MALAWI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ACADEMY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT

TO : MADA KAMALIZA

: CHISOMO KAPONDA

FROM : BENJAMIN MBALE (MMB02222)

PROGRAM OF STUDY : MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY

YEAR OF STUDY :2

SEMESTER :2

COURSE CODE : HAPH2200

COURSE NAME : HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

LABORATORY TILTLE : PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND MICROSCOPIC

EXAMINATION OF HUMAN URINE SAMPLES
ABSTRACT

This report provides insights from urinalysis which examined the physical,
chemical, and microscopic features of urine samples. Urine was collected in
clean, labeled containers and carried out three types of analyses. The physical
examination looked at color and clarity, while chemical testing involved
dipsticks to assess glucose, protein, and ketones. After centrifugation, we
conducted a microscopic analysis to identify cells, crystals, and bacteria. Most
results fell within normal ranges, but we noted a significant elevation in ketone
levels (+++). This report discusses the findings and their potential clinical
implications.
INTRODUCTION

Urinalysis is a common diagnostic tool that offers valuable insights into a

person’s health helping to identify conditions such as urinary tract infections,
diabetes, and kidney problems. The process involves three main steps: physical,
chemical, and microscopic analysis. Physical characteristics like color and clarity
can provide initial clues, while chemical tests help pinpoint specific issues, such
as abnormal glucose or protein levels. Microscopic examination looks for cells,
pathogens, or crystals that might indicate underlying health concerns. This
study provides a complete urinalysis and interprets the clinical significance of
the findings (McPherson & Pincus, 2022).
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Urine samples were collected in sterile, labeled containers to ensure they

remained uncontaminated.

The urine samples were visually inspected for color and clarity, both of which
serve as early indicators of potential health issues. Colors were observed
ranging from yellow to pale yellow (Fischbach & Dunning, 2021).

Using a dipstick test various biochemical markers were evaluated. The dipstick
was immersed in the urine for one minute, and the resulting color changes
were compared with a reference chart. Assessed parameters included
urobilinogen, glucose, bilirubin, ketones, specific gravity, blood (hematuria),
pH, protein, nitrites, and leukocyte esterase (Chernecky & Berger, 2020).

After centrifuging the urine samples for 10 minutes to concentrate the sediment,
a drop of the sediment was placed on a slide and examined it under a
microscope to check for red and white blood cells, epithelial cells, crystals,
bacteria, and casts.

Working Principle of the Urine Analyzer

The urine analyzer automates the chemical testing of urine samples using
dipstick reagent strips and advanced optical technology, specifically light
reflectance photometry. Here’s how it works:

A urine sample is applied to a reagent strip with multiple pads. Each pad
contains chemicals that react with specific substances in the urine, such as
glucose, protein, or ketones (McPherson & Pincus, 2022).

As the urine interacts with the reagent pads, chemical reactions cause color
changes. The intensity of these changes reflects the concentration of each tested
substance (Chernecky & Berger, 2020).

The analyzer shines light on the strip, and sensors measure the amount of light
reflected from each pad. The reflected light varies inversely with the
concentration of the substance: higher concentrations lead to darker colors that
reflect less light (Fischbach & Dunning, 2021).

The machine’s software compares the reflected light measurements with a

precalibrated reference scale, calculating results that provide numerical or
semiquantitative values for each parameter (McPherson & Pincus, 2022).

Once the analysis is complete, the machine presents the results in a format that
can be printed, displayed onscreen, or transmitted electronically, helping
healthcare providers quickly assess the patient’s health status (Chernecky &
Berger, 2020).

This automated system enhances the efficiency of urinalysis, reduces human

error, and ensures consistent, accurate results.
RESULTS

Physical Examination

The urine samples exhibited the following characteristics:

Color Pale yellow

Clarity Clear

Chemical Analysis (Dipstick Test)

The dipstick test yielded the following values:

Urobilinogen Negative

Glucose Negative to trace

Bilirubin Negative

Ketones +++ (100 mg/dL)

Specific Gravity 1.030

Blood (Hematuria) Negative

pH 7

Protein Negative to trace

Nitrites Negative

Leukocyte Esterase Negative

Microscopic Examination

The microscopic analysis of the centrifuged sediment revealed:

Red Blood Cells Absent

White Blood Cells Absent

Epithelial Cells Absent

Crystals Absent

Bacteria Absent

Casts Absent
DISCUSSION

The results from the urinalysis shows a generally normal urine profile, with a
notable exception: the elevated ketone level (+++), which may indicate
ketosis. This could be due to factors like diabetes, prolonged fasting, or a
highfat diet (McPherson & Pincus, 2022). The specific gravity of 1.030 suggests
concentrated urine, possibly from dehydration. The absence of hematuria,
nitrites, leukocyte esterase, and bacteria points to a low likelihood of urinary
tract infection (Fischbach & Dunning, 2021). A neutral pH of 7 is typical for a
balanced diet (Chernecky & Berger, 2020).

The lack of red and white blood cells in the microscopic examination further
supports the absence of infection or inflammation. Although protein and
glucose levels are within normal limits, they should be monitored, especially
considering the high ketone level, to rule out potential metabolic disorders
(McPherson & Pincus, 2022).

Future investigations might include more detailed biochemical tests, such as

serum ketone levels or glucose tolerance tests, to better assess the patient’s
metabolic status. Expanding the sample size could also help validate these
findings across a broader population (Fischbach & Dunning, 2021).
CONCLUSION

This urinalysis provided insights into the patient’s health. While most results
were within normal ranges, the elevated ketone level calls for further
investigation. No signs of infection or significant abnormalities were detected,
but ongoing monitoring of metabolic factors is recommended (McPherson &
Pincus, 2022).
REFERENCES

Chernecky, C. C., & Berger, B. J. (2020). Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic

Procedures. Elsevier.

Fischbach, F. T., & Dunning, M. B. (2021). A Manual of Laboratory and

Diagnostic Tests. Wolters Kluwer Health.

McPherson, R. A., & Pincus, M. R. (2022). Henry's Clinical Diagnosis and

Management by Laboratory Methods. Elsevier.