Modern

Blast Furnace
Ironmaking
an introduction
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 Maarten Geerdes
Hisko Toxopeus
Cor van der Vliet

Modern
Blast Furnace
Ironmaking
an introduction

With contributions from

Renard Chaigneau
Tim Vander
Jennifer Wise

Second Edition, 2009

© 2009 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.

ISBN 978-1-60750-040-7

Published by IOS Press under the imprint Delft University Press

Publisher
IOS Press BV
Nieuwe Hemweg 6b
1013 BG Amsterdam
The Netherlands
tel: +31-20-688 3355
fax: +31-20-687 0019
email: [email protected]
www.iospress.nl
www.dupress.nl

LEGAL NOTICE
The publisher is not responsible for the use which might be made of the following information.

PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

 v

Preface
In the second edition of “Modern Blast Furnace Ironmaking”, we have included
our insights gained during numerous discussions with colleagues all over the
world and our own internal core team. We have also greatly benefited from the
many courses and questions raised by the participants in these courses.

The objective of this book is to share our insights that optimization of the
blast furnace is not only based on “best practice transfer”, but also requires
conceptual understanding why a measure works well in some cases and does not
work in other situations. In other words, operational improvement is not only
based on know–how, but on know–why as well.

We are indebted to many people we have worked with. We are grateful for
the contributions of Renard Chaigneau, Tim Vander and Jennifer Wise, who
re–wrote chapters III, IV and X respectively. Ing. Oscar Lingiardi, Prof. Dr.
Fernando Tadeu Pereira de Medeiros, Prof. Dr. I. Kurunov and Ing. Vincenzo
Dimastromatteo have given us valuable comment and taken care of translations
into Spanish, Portuguese, Russian and Italian. A special word of thanks to John
Ricketts, who helped develop the material covered in the first edition of this
book into a blast furnace operator course, has helped enormously with teaching
materials and has shared his insights with us for more than 15 years.

Danieli Corus directors Mr. P. Zonneveld and previously N. Bleijendaal

encouraged us to write the first and second edition of this book. We thank Edo
Engel at XLmedia for the editing.

We learn by sharing our knowledge. We wish the same to our readers.

Maarten Geerdes, Hisko Toxopeus, Cor van der Vliet,

IJmuiden, July 2009
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 vii

Contents
Preface v
Contents vii
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xi

Chapter I Introduction of the Blast Furnace Process 1

1.1 What is driving the furnace? 4
1.2 The equipment 6
1.3 Book overview 10

Chapter II The Blast Furnace: Contents and Gas Flow 11

2.1 The generation of gas and gas flow through the burden 11
2.2 Furnace efficiency 15
2.3 An example of gas flow and contents of a blast furnace 16

Chapter III The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 19

3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Iron ore 20
3.3 Quality demands for the blast furnace burden 22
3.4 Sinter 26
3.5 Pellets 30
3.6 Lump ore 34
3.7 Interaction of burden components 35

Chapter IV Coke 37
4.1 Introduction: function of coke in the blast furnace 37
4.2 Coal blends for coke making 38
4.3 Coke quality concept 39
4.4 Coke size distribution 43
4.5 Mechanical strength of coke 44
4.6 Overview of international quality parameters 46

Chapter V Injection of Coal, Oil and Gas 47

5.1 Coal injection: equipment 48
5.2 Coal specification for PCI 49
5.3 Coal injection in the tuyeres 51
5.4 Process control with pulverised coal injection 52
5.5 Circumferential symmetry of injection 56
5.6 Gas and oil injectants 57
viii

Chapter VI Burden Calculation and Mass Balances 59

6.1 Introduction 59
6.2 Burden calculation: starting points 59
6.3 An example of a burden calculation 60
6.4 Process calculations: a simplified mass balance 61

Chapter VII The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 67
7.1 Burden descent: where is voidage created? 67
7.2 Burden descent: system of vertical forces 69
7.3 Gas flow in the blast furnace 71
7.4 Fluidisation and channelling 78
7.5 Burden distribution 78
7.6 Coke layer 84
7.7 Ore layer thickness 85
7.8 Erratic burden descent and gas flow 88
7.9 Blast furnace instrumentation 90
7.10 Blast furnace daily operational control 90

Chapter VIII Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 93

8.1 The raceway 93
8.2 Carbon and iron oxides 96
8.3 Temperature profile 104
8.4 What happens with the gas in the burden? 104
8.5 Oxygen and productivity 106
8.6 Use of metallic iron 107
8.7 How iron ore melts 107
8.8 Circumferential symmetry and direct reduction 112

Chapter IX Hot Metal and Slag 115

9.1 Hot metal and the steel plant 115
9.2 Hot metal composition 116
9.3 Silicon reduction 117
9.4 Hot metal sulphur 118
9.5 Slag 118
9.6 Hot metal and slag interactions: special situations 122

Chapter X Casthouse Operation 125

10.1 Objectives 125
10.2 Liquid iron and slag in the hearth 125
10.3 Removal of liquids through the taphole 127
10.4 Typical casting regimes 128
10.5 Taphole drill and clay gun 130
10.6 Hearth liquid level 131
10.7 Delayed casting 132
10.8 No slag casting 134
10.9 One–side casting 135
10.10 Not dry casts 137
 ix

10.11 Defining a dry hearth 139

10.12 Oxygen lancing 139
10.13 Cast data recording 140

Chapter XI Special Situations 141

11.1 Fines in ore burden 141
11.2 Moisture input 143
11.3 Recirculating elements 144
11.4 Charging rate variability 145
11.5 Stops and start–ups 145
11.6 Blow–down 147
11.7 Blow–in from new 148

Glossary 151
Annex I Further Reading 153
Annex II References 154
Annex III Rules of Thumb 156
Annex IV Coke Quality Tests 157
Index 161
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 xi

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

B2, B3, B4 basicity, ratio of two, three or four components
bar pressure, atmosphere relative
°C degrees centigrade
C carbon
cm centimetre
CO carbon monoxide
CO₂ carbondioxide
CRI coke reactivity index
CSR coke strength after reaction
Fe iron
GJ giga joule
H₂ hydrogen
H₂O water
HGI hard grove index
HMS harmonic mean size
HOSIM hoogovens simulatie (blast furnace simulation)
HV high volatile
IISI International Iron & Steel Institute
ISO International Organisation for Standardization
JIS Japanese Industrial Standard
K potassium
kg kilogram
kmole kilomole
LV low volatile
m³ STP cubic metre at standard temperature and pressure
mm millimetre
Mn manganese
Mt million ton
N₂ nitrogen
Na sodium
O₂ oxygen
P phosphorous
PCI pulverised coal injection
RAFT raceway adiabatic flame temperature
RR replacement ratio
s second
S sulphur
Si silicon
xii

Standard Coke coke with 87.5 % carbon

STP standard temperature and pressure
t tonne (1000 kg)
tHM tonne hot metal
Ti titanium
VDEh Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute
VM volatile matter
I Introduction of the
Blast Furnace Process
Two different process routes are available for the production of steel products,
namely the blast furnace with oxygen steelmaking and the electric arc
steelmaking route. The routes differ with respect to the type of products that
can be made, as well as the raw materials used. The blast furnace–oxygen
steelmaking route mainly produces flat products, while electric arc steelmaking
is more focused on long products. The former uses coke and coal as the
main reductant sources and sinter, pellets and lump ore as the iron–bearing
component, while the latter uses electric energy to melt scrap. The current
trend is for electric arc furnaces to be capable of also producing flat products.
Nevertheless, the blast furnace–oxygen steelmaking route remains the primary
source for worldwide steel production, as shown in Figure 1.1.

