LECTURE ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS II

Lecture Objectives
By the end of the lecture, the student will be able to:
 State the scope and nature of the course
 State the expected results.
 State the instructional and assessment method

Course Aims and Objectives

Communication Skills II is the second part of Communication Skills I, code named 158.
The course generally aims at making students:
 Write good paragraphs;
 Write good academic essays;
 Improve on their use of language;
 Employ the proper mechanics in writing academic essays;
 Edit their own essays; and
 Finally, write good references in essays.
Expected Results
At the end of the course, the student is expected to:
 Write paragraphs that have unity, coherence, completeness and good order;
 Write good academic essays in their various fields of study;
 Write correct references in their essays.

Course Outline

Lecture One
Introduction to the course
Lecture Two
Paragraph Writing
 Definition of a paragraph,

 The Controlling Idea .

Components of a Paragraph: -
The topic sentence
The major support sentence
The minor support sentence

Ways of developing the Paragraph

The deductive method
The inductive method
Comparison and Contrast
Definition

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 Classification
Cause and Effect
Factual details
Examples
Anecdote
Combination of Methods
Paragraph organisation
The introduction
Main body/Sentences of development
Summary sentence

Lecture Three
The Essay
 Choosing and limiting the topic
 Finding a topic
 Writing the outline to the essay
 Writing the introduction to an essay
Types of introduction:
The narrative introduction
The expository introduction
The thesis statement
Types of Essays
Argumentative
Expository
Explaining “how”
Explaining “what”
Explaining “why”
Narrative essays
Descriptive essays
Editing the essay
 Editing for Correct punctuations
 Editing for correct spelling
Lecture Four
Style
• Registers
• Spelling
• Punctuations
• Editing

Lecture Five
Documentation (Referencing in academic essays)
 What is referencing?
 Reasons for using a referencing system
 Harvard referencing

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UMaT referencing
 Referencing in the text
 Compiling a reference list
 Works Cited
 Bibliography
Instructional Methodology
 The course will be conducted through lectures, class discussions, and
presentations by individual students and groups.
 Tutorials will be used to give students the opportunity to practice the skills they
have acquired.
 Lateness to lectures and in submission of assignments will not be entertained.

Assessment
Students’ Assessment is in two parts:
1. Continuous Assessment
2. End of Semester Examination
Continuous Assessment, which carries 40% of the total marks, will comprise marks from
tutorial work, class tests, quizzes and group presentations.
 Attendance is also awarded marks as part of Continuous Assessment, so students
should make it a point to attend all lectures and tutorials since attendance will be
taken.
 End of Semester Examination is the main examination and therefore takes 60% of the
total examination marks.

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 REFERENCES

Bruning, R., Dempsey, M., Kauffman, D.F., McKim, C. and Zumbrunn, S. (2013),
Examining dimensions of self-efficacy for writing. Journal of educational
psychology, 105(1), p.25.

Ferriman, N. (2013), The impact of blended e-learning on undergraduate academic essay

writing in English (L2). Computers & Education, 60(1), pp.243-253.

Kuperman, V., Dambacher, M., Nuthmann, A. and Kliegl, R. (2010), The effect of word
position on eye-movements in sentence and paragraph reading. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 63(9), pp.1838-1857.

Redman, P. and Maples, W. (2017), Good essay writing: a social sciences guide. Sage.

Schmeck, R.R. ed., (2013), Learning strategies and learning styles. Springer Science &
Business Media.

Shermis, M.D. and Burstein, J. eds., (2013) Handbook of automated essay evaluation:
Current applications and new directions. Routledge.

Toba, H., Sari, S., Adriani, M. and Manurung, R. (2010), Contextual Approach for Paragraph
Selection in Question Answering Task. In CLEF (Notebook Papers/LABs/Workshops).
Umunnakwe, N. and Pitse, B.G. (2017) What is in the essay? An investigation of the
introductory paragraph of students’ academic essays. International Journal of Scientific and
Education Research, 1, 1, pp.31-44.

Weigle, S.C. (2013), English as a second language writing and automated essay
evaluation. Handbook of automated essay evaluation: Current applications and new
directions, pp.36-54.

Zhao, C.G., (2017) Voice in timed L2 argumentative essay writing. Assessing writing, 31,
pp.73-83.

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 LECTURE TWO

WRITING SKILLS II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL

LECTURE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. define a paragraph
2. mention the characteristics of a good paragraph
3. identify the controlling idea and state the topic sentence of a paragraph;
4. develop a controlling idea through the use of major and minor support sentences;
5. describe different ways of developing a paragraph; and
6. describe how to organize a paragraph

DEFINITION OF PARAGRAPH
In Communication Skills I, you saw how words work together in a sentence to express an idea. Now
you will see how several sentences work together in a paragraph to express a larger idea. A paragraph
is a group of sentences that develops one main idea. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
also offers a very helpful definition of a paragraph: “a group of several sentences in a piece of writing,
the first sentence of which starts on a new line”. It is clear according to those two definitions that the
basic unit of a paragraph is a sentence and that every paragraph starts on a new line.

The paragraph is usually indented. This means that the first sentence which always begins with a capital
letter also begins about half an inch from the left margin of the paper. However, in some cases,
especially when we type our letters or essays, we may use the block type of paragraph. When the block
type of paragraph is used, each paragraph is separated from the other by a line.

THE CONTROLLING IDEA

A paragraph usually contains only one main idea or one main point. The paragraph does not talk about
everything the writer knows about the subject he/she is dealing with. If someone for instance is writing
about ‘rocks’, he can’t talk about all he knows about rocks in a single paragraph since this will make
his writing very boring. However, he can write about what rocks are, what they are composed of, the
types of rocks and perhaps uses of rocks, all in separate paragraphs. If the writer chooses only one of
the things he knows about rocks and talks about it in one paragraph, it means he has limited himself by
choosing a controlling idea for the paragraph.

A controlling idea is what is developed in the paragraph. It is the controlling idea because everything
else that the writer says in the paragraph is related to it (the controlling idea).

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The writer who for instance wants to talk about ‘rocks’ can choose a sentence that summarizes what he
wants to say. This sentence should summaries all the information he wants the paragraph to contain. He
could say, for example, ‘There are three main types of rock’ or the three main types of rock are -----.
This controlling idea that the writer has chosen makes it clear that all the other sentences in the
paragraph will talk about the types of rock only. The controlling idea is useful because it makes the
writer concentrate on only what he has chosen to talk about. It also guides the writer to select only
details that are related to the controlling idea and therefore prevents him from saying things which are
irrelevant.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

The topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. Because it tells what the paragraph is about, it
often begins the paragraph. Whenever it appears first in a paragraph, it does several important things.

Firstly, a topic sentence helps the writer to control unity in a paragraph. This is because since the main
idea is before the writer’s eyes, each supporting detail can be checked to make sure it is related.

Secondly, a good topic sentence tells the reader what to expect in the paragraph. This is because it acts
as a guide or serves as a general introduction to the paragraph.

Thirdly, a good topic sentence arouses a reader’s curiosity and makes him want to read the paragraph
for more details. Consider this example:

Television news coverage is different from newspaper reporting. The best stories for TV news are those
having strong visual elements. Such visible events often deal with violence, death or disaster.
Newspapers, on the other hand, rely more on words than on pictures to tell stories. Therefore,
newspapers usually have a better balance of stories than television stations do. Television news and
newspaper reporting are therefore not the same.

We can identify that sentence one (1) is the topic sentence because it is the only sentence that relates to
all the sentences in the paragraph. It also sums up the information they contain because it says
“Television news coverage is different from newspaper reporting.”

This sentence limits and controls the topic that the paragraph deals with. It restricts the writer in the
sense that he can only talk about the differences between TV news coverage and newspaper report and
nothing else.

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The topic sentence is not only found at the beginning of the paragraph. It can also be found in the middle
as a link between the first and second parts of the sentence and also it can come at the end as a form of
summary. It is even possible not to have a topic sentence at all. This can happen in a narrative or
descriptive piece where we say the topic sentence is implied. However, it is good to make it the first
sentence so that it can guide you to be focused.

Note that a sentence always gives a complete thought so your topic sentence should be a full sentence
that has a subject and a finite verb and makes a complete thought. Do not confuse a topic and a topic
sentence. The topic can be a phrase or even a word. For example:

Topic: Importance of Water

Topic Sentence: Water is of so much importance to human beings.

THE MAJOR SUPPORT SENTENCE

A major support sentence is a sentence in the paragraph that is directly related to the topic sentence or
to the controlling idea: it helps to develop the controlling idea of the paragraph by saying something
new about it. It adds more information to the controlling idea and thus helps to make the meaning of
the topic clearer to the reader.

In the paragraph about the differences between newspaper reporting and TV news coverage, the major
support sentences are sentences 2 and 4 which talk about the TV news and the Newspaper reports
respectively. They give more information about the topic sentence since they clearly state the difference.
Also, if for instance your topic sentence is “There are four main reasons why I want to be an engineer”,
you should at least have four sentences in addition to your topic sentence and each sentence should
contain one reason. In this case all four additional sentences are major support sentences since they will
give more information about the topic sentence.

THE MINOR SUPPORT SENTENCE

Unlike the major support sentence which is directly related to the controlling idea, the minor support
sentence is directly related to the major support sentence. It says something new about the major support
sentence; it adds more information or a supporting detail to the idea found in the major support sentence
and by so doing indirectly helps to develop the controlling idea. It is clear that all three types of
sentences, that is, topic, major and minor support sentences, are related since they are all about the same
topic. The difference, however, is that the minor support sentence helps to develop the major support
sentence.

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Here is another paragraph. Read it carefully and identify the various types of sentences: Topic, Major
Support, and Minor Support sentences.
1
World War (II) provided the stage for four dynamic leaders who will be remembered
differently in history but who shared a charismatic quality that enabled them to win the support
of their people. 2Hitler, with his animated oratorical style and promises of German superiority,
had the Germans believing their country’s destiny was to rule all of Europe and set standards
for the world. 3Benito Mussolini, who could be as charming as he was brutal, roused Italy with
promises of a return to the glory of the Roman Empire and projected an image of military
strength and national glory. 4Franklin Roosevelt projected a different but equally effective
image. 5With his wheel chair and his weekly “fireside chats” to the American public, Roosevelt
was at once human and wisely paternal. 6He projected a confidence that America could do the
job, no matter what the job. 7Like Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, with his cigars and bowler
hats, seemed very human. 8But Churchill was as tenacious as a bulldog (and looked a bit like
one) and through his unflinching demeanor and inspiring speeches gave Britons the confidence
that they could stave off the Nazis and ultimately triumph.

The First sentence is obviously the topic sentence. It contains the main idea in the paragraph. The topic
of the paragraph is about four dynamic leaders in history who won the unflinching support of their
people. Note that the paragraph mentions only four leaders and that these were leaders who, as a result
of their charisma, enjoyed the loyalty of their respective peoples. We expect to see at least four sentences
– major support sentences – which are directly related to the controlling idea and which provide
supporting evidence to prove that what the topic sentence says about the four leaders, Hitler, Mussolini,
Roosevelt and Churchill, is true.

The second sentence is the first major support sentence and it is about Hitler of Germany. This sentence
therefore helps to develop the controlling idea by identifying Hitler as one of the four leaders referred
to. He had charisma and as a result was able to win the confidence and support of his people. The third
sentence is also a major support sentence and it mentions Mussolini as the second of the four dynamic
leaders. The fourth sentence further develops the controlling idea by showing why Roosevelt qualifies
to be the third of the four dynamic world leaders. The two sentences which follow the fourth are both
about Roosevelt, but these are not major support sentences. They do not directly develop the controlling
idea. They are rather more closely related to the fourth sentence – a major support sentence and give
the reader more supporting details to enable him understand why Americans liked Roosevelt – his
“popular wheel chair” and his “fireside chats”
The fifth sentence is a minor support sentence and tells us that the Americans liked Roosevelt because
he was seen as an extraordinary human being who was also wise and paternal. The sixth sentence, also
a minor support sentence, tells us more about what made Roosevelt so popular in America. This

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sentence adds a new supporting detail to what we already know. It points out that Roosevelt won the
support of Americans also because he made them have enough confidence in themselves to believe that
they could achieve success in all their endeavours.

Notice that the first two major support sentences (sent. 2 and 3) are not developed. No new information
is provided and this is because the writer did not find it necessary to. However, the third major support
is followed by two minor support sentences because the writer considers the provision of the new details
important since they help the reader to understand what he is saying better.

The seventh sentence is clearly a major support sentence. It adds more information to the controlling
idea expressed in the topic sentences. It also helps to develop the controlling idea by revealing that
Churchill is the last of the four leaders being described. Note that this sentence begins with the word
“like”, thus introducing an element of comparison and thereby helping to establish a link between the
idea found in the preceding sentence and the new one. This sentence (7) is followed immediately by a
minor support sentence. (Notice once again the use of an introductory word of special significance –
“But”. This word which begins the sentence actually succeeds in drawing the reader’s attention to the
contrast between Churchill and Roosevelt, that Churchill had a particular trait that Roosevelt lacked,
that unlike Roosevelt Churchill was very tenacious.

In this paragraph the writer begins by making a general statement (as found in the Topic Sentence) and
then uses supporting details in the Major and Minor supporting sentences to prove the claim that he
makes, that the four leaders he mentions were charismatic and they enjoyed the loyalty of their country
men and women. The major support sentences directly help to develop the controlling idea, while the
minor support sentences (where present), on the other hand, help to develop the major support
sentences. Both the major and the minor support sentence help to develop the controlling idea.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

A good paragraph is one in which the writer carefully selects details and uses them to develop a central
idea. In addition, the topic is easy to identify, it is clearly stated and its meaning is clear to the reader.
Apart from this, the language used is appropriate and the paragraph is interesting to read. The four main
qualities of a good paragraph are unity, completeness, coherence and order.

UNITY
When we say that a paragraph has unity, it means that all the sentences in the paragraph are closely
related to the topic sentence. The sentences in that paragraph should all contribute to the development
of the controlling idea, and that there is no sentence in the paragraph that is not related to the controlling
idea. A paragraph that has unity contains only one topic or main idea and it is this that the paragraph

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concentrates on throughout, without deviating from it. All the other sentences in the paragraph support
and clarify the controlling idea or the main thought. The paragraph has its details systematically
presented so that a general statement is made at the beginning and is followed by the supporting details
or the supporting details can come first and the general statement will follow. The most important thing
is that all the sentences should be related to the controlling idea.

