 60 Hz. This means that the PV plant has to trip when the frequency
drops to 59.2 Hz (98.66%) or increased to 60.6 Hz (101%). When the frequency lies
outside the allowable limits the inverter should cease to energize the utility lines
within 6 cycles. On the other hand, the IEC 61727 [6] stated that the frequency range
is 49 Hz (98%) to 51 Hz (102%) based on a system frequency of 50 Hz, when the
system frequency lies outside these limits the PV system must be disconnected within
0.2 sec (10 cycles). It is clear that the international standards provide discrepancies in
the connection requirements. Therefore, the proper settings should be re-determined
according to the considered system operational practices and characteristics. When
the PV system is connected to the MV grid side, the frequency deviation is required to
meet the requirements in Table I as stated in Germany, France and Spain grid codes.
A.2. Voltage deviation
An PV system connected to the LV grid side must be able to operate healthy within
the voltage window of 106 - 132V at the PCC, that is 88% to 110% of nominal
voltage which is 120 V. That means the system will trip when the voltage becomes
outside these limits with disconnection time. For system with line voltage greater than
120 V, the same ratio of 88% - 110% of nominal voltage is applied. It has to be
noticed that if the system line voltage differ than 120 V, the percentage value of
nominal voltage.
In countries with increased PV penetration, in normal conditions the voltage limits
specified by the LV GCs should not exceed the limits expresses in Table V. The
maximum allowed voltage rise caused by the PV systems should be less than 3% and
is estimated in terms of short circuit power of PCC and the apparent power of the PV
system.
A.3. Active power control
 Two modes of active power control are required when connecting large PV plant to a
MV grid. The first one is when the plant is intended to operate at constant output
power while the second mode is when the plant is required to participate in frequency
control of the grid.The PV plant has to control the output power by reducing it in
steps of 10% of the rated power. A set point given by the utility grid operator has to
be reachable at any operation point of the plant; usually set points of 100%, 60%,
30% and 0% of the plant rated power are used.
A.4. Reactive power control
PV plants connected to the MV power grid has to be able to supply reactive power to
the grid at any point of operation to achieve a power factor of between 0.95 lag and
0.95 lead [3, 4, 11] to support grid voltage stability under normal operation. The
reactive power has to be supplied during the feed-in operation, which means there is
no need to supply reactive power during night. The reactive power set point can be
one of the following operational modes
 A fixed power factors
 A variable power factor depending on the delivered active power
 A fixed reactive power in MVAR
 A variable reactive power depending on the voltage
A.5. Short circuit limits
The short circuit current may exceed the utility grid limit at the point of
connection of the PV plant. The short circuit current of a synchronous generator is
typically eight times the rated current. For a PV plant, the short circuit current is
typically the same as the rated current [4]. Therefore, there is no need to limit the
PV plant short circuit current by external current limiter.
A.6. Harmonics
The harmonic limits mentionedare summarized as follows:
 Total harmonic current distortion at the PCC should be less than 5% of the
fundamental frequency current at the rated inverter output.
 When the voltage at the PCC is ranging between 120V and 69KV. The
limits in this table are a percentage of the fundamental frequency current at
full system output. Even harmonics in these ranges should be less than
25% of the odd harmonic limits listed.
B. Under grid disturbance requirements
The main goals are to ride through momentary network faults and at the same time to
provide grid support which is called fault ride through capability (FRT). If a large PV
plant is immediately disconnected instead of helping the system to regain a steady
state operating point, the electrical grid stability will be even more negatively
affected. These requirements apply to large PV plant connected to the MV power
grid.
The term fault ride through (FRT) is related to how the plant has to act in the case of
utility voltage drop because of faults to maintain grid stability, reliability and
operational security.
 However, each code can add more constraints on the connection and the
disconnection of the plant. Four main parameters can define the FRT requirements
which are the minimum acceptable voltage during the fault (Vmin), fault duration,
voltage restoration time and steady state voltage (Vss). These FRT requirements are
applicable for both wind and PV plants.