Global steel consumption: 1132 million ton (170 kg per capita, per year)

Resources Processes Finished Products

Iron Ore: Flat:

Sinter, pellet, lump Oxygen
Construction,
1500 mln ton steelmaking
Automotive,
Blast Furnaces produce (66 %)
940 million ton hot metal
Packaging

Long:
Scrap
EAF (32 %) Construction,
442 mln ton
Wire, Automotive

Other* (2 %)
* = Corex, open hearth, etc.

Figure 1.1 Steelmaking routes and raw materials

(IISI Steel Statistical Yearbook and World Steel in Figures, 2007)

Hot metal is produced in a blast furnace, from where it is transported as

liquid hot metal to the steel plant where refinement of hot metal to steel takes
place by removing elements such as sulphur, silicon, carbon, manganese and
phosphorous. Good performance of the steel plant requires consistent hot metal
quality of a given specification. Typically the specification demands silicon
content between 0.3 % and 0.7 %, manganese between 0.2 % and 0.4 %,
phosphorous in the range 0.06–0.08 % or 0.1–0.13 % and a temperature as high
as possible.
2 Chapter I

In the blast furnace process iron ore and reducing agents (coke, coal) are
transformed to hot metal and slag is formed from the gangue of the ore burden
and the ash of coke and coal. Hot metal and liquid slag do not mix and remain
separate from each other with the slag floating on top of the denser iron. The
iron can then be separated from the slag in the casthouse.

Let us now consider the contents of a blast furnace at any given moment. Ore
and coke are charged in discrete layers at the top of the furnace. From studies of
quenched furnaces it was evident that these layers of ore and coke remain until
the temperatures are high enough for softening and melting of the ore to begin.
Quenched furnaces are “frozen in action” with the help of water or nitrogen and
examples of quenched blast furnaces as well as a solidiftied cohesive zone are
presented in Figures 1.2a and 1.2b.

Figure 1.2a Dissections of quenched blast furnaces Kakogawa 1 and Tsurumi

(Based on Omori et al, 1987)

Figure 1.2b Cohesive zone left after blow–down, courtesy J. Ricketts, ArcelorMittal
Introduction of the Blast Furnace Process 3

The quenched blast furnace shows clearly the layer structure of coke and ore.
Further analysis reveals information about the heating and melting of the ore as
well of the progress of chemical reactions.

As indicated in Figure 1.3, at any moment, an operating blast furnace contains,

from top downwards: :
– Layers of ore and coke.
– An area where ore starts to soften and melt, known as the softening–melting
zone.
– An area where there is only coke and liquid iron and slag, called the “active
coke” or dripping zone.
– The dead man, which is a stable pile of coke in the hearth of the furnace.

A blast furnace has a typical conical shape. The sections from top down are:
– Throat, where the burden surface is.
– The stack, where the ores are heated and reduction starts.
– The bosh parallel or belly and
– The bosh, where the reduction is completed and the ores are melted down.
– The hearth, where the molten material is collected and is cast via the taphole.

Figure 1.3 The zones in the blast furnace

4 Chapter I

1.1 What is driving the furnace?

1.1.1 Process description

The inputs and outputs of the furnace are given in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Input and output of a blast furnace

– A blast furnace is filled with alternating layers of coke and the iron ore–
containing burden.
– Hot blast is blown into the blast furnace via tuyeres. A tuyere is a cooled copper
conical pipe numbering up to 12 in smaller furnaces, and up to 42 in bigger
furnaces through which pre–heated air (up to more than 1200 °C) is blown into
the furnace.
– The hot blast gasifies the reductant components in the furnace, those being
coke as well as auxiliary materials injected via the tuyeres. In this process, the
oxygen in the blast is transformed into gaseous carbon monoxide. The resulting
gas has a high flame temperature of between 2100 and 2300 °C . Coke in front
of the tuyeres is consumed thus creating voidage The driving forces in the blast
furnace are illustrated in Figure 1.5.
– The very hot gas ascends through the furnace , carrying out a number of vital
functions.
– Heats up the coke in the bosh/belly area.
Introduction of the Blast Furnace Process 5

– Melting the iron ore in the burden, creating voidage.

– Heats up the material in the shaft zone of the furnace.
– Removes oxygen of the ore burden by chemical reactions.
– Upon melting, the iron ore produces hot metal and slag, which drips down
through the coke zone to the hearth, from which it is removed by casting
through the taphole. In the dripping zone the hot metal and slag consume coke,
creating voidage. Additional coke is consumed for final reduction of iron oxide
and carbon dissolves in the hot metal, which is called carburisation.

The blast furnace can be considered as a counter current heat and mass
exchanger, as heat is transferred from the gas to the burden and oxygen from
the burden to the gas. Gas ascends up the furnace while burden and coke
descend down through the furnace. The counter current nature of the reactions
makes the overall process an extremely efficient one.

Figure 1.5 The driving force of a blast furnace: the counter current process creates
voidage at the indicated areas causing the burden to descend
6 Chapter I

A typical example of the temperature profile in the blast furnace is shown in

Figure 1.6. It is shown that the softening/melting zone is located in an area
where temperatures are between 1100 and 1450 °C. The temperature differences
in the furnace are large. In the example the temperature gradients are bigger in
the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction, which will be explained
in Chapter VI.

Figure 1.6 Temperature profile in a blast furnace (typical example)

1.2 The equipment

1.2.1 Equipment overview

An overview of the major equipment is shown in Figure 1.7. These include:
– Hot Blast Stoves. Air preheated to temperatures between 1000 and 1250 °C is
produced in the hot blast stoves and is delivered to the furnace via a hot blast
main, bustle pipe, tuyere stocks and finally through the tuyeres. The hot blast
reacts with coke and injectants. The high gas speed forms the area known as the
raceway in front of the tuyeres.
– Stock house. The burden materials and coke are delivered to a stock house. The
materials are screened and then weighted before final delivery into the furnace.
The stock house is operated automatically. Corrections for coke moisture are
generally made automatically. The burden materials and coke are brought to the
top of the furnace via skips or via a conveyor belt, where they are discharged
into the furnace in separate layers of ore and coke.
– Gas cleaning. The top gas leaves the furnace via uptakes and a down–comer.
The top gas will contain many fine particles and so to remove as many of these
as possible the top gas is lead through a dust catcher and wet cleaning system.
Introduction of the Blast Furnace Process 7

– Casthouse. The liquid iron and slag collect in the hearth of the furnace, from
where they are tapped via the taphole into the casthouse and to transport ladles.
– Slag granulation. The slag may be quenched with water to form granulated slag,
which is used for cement manufacturing.