GOOD EXAMPLE
Large amount of electric power are needed to run the pumps and compressors used in the gaseous
diffusion process for the nation’s uranium enrichment programs. The three diffusion plants would
require about 7,800 megawatts of electricity to operate at their full capacity, or about three percent of
total U.S. electric power generation. Primarily because of this large consumption of costly electricity,
it is estimated that in the early 1990’s the price the U.S. will have to charge for enrichment service will
be uncompetitive in the world market.

BAD EXAMPLE
There are many types of martial arts that fall under the heading of karate. The three most well known
are judo, a Japanese art, and tae kwan do and hop ki do. These last two are Korean. Although we break
up sections of the martial arts, it is rare for a person to know only one form. All forms use the same
uniform known as gi and have a very similar belt system. The white belt is for the beginner up to the
black belt which is advanced. The black belt, “master” is the highest level of all types of martial arts.

You can exercise your editing skills on the above paragraph from a freshman composition in any
number of ways, but lack of paragraph unity is the issue here. The topic sentence is well placed at the
beginning of the paragraph, but the paragraph splits in the middle. The first four sentences begin the
task of giving the types of martial arts, and the last three sentences start to discuss the uniforms used in
the martial arts.

COMPLETENESS
If we say a paragraph is complete, it means the controlling idea is fully developed. This means that the
writer has used enough details, examples, illustrations to support the controlling idea in order to make
the reader realize that he has done exactly what he promised to do in the paragraph. That is, the reader
has been satisfied and has therefore no questions to ask or does not need further explanation, or
additional evidence.

Completeness in a paragraph is achieved through the use of various methods including supporting
details, examples, comparison, contrast etc. The writer has to use concrete details, examples or stories
to provide the needed information in the paragraph. He can compare or contrast two people, things, or

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ideas. Examples or illustrations given after the general statement help to make the general statement
specific and to make the meaning clearer.

GOOD EXAMPLE
“Cocoa plays a far more vital role in Ghana than it does in neighbouring countries like Togo or Benin.
In those countries, cocoa production engages less than 5% of the population. The annual production
averages not more than 60 metric tons, including smuggled cocoa from either Ghana into Togo or from
Nigeria into Benin. Consequently, a price change on the world market of the produce does not affect
their national economies very much as cocoa accounts for only about 6% of export earnings. In Ghana,
on the other hand, cocoa is produced in varying quantities in six of the country’s ten regions where
more than 33% of the population are cocoa farmers producing about 360 metric tons annually. Cocoa
accounts for about 40% of export proceeds. As a result, a major fall in the world market price of the
produce jolts the economy, while a significant rise boosts the national income. Naturally, every
Ghanaian is very much aware of how his standard of living is tied to the fortunes of the cocoa price on
the world market, for it is cocoa money that provides schools, hospitals, water and roads, facilities that
affect his daily life. Cocoa therefore, is Ghana’s economic life-line.”

BAD EXAMPLE
The concept of the system approach is simple. Systems are complex products or processes. Whether
something is a product or a process or both, if it is sufficiently large and complex, it may qualify as a
system. In an oversimplified fashion, the approach of applying numerous, highly disparate enabling
mechanisms to the creation of complex and large products or processes is what we call the systems
approach. There are dozens of overlapping terms floating around to define systems, but we choose to
define it as a large or complex product or process that relies on a number of enabling mechanisms to
bring it into being.

COHERENCE
The third quality of a good paragraph is coherence. Paragraph coherence is the holding together of
sentences within a paragraph. This means that the sentences apart from relating to one another must
also be interconnected. The sentences should not stand like toy soldiers in a row. They need to touch
one another in some way. These links make the paragraph easy to read since they facilitate the smooth
flow of ideas from one sentence into another. When ideas flow smoothly and effortlessly, the reader
does not feel that he is reading isolated and unconnected sentences.

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HOW TO ACHIEVE COHERENCE
The most easily used mechanical devices that help a writer to achieve coherence are: transitional words
and phrases, pronoun reference and repeated key terms.

TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES

Using transitional words and phrases is the basic way of relating one sentence to another. These words
and phrases are used all the time in all levels of writing. They can be used within a sentence, between
sentences, and between paragraphs. They can be found in any grammar book and in most writing
manuals. Usually, they are separated into groups according to their general meaning. The following list
includes many transitional expressions appropriate for technical writing.

To add an idea also, and, first, moreover, too, next, similarly, furthermore
To compare an idea like, likewise, similarly, equally, correspondingly
To contrast an idea but, nevertheless, however, in contrast, instead, otherwise, on the other
hand, unlike, contrary to
To concede although, of course, at the same time, though, even though.
To Illustrate for example, to illustrate, for instance, in other words
To show result therefore, thus, consequently, as a result, hence, accordingly
To show time then, afterwards, later, meanwhile, now, earlier, immediately, before,
soon, finally
To show frequency often, frequently, sometimes, always

In addition to these expressions, you can use ordinal numbers (first, second, third) to indicate steps in a
process or parts of a plan. Ordinal number are commonplace signals of transition, helping readers move
more quickly though the text.

All these expressions are useful, but don’t overuse them. Because they’re useful, it’s easy to rely too
heavily on them. In fact, of all the transitional devices, they’re the least sophisticated way of achieving
paragraph coherence. The following selection from a sole source selection (a document required to
justify procuring a product or service without competitive bidding) illustrates good use of transitional
expressions to relate one idea to another. It doesn’t overuse the transitional expressions but it takes
advantage of their availability.

There are two other considerations that favour sole source procurement from this company. First, the
nonrecurring engineering costs of this purchase order are justified and reasonable as it will require
engineering modification to combine three of the single-axis probes into one 3-D Delta configuration.
In addition, the construction process itself will be modified that future probes can be purchased as “off-

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the-shelf” items by medical researchers in and out of government. Second, Narda has quoted delivery
time on these new 3-D Delta probes to be 16 weeks. Narda has a reputation for delivery usable, reliable,
and well-constructed products; consequently, the probe should require minimal time for acceptance
testing.

Finally, there is no other company that could deliver these probes in 16 weeks. Should another company
appear, acceptance testing would take at least one staff year, and commercial availability would not be
a reality for yet another year. The end result would be an unnecessary delay in studies of the biological
effects of nonionizing radiation, only possible with implantable probes.

REPETITION OF KEY WORDS

Repetition of key words makes your paragraph coherent. The repetition of a word in a new sentence
takes the reader back to the sentence in which the word was originally used and establishes a link
between the two sentences. In the paragraph that follows certain words or variations of these words are
repeated and this method helps to link the sentences and the ideas together.

Bicycling is a terrific exercise. When you ride a bike you exercise all the leg muscles and most of the
muscles of the upper body. In addition, bicycling exercises the lungs and the heart. Thus bicycling is
both a muscular and aerobic exercise.
“Bicycling is used in the first sentence. Its repetition in the third sentence establishes a link between the
two sentences and draws our attention to the fact that ‘bicycling’ is the subject the writer is dealing
with. Its appearance in the last sentence reinforces the idea and links the sentence to the other sentences
in the paragraph. Thus, repetition constantly reminds the reader of the idea being developed and links
various parts of the paragraph together.

ORDER
The next characteristic of a good paragraph that we have to talk about is order. Order refers to the logical
presentation of details, ideas, points etc in a paragraph. If the supporting details in a paragraph are
systematically arranged, the reader can follow what the writer is saying without difficulty. The reader
should, for example, find it easy and convenient to move from the first sentence of the paragraph to the
second if the idea in the second sentence is closely related to the idea in the first. Remember what we
said about unity in a paragraph. If the sentences are closely related because they deal with thoughts,
ideas supporting details that are related, you would also have order in the paragraph. Remember that
being able to present your ideas in an orderly manner is not enough. The sentences must be linked by
cohesive devices. Use appropriate linking words to join your sentences which have been presented in a
logical manner and you will realize that you are writing a good paragraph. Order in a paragraph can be
achieved if you pay attention to some of the following:

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 (a) Time – move from one particular time to another, for example, morning to evening, season to
season, etc. This is particularly relevant when you are telling a story or talking about something
that has happened.
(b) Space – describe things as they are seen. For example, buildings, objects, places etc. You may
move from left to right, top to bottom etc.
(c) Question and Answer – pose a question and give the expected answer as in a debate, argument
etc.
(d) General statement to particular details – make the general statement and provide the supporting
details later.
(e) Particular details to general statement – begin by giving the supporting details and move to the
general statement.
ACCEPTABLE LANGUAGE
The four main characteristics of a good paragraph, as we have pointed out, are: unity, completeness,
coherence and order. If you satisfy the demands of all these in your paragraph, it could be described as
good. However, since the English language is not our first language, and since most of us do not use it
with native speaker competence we have to add a fifth characteristic – good language – to the four. If
your language is not acceptable, your paragraph is certainly not going to be accepted as good. We must
pay attention to our language.

Note that you do not merely identify a controlling idea for your paragraph. You must also be able to
state it in a language that is grammatically constructed and appropriately punctuated. Your words must
also be carefully chosen and correctly used to convey your ideas. In short, you must, in your paragraph,
pay attention not only to unity, completeness, coherence and order, but also to the correct use of
language.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF DEVELOPING A PARAGRAPH

A paragraph, as a unit, follows a particular method of development. It can for example, be developed
through the inductive or deductive method. It can also make use of comparison, anecdote, concrete
details or examples. Let us examine, very briefly, the way some paragraphs are developed.

THE DEDUCTIVE METHOD

In this kind of paragraph, the writer begins with a generalization or a general statement. He could for
example say, “All Ghanaians are kind”, and then follow with the supporting details in the form of
examples, factual details etc. which show that indeed, all Ghanaians are kind, the details which follow
the general statement may explain or prove the assertion made.

THE INDUCTIVE METHOD

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The writer can, on the other hand, begin the paragraph with the details, which could include examples,
factual details, stories etc in the various sentences and lead the reader on to the conclusion that he the
writer has in mind, for example, that all Ghanaians are kind. In this kind of paragraph therefore, the
supporting details are mentioned first and the general statement comes last.

COMPARISON, CONTRAST
The writer can also develop his paragraph by comparing and contrasting. This kind of paragraph
emphasizes similarities and differences. The writer can compare two people, two ideas, two objects, etc
in order to show how similar or how different they are. Note that the comparison must be realistic.

DEFINITION
In this kind of paragraph, the writer defines terms, objects, concepts etc to help the reader understand
things much better. The definition should therefore not be so complex as to make it difficult for the
reader to understand what is being defined.

CLASSIFICATION
When you classify things, your intention is to make complex or complicated information simpler for
the reader to understand. You break down the complex information into manageable units for the reader
and this helps him to follow what you are saying. Words, for example are classified into smaller units
such as verbs, adjectives etc. A paragraph that uses classification as a method of development should
therefore make complex information simpler for the reader.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

This type of paragraph development enables the writer to explain why certain things happen and the
outcome of certain events, decisions, problems etc. It shows the relationship between an action and
what follows the action, a decision and what gives rise to the decision, etc, etc. This paragraph
development also helps the writer to resolve problems he raises in his paragraph.

FACTUAL DETAILS
Some paragraphs make use of facts in the form of research findings, dates, figures, quotations etc. the
details help to provide evidence to support claims made by the writer.
Eg. Most tempting of all at Lombardo’s Foods are the salads. There is a beautiful pasta
primavera – pasta and crisp vegetables enveloped in a pale green basil sauce. My favorite salad
is thin slivers of carrots and zucchini squash in sweet vinegar.

EXAMPLES

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Apart from factual details, examples can also be used to develop a paragraph. The writer cites examples
from various sources in order to prove or illustrate a point he has made. For example: Basketball was
the most popular team sport at our school this year. Season attendance at the boys’ games was 20,155.
The total figure for the girls’ games was even higher at 22,415.

ANECDOTE
A paragraph can also tell a short story which the writer can use to introduce his controlling idea or to
illustrate a point he has made. Such short stories should be precise, exciting and illustrative. They should
be able to capture the reader’s attention and focus it on the topic he the writer intends to develop.

The British soldier T. E. Lawrence was a master of self-control. Once while his fellow soldiers
watched, Lawrence lit a match and held it until it burnt completely out. One of the soldiers
asked how Lawrence could hold the match so long without hurting himself. “The trick,”
Lawrence replied, “is not minding that it hurts”.

A COMBINATION OF METHODS
Some paragraphs combine two or more of the methods described in order to develop their controlling
idea. You should be able to point this out and show how effectively the method has been used.

Finally, before we end this unit, let us talk, very briefly, about the organization of a paragraph.

PARAGRAPH ORGANIZATION
A paragraph is an organized unit. It has clearly defined parts – the introduction, the main body or the
sentences of development, and the conclusion.

THE INTRODUCTION
This is usually made up of the topic sentence, and where there is no topic sentence, the very first
sentence which contains the main though in the paragraph. The topic sentence expresses the controlling
idea and therefore introduces us to the topic to be developed in the paragraph. The topic sentence or the
introductory sentence is followed by the sentences of development which constitute the main body.

THE MAIN BODY/ SENTENCES OF DEVELOPMENT

The sentences, major and minor, which develop the controlling idea, or the sentences which follow the
first sentence, form the main body of the paragraph. These are the sentences which the writer uses to
develop his paragraph and are described as sentences of development. Finally, we have the last sentence
which is the summary sentence.

16
SUMMARY SENTENCE
The summary sentence sums up what has been said in the paragraph. In a way, it is the repetition of the
first or the topic sentence. It is a restatement of the controlling idea and the writer uses it to tell the
reader that he has done just what he set out or promised to do.

We can illustrate the pattern as follows:

Topic sentence
(a) Major support sentence
i. Minor support sentence
(b) Major support sentence
i. Minor support sentence
ii. Minor support sentence
(c) Summary sentence

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 LECTURE THREE

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS III: THE WHOLE ESSAY

3.1 Lecture Objectives and Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this lecture are:

• To make students move from the paragraph to the whole essay (full text);
• To discuss the essay;
• To introduce the forms of discourse – narration, description, argumentation and
exposition;
• To present ways of ensuring cohesion of ideas.

At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to:

• Understand the demands of essay writing;

• Be able to use transitional devices and other words to link the ideas together;
• Be able to develop and link a number of good, error-free paragraphs to form coherent
and meaningful texts (e.g. job application letters, reports, or project works and theses);
• Be able to narrate, describe, argue or debate (speak or write to convince) and do
exposition (e.g. give an example, detail a process of doing or making something,
analyse cause and effect, compare and or contrast, define a term or concept and divide
something into parts or classify it into categories).
• Be able to write confidently.