FRT limits according to German grid code

Fault Ride-Through Requirement of WTS

The increasing and expansion of wind power has set some new problems to power system.
The power system with large scale wind power will involve problems not only in steady state
operation but also in contingency condition. FRT requires keep the WTs on the grid during
faults so that they can contribute to the stability to the power transmission system. Experts
have done many researches about the behaviours of WTs.
Figure 1(a) gives the simulation results of the behaviour of induction generator based on WT
following grid faults. We can find after 250 ms, if the fault still cannot be cleared, it will lead
to voltage collapse. Figure 1(b) is the basic requirements of fault ride-through of E. ON of
Germany. In the second (blue) area, the WTs should be kept on grid, but if the WTs face
overloads and stability problems, they can short time interrupt (STI), but the STI time must
be far less than 2s.
Figure 1. The voltages under fault and FRT requirement, (a) the voltages under fault with different fault
clearance times, (b) boundary conditions for FRT requirement.

Voltage and Frequency Operating Limits

Frequency variation in the power system exists due to the mismatch b/w the supply of power
and demand for the power. Voltage variations exist in the power grid is due to the mismatch
in the reactive power b/w demand (MVAR) available.
In spite of all these variations, there is a certain limit for the operation limits (variations
allowed) for voltage and frequency parameters dictated by the grid code. Any variations in
the parameter (voltage and frequency) below operating limits considered as power grid are
unhealthy and restoration steps will be taken to make the power grid healthy.
In India according to Electricity Grid Code, the operation variation in the frequency and
voltage allowed is given as below.
Frequency Operating variation limits
49Hz to 50.5Hz
Voltage operation variation limit
Voltage Rating Maximum Voltage Minimum Voltage
400kV 420kV 360kV
220kV 245kV 200kV
132kV 145kV 120kV

Solar PV And Wind Farm Behaviour During Grid Disturbances

INCREASING fear about global warming leads to a better international awareness in
renewable energy sources. Many agreements have been signed by countries (e.g., Kyoto,
Copenhagen and Durban) to reduce the global warming. IPCC reports on climate change
(e.g., arctic snow melting) warned the global community on carbon foot print. Many
countries have agreed to decrease their carbon foot print. In Copenhagen, India has made a
commitment to reduce its emissions per unit of GDP 20 to 25% below 2005 levels by 2020
[1]. As we know 38 % of carbon is coming out from electricity generation. Since GDP
growth is linearly related with electricity production, so each year India has to increase the
generation by 10% (current installation of 190 GW). Currently India is the third biggest
consumer of coal and its growing deficit and increasing export tax in coal rich countries (e.g.
Indonesia) leads to shut down of many thermal stations. Also, 1unit of electricity produces
1kg of carbon, so it is difficult to go forward with coal based thermal plant, Government
(MNRE) proposed a big project called [2] Jawaharlal Nehru national solar mission (JNNSM)
at a cost of 19bn US$, to generate 20000 MW of grid connected solar energy before 2022,
1000 MW before 2013, and additional 3000 MW before 2017, using solar photovoltaic and
solar thermal technique. It is planned to add power at 33 KV and above. Cost of electricity
per unit from PV plant is decreasing year by year. Already its cost has gone below gas-based
plants. Considering growth of PV interface with the existing grid and response of PV plant is
totally different from conventional synchronous machines. So, adetailed study of transient
response of PV plant is carried out in this paper, and based on the results, effect of system
parameter for various disturbances are analyzed.
PV CELL MODELLING
Since PV cells are P-N junction semiconductor devices, their V-I characteristics are shown in
Fig. 2.

Fig.2. Region of Operation of a Photovoltaic Cell

The above Fig. 2 shows that PV Cell has a nonlinear V-I characteristics, also, it is depending
on irradiance, Temperature and other climatic condition. Most commonly PV is modeled as
current source parallel with the diode (Fig. 3) with its internal resistances.