Figure 1.7 Blast furnace general arrangement

The top of the blast furnace is closed, as modern blast furnaces tend to operate
with high top pressure. There are two different systems:
– The double bell system, often equipped with a movable throat armour.
– The bell less top, which allows easier burden distribution.
Examples of both types are schematically shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8 Blast furnace top charging systems

8 Chapter I

1.2.2 Blast furnace construction

There are basically two construction techniques to support blast furnaces.
The classic design utilises a supported ring, or lintel at the bottom of the
shaft, upon which the higher levels of the furnace rests. The other technique
is a freestanding construction requiring an independent support for the blast
furnace top and the gas system. The required expansion (thermal as well as from
the pressure) for the installation is below the lintel that is in bosh/belly area
for the lintel furnace, while the compensator for expansion in the freestanding
furnace is at the top, as indicated in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Blast furnace constructions

1.2.3 Blast furnace development

Blast furnaces have grown considerably in size during the 20t century. In the
early days of the 20t century, blast furnaces had a hearth diameter of 4 to 5
metres and were producing around 100,000 tonnes hot metal per year, mostly
from lump ore and coke. At the end of the 20t century the biggest blast
furnaces had between 14 and 15 m hearth diameter and were producing 3 to 4
Mt per year.

The ore burden developed, so that presently high performance blast furnaces
are fed with sinter and pellets. The lump ore percentage has generally decreased
to 10 to 15 % or lower. The reductants used developed as well: from operation
Introduction of the Blast Furnace Process 9

with coke only to the use of injectant through the tuyeres. Mainly oil injection
in the 1960’s, while since the early 1980’s coal injection is used extensively.
Presently, about 30 to 40 % of the earlier coke requirements have been replaced
by injection of coal and sometimes oil and natural gas.

The size of a blast furnace is often expressed as its hearth diameter or as its
“working volume” or “inner volume”. The working volume is the volume of the
blast furnace that is available for the process i.e. the volume between the tuyeres
and the burden level. Definitions of working volume and inner volume are
given in Figure 1.10.

Bottom Bottom Bottom of

of bell of bell (vertical)
chute
Zero level burden
1m below Bottom of 1m below
bottom movable chute
of bell armour
Working Volume
Inner Volume
Total Volume

Tuyere level

Taphole level
Uppermost brick
bottom layer

Figure 1.10 Definitions of working volume and inner volume

Presently, very big furnaces reach production levels of 12,000 t/d or more. E.g.
the Oita blast furnace No. 2 (NSC) has a hearth diameter of 15.6 meter and a
production capacity of 13,500 t/d. In Europe, the Thyssen–Krupp Schwelgern
No. 2 furnace has a hearth diameter of 14.9 m and a daily production of 12,000
t/d.
10 Chapter I

1.3 Book overview

Blast furnace ironmaking can be discussed from 3 different perspectives:

– The operational approach: discussing the blast furnace with its operational
challenges.
– The chemical technology approach: discussing the process from the perspective
of the technologist who analyses progress of chemical reactions and heat and
mass balances.
– The mechanical engineering approach focussing on equipment.

The focus of this book is the “operator’s view”, with the aim to understand what
is going on inside the furnace. To this end the principles of the process are
discussed (Chapter II) followed by the demands on burden quality (Chapter III)
and coke and auxiliary reductants (Chapters IV and V). Simplified calculations
of burden and top gas are made (Chapter VI). The control of the process is
discussed in Chapter VII: burden descent and gas flow control. The issues
pertinent to understanding the blast furnace productivity and efficiency are
presented in Chapter VIII. Subsequently, hot metal and slag quality (Chapter
IX), casthouse operation (Chapter X) and special operational conditions like
stops and starts, high moisture input or high amounts of fines charged into the
furnace (Chapter XI) are discussed.
II The Blast Furnace:
Contents and Gas Flow
2.1 The generation of gas and gas flow
through the burden

The blast furnace process starts when pre-heated air, or ‘hot blast’ is blown into
the blast furnace via the tuyeres at a temperature of up to 1200 °C. The hot
blast burns the fuel that is in front of the tuyere, which is either coke or another
fuel that has been injected into the furnace through the tuyeres. This burning
generates a very hot flame and is visible through the peepsites as the “raceway”.
At the same time the oxygen in the blast is transformed into gaseous carbon
monoxide (CO). The resulting gas has a flame temperature of between 2000
and 2300 °C. The hot flame generates the heat required for melting the iron ore
(Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 The raceway, horizontal and vertical sections

The blast furnace is a counter current reactor (Figure 2.2, next page). The
driving force is the hot blast consuming coke at the tuyeres. In this chapter the
gas flow through the furnace is analysed in more detail. The charge consists of
alternating layers of ore burden (sinter, pellets, lump ore) and coke. The burden
is charged cold and wet into the top of the furnace, while at the tuyeres the
hot blast gasifies the hot coke. Towards the burden stockline (20 to 25 m from
tuyeres to burden surface) the gas temperature drops from a flame temperature
of 2200 °C to a top gas temperature of 100 to 150 °C.
12 Chapter II

Figure 2.2 The blast furnace as a counter current reactor

The process starts with the hot blast through the tuyeres, which gasifies the
coke and coal in the raceway (Figure 2.1). The reactions of the coke create hot
gas, which is able to melt the ore burden. Consumption of coke and melting of
the ore burden creates space inside the furnace, which is filled with descending
burden and coke. The oxygen in the blast will gasify the coke to generate carbon
monoxide (CO). For every molecule of oxygen 2 molecules of carbon monoxide
are formed. If blast is enriched from its base level of 21 to 25 % oxygen, then
every cubic meter (m³ STP) oxygen will generate 2 m³ STP of CO. So if the
blast has 75 % of nitrogen and 25 % of oxygen, the bosh gas will consist of 60
% (i.e. 75/(75+2x25)) nitrogen and 40 % CO gas. In addition a huge amount of
heat is generated in the raceway from the combustion of coke and coal (or oil,
natural gas). The heat leads to a high flame temperature, which generally is in
the range of 2000 to 2300 °C. Since this temperature is higher than the melting
temperature of iron and slag, the heat in the hot gas can be used to melt the
burden. Flame temperature is discussed in more detail in section 8.1.3.

The hot gas ascends through the ore and coke layers to the top of the furnace.
If there was only coke in the blast furnace, the chemical composition of the gas
would remain constant but the temperature of the gas would lower as it comes
into contact with the colder coke layers high in the furnace. A presentation of
the gas flowing through a blast furnace filled with coke is presented in Figure
2.3. To the experienced blast furnace operator the furnace filled with coke only
may seem a theoretical concept. However, in some practical situations, like the
blow–in of a new furnace or when taking a furnace out of operation for a long
time (banking) the furnace is almost entirely filled with coke.
The Blast Furnace: Contents and Gas Flow 13

Figure 2.3 Gas flow in a furnace filled with coke only (left) and in a furnace filled
with alternating layers of coke and ore (right).

In the normal operational situation the furnace is filled with alternating coke
and ore layers. About 35 to 45 layers of ore separate the coke. It is important
to note that the permeability of coke is much better than the permeability of
ore (see also Figure 7.6). This is due to the fact that coke is much coarser than
sinter and pellets and that the void fraction within the coke layer is higher.
For example, the mean size of coke in a blast furnace is typically 45 to 55 mm,
while the average size of sinter is 10 to 20 mm and of pellets is 10 to 12 mm.
Consequently, the burden layers determine how the gas flows through the
furnace, while the coke layers function as gas distributors.

If gas flows from the bosh upwards, what happens to the gas as it gradually
cools down? Firstly, the heat with a temperature in excess of 1400 °C, the
melting temperature of the slag, is transferred to the layered burden and coke,
causing the metallic portion to melt. In the temperature range from 1400 to
1100 °C the burden will soften and stick together rather than melt. In the
softening and melting zone the remaining oxygen in the ore burden is removed,
which generates additional carbon monoxide. This is referred to as the direct
reduction reaction (see section 7.2.1), which only occurs in the lower furnace.