3.2 The Essay

The essay has its origin in the French word ‘essayer’ meaning ‘to try’ or ‘to attempt’. An essay
refers to a composition in which a writer tries to present his or her views and to discuss various
types of issues in such a way as to attract the reader’s interest. The topic will show what type
an essay will be, but an essay may be reflective, scientific, historical, political, religious,
literary or sociological in which case an in-depth analysis will be required. Aside these,
however, there may be “imaginative essays” where the writer needs to exercise his or her
imagination on the unknown future or to place himself/herself in some imaginary situations in
the present or past. Sometimes, essays may deal with general debatable issues on society or
human beings. Such essays require that the writer argues out a case or justifies a particular
stance.

When students complete their studies and enter the world of work, they are invariably required
to do assignments and present reports on a wide range of subjects. It is, therefore, necessary
that they are well-equipped with the skills or tools for writing logical and lucid essays.

3.2.1 Demands of Essay Writing

• Original and logical thinking. Although you can make use of other people’s ideas, it is
important to express your thoughts logically and coherently.
• Application of all that you know about language. This seriously calls for knowledge of the
mechanics of the English Language e.g. grammar, spelling, construction, vocabulary and

18
 punctuation. It is interesting to realise that all the rules of language accumulated throughout
your years of study are tested in any one single work/essay!
• Ability to construct a variety of sentences. (Notice that variety is the spice of life).
• Ability to relate one idea to another (use of connectors).
• Ability to organise ideas in an acceptable manner (following the different formats and
formal features).
In writing an essay, you are applying your basic knowledge of orderly presentation of ideas
within and between sentences and within and between paragraphs.

• Ability to use language in all its appropriate situations (formal and informal languages)

You should notice by now that essay writing is a complex activity. You must therefore plan
your essays (e.g. using the Outline Method). A plan or outline helps you isolate and clarify in
your mind the main points and the most appropriate sequence in which to use them. It also
helps to do away with irrelevant or unwanted material which, sometimes, joins the good
material to crowd our mind when we think. With a plan, you have the skeleton of the essay to
which you only add flesh. A plan gives a sense of purpose. The writer achieves confidence to
start writing and also enjoys the activity of writing. When you have worked out your plan, you
can, if there is a choice, decide which topics you should eliminate for lack of facts or ideas.

Stages in Planning the Essay

1. Think about the topic

2. Gather material for the essay
3. Get some ideas onto paper
4. Organise the material.
5. Write a first draft.

Principles to Follow

One may follow the following principles for writing essays:

1. Organisation
(A) Plan an effective opening (introduction) and ending (conclusion).
(B) Ensure good paragraphing i.e. harmony or unity of ideas within each paragraph.
(C) Ensure a logical and sequential arrangement of material.

2. Contents
(A) Avoid irrelevant details and present facts or opinions that relate to the topic.
(B) Ensure that the different parts of the contents are linked and that the ideas stick
together.

3. Mechanical Accuracy
(a) Use correct spelling
(b) Use correct punctuation
(c) Use correct grammar

Use the dictionary regularly to ascertain these.

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On Mechanical Accuracy, you are greatly encouraged to learn to write good and correct
sentences so that your paragraphs are correct and meaningful. In other words you must know
the mechanics of writing.

Mechanics means the method of constructing a piece of work. Here it means the art of writing
words – words to form sentences which, in turn, will give the paragraph. Included in mechanics
are capitalisation, abbreviation, punctuation, grammar and spelling.

Examples of grammatical items include:

• Subject-verb agreement
• Tense agreement
• Gender (e.g. he/she). Don’t confuse them
• Number – e.g. it/they

You must also learn to edit your essay.

3.2.2 Knowing what the Topic is Demanding

It is very necessary that you understand the topic very well. Inadequate understanding of the
topic often poses many problems in essay writing. Students usually mix up terms like
“analyse”, “discuss” and “evaluate”. They take them for synonyms not knowing exactly what
is demanded of them with each. This is unfortunate. Each word demands that you look at the
topic from a different point of view. If you do not know exactly what is asked for, you might
write a lot but not answer the question asked.

3.2.3. Important Words in Essay Questions

Account for Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances.
Very different from Give an account of, which asks only for a detailed
description.

Analyse Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.

Assess Examine closely, with a view to measuring ‘weighing up’ a particular situation.
Consider in a balanced way: strengths and weaknesses, points for and against.
In conclusion, state your judgement clearly.

Comment State clearly and in a moderate fashion your opinions on the material in
question. Support your views with references to suitable evidence or with
explanation as appropriate.

Compare Look for qualities or characteristics that resemble each other. Emphasise
similarities but be aware also of points of difference.

Contrast Stress the dissimilarities and differences between the items in question, but do
not ignore points of similarity.

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Criticise Express your balanced judgement about the merit or truth of the material in
question. Give the results of your scrutiny, establishing both strengths and
weaknesses. Be specific.

Define Give concise, clear and authoritative meanings. Do not give too many details,
but be sure to state the limits of the definition. Show how the thing you are
defining differs from things in other categories.

Describe Recount, characterise, sketch or relate in sequence or story form.

Discuss Examine and analyse carefully, giving reasons pro and con, advantages and
disadvantages. Be complete, and give details. You must consider all sides of the
issue and reach a balanced conclusion.
Enumerate State in list or outline form, giving points concisely one by one.

Evaluate Carefully appraise the matter in hand, citing both advantages and limitations.
Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.

Explain Clarify, interpret and spell out the material you present. Give reasons for
important features or developments, and try to analyse causes.

How far Similar to question based on the To what extent … approach. Here you are
expected to make your case or present your material in the usual way, while
remaining aware of the possible need to introduce contradictory or counter-
balancing evidence. You are unlikely to be making a ‘one hundred per cent case
with this sort of question; careful assessment and weighing are needed.

Illustrate Use specific examples, allusions, figures or diagrams to explain, demonstrate or

clarify a problem, situation or view.

Interpret Translate, give examples of, express in simple terms or comment on a subject,
usually giving your judgement about it.

Justify Prove, make out a case or give reasons for decisions or conclusions, taking pains
to be convincing.

List As in enumerate, write an itemised series of concise statements.

Outline Provide a framework description under main points and subordinate points,
omitting minor details and stressing the arrangement or classification of the
material.

Prove Establish that something is true by citing factual evidence or giving clear logical
reasons.

Relate Show how things are related to or connected with each other, or how one causes
another, correlates with another, or is like another.

Review Examine a subject critically, analysing and commenting on the important points
and stages of development.

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State Present the main points in brief, clear sequence.

Summarise Give the main points or facts in condensed form, omitting details and
illustrations.

Trace Describe in narrative form progress, development or sequence of events from

some point of origin.
Sometimes the topic will contain a combination of two or more of the above instructions. For
example Describe and explain …., which calls for a balance of a factual account and b
analysis of reasons. In this sort of question it is vital to ensure that you attend to all aspects of
the instruction. If you do not, you will be marked out of only half or perhaps one third of the
total.

Thus, your first task must be to understand precisely what the title is requiring you to do.

3.3 Forms of Discourse

3.3.1 Discourse

Discourse is communication in speech or writing. Also, a speech, piece of writing, or

discussion about a particular, usually serious subject: a discourse on/upon the nature of life
after death (Cambridge International Dictionary of English).

The forms of discourse correspond to the forms of communication. Usually, the types of essay
a student has to deal with correspond to the four basic forms of communication namely:

1. Narration, for narratives or narrative essays;

2. Description, for descriptive essays;
3. Argumentation, for argumentative essays (Persuasion for persuasive essays);
4. Exposition, for expository essays.

Each essay we write is usually a combination of different forms. For instance, in narration, you
may need to describe; and in argumentation, you may find yourself explaining arguing and
narrating at different points.

You should know the different features of the different forms of essay and use this knowledge
to write good essays including job applications, minutes, reports and dissertations.

3.3.2 Discourse Form 1: Narration

To narrate means to tell. You must develop your ability to narrate, tell, recount, relate or present
a written account of events or experiences.

Narration is simply telling a story or reporting an event in which you or some other person took
part. Develop your narrative skills by using:

(a) Appropriate words

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 (b) Chronological order or coherence for plausibility
(c) Appropriate tense

Also try to catch your reader’s attention with a captivating introduction or beginning, and let
your narrative be brisk and active by eliminating unimportant material. Keep each stage of the
narration in a paragraph. Finally, give your narration a memorable ending.

Topics to consider

(i) MMESA celebrations are due again on UMaT campus. Tell your colleagues on a
different campus how interesting and educative the programme is expected to be.

(ii) Your room was broken into and thieves made away with a number of precious personal
effects. With the help of a policeman, you were able to recover everything. Narrate the
incident to your friends.

(iii) You have just returned from an exchange programme in one of the universities in the
United States of America. Write a letter to your friend narrating/recounting your
experience(s).

(iv) A big medical store in your area was recently gutted by fire. Tell your Regional Minister
about the disaster and describe your feelings during the raging fire.

(v) You were a member of a fact-finding committee assessing the environmental problems
associated with “galamsey” or illegal mining practices in the community. Give an
account of your investigations.

(vi) You have heard or read about the deadly ebola virus disease. Trace the menacing
occurrence of this disease in West Africa in the year 2014 and the effect on you as a
student in Ghana.

3.3.3 Discourse Form 2: Description

To describe is to create a picture with words. In a descriptive essay, you put into words
(describe) how you see events, people, actions, places and things. The main objective of a
descriptive writing is to describe events or situations in such a way that they come to life.

Techniques

(i) Use picturesque vocabulary. For instance, “in a flash, a knife-wielding lunatic, soaked in
filth, burst upon the scene and charged dangerously at the panic-stricken guests who began
to flee helter-skelter”.

(ii) Use appropriate words.

(iii) Use spatial coherence

Spatial coherence means starting your description from a spot and progressing systematically
to another, then another, up to the end. Supposing you have been asked to describe the UMaT
Library, a place you are very familiar with. Your description may start from the parking lot.
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Two basic forms of description can be isolated:

Objective and Subjective

Objective Description:

The aim of objective description is to present an impartial view of that object of description.

• It is factual not based on emotions or feelings

• It relies on precise details
• It is commonly used in scientific reports
• The writer remains impersonal – no personal feelings or emotions are allowed in the
description.

Subjective Description

Unlike objective description, subjective description shows the writer’s feelings and attitudes
making the writing personal. It is the kind of description commonly found in stories and essays.

Use of emotive words and expressions that create the right picture in the reader’s mind, making
the reader feel emotional about what is being described. Here the writer becomes imaginative
or artistic. We can even say that the writer is being impressionistic.

The language of description

The language of description depends on the nature of what you are describing. Scientific
writing requires you to distance yourself from what you are describing. So the language of
science is impersonal. For instance, there is little use of personal pronouns especially ‘I’. Where
needed, ‘we’ is used.

Passive constructions or imperative constructions are frequently used. Words are carefully
chosen to hide the observer’s opinions and present bare facts.

However, where factual accuracy is not so highly demanded, it is often preferable to present
vivid descriptions. The goal here is to use words that suggest something to the reader. And to
make the object being described easier to imagine, it is more usual to give the essay a certain
measure of closeness to life.

3.3.4 Discourse Form 2: Argumentation

Argumentation is an attempt to prove how sound or valid your point of view is. It can be likened
to a debate in which a speaker tries to consider all sides of a question, asks lots of relevant
questions before finally coming to a conclusion. So, it has been said to be the process of
reasoning methodically.

Argumentation is usually for or against an idea. Issues of morality, policy and the like are what
usually attract arguments and not matters of fact. For example, it will be sheer waste of time
and energy to argue over your height or weight because it can be resolved easily in a matter-

24
 of-fact manner by checking with a ruler or weighing scales. But consider a topic like
“University students are wiser than Polytechnic students” or “Boys schools are better than girls
schools” and you realise that it lends itself to discussion and argument.

A good argument has three main characteristics:

1. It should be reasonable. So your points should be relevant and adequate to support a given
stand. This means that:

(a) Evidence for or against an issue must not be biased (prejudiced).

(b) Facts must not be distorted or omitted.
(c) Unwanted or extraneous material should be excluded.

A premise is accepted as a fact by the reader if it can stand without further support. A
pure opinion statement must be backed up by evidence. Notice that a logically valid
conclusion can be arrived at even after assuming false premises. This means that a
logical argument does not necessarily represent a truth. So it is only people who share
your views who will respect your argument. Once you have made your assumptions,
whether true or false, you can draw logical conclusions from them.

2. An argument should have consistency (or non-conflicting views). A good argument has
no internal contradictions.

3. An argument should have a clear definition. This will prevent you from being
misunderstood. So define clearly the key concepts in your argument. For instance, if you
want to prove to your colleagues that Mr. X is a bad lecturer you may have to start by
explaining what you mean by a bad lecturer. You will notice that it is common to find
two or three people disagreeing on a point, for the simple reason that each of them is
using a key concept in the argument in a different sense.

How to present an effective argument:

To present an effective argument, you must communicate effectively by employing all the
techniques of good communication such as clear writing, correct vocabulary and correct
sentences. You can cause confusion if you fail to use the correct communication devices.

• Be clear in defining the issue the argument is about and what you want to prove or
disprove.

• Make sure you stress the points which you think are crucial in support of your stance.
One way to do this is by starting with your minor points, discussing their relevance and
even their limitations, as you go on. Then you bring in your major points to take care
of the loopholes shown by the minor points.

3.3.5 Discourse Form 4: Exposition

Exposition simply means explanation. So this type of essay sets out to explain something to
the reader. We write an exposition when we want to make the reader understand:

• What something is.

25
 • How something works or how it is made or done or how it happened.
• Why something happened the way it did.
• How one thing is related to another.
• How one part of a thing is related to other parts.

In exposition therefore you appeal to the reader’s thinking or intellect and not to their
emotions or feeling. What you try to do is dissect a given idea and make it more
understandable to the reader.

Modes of Exposition

What we try to do in exposition is analyse or break down a given idea and make it more
understandable to the reader or listener. We shall consider three different ways by which we
explain: Definition, analysis, and instructions.

Definition

This perhaps is the commonest form of exposition in use. By defining a word, a dictionary
helps you to understand its meaning. Thus dictionary definitions, and other forms of definitions
you find in textbooks are expositions.

Remember:
• Definitions help to clarify meaning, so use language your readers will understand.
• Definitions should be objective. They should explain exactly what the item is. There
should be no personal judgments.

A definition can be a single paragraph or may extend to many pages. Definitions used to
explain could include the origin of words, history, backgrounds, examples, diagrams, analysis
of parts, comparison and contrast.