Fig. 3. Single Diode model

Power quality issues

Power quality is defined as ―the concept of powering and grounding sensitive electronic
equipment in a manner suitable for the equipment. All electrical devices are prone to failure
or malfunction when exposed to one or more power quality problems. The electrical device
might be an electric motor, a transformer, a generator, a computer, a printer, communication
equipment, or a household appliance. All of these devices and others react adversely to power
quality issues, depending on the severity of problems. A simpler and more concise definition
might state: ―Power quality is a set of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of equipment
to function in its intended manner without significant loss of performance or life expectancy.
This definition embraces two things that we demand from an electrical device: performance
and life expectancy. In light of this definition of power quality, this chapter provides an
introduction to the more common power quality terms along with descriptions, causes and
consequences of the terms.
A. VOLTAGE SAG (OR DIP)
Description: A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 and 90% of the
nominal rms voltage at the power frequency, for durations of 0, 5 cycle to 1 minute.
Causes: Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on
parallel feeders). Faults in consumer’s installation. Connection of heavy loads and
start-up of large motors.
Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely
microprocessor-based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a
process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and electromechanical relays. Disconnection
and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines.
B. VERY SHORT INTERRUPTIONS
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from few milliseconds
to one or two seconds.
Causes: Mainly due to the opening and automatic reclosure of protection devices to
decommission a faulty section of the network. The main fault causes are insulation
failure, lightning and insulator flashover.
Consequences: Tripping of protection devices, loss of information and malfunction of
data processing equipment. Stoppage of sensitive equipment, such as ASDs, PCs,
PLCs, if they’re not prepared to deal with this situation.
C. LONG INTERRUPTIONS
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration greater than 1 to 2
seconds. Causes: Equipment failure in the power system network, storms and objects
(trees, cars, etc) striking lines or poles, fire, human error, bad coordination or failure
of protection devices. Consequences: Stoppage of all equipment.
D. VOLTAGE SPIKE
Description: Very fast variation of the voltage value for durations from a several
microseconds to few milliseconds. These variations may reach thousands of volts,
even in low voltage. Causes: Lightning, switching of lines or power factor correction
capacitors, disconnection of heavy loads.
Consequences: Destruction of components (particularly electronic components) and
of insulation materials, data processing errors or data loss, electromagnetic
interference.
E. VOLTAGE SWELL
Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or damage of
sensitive Description: Momentary increase of the voltage, at the power frequency,
outside the normal tolerances, with duration of more than one cycle and typically less
than a few seconds.
Causes: Start/stop of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power sources, badly regulated
transformers (mainly during off-peak hours) equipment, if the voltage values are too
high.
F. HARMONIC DISTORTION
 Description: Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal shape. The
waveform corresponds to the sum of different sine-waves with different magnitude
and phase, having frequencies that are multiples of power-system frequency.
Causes: Classic sources: electric machines working above the knee of the
magnetization curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers,
and DC brush motors. Modern sources: all non-linear loads, such as power electronics
equipment including ASDs, switched mode power supplies, data processing
equipment, high efficiency lighting.
Consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral overload in
3-phase systems, overheating of all cables and equipment, loss of efficiency in electric
machines,electromagnetic interference with communication systems, errors in
measures when using average reading meters, nuisance tripping of thermal
protections.

Power System Interconnection Experiences in The World

The power system network is an interconnected network. It means all generators are
connected with the grid. Therefore, if one generator is overloaded the load can be transferred
on other generators.
Advantages of the Interconnected Power System
 Use of older plants

 Economical operation
 Increase the reliability of power supply
 Exchange of peak load
 Increase the diversity factor
 Reduce plant reserve capacity
 Reduce capital and operating cost
Use of Older Plants
In the power system network, there are some old and insufficient generating stations. These
stations have the capacity to carry short peaks of the load. But these generating stations are
not sufficient to run on a continuous basis.
If the system is interconnected than these plants are also connected in a system with a
transmission line and we can use these plants to meet the peak load demand. So, to achieve
this purpose, these generating stations are used with modern plants.
In this way, we can meet peak load demand without giving extra burden on modern plants
with the help of old and insufficient generating station.

Economic Operation
All the generating stations are working on the same frequency and same voltage level.
Because of the sharing of load among the power plants are done in such a way that all
generating stations can work continuously with high efficiency and high-power factor.
The less efficient and old generating stations are not used continuously and these plants are
used only at peak hours. Therefore, in an interconnected system makes the economical
operation of the power stations.