The gas has now cooled to about 1100 °C and additional gas has been generated.
Since the direct reduction reaction costs a lot of energy, the efficiency of the
furnace is largely dependant on the amount of oxygen removed from the burden
materials before reaching this 1100 °C temperature.
14 Chapter II

In summary:
– Heat is transferred from the gas to the ore burden, which melts and softens
(over 1100 °C).
– Residual oxygen in the burden is removed and additional CO is generated. This
is known as the direct reduction reaction.

Upon further cooling down the gas is capable of removing oxygen from the
ore burden, while producing carbon dioxide (CO₂). The more oxygen that is
removed, the more efficient the furnace is. Below temperatures of 1100 °C the
following takes place:
– Heat is transferred from the gas to the burden.
– CO₂ gas is generated from CO gas, while reducing the amount of oxygen of
the ore burden. This is called the gas reduction reaction, and in literature it
is sometimes called “indirect reduction” as opposed to “direct reduction”. No
additional gas is generated during this reaction.
– A similar reaction takes place with hydrogen. Hydrogen can remove oxygen
from the burden to form water (H₂O).

Higher in the furnace, the moisture in the burden and coke evaporates and so is
eliminated from the burden before any chemical reactions take place.

If we follow the burden and coke on its way down the stack, the burden and
coke are gradually heated up. Firstly the moisture is evaporated, and at around
500 °C the removal of oxygen begins. A simplified schedule of the removal of
oxygen from the ore burden is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Schematic presentation of reduction of iron oxides and temperature

The first step is the reduction of haematite (Fe₂O₃) to magnetite (Fe₃O₄). The
reduction reaction generates energy, so it helps to increase the temperature of
the burden. In addition, the reduction reaction creates tension in the crystal
structure of the burden material, which may cause the crystal structure to break
The Blast Furnace: Contents and Gas Flow 15

into smaller particles. This property is called low–temperature disintegration.

Several tests are available to quantify the effects (see Chapter III). Further
down in the furnace the temperature of the burden increases gradually until the
burden starts to soften and to melt in the cohesive zone. The molten iron and
slag are collected in the hearth.

We now consider the interaction between the gas and the ore burden. The more
the gas removes oxygen from the ore burden, the more efficient the blast furnace
process is. Consequently, intimate contact between the gas and the ore burden
is very important. To optimise this contact the permeability of the ore burden
must be as high as possible. The ratio of the gas flowing through the ore burden
and the amount of oxygen to be removed from the burden must also be in
balance.

Experience has shown that many problems in the blast furnace are the
consequence of low permeability ore layers. Therefore, the permeability of the
ore layers across the diameter of the furnace is a major issue. The permeability
of an ore layer is largely determined by the amount of fines (under 5 mm) in the
layer. Generally, the majority of the fines are generated by sinter, if it is present
in the charged burden or from lump ores. The problem with fines in the furnace
is that they tend to concentrate in rings in the furnace. As fines are charged
to the furnace they concentrate at the point of impact where the burden is
charged. They are also generated by low temperature reduction– disintegration.
Thus, it is important to screen the burden materials well, normally with 5 or 6
mm screens in the stock house, and to control the low temperature reduction–
disintegration characteristics of the burden.

2.2 Furnace efficiency

The process efficiency of the blast furnace, generally considered to be the

reductant rate per tonne hot metal, is continuously monitored through
measurement of the chemical composition of the top gas. The efficiency is
expressed as the gas utilisation, that is the percentage of the CO gas that has
been transformed to CO₂, as defined in the following expression:

CO2
ࠒCO =
(CO + CO2)

In addition, at modern furnaces the gas composition over the radius is

frequently measured. The latter shows whether or not there is a good balance
between the amount of reduction gas and the amount of ore in the burden.
The wall zone is especially important and so the coke percentage in the wall
area should not be too low. The wall area is the most difficult place to melt the
burden as that is where the burden thickness is at it’s highest across the radius,
and also because the gas at the wall loses much of its temperature to cooling
losses.
16 Chapter II

The top gas analysis gives a reasonably accurate indication of the efficiency of
the furnace. When comparing different furnaces one should realise that the
hydrogen also takes part in the reduction process (paragraph 7.2.4).
The gas utilisation also depends on the amount of oxygen that must be
removed. Since pellets have about 1.5 atoms of oxygen per atom of Fe (Fe₂O₃)
and sinter has about 1.45 (mix of Fe₂O₃ and Fe₃O₄), the top gas utilisation will
be lower when using sinter. It can be calculated as about 2.5 % difference of
the top gas utilisation, when comparing an all pellet burden with an all sinter
burden.

2.3 An example of gas flow and contents

of a blast furnace

The contents of a blast furnace can be derived from operational results. How
long do the burden and gas reside within the furnace? Consider an example of a
large, high productivity blast furnace with a 14 metre hearth diameter. It has a
daily production of 10,000 t hot metal (tHM) at a coke rate of 300 kg/tHM and
a coal injection rate of 200 kg/t. Moisture in blast and yield losses are neglected.
Additional data is given in Table 2.1.

Consumption Specific weight Carbon content

Ore burden 1580 kg/tHM 1900 kg/m³
Coke 300 kg/tHM 500 kg/m³ 87 %

Coal 200 kg/tHM 78 %

Blast Volume 6500 m³ STP/min 1.3 kg/m³ STP
Top Gas 1.35 kg/m³ STP
O2 in blast 25.6 %
Working volume 3800 m³ (500 m³ used for active coke zone)
Throat diameter 10 m
A charge contains 94.8 t ore burden 18 t coke
A ton hot metal 945 kg Fe 45 kg carbon
contains
Voidage in shaft 30 %

Table 2.1 Data for calculation of blast furnace contents

1 tonne hot metal contains 945 kg Fe= 945/55.6 = 17.0 kmole

2.3.1 How much blast oxygen is used per tonne hot metal?
Oxygen from the blast volume amounts to 0.256 x 6500 m³ STP/min = 1664
m³ STP oxygen/min. The production rate is 10,000/(24x60) = 6.94 tHM/min.
So the oxygen use is 1664/6.94 = 240 m³ STP blast oxygen/tHM.
The Blast Furnace: Contents and Gas Flow 17

2.3.2 How often are the furnace contents replaced?

To produce a tonne of hot metal, the furnace is charged with:
– 300 kg coke: 0.64 m³ (300/470) volume
– 1580 kg sinter/pellets: 0.88 m³ (1580/1800) volume
– Total per tonne of hot metal: 1.52 m³ volume

Production is 10,000 tonne per day, which is 10,000x1.52 m³ = 15,200 m³

volume per day. This material can be contained in the working volume of the
furnace, with exception of the volume used for the active coke zone. So the
contents of the furnace are refreshed 4.6 times per day (15,200/(3800–500)).
This means the burden charged at the top reaches the tuyeres in 5.2 hours.

2.3.3 How many layers of ore are in the furnace at any moment?
The number of ore layers depends on the layer thickness or the weight of one
layer in the burden. It can vary from furnace to furnace and depends on the
type of burden used so there is a large variety of appropriate burden thicknesses.
A typical range is 90–95 tonne of burden per layer. A layer contains 94.8 tonne,
so about 60 tonne hot metal. In 5.2 hours, the furnace produces 2,167 tonne,
which corresponds to 36 layers of ore (2167/60). In our example, taking a throat
diameter of 10 m, the ore layer is 67 cm and the coke layer is an average of 49
cm at the throat.