Analysis

An analysis involves breaking up something into its component parts or examining the various
stages or parts of something. It helps you to reveal those hidden parts not easily seen by the
casual observer. This lays open the hidden nature of the different parts showing how they relate
to each other and how each part contributes to the total shape of the whole when put together.
A good analysis leads to a greater understanding of a topic.

Instructions

Instructions explain how to do (or make) something. You give and take instructions and these
seem to be happening all time. Think of the instructions on how to operate the new television
or radio you bought or was it the instructions on the label of some medicines you bought? What
do all these aim at doing? Instructions explain each step in enough detail for readers to complete
procedures safely and efficiently.

Instructions are meant to serve the purpose of explaining in detail. In doing this:

• They should be clear and give as much detail as necessary.

26
 • You should work out instructions in logical and ordered steps, etc.

In this section we have reviewed some types of essay we write and we have tried to identify
one type from another.

Always try to distinguish one type of discourse or essay type from another. For example, while
a narrative essay should be made interesting from the start, a descriptive essay should have
clarity as its guiding feature. In argumentation, your premise must lead logically to your
conclusion. Expository writing, especially of instructions, requires precise language and logical
step-by-step ordering of facts.

3.4 Ensuring Cohesion in Essays

Cohesion means ideas in the essay sticking or flowing together. Certain words and phrases
help to achieve this in an essay. They show the relationship between ideas in the essay. These
words and phrases are known as transitions/transitional devices or connectors. They are
referred to as connectors because they guide the reader from one major point to another. Let
us look at some of them and their functions:

3.4.1 To indicate a list of items

First, firstly, in the first place; second, secondly, in the second place, third, in addition,
additionally, added to the above; furthermore, next, then, moreover, finally, lastly, also,
similarly, besides, and, as follows:

3.4.2 To indicate an illustration or example

For instance, for example, an instance of this is, an illustration is, to illustrate;

3.4.3 To indicate a cause and effect relationship between one idea and another

Accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, hence, therefore, thus, since, for, then.

3.4.4 To indicate an opposing point/idea.

But, however, in contrast, on the other hand, nevertheless, on the contrary, yet, still, either
…or, neither … nor, conversely, whereas, unlike, in fact (avoid using ‘yet still’)

3.4.5 To indicate a conclusion or summary

In conclusion, to conclude, all in all, to sum up, clearly, altogether, finally, in brief, on the
whole, in short.

27
3.4.6 To indicate comparison

Similarly, likewise, also, for example, in the same way.

3.4.7 To indicate results

Therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, because, for, so, hence, since.

3.4.8 To indicate emphasis

Surely, certainly, actually, indeed, again, as a matter of fact.

It is necessary to note carefully that the mere presence of these words will not ensure the
cohesion of an essay. Transitions or connectors must be properly fused into the essay to
portray the desired meaning very clearly. For instance, use of “however” must show a
contrast to the preceding idea. So, you should know what is required of you.

Exercise

Read the following paragraph on Gold. The paragraph makes use of a lot of transitional
devices. When you have finished reading it, list the transitional devices used and explain how
they help to keep the reader moving smoothly through the paragraph.

GOLD

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a
lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewellery, coins and
ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For
example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-
three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and
science. For many years, it has been in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent
use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plaited shields for protection outside
the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility
(Copyright Abuja University/IEDE materials).

28
 LECTURE FOUR

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS IV: STYLE

4.1 Lecture Objectives and Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this lecture are:

• To introduce “registers” or word families;

• To present correct spelling guides;
• To discuss punctuation;
• To discuss editing.

At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to:

• Be able to show scholarship and understanding of word families of various disciplines;

• Be able to speak and write confidently through the appropriate use or choice of words;
• Be able to spell ‘troublesome words’;
• Be able to punctuate their writing effectively to ensure clarity of written
communication;
• Be able to edit and present error-free work.

4.2 Register

A register is a group of words referring to the particular aspect of life or human experience
(field or discipline). For example, register of computers, sea transport/travel, law or mining.

To show scholarship and understanding, it is necessary to know the registers – word families
– of various disciplines.

Read the following and try the exercises as you develop your vocabulary and learn different
registers. (Against each number in the lists following the passages, choices of words are
offered. For each question, choose the word that is the most suitable to fill the numbered gaps
in the passages).

4.2.1 Word Families:- Computers

In almost all spheres of modern life, a working knowledge of computers is fast becoming
essential. You will find them everywhere: in factories, banks, offices, educational institutions
– anywhere the speedy retrieval and processing of information is required.

What is a computer? Basically, a computer is a machine for storing, retrieving and processing
information. In business or administration, the great advantages of computers over humans
and old fashioned filing systems is that they can store vast amounts of information retrieved
very quickly, and can be changed or manipulated in many different ways.

The Register of Computers

29
In the following passage, the numbered gaps indicate missing words. Against each number of
the list following the passage, five choices are offered in columns lettered A to E. For each
question, choose the word that is the most suitable to fill the numbered gap in the passage.

Computers can be found in all fields of human activity. In scientific research, and in various
technical operations such as aircraft and rocket control, and in manufacturing (1) – computers
are able to perform very difficult calculations extremely quickly and accurately, and can control
a number of different (2) – operations simultaneously. For instance, without computers people
would never have landed on the moon: the huge advances in science would not have been
possible without computers: the large-scale (3) – of oil, and the manufacture of many essential
chemicals, are often controlled by computer systems.

Computers come in all shapes and sizes. Some are large enough to occupy a whole room, or
even an entire building; others, (4) – or personal computers, can fit on an ordinary desk. The
text of this material was initially typed into a computer: this operation is known as word. (5) –
Data are fed into the computer in several ways: usually it is done by means of a (6) – which
looks a bit like an ordinary typewriter. In addition to the normal keys, there are special (7) –
keys which are used to give instructions to the computer. Data are provided from other (8) –
too: discs containing information can be slotted in, and the information (9) – information can
also be conveyed (10) – by means of a special device called a (11) – attached to one’s computer
and linked to a telephone. By this means, with a desktop computer in Nigeria, one can gain
information from Los Angeles, or London, by means of the (12) – .

In smaller computers, the output is usually produced using two output devices. These are the
monitor, which looks like a television screen, and which displays data; and the printer, which
prints out the data stored in the computer. The (13) – is also called a VDU, or visual display
unit. A printer resembles an ordinary typewriter except that it has no keys; the printer types
automatically, direct from the memory of the computer, when instructed to do so by the
operator.

A computer’s memory usually consists of small magnetic discs which look like records, or
compact discs, and a disc-drive, which sometimes (14) – a cassette player. The data are
recorded on the disc, and played back when required using the disc drive. On the screen, a
small mark called a cursor shows at what point the operator can intervene; the cursor is moved
around the screen by means of a small hand-held device called a (15) –

As well as data, computers also store (16) – . These are sequences of instructions that tell the
computer to carry out a set task or series of operations. For instance, most banks use a program
which tells their computers to prepare monthly statements for all their customers, involving
millions of (17) –; this task would have involved thousands of man-hours; nowadays, a handful
of computer operators can (18) – the same job in a few hours.

A B C D E
1. Business processes matters industry factories
2. curious complicating computer complex durable
3. refuelling refining discovery redemption recycling
4. macro micro miniature miniscule minimal
5. processing controlling typing spelling spinning
6. typewriter keyboard control-panel control board key-panel
7. functional control function system button

30
8. means areas origins founts sources
9. downloaded off loaded downtrodden downwinded wound up
10. electrically telepathically remotely by radar electronically
11. modem module bug model fax-machine
12. network internet telephone internal data bank
13. TV screen module prefect monitor
14. reveals resumes records tapes resembles
15. mouth mouse button bug monitor
16. programmes systems monitors additions programs
17. tasks bargains events incidents transactions
18. practice carry carry on perform derive

The Register of Finance

Money Matters

Money is a subject of great interest to most people, and most people want to get more of it.
The lawless ones among us see robbery, (1) –, and other forms of stealing as their way to it,
while some enrich themselves by using the posts they occupy in companies or government
departments to collect bribes or (2) – for the award of contracts.

Those without any financial (3) – whatever will merely save any money they acquire by
keeping it in the ground, in which case, clearly, it earns no (4) –: but most people with (5) – to
spare will think of some kind of (6) –, acting on the sound principle that one sum of money can
be made to grow into a larger sum. This can happen in various ways. In Nigeria small
businesses are very popular; so savings can become the (7) – needed to establish a provisions
shop, say, or to run a taxi. Although this type of business entails some (8) –, it also offers the
prospect of fairly quick and sometimes quite healthy (9) –

Less enterprising citizens will prefer to put their money in savings or (10) – accounts in banks;
or they purchase interest-bearing Government (11) – or (12) – in companies that pay a regular
(13) –

Trading in stocks and shares is what large-scale financial dealings are all about, and in Nigeria,
as in other countries, these are chiefly carried out through the Stock Exchange. The middlemen
of the Stock Exchange are known as (14) –: they buy and sell shares on behalf of clients, for
which they charge a (15) –. Often the client is a company seeking to purchase shares in another
company, sometimes with a view to taking over completely. The reason is that if several
companies operate in a particular line of business – e.g. timber production, or textiles – each
has a natural interest in driving out competitors and establishing a (16) – However, some of
those dealing (17) – the Stock Exchange are not there to further the interest of a company
engaged in productive business; they are there merely to (18) – , i.e. to purchase shares when
they are relatively cheap and sell them again when they fetch a higher price.

At any point in time certain shares are increasing in attractiveness and price, while others are
less attractive and their price is falling. Occasionally, there is a general loss of (19) – on the
Stock Exchange, people rush to sell all their shares and there may even be a world-wide Stock
Market (20) –. A major event of this type happened as recently as 1997.

A B C D E

31
1. arson homicide embezzlement misdemeanour corruption
2. pick-ups kick-backs hand-overs hand-outs
throwbacks
3. acumen reliability wit advantages fortitude
4. interest reward discount margin Increment
5. legacy endowment currency account funds
6. holdings investment insurance deposit loan
7. foundation goods principal capital minimum
8. risk insecurity misfortune chance anxiety
9. credits fortune income benefits profits
10 mortgage static deposit interest frozen
11. obligations certificates bonds contracts pledges
12. stakes shares issues rights assets
13. refund allowances gratuity salary dividend
14. stockbrokers shareholders trustees auctioneers
wholesalers
15. tax favour duty commission bill
16. uniformity hegemony sovereignty monopoly dominion
17. in on at with through
18. accumulate hoard speculate exchange loiter
19. confidence security guarantee trust faith
20. strike fall-out slide panic crash

The Register of Publishing

Publishing

Many people confuse printing and publishing. Although a printer might sometimes wish to
publish a book or magazine, and a publisher may sometimes run his own printing works, they
are not really the same thing at all.

The publisher is the person or organization that arranges for a book, newspaper, or magazine
to be printed and (1) –. How does a book get published? In some cases a publisher might (2) –
an author to write a book. This happens when a publisher already knows roughly what kind of
book he wants to publish, and has already identified the potential (3) –. Many educational
books fall into this category.

In other cases, an author may send in a (4) – to be considered for publication. Publishers
receive many of these, and it is their job to decide which ones to publish – not all books stand
an equal chance of selling in sufficient numbers to justify the publisher’s (5) –. Publishers will
often send work to an independent (6) – to report on.

Even if a publisher (7) – an author’s work, he will usually try to make some helpful comments,
for young authors need plenty of (8) –: moreover, the amateur scribbler of today may turn into
the best-selling author of tomorrow.

Once a book has been accepted for publication, the publisher still has many other decisions to
make. Invariably, books need to be (9) – for even the best author’s work can be improved on,
somehow. The many (10) – problems include: the size of the page, the type and size of print,

32
the type of cover, the (11) – and who should draw them – all these questions and many more
have to be (12) –.

There are other decisions to be made, too: who is to print the book, how many (13) – should be
printed, how it should be advertised, and how much the book should cost.

How is an author paid? Sometimes, he or she may be paid a (14) –. But more usually, an
author is paid a (15) – of 10% of the published price on all books sold – though this percentage
may vary. The publisher must of course (16) – all the costs of printing and distribution, as well
as the usual (17) –. Authors may, if they wish, obtain the (18) –.

A B C D E
1. disseminated distributed scattered handed out dispersed
2. authorise inaugurate commission empower ordain
3. audience spectators congregation readership participants
4. paper document draft script manuscript
5. investment purchase payment subsidy donation
6. examiner reporter reader critic inspector
7. ignores turns up scraps rejects snubs
8. courage encouragement spirit morale humour
9. altered perfected edited axed expunged
10. project design plan scheme organisation
11. artwork pictures designed distinguished requested
12 considered Thought pondered acted made
13. items numbers issues volumes copies
14. salary tip sum fee wage
15. commission royalty amount profit portion
16. head chest shoulder arm disarm
17. costs charges expenses overheads payments
18. investments speculation interests selves prerequisites

The Register of the Mass Media

In the following passage, the numbered gaps indicate missing words. Against each number in
the list following the passage, five choices are offered in columns lettered A to E. For each
question, choose the word that is the most suitable to fill the numbered gap in the passage.

Everyone believes (1) – progress and development, although not everyone agrees what they
mean. But one thing is certain: they depend (2) – communication, for without this there can be
no knowledge.

Communication, at all levels, is (3) –. The best known (4) – of communication in Africa are
radio, television, and the newspaper. For one reason or another, none of these are sufficiently
(5) – to the rural population. For instance, newspapers are obviously of limited use because
many rural communities are largely (6) –. Television is not much help, either: (7) – are built
in cities that are very remote to the rural population, and the cost of television sets is in most
cases (8) –. Radio seems to be the answer, then: radios are cheap, easily (9) –, and even with
just two (10) – - most have more than two – are immensely flexible. Provided that the (11) –
is strong enough, messages can be conveyed for hundreds of kilometres. Listeners can (12) –
to the radio wherever they may be – at home, on the farm and even while travelling.

33
 A B C D E
1. on for in about to
2. in on to for over
3. indiscernible irredeemable invincible indisposed indispensable
4. medium media means ways milieu
5. amenable marketable inaccessible accessible obtainable
6. ill-fitted illiterate illegible irascible illegitimate
7. stations centres factories units pylons
8. escalated prohibiting prohibitory prohibited prohibitive
9. turned operated manipulated switched controlled
10. waves bands wavebands lines programmes
11. power station battery transmitter electricity generator
12. hear turn on switch on tune in attend

The Register of Ceremonies

Nigeria is famous for the way tradition continues to play an important part in modern life.
Every important aspect of human life is marked by (1) – of various kinds. When a child is
born, there are (2) – ceremonies, in which traditional gifts such as kola-nuts, honey and
palmwine may play their part.