Increase the Reliability of Power Supply

In the interconnected power system, all the load has more than one supply. If one supply is
failed or in maintenance, in this condition load is supplied by another source.
So, if a major breakdown occurred in the power station, then the load is transferred to other
healthy power station. Hence, the load is always connected with an uninterrupted power
supply and increases the reliability of the system.

Exchange of Peak Load

In the summer season, the use of inductive load like air-conditioner is increase. Therefore, in
this season, the load curve of the power station shows a peak demand.
This peak demand is more than the capacity of that power system. In this condition, an extra
load must be shared by other power station, otherwise, overload relay may operate and load
shedding will be done to reduce the burden on a power station.
In the interconnected system, the peak load is transferred to the old generating station. So, the
load curve will remain flat in peak demand conditions.

Increase Diversity Factor

It is a ratio of the sum of the individual maximum load of various plants of the system to the
maximum demand of the entire system.
The load curve is not the same for all generating stations connected in the interconnected
power system. In this way, the maximum demand for the system is reduced as compared to
the sum of individual maximum demands on various power stations. And the diversity factor
of the system is improved. Therefore, the effective capacity of plants is increased.

Reduce Plant Reserve Capacity

Every power plant has a standby unit for emergencies. In the interconnected system, all plants
are connected in parallel. So, the reserve capacity of the system is reduced and it increases the
efficiency of the system.
Reduce Capital and Operating Cost
In an interconnected system, the efficiency of plants is increased and the cost of power
generation is reduced. In this system, capital cost and operating cost is reduced. So, per kW
price is also reduced.

Disadvantages of Interconnected System

 Expensive tie line
 Expensive circuit breaker
 Synchronizing problem
 Metering and instrumentation

Problems Associated with the Interconnected system

The interconnected system has more advantages than disadvantages. That is the reason, the
actual power system is the interconnected network. But there are some problems that are
associated with satisfactory implementation.

 Voltage control
 Communication
 Frequency control
 Metering and instrumentation
 Shortage of reserve capacity
 Synchronizing problem
Voltage Control
In the interconnected system, the voltage is an important parameter and it must remain
constant at any point of the network. The system voltage may decrease due to high inductive
load demand.
Generally, this problem is occurring in the summer season because of the use of air-

conditioners, water pumps, and fans. This problem can be solved by meeting the reactive

power requirement. For this purpose, the shunt capacitance is used at the load centers.

Communication
The communication facility is not sufficient to provide better operation in the interconnected
power system because of the available frequency spectrum is congested.
This problem is occurring in the present communication technique that is the Power Line

Carrier Communication (PLCC) technique. To overcome this problem, we have to use

other communication techniques like fiber optics and multiple system digital microwave

system.

Frequency Control
The frequency is inversely proportional to the load demand. If load demand is increasing
frequency is decreased and vice versa. In the case of peak load demand, the frequency is very
low. The system frequency should maintain between 48.5 to 50.5 Hz.
If system frequency is not in this range, in this condition frequency relay will operate and
disconnect the load.

Metering and Instrumentation

At a different stage of power system network, meters and sensors placed to measure the
quantities like voltage, current, frequency, active power, reactive power, etc.
These meters and instruments are very costly. For load forecasting and future calculation, a
record of this measurement we required. So, it is necessary to install a sequential recorder,
disturbance recorder, etc.

Shortage of Reserve Capacity

In the case of peak load, the load demand is more than the power generation. In this
condition, if every power station has a certain amount of reserve power then it can be used to
meet demand. This is also useful to meet minute to minute variation in load and load
forecasting error.
This can be classified into two types: clod reserve and an operating reserve.

Synchronizing Problem
In an interconnected power system, all the generators are connected in parallel and it must
operate at the same frequency.
If this does not happen than any generator of the system may go to out of step condition
because of the synchronization breakup.
In the worst condition, the blackout condition may create. So, it is a necessary condition to
operate all the generating stations in the synchronized manner.
Hybrid and Isolated Operations of Solar PV And Wind Systems.
According to many renewable energy experts, a small "hybrid" electric system that combines
home wind electric and home solar electric (photovoltaic or PV) technologies offers several
advantages over either single system.