2.3.4 What happens to the carbon of the coke and coal?

One tonne of HM requires:
– 300 kg coke, C content 87 %: 261 kg C
– 200 kg coal, C content 78 %: 160 kg C
– Total carbon: 417 kg C

About 45 kg carbon dissolves in the hot metal. The balance leaves the furnace
through the top, which is 421–45 = 372 kg. It leaves the furnace as CO and
CO₂.

2.3.5 Estimate how long the gas remains in the furnace

The blast volume is 6500 m³ STP/min with 25.6% oxygen. Since for every
unit of oxygen two units of CO are produced, the raceway gas amounts to
6500x(1+0.256)=8164 m³ STP. This gas has a higher temperature (decreasing
from some 2200°C to 125°C top gas temperature), the furnace is operated at
a higher pressure (say 4.8 bar, absolute at the tuyeres and 3 bar, absolute at
the top) and extra gas is formed by the direct reduction reaction (see exercise
2.3.5). If all these effects are neglected, the exercise is straightforward: Suppose
the void fraction in the burden is 30%, then the open volume in the furnace is
(3800–100)x 0.30 = 1100 m³ STP, through which 8164 m³ STP gas is blown
per minute. So the residence time of the gas is (1100/8164)x60 = 8 seconds.
18 Chapter II

It is possible to make the corrections mentioned above. Take an average

temperature of the gas of 900°C and an average pressure of 4 bar, and then the
effects are:
– Increase in residence time owing to higher pressure: 4/1 = 4 times longer.
– Decrease in residence time owing to higher temperature 273/(273+900)= 0.23
times shorter.
– Decrease in residence time due to extra gas from direct reduction is 8164/9987
= 0.82 times shorter.
– In total, the residence time is shorter by a factor of 0.75 (4x0.23x0.82), so the
corrected residence time is 8x0.75 = 6 seconds.

2.3.6 If you get so much top gas, is there a strong wind in the furnace?
No, at the tuyeres there are high wind velocities (over 200 m/sec), but top gas
volume is about 9970 m³ STP/min. Over the diameter of the throat, at a gas
temperature of 120°C and a top pressure of 2 bar, top gas velocity is 1,0 m/
sec: on the Beaufort scale this corresponds to a wind velocity of 1. Through the
voids the velocity is about 3 m/s. Note, that in the centre the velocity can be
much higher, so that even fluidisation limits can be reached (See 7.4).
III The Ore Burden:
Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore
3.1 Introduction

In the early days of commercial ironmaking, blast furnaces were often located
close to ore mines. In those days, blast furnaces were using local ore and
charcoal, later replaced by coke. In the most industrial areas of the time, the
19t century, many blast furnaces were operating in Germany, Great Britain
and the United States. After the application of the steam engine for ships and
transportation, the centre of industrial activity moved from the ore bodies to
the major rivers, such as the river Rhine, and later from the rivers to the coastal
ports with deep sea harbours. This trend, supported by seaborne trade of higher
quality ores may appear clear at present, but has only a recent history. In 1960
there were sixty operating blast furnaces in Belgium and Luxembourg. In 2008,
only four are operating, of which two have the favourable coastal location.

The trend towards fewer but larger furnaces has made the option for a rich
iron burden a more attractive one. A rich iron burden translates into a high
Fe content and as fine ores are too impermeable to gas, the choice is narrowed
down to sinter, pellets and lump ores. Sinter and pellets are both formed by
agglomerating iron ore fines from the ore mines and have normally undergone
an enrichment process, which is not described here. The quality demands for
the blast furnace burden are discussed and the extent to which sinter, pellets
and lump ore meet these demands is described.

A good blast furnace burden consists, for the major part, of sinter and/or pellets
(Figure 3.1, next page). Sinter burdens are prevalent in Europe and Asia, while
pellet burdens are used more commonly in North America and Scandinavia.
Many companies use sinter as well as pellets, although the ratios vary widely.
20 Chapter III

Sinter Pellets Lump

90 % < 25 mm 11 mm (± 2 mm) 6–25 mm

Figure 3.1 Burden materials

Lump ores are becoming increasingly scarce and generally have poorer
properties for the blast furnace burden. For this reason it is used mainly as a
cheap replacement for pellets. For high productivity low coke rate blast furnace
operation the maximum lump ore rate is in the range of 10 to 15 %. The
achievable rate depends on lump ore quality and the successful use of higher
percentages is known. The present chapter deals with ore burden quality.

3.2 Iron ore

Iron is the fourth most abundant element in the earth crust, making up
approximately 5 % of the total. However, mining of iron (as oxide) is only
economical viable where substantial concentration has occurred, and only then
can it be referred to as iron ore. More than 3 billion years ago, through the
generation of Banded Iron Formation the first concentration occurred. The
conventional concept is that in those days the banded iron layers were formed
in sea water as the result of an increase in oxygen to form insoluble iron oxides
which precipitated out, alternating with mud, which later formed cherts and
silicate layers.

Figure 3.2 Banded Iron Formation (National Museum of Mineralogy and Geology,
Dresden, source: Wikipedia)
The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 21

Subsequently, leaching out of the cherts and silicates resulted in a concentration

of the iron oxide and through further geological processes such as (de)
hydration, inversion leaching, deformation and sedimentation a wide variety of
iron ore deposits have been created all around the world. These total over 300
billion tonnes at an average Fe content of 47 %.

A minor fraction of these deposits are currently commercially mined as iron

ore with Fe contents ranging from as low as 30 % up to 64 % (pure iron oxide
as haematite contains 70 % Fe). As mentioned before, an efficient blast furnace
process requires a rich Fe burden, preferably in excess of 58 % Fe. This material
also needs to be within certain size fractions suitable for; pelletizing (indicative
<150 μm); sintering (indicative between 150 μm and 6 mm); or as lump ore
(indicative between 8 mm and 40 mm) for direct charge. Consequently, the
majority of the mined iron ore requires beneficiation and processing prior
to becoming a usable material for the blast furnace. This comprises, as a
minimum, crushing and screening but most of the time also upgrading and
sometimes processing, such as pelletizing at the mine site.

A vast amount of equipment has been developed to economically upgrade the

iron ore to a suitable product. These processes will not be described here, but
most of them are based on liberating the iron oxide from the gangue minerals
and then making use of the differences in density, magnetic properties or
surface properties between these minerals to separate them. Sometimes vast
amounts of quartz (SiO₂) need to be removed, or minor amounts of impurities
(such as phosphorus in the mineral apatite). Depending on the specific
requirements, these processes can be easily achieved, or they can be impossible.

These processes result in a wide variety of beneficiated iron ores with varying
grades and impurities to be chosen from. Silica content can vary between 0.6
% to above 10 % and phosphorus from below 0.05 % to above 1 %. Similar
variations apply for other components such as alumina, lime, magnesium,
manganese, titanium and alkalis. With tighter environmental control over
the whole process chain, tramp elements at minute levels are starting to play
a more dominant role. From sulphur, zinc and copper to mercury, arsenic and
vanadium. The importance of these elements greatly depends on the applied
process and process conditions, environmental measures and local legislation of
where the ores are to be used.