Elaborate (3) – also accompany weddings and burials. No visit to Nigeria would be complete
without witnessing or taking part in the (4) – festival of the yam.

Considering the (5) – of Oba Oyewusi II. Only a direct descendant of Oduduwa can claim the
title of oba and wear the sacred (6) –. Such occasions are marked by elaborate (7) – and
fascinating performances by (8) –.

In most parts of Nigeria there are (9) – rulers. In some cases, they are of mainly (10) –
importance, but many play an important part in local affairs.

A B C D E
1. festivities ceremonies ceremonious civics civilities
2. birth naming nativity native nuptial
3. celebrations rituals rights rites virtues
4. animal annual anniversary universal harvest
5. crown investment enthrone coronation decoration
6. cloths robes regalia rituals ritual
7. clothes costumes materials material clothing
8. dance acrobats subjects supporters masqueraders
9. tradition traditional symbolic despotic respectful
10 public ritual little ceremonial solemn

The lives of whole communities may be dominated by (11) – affairs. The (12) – of a new king
(called (13) – among the Yoruba) is accompanied by much (14) – and merry making. Another
great sight is the (15) – that takes place when (16) – is installed accompanied usually by (17)
– of trumpets, and (18) displays by horsemen.

34
 A B C D E
11. chief chiefdom chieftaincy regal royal
12. restoration restore exultation installation instalment
13. oba oni emir king chief
14. festival east feasting joy joyful
15. horse-riding festival meeting durbar ritual
16. a king an emir traditional ruler sultan an MP
17. furious frolics fun-fair fanfares whistling
18. spacious spectacle superfluous spurious spectacular

The Register of Business

As in the previous exercise, choose the best alternative from the list below for each of the
following blanks.

At first, Mr Gacuiri (1) – his new business entirely on his own. He even kept his own (2) –But
as he began to diversify, and business grew, he had to employ a (3) – to do them for him. His
job was to maintain a record of all the (4) – that Mr Gacuiri carried out. He kept a ledger, and
all the payments made by Mr Gacuiri were placed under the heading (5) –, and all the money
received was put under the heading (6) –. Every so often the books had to be (7) – to ensure
that all the finances were in order.

A B C D E
1. governed ruled ordered managed led
2. figures numbers accounts sums receipts
3. book-keeper typist recorder reporter assistant
4. activities processes procedures transactions duties
5. debit debt bill deficit obligation
6. profit receipt cash credit gain
7. balanced evened out adjusted altered levelled

The Register of Road Travel

Musa (1) – driven all the way from B/Kebbi to Zaria. The tyres of his bus, though (2) –, had
not (3) –. The brakes, though binding, had not failed. The time was now 7.30 p.m. and Musa
had put on his (4) –. Not being used to points where the Government collects money on the
highway (5) –, and not being literate. Musa was surprised to find the (6) – way suddenly
dividing into five points at the toll-gate. Since he saw so many vehicles, and so many
policemen, Musa felt that armed robbers must have (7) – there then. He suddenly did a (8) –
just as another vehicle was coming on the side he was turning. He saw the (9) – vehicle just in
time to attempt to stop. In vain, the other vehicle tried to (10) –. But his brakes suddenly (11)
– and his vehicle (12) – into the oncoming vehicle. The (13) – of the two vehicles were
shattered and the (14) – were damaged, as evidenced by the hot water rushing out from the ill-
fated vehicles. Very soon, three road safety officers arrived and demanded the vehicles’ (15)
– from the two drivers.

A B C D E
1. is has had have having
2. worn out worn down tired brand new secondary
3. bursted bursting busted bust burst

35
4. brake lights headlights rear lights parking lights hazard lights
5. toll-gates town-gates gateways bye-ways city gates
6. flyover dual-carriage expressed new way dirt-road
7. being operated been operating operated had operated are operating
8. reversal revision round-turn round-about U-turn
9. on-coming p-coming on-going stationary stationery
10. swerve avoid escape commence avert
11. had failed failed have failed has failed felled
12. parked dived crashed managed jerked
13. tyres boots aerials roofs windscreens
14. seats belts bonnets radiators generators
15. particulars manuals booklets dealers owners

Try to do the following exercises too:

Making appointments

Fill in the missing words in the passage below. Choose from the following. The first has been
done for you.

forms employment pay

personnel functions promotion holiday
references round holes square pegs
chosen Application Advertisements
Short list Interview

Making appointments is one of the main (1) personnel functions.

(2) …………………….. are placed in newspapers and in trade journals. (3)

……………………

who reply to these, or who are found in other ways, are sent application
(4)……………………

…………………………. From these the best candidates are (5)…………………………

…………………….............. and a (6) …………………………….. is drawn up. The

employers

try to avoid fitting (7) ……………………into (8) ……………………… The short-listed

applicants are called for an (9)…………………….. . During this, the (10) ……………… …

package is explained; this includes the annual (11) ……………………… entitlement,

36
the rates of (12) ……………………., and the opportunities for (13) ………………………...
.

When the successful candidate is decided on, there is one last step: (14)
……………………… are

taken up before the appointment is finally confirmed.

Contracts

Fill in the gaps in the outline draft contract, choosing from the words in the box. The first has
been done for you. (Note: “widget” is a slang term used for any type of imaginary item which
is assumed to be made, bought or sold.)

Terms arbitration payment

Reclaim freight/ loading specification
Charges penalty late
Delivery substandard invoked
Letter of credit parties

DRAFT CONTRACT between

WIDGETRY Ltd (hereafter known as the “seller”)
And MERCURY plc (hereafter known as the “buyer”)

The seller undertakes to supply the buyer with 120,000 super widgets, to BSI (1)
specification 999

and to pay all (2) …………………………. and insurance (3)……………………………..

The

terms of (4) ………………….. and immediate payment of (5) ………………………..

charges by

confirmed and irrevocable (6)……………………. …………………. ………………. are to

be

standard.

A (7) …………………… clause will be included in the contract. It will be (8)

……………………….. against the seller for late delivery or (9) ………………….. quality;
against

the buyer for (10) ………… payment.

37
In the event of non-payment, the seller shall be entitled to (11)
……………………................the

goods.

In the case of a dispute between the (12) …………………… to the contract, the matter will
be

taken to independent (13) ………………. . All the (14) …………………….. of the contract
must

be complied with by both parties.

Banking
Choose from the words in the box to complete the sentences. The first has been done for you.

Bank of England base rate stock shares bond

Bearer Stock Exchange bear bull
asset

1. The American central bank, the FED is the equivalent of the Bank of England in Britain.
2. The units of ownership of a company, allowing the holder to receive a proportion of the
company’s

profits are …………………………………….. .

3. If the company is publicly quoted, the answer to 2 above are sold on the

4. ………………………………………………….
5. In the UK, a fixed amount of paid-up capital held by a stockholder is a ……………………….
6. If the market is thought to be good and prices on the Stock Exchange are thought to be likely
to rise,

the market is called a ………………………………….. market.

7. If the market is thought to be good and prices on the Stock Exchange are thought to be likely
to fall,

8. the market is called a ………………………………….. market.

9. A promise to buy a sum of money over an agreed time by anyone licensed to do so, such as a

10. government, insurance firm, etc.., is a ……………………………… .

11. Certificates of ownership of bonds that can be transferred from seller to buyer without any

12. formalities are ……………………………………….. bonds.

13. Something that is owned by an individual or company, has monetary value, and can be sold to
pay

14. debts, is an ……………………………. .

15. The interest which a bank charges on loans is at a rate which is usually higher than its

38
 …………………………………… .

4.2.2 Foreign Elements in English

Languages do not stay the same for ever but are always changing. English has borrowed a
large number of words from other languages, especially Latin, French and Greek. Often we
forget that words in common use are borrowed – for example, democratic and political came
from Greek. Some of the words still keep their foreign pronunciation.

Study the lists on this page. Match the foreign words on the left with the corresponding
meaning, or paraphrase, on the right. The first one is done for you.

Latin words
ad hoc* to the point of sickness or disgust
ad nauseam bounteous mother: one’s,
much loved school college
or university
alma mater by virtue of the office or
position one holds
bona fide the other way round
ex officio * improvised, impromptu
for a specific occasion
homo sapiens unwelcome or
unacceptable person
persona non grata a person’s greatest work
in memoriam in memory of (a deceased
person)
inter alia summary of one’s life
magnum opus member of the human
species
sine qua non among other things
vice versa a necessary precondition
curriculum vitae genuine

French Words

bourgeoisie an attitude or doctrine of

governmental non-intervention
carte blanche concerning
chargé ďaffaires unconstitutional change in government
coup d’état a rude mistake
en route justification, reason for being
fait accompli a reversal (e.g. of opinion)
faux pas an accomplished fact
laissez-faire complete freedom or authority to act
morale friendly relationship, understanding
raison ďétre person in charge of a diplomatic mission

39
rapport feelings
vis-à-vis a member of the middle class
volte-face on the way

NB Pronunciation etc. of the following words (Fr origin) also: debris, reportage, (diplomatic)
corps, impasse. (Others???)
Greek Words

acme I’ve found it

anathema point of perfection
chaos something totally unacceptable
charisma the common people
cosmos capacity to inspire
eureka disastrous pride
hoi polloi glory, renown, fame
hubris orderly system
kudos complete confusion

Exercise: Research and add five (5) new words or expressions to each of the above lists.

4.2.3 Idioms

What do you understand by the following idioms?

1. The discussion generated more heat than light.

2. The politician’s speech had an electric effect on the meeting.
3. The fat was in the fire when she heard of her son’s arrest.
4. Gacuiri soon learned to stand on his own feet.
5. Fobi began to diversify with an eye to safeguarding his new business.
6. The teacher did his best to encourage them to train harder, but their hearts didn’t seem
to be in it.
7. Ali decided to turn over a new leaf.
8. She wanted to avoid the rat-race of life in the city.
9. Local businesses demanded a level playing field and called for more controls on cheap
foreign imports.
10. A small computer company located in Accra is trying to gain a foothold in the
mushrooming computer games market.

4.3 Spelling

Spelling words correctly is a difficult job for many people; although nearly everyone has
some difficulty writing this or that word. Spelling errors are, however, very unpleasant. The
source of spelling errors in English may be oddities such as:

• Words which sound the same, but are spelt differently, like buoy and boy, quay and
key, I and eye.
• Words that are spelt the same, but sound differently, like record (n) and record (v),
and read (present tense) and read (past tense).
• Words that contain ‘silent’ letters – island, design, biscuit, knee, gnat.

40
But English spelling is not totally confusing. There are basic rules that underlie and show
how to spell most words. You must therefore make a conscious effort to be aware of these
rules. Doing this will help overcome what has become so common these days: The wrong
spelling of ‘simple’ words.

Follow the following rules and tips to improve your spelling and get the so-called commonly
misspelt words right.
Making plurals

Normally, just add s

book – books, organisation - organisations

If a word ends in s, x, z, ch or sh, add es. Exception quiz - quizzes

Words ending in f or fe; change to ve and add es

thief – thieves, wife - wives

Exceptions:
beliefs chiefs dwarfs gulfs proofs roofs

Words ending in y.
a) If the letter before the y is a vowel, add s say – says boy - boys
b) If the letter before the y is a consonant, change the y to ies baby – babies spy - spies

Words ending in o, add s

Piano – pianos

Exceptions:
cargoes dominoes echoes
goes heroes mangoes
mosquitoes potatoes tomatoes
tornadoes volcanoes

Some words stay the same in the plural

aircraft deer sheep

Others are irregular

children men fee
geese mice oxen
teeth women

Some Latin and Greek words change in a different way:

Crisis – crises formula – formulae

Adding ing and ed

When we use verbs, we have to change them according to the verb tense we are using.

Present Simple tense

I walk to school.

41
Past Simple tense
I walked to school yesterday.
Present Continuous tense
I am walking to school now.

Note these rules:

Normally, you just add ing or ed walking- walked

Words with one syllable, with a long vowel, ending in e: remove the e, and add ing.
like – liked – liking

Exceptions: age – aged – ageing

queue – queued – queueing

Words with one syllable, a short vowel, ending in a single consonant : double the consonant
beg – begged – begging

Words with more than one syllable, ending in a single consonant:

a) If the stress is on the last syllable, double the consonant
permit – permitted – permitting
b) If the stress is not on the last syllable, just add ing or ed
benefit – benefited- benefiting
sharpen – sharpened - sharpening

Words ending in l:
a) If there is a single vowel before the l, add ling or led
compel – compelled - compelling

b) If there is a double vowel before the l, just add ing or ed

peel – peeled – peeling

Words ending in y
a) If the letter before the y is a vowel, just add ing or ed
play = playing – played

Exceptions:
lay – laid pay – paid say – said

b) If the letter before the y is a consonant, change the y to I before adding ed

try – tried - trying

Adding ly
We can turn adjectives into adverbs by adding ly:
She is a quick worker.
She works quickly.

Normally you just add ly to the adjective quick – quickly

42
If the word ends in ll, just add y full – fully

If the word contains two or more syllables, and ends in y, cut off the y and add ily:
happy – happily healthy - healthily
Words of one syllable ending in y are usually regular shy- shyly
Exceptions: gay gaily day – daily

Using ie or ei
The rule is ‘i before c except after c when the sound is long ee’.
thief niece piece
perceive receive ceiling

Exceptions: seize weird

their neither

Using ce or se
The rule is ‘c for a noun, s for a verb’ (you can remember this quite easily because the letters
are in alphabetical order: C – Noun, S – Verb)

Noun Verb
advice advise
practice practise
licence license

Example
Will you advise me?
I need your advice.

Warning!

In American English, the c appears in both the noun and the verb forms. For example: ‘I
missed my football practice last week, and so I will have to practice twice next week.’

Problem words

Words that are often confused

accept except peace piece
affect effect quite quiet
aloud allowed read reed
bear bare red read
birth berth right write
board bored sew sow
chose choose some sum
diary dairy steak stake
great grate tale tail
heel heal threw through
here hear wait weight
lose loose weak week
made maid weather whether
meter metre where were
miner minor which witch

43
pain pane wood would
past passed your you’re

Note too:
its it’s there their they’re
to too two whose who’s

Words with single and/or double letters. These often cause problems. Here are the
commonest:

accelerate address illustrate imitate

assist beginning immediate marvel
brilliant caterpillar mattress millionaire
collapse collect necessary occasion
commit corridor parallel patrol
disappear discuss pedal possess
embarrass exaggerate success sufficient
happiness harass terrible unnecessary
woollen
Awkward customers
Regularly misspelt in examinations!

adaptation adviser foreign friend

argument beautiful government guard
breakfast building headache height
business centre humorous island
chemist cheque knowledgeable neighbour
connection conscience people rhythm
conscious daughter rhyme scissors
electricity February separate usually
vehicle
On your own
Make up sentences using these words, and note them down in your vocabulary notebooks.
Do spelling tests from time to time with a friend.