In much of the United States, wind speeds are low in the summer when the sun shines
brightest and longest. The wind is strong in the winter when less sunlight is available.
Because the peak operating times for wind and solar systems occur at different times of the
day and year, hybrid systems are more likely to produce power when you need it.

Many hybrid systems are stand-alone systems, which operate "off-grid" -- not connected to
an electricity distribution system. For the times when neither the wind nor the solar system
are producing, most hybrid systems provide power through batteries and/or an engine
generator powered by conventional fuels, such as diesel. If the batteries run low, the engine
generator can provide power and recharge the batteries.

Adding an engine generator makes the system more complex, but modern electronic
controllers can operate these systems automatically. An engine generator can also reduce the
size of the other components needed for the system. Keep in mind that the storage capacity
must be large enough to supply electrical needs during non-charging periods. Battery banks
are typically sized to supply the electric load for one to three days.
 Unit 7
Solar Thermal Power Generation
Technologies
Solar thermal technologies are designed to convert the incident solar radiation into usable
heat. The process of solar heat conversion implies using energy collectors - the specially
designed mirrors, lenses, heat exchangers, which would concentrate the radiant energy from
the sun and transfer it to a carrier fluid. The fluid passes through the sunlight collector and
becomes very hot. Typical heat carrier fluids are water/steam, oil, or molten salt. Then the
fluid is transferred to the heat engine, which converts the heat to electricity.
There are several different kinds of solar collectors, which are described below. These
collectors are only functional with the direct beam sunlight and would also benefit from sun
tracking - the technology that keeps the reflectors at an optimal angle to the sun.

Flat plate collectors

Flat plate collector is the simplest technology of this kind, which is typically used for
reaching temperatures usually no more than 100 degrees above ambient.
Concentrating collectors

Types of concentrating sunlight collectors:

(a) tubular absorbers with diffuse back reflector,
(b) tubular absorbers with specular cusp reflectors,
(c) plane receiver with plain reflectors,
(d) parabolic concentrator,
(e) array reflectors (heliostats) with central receiver. Concentration of light on the
receiver is achieved by shaping the reflectors (mirrors) around the receiver.

he above collectors are combined to a bigger energy conversion system. The larger scale
solar thermal systems have higher efficiency than small systems.

The utility scale solar thermal systems include the following designs:

 linear reflectors (heating temperatures ~280 oC);

 parabolic trough (heating temperatures ~400 oC);
 dish / engine systems (heating temperatures ~650 oC);
 solar tower (heating temperatures ~>1000 oC).
Parabolic trough
A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal collector that is straight in one dimension and
curved as a parabola in the other two, lined with a polished metal mirror. The sunlight which
enters the mirror parallel to its plane of symmetry is focused along the focal line, where
objects are positioned that are intended to be heated. In a solar cooker, for example, food is
placed at the focal line of a trough, which is cooked when the trough is aimed so the Sun is in
its plane of symmetry.
For other purposes, a tube containing a fluid runs the length of the trough at its focal line. The
sunlight is concentrated on the tube and the fluid heated to a high temperature by the energy
of the sunlight. The hot fluid can be piped to a heat engine, which uses the heat energy to
drive machinery, or to generate electricity. This solar energy collector is the most common
and best known type of parabolic trough.
When heat transfer fluid is used to heat steam to drive a standard turbine generator, thermal
efficiency ranges from 60-80%. The overall efficiency from collector to grid, i.e. (Electrical
Output Power)/(Total Impinging Solar Power) is about 15%, similar to PV (Photovoltaic
Cells) but less than Stirling dish concentrators. Large-scale solar thermal power plants need a
method for storing the energy, such as a thermocline tank, which uses a mixture of silica sand
and quartzite rock to displace a significant portion of the volume in the tank. It is then filled
with the heat transfer fluid, typically a molten nitrate salt.
Efficiency
The trough is usually aligned on a north–south axis, and rotated to track the sun as it moves
across the sky each day. Alternatively, the trough can be aligned on an east–west axis; this
reduces the overall efficiency of the collector due to the sunlight striking the collectors at an
angle but only requires the trough to be aligned with the change in seasons, avoiding the need
for tracking motors. This tracking method approaches theoretical efficiencies at the spring
and fall equinoxes with less accurate focusing of the light at other times during the year. The
daily motion of the sun across the sky also introduces errors, greatest at the sunrise and sunset
and smallest at noon. Due to these sources of error, seasonally adjusted parabolic troughs are
generally designed with a lower concentration acceptance product.