Together with the coal, coke and other plant revert materials, the blast furnace
requires a certain burden composition to achieve a balance with respect to all
the above elements.
22 Chapter III

3.3 Quality demands for the blast furnace burden

The demands for the blast furnace burden extend to the chemical composition
and the physical durability of the burden materials. The chemical composition
must be such that after the reduction and melting processes the correct iron and
slag compositions are produced, and this will be determined by the chemical
composition of all the materials charged in the furnace. The physical aspects of
the quality demands are related to the properties in both the cold and the hot
state, and both aspects are discussed in depth in this chapter.

3.3.1 Generation of fines, reducibility, softening and melting

In the shaft zone of the blast furnace the permeability of the burden is
determined by the amount of fines (see Figure 3.3). Fines may be defined as
the fraction of the material under 5 mm, since the burden components have a
general range of 5 to 25 mm. If there are too many fines, the void fraction used
for the transport of the reduction gas will reduce and will affect the bulk gas
flow through the burden (Hartig et al, 2000). There are two sources for fines,
those that are directly charged into the furnace, and those that are generated in
the shaft by the process.

0.3
Void Fraction

0.2

0.1
1 0.5 0
Vl
Size Distribution
Vl +Vs

Figure 3.3 Permeability for gas flow depends on void fraction, which depends on the
ratio of smaller and larger particles. Example of two types of spherical
particles, large (V l) and small (Vs). The x–axis gives the fraction of the
large particles: V l/(V l+Vs).

During the first reduction step from haematite to magnetite the structure of
the burden materials weakens and fines are generated. Sinter and lump ore
are especially prone to this effect, known as reduction–disintegration. The
The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 23

reduction–disintegration depends on the strength of the bonds between the

particles of ore fines in sinter and lump ore. Generally speaking, the reduction
disintegration is dependent on:
– The FeO percentage in the sinter. The more magnetite (Fe₃O₄, which
corresponds with FeO.Fe₂O₃) is present, the stronger the sinter. The reduction
disintegration takes place at low temperature caused by the change in crystal
structure from haematite to magnetite. The FeO percentage in the sinter can
be increased by cooling sinter with air that is poor in oxygen. In an operating
plant, the FeO in the sinter can be increased by adding more fuel (coke breeze)
to the sinter blend.
– The chemical composition of the gangue: basicity, Al₂O₃ and MgO content play
an important role.
– The heating and reduction rate of the sinter. The slower the progress of heating
and reduction, the higher the reduction disintegration of sinter and lump ore.
– The amount of hydrogen in the reducing gas. More hydrogen in the reducing
gas leads to lower reduction disintegration.

A major requirement for the blast furnace ore burden is to limit the quantity of
fines within the furnace to as low as possible. This can be achieved by;
– Proper screening of burden materials before charging. Screens with around 5
mm holes are normal operational practice.
– Good reduction–disintegration properties.

During charging, fines in the burden material tend to concentrate at the point
of impact on the burden surface. The level of reduction–disintegration increases
in areas where the material is heated and reduced slowly. A charged ring of
burden with a high concentration of fines will impede gas flow, experience the
slower warm–up and so result in a higher level of reduction–disintegration.

The reducibility of the burden is controlled by the contact between gas and
the burden particles as a whole, as well as the gas diffusion into the particles.
Whether or not good reduction is obtained in the blast furnace is governed
by the layer structure of the burden and the permeability of the layers, which
determines the blast furnace internal gas flow. This is discussed in depth in the
later blast furnace chapters. The reducibility of the burden components will be
of less importance if the gas flow within the furnace does not allow sufficient
contact for the reactions to take place.

As soon as burden material starts softening and melting, the permeability for
gas is greatly reduced. Therefore, the burden materials should start melting at
relatively high temperatures and the interval between softening and melting
should be as short as possible, so that they do not impede gas flow while
they are still high up the stack. Melting properties of burden materials are
determined by the slag composition. Melting of acid pellets and lump ore
starts at temperatures of 1050 to 1100 °C, while fluxed pellets and basic sinter
generally starts melting at higher temperatures. See also section 8.7 on how iron
ore melts.
24 Chapter III

3.3.2 Ore burden quality tests

Ore burden material is characterised by the following.
– Chemical composition.
– Size distribution, which is important for the permeability of ore burden layers in
the furnace.
– Metallurgical properties with respect to:
– Cold strength, which is used to characterise the degradation of ore burden
materials during transport and handling.
– Reduction–disintegration, which characterises the effect of the first reduction
step and is relevant in the stack zone of the furnace.
– Softening and melting properties, which are important for the formation of the
cohesive and melting zone in the furnace.

It is important for permeability to have a narrow size range and have

minimal fines (less than 3% below 5 mm, after screening in the stockhouse).
Measurement of the percentage of fines after screening in the stockhouse can
give an indication whether or not excessive fines are charged into the furnace.
Material from the stockyard will have varying levels of fines and moisture and
thus screening efficiency will be affected accordingly.

A short description of tests used for characterisation of materials is given below

with the objective being to understand the terminology.

Principle of tumble test:

Sample is tumbled at fixed
number of rotations. Size
distribution determined
after tumbling. Weight
percentages over or below
certain screen sizes are
used as a quality parameter.

Figure 3.4 Principle of tumbler test

The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 25

Optimum Range
What is measured? Results Sinter Pellets Reference
Mean Size Size distribution Average size, mm ISO 4701
% 6.3–16 mm > 95 %
% < 0.5 mm <2% <2%
Cold Strength Size distribution % > 6.3 mm > 70 % > 95 % ISO 3271
after tumbling % < 0.5 mm <5%
Compression daN/p > 150 ISO 4700
Strength after Size distribution % > 6.3 mm > 80 % ISO 4696
reduction after reduction % < 3.15 mm < 20 %
LTD (Low Temp. and tumbling % < 0.5 mm < 10 %
Disintegration)
Reducibility Weight decrease %/min > 0.7 % > 0.5 % ISO 4695
during reduction

Table 3.1 Characterisation of ore burden

3.3.2.1 Tests for cold strength

Cold strength is mostly characterised by a tumbler test. For this test an
amount of material is tumbled in a rotating drum for a specified time interval.
Afterwards the amount of fines are measured. The size distribution after
tumbling is determined and used as a quality indicator (Figure 3.4).
For pellets the force needed to crack the pellets, referred to as the Cold
Compression Strength, is determined. Although not representative for the blast
furnace process, it is a fast and easy test to carry out. The percentage weak
pellets give an indication on the quality of induration.

3.3.2.2 Tests for reduction–disintegration

The reduction–disintegration tests are carried out by heating a sample of the
burden to at least 500 °C and reducing the sample with gas containing CO (and
sometimes H₂). After the test the sample is cooled, tumbled and the amount of
fines is measured. The quoted result is the percentage of particles smaller than
3.15 mm.

The HOSIM test (blast furnace simulation test) is a test where the sample is
reduced to the endpoint of gas–reduction in a furnace. After the test the sample
is then tumbled. The results are the reducibility defined by the time required
to reduce the sample to the endpoint of gas reduction, and the reduction–
disintegration is represented by the percentage of fines (under 3.15 mm) after
tumbling. Although both test are relevant for the upper part of the blast furnace
process, the first is excellent to have a daily control on burden quality, but the
more advanced HOSIM tests gives a more realistic description of the effects in
the blast furnace.
26 Chapter III

3.4 Sinter

3.4.1 Description
Sinter is made in three different types: acid sinter, fluxed and super–fluxed
sinter. Fluxed sinter is the most common type. Since sinter properties vary
considerably with the blend type and chemical composition, only some
qualitative remarks can be made.