4.4 Punctuation

When people speak, we notice that they manipulate what they feel or want to put across. They
can use the voice to indicate that they are only making a statement, posing a question or saying
that they are happy, sad or even furious. If we are listening, we are able to interpret correctly
and understand what the voice modulation means. But when people write, they are unable to
use tone and pitch or voice, pauses, gestures, postures, facial expression, touch and other non-
verbal communication to show what they mean. Rather, there are special marks that they have
to add to the text to indicate these non-verbal communications. These special marks are called
punctuation marks and punctuation refers to the use of punctuation marks to show the division
between phrases and sentences and making sentences clearer. The structure of a sentence
greatly influences the type of punctuation marks to use. Some common punctuation marks are
the following:

44
 comma (,)
semi-colon (;)
quotation marks (“ ” or ‘ ’)
apostrophe (’)
parenthesis (( ) or [ ])
question marks (?)
full stop or period (.)

4.4.1 The Comma (,)

It is probably the most frequently used punctuation mark within the sentence, but it is also the
most frequently misused. Be careful to use the comma correctly. In a sentence, the comma is
usually used to separate items from each other. The items may be words, phrases or clauses,
and here, the comma does a job similar to that of the dash, the parenthesis, the colon and the
semi-colon. A comma or a semi-colon may be used to separate independent clauses joined by
and, or, but, for and similar co-ordinating conjunctions.

Consider the following sentence:

You must register first, and then we shall supply the handouts.

1. You must register first.

2. Then we shall supply the handouts.

It can be seen that sentences 1 and 2 can each stand on its own and make complete sense; they
are thus independent clauses and both combine to form a compound sentence bound by the
common co-ordinating conjunction “and”.

When “and” is omitted, the semi-colon may be used as in:

You must register first; then we shall supply the handouts.

We are lecturers; they are priests.
Use commas to set off names and similar words in direct address. Study the following two
sentences:

We are calling, Dad, to say that we shall be home for Easter.

We are calling Dad to say that we shall be home for Easter.

Notice that sentence 1 has commas setting off Dad. Can you guess the difference in meaning
of the two sentences?

In sentence 1 where Dad is set off by the two commas, Dad is the one being addressed. In
sentence 2, however, the addressee seems to be someone else while Dad is the indirect object
of the verb “calling”.

Use commas to separate elements in a series: For example,

45
1. In those days, the six engineering departments of Western University College of
KNUST (now UMaT) were Geomatic, Geological, Mining, Mineral, Mechanical and
Electrical.

2. We bought pieces of cake, drinks and take-away fried rice for the Christmas party.

Note that the comma before “and” in a list or series is optional.

…. Mechanical and Electrical

…. Mechanical, and Electrical

Both are correct.

Use a comma before and after a direct quotation and to set off “she said” and similar
attributions.

1. “I’m blessed to have you as my students”, said Dr Mrs Mireku-Gyimah.

2. Dr Mrs Mireku-Gyimah observed, “I’m blessed to have you as my students”.

In constructions like sentence 2 where the attribute comes before the quotation, the colon (:)
may be used in place of the comma:

Dr Mrs Mireku-Gyimah remarked: “I’m blessed to have you as my students”.

Use a comma to separate contrasting items e.g.

The head of department is a man, not a woman.

He has four daughters and a son, not four sons and a daughter.

My mother is a teacher, not a nurse.

Use a comma to separate names of places, addresses and items in dates.

1. We ever resided at Bungalow Numbers 24, 16 and 44, Government Hill, Tarkwa.
2. Nana Ama was born on Saturday, 8th July, 1989.
3. Lectures began for this semester on Monday, February 2, 2015.

Use the comma to separate an introductory phrase or adverbial clause from the main
(independent) clause.

For example:

1. Since it rained heavily, we could not hold the meeting yesterday.

2. Impressed by her neatness and impeccable use of language, the men could not help
smiling to her.

3. When the semester ends, I shall travel abroad.

46
Use commas to set off forms of the appositive.

1. My mother, Auntie Aggie, is a very affable person.

2. The International students will pay a visit to the Foundation Vice Chancellor of UMaT,
Professor Daniel Mireku-Gyimah, who has now retired.

Use commas to set off non restrictive modifiers. For example:

1. The SRC President, who was impeached last year, is now a businessman.

2. Solomon Ampim, who is a former president of GHAFES, made a first class.

3. We lost Mr Charles Antuokuu, the indefatigable secretary to the VC, in 2014.

4. The National Health Insurance Scheme, which is such a tremendous help to the
citizenry, must not be destroyed.

Exercises on the comma

Insert commas at the appropriate places in the following sentences:

1. We performed very well in our final examinations so our parents organised parties for
us.

2. His wife is from Ghana but he is from Nigeria.

3. Returning to school I carried clothes shoes food items and books as my luggage.

4. Her brother was baptised on Sunday 6th March.

5. The Member of Parliament whose wife is a nurse is also a good singer.

6. They would like to become medical doctors not accountants.

7. If you are hardworking you will succeed.

8. The guests of honour included our Communication Skills lecturer Dr. Patricia

9. The Vice Chancellor of a university must be given the right to appoint deans who must
have the appropriate academic and administration qualifications and experience to
assist in the task of running a university.

10. Next Sunday the new head will be inducted into office.

4.4.2 The Semi-colon (;)

47
Use the semi-colon to separate two complete statements or independent clauses without a
conjunction (as seen earlier in our discussion of the uses of the comma). Consider the following
examples:

1. Two pioneer students, Wango and Kindo, successfully undertook the One-Year
Certificate in English programme at CENCES, UMaT, last year; one student, N’goran,
follows their footsteps this year.

2. Christmas is over; Valentine’s Day and Easter follow in that order.

3. Many are called; few are chosen.

Use the semi-colon (instead of the comma) to separate elements in a series when some of the
elements already contain commas. This will ensure clearer separation between phrases that
would otherwise be very confusing indeed. Study the following example:

That year, selected athletes for the final of finals competition were of varied backgrounds; they
included Kofie, a first year tall, lanky and very fast runner from Abontiakoon, Tarkwa, who
was offering Geomatic Engineering; Chukwu, a Nigerian in the second year Petroleum
Engineering class, a first class triple jumper; Fatou, a beautiful, third year Mining Engineering
student, who was highly brilliant, and hailed from Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso; and Annie,
the Cameroonian-turned- Ivorian lady of the first year Mineral Engineering class, who almost
always wore her hair in braids during the competition and who, unfortunately, died the
following year, after a short illness.

Use the semi-colon in the sentence before transitional connectives between two main clauses.
The common transitional connectives include also, besides, consequently, furthermore, yet,
therefore, likewise and nevertheless. For example:

1. They never do their work well; therefore they never please the boss.

2. He sent his daughters to school; consequently, he has a bevy of beautiful, brilliant and
rich ladies in his family to prop him up in his old age.

3. That woman is always kind; yet she has no one to show kindness to her.

Exercise

Insert semi-colons in the appropriate places in the following sentences:

1. My daughter ignored her friend’s advice to do Arts she preferred to do Science.

2. Students must be wise with money parents are literally trying to squeeze water out of
stone to finance education of their children.

3. Mass transport is good but there is no privacy private cars provide privacy but they are
too expensive to maintain.

4. The birds landed on chairs, tables, and drapes they even landed on the family’s pet dog.

48
5. A few nights later, fifty more birds turned up in another home this time the police helped
the family chase them out.

6. People must begin to cut down on fatty foods cutting down on fatty foods will ensure
healthier, longer life.

8, We must avoid inhaling poisonous gases importation of cars with faulty exhaust
systems must be stopped!

9. Africans must give serious thought to cremation of their dead the continent can save on
land and expensive wood this way.
10 The traditional form of education had the advantage of preparing a child for life in the
community it did not in general encourage him to be ambitious or independent, or teach
him to meet the needs of the modern world.

4.4.3 The Colon (:)

The colon may be used to introduce direct speech as noted earlier in the uses of the comma.
For example:

He said: “I have finished the work”.

The major function of the colon, however, is to introduce what follows it (i.e. the colon). It
may be a list, a statement, an example, or whatever the earlier part of the sentence has caused
the reader to expect. For example,

1. All manner of people attended the durbar: chiefs, American tourists, market women,
teachers, nurses, miners, footballers, ministers and even pickpockets.

2. It is an international hostel: English, German, Italian, Russian, American, Indian,

Ghanaian and Nigerian students live there.

3. Our school motto reads: Seize the day.

4. The following items will be needed: pens, paper, clips, pins, key holders and flower
vases.

Use the colon in numerals expressing time to separate the hour from the minute, e.g. 10:30
a.m., 1:15 p.m., 7:00 p.m.

Exercise

Insert colons where appropriate in the following sentences:

1. Our birthdays fell on July 4th, 5th, 8th and 24th.

49
2. Higher Education must do at least one thing encourage independent, critical thinking.

3. On 6th March 1957 at exactly 10 45 a.m., he was born.

4. The first president of the Republic of Ghana, Osagyefo Dr. Nkrumah, declared
“Independence now.”
5. Study the following literary terms simile, irony, assonance, theme, subject matter and
characterization.

6. This was the text message I received Mum, I really adore you.

7. A good essay should have three major parts an introduction, a body and a conclusion.

4.4.4 Quotation Marks (“ ” or ‘ ’)

Use the double quotation marks as follows:

1. To set off the actual words of a speaker or writer e.g.
a. She said: “God is surely on our side.”
b. “There’s too much work around here” he complained.

2. To set off a word or group of words under discussion e.g.

a. “Poverty” does not refer to just the absence of money in one’s purse.
b. “Mining and the environment” is what we are considering this afternoon.

3. To indicate the title of an article, a poem, a short story or song e.g.

a. Mireku-Gyimah, P. B. (2002), “The Environment” in Gateway to English for
Senior Secondary Schools, Students’ Bk. 1, Essex, Pearson Edu. Ltd., Essex,
pp. 131- 142.
b. We are studying “Abiku” as one of the selected poems for the examination.
c. “Awurade Kasa” is one of Cindy Thompson’s greatest hits.
d. The title of Peggy’s short story is “Love Conquers All.”

The single quotation mark is used to set off a quotation within the quotation e.g.
The Vice Chancellor said, “Thank God, UMaT is now a full-fledge University”.

Use quotation marks around nicknames and epithets e.g.

a. They refer to him as “Tarzan.”
b. Azumah “Zoom Zoom” Nelson is a popular boxer from Ghana.
c. Ghana’s beloved footballer, Asamoah Gyan, is also known as “Baby Jet”.

Use quotation marks around unfamiliar words e.g.

a. The drunken boys kept asking for more beer with shouts of ‘bu bra’, ‘bu bra.’
b. Ghanaians are suffering under the “dumsor” situation.

4.4.5 The Apostrophe (’)

The apostrophe is not really a punctuation mark because unlike the others it does not occur
between words. Nevertheless, we shall consider it here since it functions as a punctuation mark

50
somehow. The chief functions of the apostrophe are to form the possessive case and to show
contractions (or shortened forms) and eliminated letters.

Use the apostrophe to form the possessive case of singular words by adding ‘s’ to the singular
word e.g. the book’s cover, my son’s shirt, Pat’s office. The apostrophe in these phrases shows
that the first word possesses the second so the cover belongs to the book, the shirt belongs to
my son and the office owned or occupied by a person called Pat.

Also with similar words ending in s or x such as “boss” and “box”, use the apostrophe and the
s. For example:
a. The box’s size looked too huge.
b. Our boss’s appearance was good.

When the word “sake” is used in some expressions, the s is usually dropped even if the noun
is singular. Pay special attention to the following examples:

For goodness’ sake; for convenience’ sake; for conscience’ sake.

Use the apostrophe to indicate a shortened form of a word e.g. it is becomes it’s; it has becomes
it’s as in:
a. It is good to see you becomes it’s good to see you
b. It has been raining heavily these days becomes it’s been raining heavily these
days

Do not confuse it’s with its;

Its is a possessive form, it’s is only a shortened form as has been seen.

In fact in constructions such as:

a. The dog wags its tail. Its refers to the dog – specifically the tail of the dog.
b The book has lost its cover. Its refers to the book – the cover of the book.
Note that there is nothing like its’ in English. Avoid it.
Remember also that the pronouns “her”, “your”, and “their” do not take on an apostrophe:
there are no such words as her’s, your’s or their’s in English. Their possessive forms are
always hers, yours and theirs. Learn to use them correctly as in the following:

a. The book is hers/yours/theirs.

b. I’m yours.
c. Yours faithfully, or Yours sincerely,

Use the apostrophe with s to show the plural of letters, numerals, and special symbols e.g.

a. Mind your R’s and L’s b. When it comes to money, I’d rather see 1000’s than
100’s.

For plural words ending in s, form the possessive by adding only the apostrophe and leaving
out the s as in:

The books’ case. b. My sons’ room.

Note here that it is the ‘possessing’ words that are plural in these instances. What is the
difference in meaning between the following sentences?

51
 a. The pastor’s secretary. b. The pastors’ secretaries.

Plural nouns that do not end with s should also take on the apostrophe and an s as in the earlier
examples, e.g.

a. woman (singular); women (plural); women’s groups.

b. child (singular); children (plural); children’s rights.
c. man (singular); men (plural); Men’s Fellowship/Ministry.

Since there are no such words as womens, childrens or mens in English, it is wrong to write
apostrophes after them to mark the possession. You cannot write something like:

*Womens’s or womens’
*Childrens’s or childrens’
*Mens’s or mens’

To avoid clumsiness, do NOT line up possessives as in:

a. * My mother-in-law’s sister’s half brother’s uncle’s funeral comes off next

week.
Instead, write simply: The funeral of my mother-in-law’s relative …

b. * My brother’s wife’s half sister’s mother-in-law’s father-in-law’s aunt is 101

years old.

Instead, write:

My sister-in-law’s relative is 101 years old.

Exercises on the Apostrophe

Insert apostrophes where appropriate in these sentences:

1. Its not easy at all!

2. The Womens Ministry Week is here.
3. Childrens rights are human rights.
4. I am yours sincerely, Pat.
5. These books are mine, those are hers and theirs.