Central Receivers
Central receiver concentrator photovoltaic (CSPV) technology combines an ultra-efficient
concentrated solar PV (CPV) receiver with an array of sun-tracking mirrors, otherwise
known as heliostats. The heliostats concentrate sunlight onto photovoltaic cells in a central
receiver located at the top of a mast.
Central receiver systems (also called solar tower or power tower) consist of a large number of
two-axis tracking mirrors (heliostats) each with a surface of 20–200 m2 and a heat exchanger
(receiver) located at the top of a central tower (see Fig. 19.7). The maximum distance from
the farthest heliostats to the receiver easily exceeds 1 kilometre in power plants of some
10 MWel of capacity. The receiver, in most cases a tube bundle heat exchanger, may also be
positioned inside a cavity to reduce heat losses. The poor heat transfer characteristics of air
make it difficult to be used in tube bundles. Therefore, porous structures are also used as
absorbers in this case. The concentrated solar radiation is absorbed inside the volume of the
material and transferred to air that is sucked in through the structure. This “volumetric”
receiver concept allows an excellent heat transfer and very high concentration factors.

Parabolic Dish
A parabolic dish reflector (PDR) is a point-focus system with a paraboloid geometry given by
the revolution of one half of a parabola around its normal axis. Sunlight entering the collector
aperture with a normal incidence is concentrated onto a heat receiver located at the focal
point of the dish. Parabolic dishes exploit only DNI and require a two-axis tracking
mechanism to ensure a proper focus throughout the day. Typical concentration ratios of PDRs
range from 500 to 3000, making this technology suitable for high temperature
applications (up to 450°C for SORCs), but unlike other collector types, PDRs are rarely
connected together in a solar field.
Solar parabolic-dish concentrating systems are most appropriate for
concentrated photovoltaic application due to its high concentration ratio and operating
temperature. These systems are very bulky and high-cost device.
A parabolic (or paraboloid or paraboloidal) reflector (or dish or mirror) is a reflective surface
used to collect or project energy such as light, sound, or radio waves. Its shape is part of a
circular paraboloid, that is, the surface generated by a parabola revolving around its axis.
Fresnel
The use of a Fresnel lens is one of the typical design options for the
concentrating PV systems. Compared with a parabolic mirror, a Fresnel lens has its focus
behind the lens surface. This gives a convenience for installation of PV cells and also there is
no matter of shading caused by the PV cells.
However, both Fresnel lens and parabolic dish concentrating PV systems need to be
accompanied by a high accuracy sun-tracking system. This study presents the design analysis
of a Fresnel lens concentrating PV cell which consists of a small linear Fresnel lens and a
strip PV cell. A number of cells may form a modular large concentrating PV system using a
single sun-tracking system. Based on the analysis of the ray path through the Fresnel lens and
a current density distribution model for the PV cell, a computer program has been produced
to predict the irradiance distribution on the PV cell and the distribution of current density.

Solar Pond
A solar pond is a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The
saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a "halocline", in which
low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water. The layers of salt solutions increase in
concentration (and therefore density) with depth.
Advantages and Disadvantages

 The approach is particularly attractive for rural areas in developing countries.

Very large area collectors can be set up for just the cost of the clay or plastic pond
liner.
 The accumulating salt crystals have to be removed and can be a valuable by-
product and a maintenance expense.
 No need for a separate collector.
 The extremely-large thermal mass means power is generated night and day.
 Relatively low-temperature operation means solar energy conversion is typically
less than 2%.
 Due to evaporation, non-saline water is constantly required to maintain salinity
gradients.

Elementary Analysis