The sinter quality is defined by:

– Size distribution: sinter mean size ranges from 15–25 mm as measured after
the sinter plant. The more basic the sinter, the smaller the average size. Sinter
degrades during transport and handling so sinter has to be re–screened at the
blast furnaces to remove the generated fines. Sinter from stockyard may have
different properties from freshly produced sinter directly from the sinter plant.
If stock sinter must be used in the blast furnace, it should be charged in a
controlled fashion, and diluted with as much fresh sinter as is possible, such as
by using a dedicated bin in the stockhouse to stock sinter.
– Cold strength: normally measured with a tumble test. The more energy that is
used in the sinter process, the stronger the sinter. The cold strength influences
the sinter plant productivity because a low cold strength results in a high fines
recycle rate.
– Reduction–disintegration properties. The reduction from haematite to
magnetite generates internal stresses within a sinter particle. The stronger the
sinter, the better the resistance to these stresses. The reduction–disintegration
properties improve with denser sinter structure, i.e. when the sinter is made
with more coke breeze. As a consequence of the higher coke breeze usage the
FeO content of the sinter will increase. From experimental correlations it is well
known, that for a given sinter type, reduction–disintegration improves with
FeO content. However, reducibility properties are adversely affected.

The softening and melting of sinter in the blast furnace is determined by the
chemical composition, that is the local chemical composition. The three most
critical components are the basicity; the presence of remaining FeO; and SiO₂.
The latter two function as components that lower the melting temperature. At
temperatures of 1200 to 1250 °C sinter starts softening and melting. Very basic
parts (CaO/SiO₂ > 2) melt at higher temperatures, but will still have melting
temperatures around 1300 °C in the presence of sufficient FeO. If, due to
further reduction FeO is lowered, then melting temperatures exceeding 1500°C
can be observed. However, final melting in a blast furnace differs from melting
of “pure” burden materials, since strong interactions between different burden
components (super–fluxed sinter and acid pellets) are known to occur.
The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 27

3.4.2 Background of sinter properties

Sinter is a very heterogeneous type of material. Research of various types of
sinter in a cooled furnace has demonstrated that various phases are present
simultaneously, see Figure 3.7. The most important phases present are:
– Primary and secondary magnetite (Fe₃O₄). Secondary magnetite is formed
during sintering in the high temperature, reducing areas at the sinter strand,
those being areas in close proximity to coke.
– Primary and secondary haematite (Fe₂O₃). Secondary haematite is formed on
the sinter strand during the cooling down of the sinter in the presence of air
(oxygen).
– Calcium ferrites are structures formed from burnt lime (CaO) and iron oxides.

It is clear from Figure 3.5, that at increasing basicity an increased fraction of

calcium ferrites can be found. This has major consequences, for the sintering
process as well as for the use of sinter in the blast furnace.

100

Other

80

Calcium
Secondary Ferrite
Volume content (%)

Haematite
60

Primary
40 Haematite

Secondary
Magnetite
02

Primary
Magnetite
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
CaO+MgO
Basicity:
SiO2

Figure 3.5 Phase composition of sinter types (after Grebe et al, 1980)

Firstly, let us consider the liquidus temperatures of sinter–type materials. The

acid sinter has much higher liquidus temperature than basic sinter. This is due
to the fact that calcium ferrite type structures have liquidus temperatures as
low as 1200 °C (Figure 3.6), while the acid sinter have liquidus temperatures
28 Chapter III

well above 1400 °C. It means also, that sintering of fluxed or superfluxed sinter
can be accomplished at lower temperatures than sintering of a more acid sinter
blend. Because of this, acid sinter is generally coarser and has a higher cold
strength than basic sinter.

The reason why high basicity sinter is formed at much lower temperature than
acid sinter is illustrated in Figure 3.6, where a diagram of FeOn with CaO
is shown. FeOn means a combination of Fe and FeO and Fe₂O₃. During
sintering, coke breeze is burnt and locally, a reducing atmosphere exists, which
reduces Fe₂O₃ to FeO. On specific location, the chemical composition is such,
that melts with very low melting temperatures can be formed. In Figure 3.6 it is
shown, that at weight percentages of over 15 % CaO, melting temperatures as
low as 1070 °C can be found. If less CaO is present, the melting temperature is
much higher, i.e. 1370 °C. This is where acid sinter is made.

1 Calciowüstite + Liquid

2 Lime + Calciowüstite

Liquids preset

1400 Liquid + Fe Lime + liquid + Fe

Temperature (°C)

1200 1

1000

800
0 20 40 60 80 100

FeOn Weight percentage of CaO CaO

Figure 3.6 Formation of liquid phases in a mixture of Lime (CaO) and iron oxide
(FeOn) – FeOn represents a mixture of iron (Fe), wüstite (FeO) and
haematite (Fe2O3) (after Allen & Snow, Journal of the American Ceramic
Society volume 38 (1955) Number 8, page 264)

Next, we consider the reduction–disintegration properties of the sinter. The

driving force of low temperature reduction–disintegration of sinter is the
changeover of the crystal structure from haematite to magnetite, which causes
internal stress in the iron oxide crystal structure. So, reduction–disintegration
of sinter is related to the fraction of haematite in the sinter. As shown in Figure
3.5, there is primary and secondary haematite in the sinter. Particularly the
latter causes reduction–disintegration, since it is more easily reduced in the
upper part of the furnace than primary haematite (see Figure 3.7).
The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 29

Figure 3.7 Cracking of calcium ferrites (SFCA) due to reduction of primary (left)
and secondary (right) haematite (H) into magnetite (M). Pores appear
black. (Chaigneau, 1994)

The higher the secondary haematite percentage in the sinter, the more the sinter
is prone to reduction–disintegration effects. This can also be said in reverse,
that is, there is a strong relationship between the FeO content of the sinter and
the reduction–disintegration. The higher the FeO content, the less reduction
disintegration will take place. The FeO content of sinter can be increased by
adding more fuel to the sinter blend, which is normally done in the form of
coke breeze. However, the precise relationship between the FeO content of the
sinter and the sinter quality depends on the ore blend used and is plant–specific.
The reduction–disintegration properties depend on the type of FeO present in
the crystal structure. To illustrate this by example; a high fraction of magnetite
in the sinter blend will give sinter with a high (primary) magnetite fraction.
Moreover, in the presence of sufficient SiO₂ fayalite structures (2FeO.SiO₂)
can be formed. These structures are chemically very stable and can only be
reduced at high temperatures by direct reduction reactions (see section 8.2.1).
Alternatively, in the presence of MgO, spinel structures containing large
amounts of FeO can be formed. These spinel structures are relatively easy to
reduce. Finally, sinter that has been formed at high temperatures (acid sinter),
will contain glass–like structures where the FeO is relatively difficult to reduce.

It is possible to suppress the formation of secondary haematite by cooling the

sinter with air–gas mix with a reduced oxygen percentage (12 to 14%). This
results in a relatively high FeO content of the sinter, because less secondary
haematite is formed. This has a major benefit for the reduction–disintegration
properties of this type of sinter. In addition, the calorific value of the blast
furnace top gas increases, as less oxygen has been removed from the ore burden,
giving an economic advantage.