4.4.6 The Question Mark (?)

The quotation mark is used for one main job: to show that the sentence or statement is to be
seen as a question.

For instance:

a. You have been doing your work well? or Have you been doing your work well?
b. It’s true?

52
 c. Is it true?

Use the question mark in parenthesis after words or phrases in sentences to show uncertainty
as in the following:

a. Education(al?)
b. Education fund (?) or educational fund (?)
c. Their greatest asset (?) was the dilapidated house at Nima, Accra.

Exercises on the question mark

Add the question mark at the appropriate place in the following sentences:

1. You are travelling to Kumasi next week, aren’t you

2. It’s your sister or
3. Five million cedis is big money
4. Do they obey instructions
5. Are you sure you are right

4.4.7 Parenthesis ( )

The parenthesis functions like the comma, the semi-colon and the colon because it is used to
separate words from one another. It may be used, like the dash (-) to set off an explanation, an
amplification or a qualification. The parenthesis encloses this extra information that helps
clarify the statement:

a. We leave for the Ashanti Region today (Kumasi to be precise).

b. The students (especially the girls) are quite big and mature.

Exercises on the Parenthesis

Insert parenthesis where appropriate in the following sentences:

1. Some words are often misspelled because they sound alike for example “cares” and
“curse”.
2. The institution is 61 this year, 1952 – 2013.
3. I worked at Tarsco for almost twenty-three years from September 1981 to January 2004.
4. The Novotel of UMaT painted red and yellow is quite a delight to watch.
5. Stakeholders of education like teachers and parents must join hands to train children.

4.4.8 The Full Stop or Period (.)

The full stop or period is used at the end of a sentence which is not a question, a command or
an exclamation (or interjection).

For example:
a. You are coming with me.
b. I like gospel music.
c. There will be a symposium next week.
d. The budget for 2004 has been read.

53
You may use the full stop to also show formal abbreviations as in the following:

Titles: Mr., Rev., Dr., Lt., Col., Fr., Prof., etc.

Degrees: B.A., B.Sc., M.Ed., Ph.D. etc

Days and months: Mon., Jan., Tues., Dec.

For common abbreviations and acronyms, leave the full stop out. For example, bring no periods
in: AU, NEPAD, UNICEF, UNDP, UN, GTZ, NDC, NPP, CPP, ECOWAS etc.

4.4.9 The dash ( – )

It is not the same as the hyphen (-); the dash is much longer ( – ) and it is used to indicate that
the thought is not complete or that there are interrupters as in:

They went to his place, once, twice – and then they stopped.

The dash may be used like the comma, the semi-colon, the colon or the parenthesis e.g.

a. We were right there – in your house at that very minute.

b. Globalisation – a curse or a blessing?
c. She’s been gossiping about us – you and me.

4.4.10 The hyphen (-)

It is used to make compound words, including names e.g. half-brother; mother-in-law, cross-
cut, Mr. Opoku-Agyemang. To know real compound words, always consult the dictionary, as
this is difficult. However, use the hyphen to make compound adjectives e.g.: a head-on
collision, an open-minded man, second-hand cars, open-ended question, one-year certificate
programme, etc.

Use the hyphen to divide between syllables at the end of a line e.g.

a. She bought sand-

wiches.
not
She bought san-
dwiches
b. We saw the Princi-
pal

not
we saw the Pr-
incipal

Use the hyphen for word numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine e.g.
thirty-three; sixty-two; ninety-one.

Exercises on the dash and the hyphen

54
 1. Pupils come to school on Monday, Tuesday and then they go for ‘gallamsey’!
2. Teenage pregnancy the consequence of Valentine’s Day celebrations without
thought!
3. Our class has forty one students; twenty two females and nineteen males.
4. Here are day old chicks for sale
5. We do not need any nine day wonders.
6. A fifty year old man should not marry a lady who is only twenty five!

4.5 Editing

To edit is to prepare (a text or film) for printing and viewing by correcting mistakes and
deciding what will be removed and what will be kept in, etc, or to be in charge of (the reports
in a newspaper or magazine etc.) (Cambridge International Dictionary of English).
To edit is to prepare or modify written material for publication. (The Concise Oxford
Dictionary).

You have just read the dictionary definitions but note that whether you are publishing your
work or not, it is always very important to edit or proofread what you write including even your
letters. Submitting work for marks is not a trivial issue in the university. Read through your
work whether it is an examination paper or not, and endeavour to correct errors you may have
made. It is very likely that you can remove what is unwanted so that your work becomes good
enough to fetch you good marks etc.

Remember that too many errors mar your work and speak very ill of you. These days, the works
of many university students are full of grammatical errors, spelling mistakes and many other
language problems. Show that you are different. Edit your work. Proofread your written
assignments and examination papers always before submitting them. Your work speaks
volumes about you. Check your handwriting even!

Editing your work involves getting it ready, in your case, for submission. It can be considered
as the final stage of writing. After putting in so much effort to gather your material, plan and
draft your essay; you need to look very closely at the work. At this stage, you want to do some
‘checking’ to see whether you have done the right thing – the content, the paragraphs, the
linking – have you used the correct transitional devices etc.?

Now your sentences, your words, your punctuation and spelling! You need to check them all
to see if they are right.

4.5.1 Follow the checklist below to edit your essay/work.

A Check your sentences

• Make your sentences effective. Write well-balanced and varied sentences.

• Vary the length and construction of your sentences. Alternate simple and complex
structures and long and short sentences for effective contrast.

• Learn to use active verbs.

55
 • Eliminate any word you do not need.

B Check your words

As you edit your work look out for the following:

• Overuse of abstract or general words.

• Jargons, euphemisms and pretentious words.

Find simple, plain, straightforward substitutes that state your meaning clearly.

• Clichés. Avoid worn-out phrases like last but not least, busy as a bee, or at this point
in time. Whenever you can, replace such tired expressions with simple words like
finally, industrious and now respectively. These allow your writing to flow smoothly.

C Check your grammar

Errors in grammar are often hard to spot. You can learn to spot them by reading your draft
aloud. As you are reading, check for:

• Faulty tense shifts.

• Faulty agreement of subject and verb.
• Incorrect or unclear pronoun case forms or references.
• Dangling modifiers.

D Check your punctuation

Like grammatical errors, punctuation errors can be hard to spot. You may therefore need others
to help you find them, but try your best by watching for:

• Misused commas, and

• Mispunctuated quotations.

Exercise

Punctuate the following passage and organise it into paragraphs.

Some people had come for land problems others for advice in their marriage problems and
yet others were a delegation to seek the support of the mp in applying for a secondary school
in their ridge our children have nowhere to go after their primary schools one of the elders
was explaining after about an hour or so the mp arrived he was dressed in a dark suit and
carried a leather portfolio he smoked a pipe he greeted all the people like a father or a
headmaster his children he went to the office without apologizing people went in one by one
(James Ngugi, A Grain of Wheat p.72)

56
E Check your spelling, capitalisation and apostrophes

Know and look out for:

• Your own spelling demons.

Spelling demons are the words you have trouble spelling correctly. Is it receive which
you spell with ‘ie’ (recieve) or tomorrow which you spell with ‘mm’ (tommorow) or
what? Revise the correct spelling of words which are frequently misspelt.

• Words with apostrophes.

Be reminded again that words with apostrophes should be used to show the possessive of
nouns e.g. the girl’s book, and to form the plural of nouns; the two boys; the possessive of
pronouns: its head or the house is theirs. So note here that the ’s in the following is wrong:
the two boys; your’s ever; it’s tail. The correct versions are: the two boys; yours ever, its
tail - respectively - as you should be aware by now.

Names and titles

Check that these are capitalised. It is very important.

Remember that in addition to good organisation in paragraphing, you have to pay attention to
the mechanical features of the language to ensure that what you write is readable. The proper
use of capitalisation, punctuation and word division helps the reader get the information you
want to put across. Without the use of the comma, period, question and quotation marks, our
information would be muddled up and the purpose of writing as a means of communicating
would be defeated.

Remember: edit whatever you write before submission.

4.5.2 Editing: Trial Exercises

Read the following passages carefully and rewrite them while editing them as
appropriate.

PASSAGE 1
Geomatic Engineering is the eye of all professions especially engineering in the world.
Geomatic Engineering as the name implies, is the collection of data and informations in the
surface of the earth which are analysed and processed to enable engineering works to be
located properly on the earth surface. Furthermore, civil engineering, architectural
engineering, mechanical engineering and geological engineering needs the data or
information gathered by the geomatic engineer to enable them carry out their duties.
Hydrographic surveys for instance seek certain informations like the correct positions to
allocate marine boards to guide sailors and navigators. Construction of roads, dams, bridges,
and also building which in actual fact are done by the civil and architectural engineers often
work with the geomatic engineer. Mine surveyors are able to make bench faces in the mines
by the help of Geomatic engineer who in actual fact provide to the mine surveyor in the
coordinates of the pole to allocate the bench face in the mines.

57
PASSAGE 2
Mineral technology is important to the national economy. Firstly, it creat job opportunity to the
unemploy youth in the country. Secondly, it raise the standard of leaving of the people by
provision of basic social amenities like, hospital, good roads, water and so fouth through the
exportation of it’s products which bring in more foreign exchange earner. Thirdly, founding
the local industrials with raw materials to boast domestic production. Finally; it serve as a
machinery to extract and processes the country natural mineral resources for economic growth.

PASSAGE 3
In some ways adolescence is merely a continuation of childhood. In other words, thee two
periods are very different. Adolescente involves personal responsibility, schoolwork,
household chores and family acitivies just as childhood do. Both provide opportunity for
leisure time, hobbies and activities with friends. During adolescence, however, boys and girls
usually exercise greater responisibilities in every area of their lifes, both at school and at
home, than they did as children. Adolescent must take on more individuals rolls without
supervision than they did as children.
The adolescence years are often more troubles and are often mor emotional than the
childhood years. . Adolescents are offerred a greater experience with peers and family
members, whese presents emotional and mental growth difference from what they have
experienced previously.

PASSAGE 4
Horace whittell hatred his alarm clock. He hatred it for fourty-seven years. Every working day
during all that years, the clock had made sure that Horace gut up in time to go to his job at the
docks in Chatham, England . chatham is a shipping pot. The clock’s shrill bell had jangled him
from asleep at exactly six o’clock every morning. He sweared that alarm clock would rang
know more when he retired. He brought the clock to work on his last day and smashed it under
eight-ton press. “it was a lovely filling,” Horace said “now I can be able to sleep past six o’clock
every day”

PASSAGE 5
I am very sorry for the delayment of registration.The reason was due to financial constrain on
my behalf. I reported on the 12th April and we were requested to pay the full payment before
we can be allow to register, after the preliminary discussions, I found it necessary to go home
for the full payment.
I travel to Akosombo for the rest of the money and then return on 20th April, that was Thursday
at 2.45pm. I was told that administration has closed for the Easter holiday and effort to register
proved futile.
The above reason has cause my delay.

PASSAGE 6
Your letter is at hand dated 25th October, 1999. I leant you pay visit for a week. Hopefully,
things are cool at abroad, Life is not bad here. I have draw the following programme to make
you fill happy about your visit.
On the very day you arrive at Kotoka International Airport. I will be there. On the
Friday early in the morning as you said, we shall visit Osu Castle.

58
 Moreover, we shall visit cancoon rain forest at capecoast the nest day. I learnt you
would like to set eyes on wild animals. You will see elephants, monkeys etc. What a nice time
to have at that forest.

PASSAGE 7
While the horror inspired by the murder of Becket was still fresh, the pilgrims to the seen of
his matyrdom were doubtless inspiredby a filling of pure devosion. It was in such a spirit that
Louis VII of France comes to returns thanks for the recover of his sun from a dangerouse
illness.

PASSAGE 8
Two weeks before the faithful examination begun, I was indiscreet enough to fights the
Principal’s sun. He was a fellow fifth-former with whom, up till then. I had had no quarrel at
all. He was inclined to be a little over-baring at times; but then a flint need contact with another
flint in other to spark, and I had being forced to develop from the start an easy-going and
tolerant disposition.

PASSAGE 9
It is the custom of our people that after a boy has being “made clean” by his circumsition in
the Bondo bush, He must proof his manhood by killing a wild beast without help from any
other person. The youth spend the last night before his text of manhood with his mentor who
may go with her only as far as the urge of the forest. Many young men does not return from
this guest. Vultures show the waiting once where to search for a mangled body.

PASSAGE 10
Basic issues to be consided in the development of a mine layout includes the location and
design of assess and s10rvice openings, and the defination of stopping procedures for or
extruction. This issues are not mutually independence. However, geomechanics questions
concening stopping activity may be pervasive than those related to sitting and design of
permanent openings, since the formal persist through out the life of the mine, and possibly after
the completing of mining.

59
 LECTURE FIVE

DOCUMENTATION
(REFERENCING IN ACADEMIC ESSAYS)

Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit, the student will be able to:
1. Cite sources of information correctly in their essays
2. Write correct reference lists and bibliographies

Introduction

Referencing, also known as documentation is a way of acknowledging the work of

other authors used in one’s assignment or long essay. As a student, it is important that
you identify in your work when you are using the words or ideas of another author. The most
accepted way of acknowledging the work of another author is to use a referencing system.
There are different types of referencing styles but as students of University of Mines and
Technology, you are required to master the Harvard Referencing System and the UMaT
modification of it.

In this unit, you will learn the reasons why we need to use a referencing system, how to insert
references in the text of your assignments, how to compile a reference list.

Why you should use a referencing system

As a part of an academic community, it is important that you show the reader where you have
used someone else’s ideas or words. Failure to properly reference may make the reader think
that you are cheating by claiming someone else’s work as your own. In the academic
environment, we call this plagiarism and it is seen as a very serious offence. Please remember
that plagiarism is not just when you directly copy words from another student’s or expert’s
work. Plagiarism also occurs when you re-word someone else’s ideas in your own work and
you do not give credit to the original source.

Plagiarism can have disastrous consequences for students. However, referencing is important
for reasons other than avoiding plagiarism. When you reference correctly you are
demonstrating that you have read widely on a topic. You are also supporting your hypothesis
with comments from expert authors. This lends credibility to your own work. Also, by correctly
referencing, you allow the marker or reader to follow-up your references and to check the
validity of your arguments for themselves. This is an important part of the academic process
as it leads to student accountability.

60
Accurate referencing
In order to have an accurate record of what you have researched and therefore an accurate
reference, it is important that you write down the details of your sources as you study.
For books, record:

• The author’s or editor’s name (or names)

• The year the book was published
• The title of the book
• If it is an edition other than the first
• The city the book was published in
• The name of the publisher

For journal articles record:

• The author’s name or names

• The year in which the journal was published
• The title of the article
• The title of the journal
• The page number/s of the article in the journal
• As much other information as you can find about the journal, for example the volume
and issue numbers

For electronic resources, try to collect the information on the left if it is available, but
also record:

• The date you accessed the source

• The electronic address or email
• The type of electronic resource (email, discussion forum, WWW page, etc)

In addition to these details, when you are taking notes, if you copy direct quotations or
if you put the author’s ideas in your own words, write down the page numbers you got
the information from.

What to reference

When you are writing your assessment, be sure to type in reference information as you
add in the ideas of other authors. This will save you time and will ensure that you reference
all sources properly. Whenever you use someone else’s ideas or words, you must put in a
reference. The only exception to this rule is when the information you have read
somewhere is common knowledge or ‘public domain’ information. For example, you
would not need to include a reference if you stated in an assignment that the sun rises in
the east and sets in the west.

Always reference:

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 • Direct quotations - this is when you copy another author’s material word-for-
word. You should show the reader that it is a direct quote by placing the material in
inverted commas.
Traditionally, double inverted commas have been used (") but it is now acceptable,
and preferable to use single inverted commas (‘). Sometimes it is difficult to avoid
the direct quotation as the author’s words may precisely describe the point you are
trying to make. However, do try to avoid the overuse of direct quotations; try to
paraphrase the author’s work where possible. Please note that when you use direct
quotations, you must reproduce the author’s words exactly, including all spelling,
capitalisation, punctuation, and errors. You may show the reader that you recognise
an error and that you are correctly quoting the author by placing the term ‘sic’ in
brackets after the error.
• Paraphrasing - this is when you take another author’s ideas and put them into
your own words. You are still copying someone else’s work, so you must reference
it. You do not need to use inverted commas when you paraphrase, but you must
clearly show the reader the original source of your information.

You may begin with the author’s name and date of publication in bracket before the
information as stated below. This is known as “author-led” paraphrasing:

Phillips (1999) suggests that generational change is inevitable and continuous.

Or the information before the author’s name as below. This is known as idea-led
paraphrasing.

The generational change is inevitable and continuous (Phillips, 1999)

In all other circumstances, please follow the guidelines below and be sure to include the
author, date and page number/s. The formats are similar for each example so please note
the use of punctuation, spacing and the order of information.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with one author

When organising our time, Adair (1988: 51) states that ‘the centrepiece will tend
to be goals and objectives’. (author-led)

OR

When organising our time ‘the centrepiece will tend to be goals and objectives’
(Adair, 1988: 51). (idea-led)

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 In these examples, ‘Adair’ is the author, ‘1988’ is the year of publication and ‘51’ is the
page number where the direct quote can be found.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with two authors

McCarthy and Hatcher (1996: 69-70) insist that with presentations ‘structure
must be clear and precise’. (author-led)

OR

With presentations, ‘structure must be clear and precise’ (McCarthy and

Hatcher, 1996: 69-70). (idea-led)

In these examples, the quote went over two pages therefore the page numbers were
represented as 69-70, rather than as a single number. Also notice from the examples so
far, that when the quote ends the sentence, the full stop comes after the inverted comma.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with three authors

Fisher, Ury and Patton (1991: 37) suggest that when emotional issues cloud
negotiation, ‘some thoughts are best left unsaid’. (author-led)

OR

‘Some thoughts are best left unsaid’ when emotional issues cloud negotiation (Fisher,
Ury and Patton, 1991: 37). (idea-led).

Direct quote from a book or journal article with more than three authors

Morris et al (2000: 47) state that ‘the debate of these particular issues should be
left to representative committees’.

When you paraphrase, it will look much the same as the direct quotation examples, but
without the inverted commas. For example, if we paraphrased an example from the
McCarthy and Hatcher book, it would look like this.

By improving your posture you can improve how you communicate feelings of power
and confidence (McCarthy and Hatcher, 1996: 111).

When paraphrasing, use the same referencing style and conventions as you would for
direct quotes, but with the material from the source put into your own words, and the

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 inverted commas omitted. Below is another comparative example of the direct quote
versus paraphrasing.

Direct quote and paraphrasing from a source with a ‘corporate ’ or government

author

The Ministry of Education (2001: 8) suggest that each year ‘some have
estimated the cost to the country of poor literacy and numeracy skills to be as
high as £10 billion’.

OR - PARAPHRASE

The effect of low levels of adult numeracy and literacy skills could be costing
Britain around £10 billion each year (Ministry of Education, 2001: 8).

You might also like to rearrange the quote so that the reference comes at the end, as you
have been shown in previous examples.

When you are researching, you may come across a situation where the same author has
written two books in the same year. To distinguish one title from another in your
referencing, place a lower-case letter after the publication date, with ‘a’ signalling the first
reference, and ‘b’ signalling the second, and so on.

Sometimes the author you are quoting from will quote another author to support his or her
argument, much in the same way that you do when writing assignments. Sometimes you
want to use the same quote that the author of the source has used. When you do this, use
the format below.

Eisenberg and Smith (in Bolton, 1986: 85) agree that ‘it is hard to assign general
meaning to any isolated nonverbal sign’.

In the case above, Bolton in his 1996 publication has quoted Eisenberg’s and Smith’s
research to prove a point he was making about non-verbal communication.

If the author of a source is anonymous, replace the author’s surname with the title of the
work in the brackets containing the reference. Consider the following fictitious example.
The flora and fauna of Britain ‘has been transported to almost every corner
of the globe since colonial times’ (Plants and Animals of Britain, 1942: 8).

Reference newspaper and magazine articles in the same way you would for other books
and journals. However, when the author is anonymous, use the system below (adapted
from Lewis, 1999: 26).

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 The Guardian reported that twenty-nine inmates were participating in the programme
(‘Serving time’, 1996: 21).

When you paraphrase, sometimes you might be rephrasing the words and ideas you have
found in more than one book or journal article. If you find that a number of sources say
similar things about a topic, an example of the correct referencing style is demonstrated
below. Notice in the example below how the listed sources are separated by a semicolon.

The semicolon can be used to separate two sections of a compound sentence

that have a similar theme (Turabian, 1996: 56; Petelin and Durham, 1992:169).

Sometimes you may wish to use material from lectures, discussions, interviews, or
distance learning courses to supplement your assignments. Use the following conventions
to ensure that your referencing is correct (adapted from Lewis, 1999: 26).

Mr Bob Builder, Managing Director of Builder’s Construction, stated in an

interview on 5 September 2000 that ‘customers were increasingly asking for
traditional methods and materials to be used in construction projects’.

Dr Wilma Flintstone stated in her lecture on 5 September 2000 that acid jazz
has roots as far back as 1987.

Adult learners should learn the art of effective note taking for the simple
reason that students ‘are more likely to remember what they have heard or read
if they take an active part in their learning’ (Dhann, 2001:3).

OR, IF THE AUTHOR IS UNKNOWN

Adult learners should learn the art of effective note taking for the simple
reason that students ‘are more likely to remember what they have heard or read
if they take an active part in their learning’ (Ghana Education Service 2001:
3).

Electronic sources such as WWW pages, electronic databases and electronic journals are
cited in the text in much the same way as traditional print sources, with the exception of
page numbers. The author’s name is followed by a publication date, but no page numbers
are listed. If no publication date is available, and this might be the case for WWW pages,
then where the date should go, insert (n.d.) which stands for ‘no date’. If no author is listed
for an electronic source, use the title of the publication in the same way as you would for
any other anonymous source.

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UMaT Modifications

The UMaT style does not have the page number in direct quotations. Eg According
to Alhassan (1999), “illegal mining will make Ghana import water in the next ten
years”

Creating a reference list

All of the sources you refer to in the main body of your assignment need to be listed at the
end of the assignment in a reference list. In a reference list, you only need to list those
sources from which you have either quoted or paraphrased. For example, you do not have
to list books you used for background reading purposes.

When creating a reference list, the sources should be listed alphabetically by author’s
surname, should be left justified, and the references should never be preceded by a bullet-
point or number. Where the author is anonymous or unknown for any one source, insert
that source in the alphabetical list using the title of the source instead of the author’s name.
All sources should be listed together; there should not be separate lists for books versus
journal articles versus electronic sources. The reference list should be on a separate page
from the rest of the assignment and should be simply titled ‘References’ or ‘Literature
Cited’ and the title should be in the same font and size as the other headings in your
assignment.

When you use the Harvard System, you are only usually required to produce a reference
list. However, some lecturers and tutors may want you to produce a bibliography instead
of a reference list. In cases where you are asked to produce a bibliography, you must list
all sources you have consulted, regardless of whether you cited from them or not. Also,
some lecturers or tutors may ask you to produce an annotated bibliography or reference
list. This simply means that after each source listed, you write a couple of sentences that
appraise the book’s usefulness in relation to the topic.

The following is a guide to how to list references in a reference list. If you have an example
that is not covered by the list below, please check with your tutor or the Student Support
Officer regarding the correct technique.

Book with one author

Adair, J. (1988) Effective Time Management: How to save time and spend
it wisely, London: Pan Books. (Harvard)

Adair, J. (1988), Effective Time Management: How to save time and

spend it wisely, London, Pan Books. (UMaT Style)

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Book with two authors

McCarthy, P. and Hatcher, C. (1996) Speaking Persuasively: Making the

most of your presentations, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. (Harvard)

McCarthy, P. and Hatcher, C. (1996), Speaking Persuasively: Making the

Most of your Presentations, Allen and Unwin, Sydney 123 pp. (UMaT Style)

Book with three or more authors

Fisher, R., et al (1991) Getting to yes: Negotiating an Agreement Without

Giving in, 2nd edition, London: Century Business. (Harvard)

Fisher, R., et al (1991), Getting to yes: Negotiating an Agreement Without

Giving in, 2nd edition, Century Business, London (UMaT Style)

Book - second or later edition

Barnes, R. (1995) Successful Study for Degrees, 2nd edition, London:

Routledge. (Harvard)

Barnes, R. (1995), Successful Study for Degrees, 2nd edition, Routledge,

London, 300 pp. (UMaT Style)

Book by same author in the same year

Napier, A. (1993a) Fatal Storm, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. (Harvard)

Napier, A. (1993a), Fatal Storm, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 124 pp. (UMaT
Style)

Napier, A. (1993b) Survival at Sea, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. (Harvard)

Napier, A. (1993b), Survival at sea, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, (UMaT Style)

Book with an editor

Danaher, P. (ed.) (1998) Beyond the Ferris Wheel, Rockhampton: CQU Press.
(Harvard)

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 Danaher, P. (ed.) (1998) Beyond the Ferris Wheel, Rockhampton, CQU
Press, 139 pp. (UMaT Style)

If you have used a chapter in a book written by someone other than the editor

Byrne, J. (1995) ‘Disabilities in tertiary education’, in Rowan, L. and

McNamee, J. (ed.) Voices of a Margin, Rockhampton: CQU Press. (Harvard)

Byrne, J. (1995), ‘Disabilities in Tertiary Education’, in Rowan, L. and

McNamee, J. (ed.) Voices of a Margin, CQU Press, Rockhampton, 510 pp.
(UMaT Style)

Books with an anonymous or unknown author

The University Encyclopedia (1985) London: Roydon. (Harvard)

The University Encyclopedia (1985), Roydon, London, (UMaT style)

Unpublished, verbal sources such as interviews and lectures are not reproduced in
the reference list.
The conventions for listing journal articles are similar to books, but note the extra
information required in the example below and apply this to all journal article listings.

Journal article

Muller, V. (1994) “Trapped in the body: Transsexualism, the law, sexual identity”,
The Australian Feminist Law Journal, vol. 3, August, pp. 103-107.

In this example, Muller has written the journal article ‘Trapped in the body:
Transsexualism, the law, sexual identity’ and it has appeared in the journal
‘Australian Feminist Law Journal, in its 3rd volume that was published in August of
1994. The article appears on pages 103 to 107 of the journal. Please note that
sometimes, instead of ‘volume’ there may be an ‘issue’ number, and instead of a
month of publication, there may be a season. Sometimes there will be a volume
number and an issue number. In those cases, list both the volume and issue numbers
as has been done below.
Journal article with both volume and issue number

Muller, V. (1994) ‘Trapped in the body: Transsexualism, the law, sexual identity,
The Australian Feminist Law Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, August, pp. 103-107. (Harvard)

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 A. Amorin, R. (2017), “Local Plant Seed Oils (Esters): The Frontier of Geothermal

Drilling Applications–A Review”, Ghana Journal of Technology, pp.62-72.

(UMaT style) Note: The UMaT style does not include the month of publication.

Electronic and web based references can be listed in the following ways.

Journal article from CD-ROM, electronic database, or journal

Skargren, E.I. & Oberg, B. (1998) ‘Predictive factors for 1-year outcome of low-
back and neck pain in patients treated in primary care: Comparison between the
treatment strategies chiropractic and physiotherapy’, Pain [Electronic], vol. 77, no.
2, pp. 201-208, Available: Elsevier/Science Direct/ 0304-3959(98)00101-8,
[8 Feb 1999].

In this example, [Electronic] refers to the type of media that you found the source on. If
you found the source on a CD-ROM, you would put [CD-ROM] in the square brackets
instead of ‘Electronic’. As with a normal journal example, the volume number, issue
number and page numbers are listed. At the end of this example, note that the name of the
database has been listed, along with the identification/access number of the article, and an
access date (in square brackets).

Examples of other electronic references are listed below.

Electronic mail (e-mail)

Johnston, R. (2001) Access courses for women, e-mail to School of Postgraduate

Studies ([email protected]), 22 Aug. [24 Aug 2001].

OR

Robinson, T. (2001), Re: Information on course structure, e-mail to Cecilia Addei

([email protected]), 12 Jul. [13 Jul 2001].(UMaT style)

Conclusion

It is extremely important that students correctly reference all paraphrasing and direct
quotations. While there are many referencing rules and conventions under the Harvard
system, in most cases it is generally important in the text of an assignment to show the

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reader the author’s name, date of publication and page numbers of the original source.
However, the UMaT style does not include page number.

In the reference list, it is important that the author’s name, the year of publication, relevant
titles, and other access information is faithfully reproduced. At first, the referencing system
may seem time-consuming and fussy but it will soon become second nature to you and
will become part of the long list of skills you will have gained as a university student.

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