During the sintering process there is a major difference between the use of
CaO and MgO as fluxes. Both materials are normally added as the carbonate,
using limestone as CaCO₃ or dolomite as CaCO₃.MgCO₃. The carbonates are
decomposed on the sinter strand, requiring a large energy input. However, the
melts containing substantial amounts of CaO have low liquidus temperatures,
30 Chapter III

such as 1100 °C for mixtures of 20 to 27 % CaO and iron oxides. For the
melts containing MgO, the spinel structures mentioned above, the melting
temperatures are much higher. Therefore, it is easier to form slag–bonds in the
sinter using CaO than with MgO. And generally, making sinter with CaO
can be done at lower temperature. But sinter with high MgO is more resistant
against reduction–disintegration. MgO content can be increased by adding
olivine of serpentine to the sinter blend.

For the final result of the produced sinter, it is important to note that the sinter
blend prior to sintering is far from homogeneous. It contains various types of
material and locally there are widely varying compositions and sizes present.
Ore particles can be as large as 5 mm, coke breeze up to 3 mm and limestone
and dolomite up to 2.5 mm. All types of chemical compositions are present on
the micro–scale, where the sintering takes place. Types of materials used, size
distribution of the various materials, the blending of the sinter mix, the amount
of slag–bonds forming materials in the blend as well as the amount of fuel used
for the sintering all have specific disadvantages for good sinter quality. This
makes optimisation of sinter–quality a plant–specific technological challenge.

In the above sections the importance of reduction–disintegration of sinter is

stressed. The lower the reduction–disintegration, the poorer the reducibility
of the sinter. Needle–like structures of calcium ferrites have a relatively open
structure and are easily accessible for reduction gas in the blast furnace. In cold
conditions the sinter is strong (i.e. good tumbler test results), the degradation
during transportation is also good, but the relatively fast reduction in the
blast furnace makes the sinter very prone to reduction–disintegration. More
solid structures in the sinter have better properties in this respect. Reduction–
disintegration leads to poorer permeability of the ore layers in the furnace and
impedes proper further reduction of the iron oxides in the blast furnace.

3.5 Pellets

3.5.1 Pellet quality

With correct chemical composition and induration, pellets can easily be
transported from mine to blast furnace, can be stocked and remain generally
intact in the blast furnace. Therefore, when judging pellets the main issues are:
– Cold strength, measured as compression strength and the fines generated
through tumbling. Low figures indicates bad or lean firing.
– The reduction–disintegration properties. These properties are less of a concern
with pellets than with sinter and lump ore.
– The swelling properties. With incorrect slag composition pellets tend to have
extreme swelling properties. Since the phenomenon is well known, it normally
does not happen with commercially available pellets.
– The softening and melting. Pellets tend to melt at lower temperatures than
The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 31

fluxed sinter.
Alongside proper induration, the slag volume and composition and the bonding
forces mainly determine the quality of pellets. The three main pellet types are:
– Acid pellets
– Basic pellets
– Olivine doped pellets
Typical properties of the three types of pellets are shown in Table 3.2.

Pellet Type Compression Reducibility Swelling

Acid ++ - +/-
Basic + + +

Olivine + + +

Compression
Pellet Type Fe % SiO2 % CaO % MgO % (kg/pellet)
Acid 67 1.5–2.5 < 0.5 < 0.2 270
Basic 14 240

Olivine 64–67 2.5–3.5 < 0.5 1.3–1.8 180

Table 3.2 Overview pellet properties

Acid pellets are strong, but have moderate metallurgical properties. They have
good compression strength (over 250 kg/pellet), but relatively poor reducibility.
In addition, acid pellets are very sensitive to the CaO content with respect to
swelling. At CaO/SiO₂ > 0.25 some pellets have a strong tendency to swell,
which might jeopardize proper blast furnace operation.

Basic and fluxed pellets have good metallurgical properties for blast furnace
operation. By adding limestone to the pellet blend, the energy requirement of
the firing/induration increases because of the decarbonisation reaction. For this
reason production capacity of a pellet plant can sometimes be 10 to 15% lower
when producing basic pellets compared with acid.

Olivine pellets contain MgO in place of CaO, which is added to the blend as
olivine or serpentine. The pellets are somewhat weaker when tested for cold
compression strength.

3.5.1.1 Cold compression strength

The difference in compression strength might seem large. However, in the blast
furnace the pellets are reduced and the difference diminishes during reduction.
After the first reduction step to Fe₃O₄, the cold compression strength drops
to 45–50 kg for acid pellets and to 35–45 kg for olivine pellets. Therefore, a
little lower average compression strength has no drawback for the blast furnace
process as long as it is not caused by an increased percentage of very weak
pellets (< 60 kg/pellet). Especially that fraction is a good indicator for the
32 Chapter III

pelletizing process: the more pellets that collapse at low compression strength,
the poorer the pellets have been fired. Therefore, pellet quality can be influenced
by the production rate: the slower the grate is moving the stronger the firing can
be, so the induration period increases and the pellets become stronger.

3.5.1.2 Swelling
As mentioned above, pellets, in contrast to sinter and lump ore, can have the
tendency to swell during reduction. Generally a volume increase of over 20
%, measured according to ISO 4698, is seen as critical. The effect, however,
depends on the percentage of pellets used in the burden. Swelling occurs during
the transformation of wustite into iron, but like any transformation, this is a
balance between iron nucleation and growth of these nuclei. During swelling,
limited nucleation occurs and these nuclei grow like needles causing a volume
increase which is seen as swelling, see figures 3.8. These needles are difficult to
observe; a microscopic image of the phenomenon is shown in figure 3.9. Under
certain conditions, for example in the presence of alkalis in the blast furnace,
the swelling can become excessive and a cauliflower–structure develops.
This coincides with a low compression strength of this structure, with the
opportunity to generate fines.

Figure 3.8 Balance between iron nucleation and nuclei growth. Limited swelling
accompanied by the formation of an iron shell (left). Limited iron
nucleation followed by strong needle growth of the nuclei with as a result
excessive swelling of the pellet (right).

Figure 3.9 Whisker formation (Chaigneau, 1994)

The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 33

Main factors influencing pellet swelling are basicity and gangue content. Figure
3.10 shows how swelling depends on pellet basicity. Pellets with a basicity
between 0.2 and 0.7 are more prone to swelling.

Volume Increase

B4 Basicity:
Maximum
Tolerated CaO + MgO
SiO2 + Al2O3

0.2 0.7

B4 Basicity

Figure 3.10 Graph showing volume increase effect of pellet swelling with increasing
basicity of the pellet.

Swelling is mitigated by proper induration. In the blast furnace local process

conditions like temperature and gas composition greatly influence the
swelling behaviour. At higher reduction degrees swollen pellets shrink. As
the phenomenon of swelling is well known, it is normally under control with
commercially available pellets, but always requires a check because it could have
a severe impact on the regularity of the blast furnace process.

Each process demands its specific optimum pellet quality, but a summary of
acceptable ranges is given in Table 3.3 bearing in mind the earlier mentioned
differences between the pellet types.

What is measured? Results Acceptable Reference

Range
Mean Size Size distribution % 6.3–16 mm > 95 % ISO 4701
% < 6.3 mm <2%
Cold Strength Compression Average kg/p > 150 kg/p ISO 4700
Strength % < 60 kg/p <5%
Tumbling Strength % > 6.3 mm > 90 % ISO 3271
and Abrasion % < 0.5 mm <5%
LTB (Low Temp. Size distribution after % > 6.3 mm > 80 % ISO 4696
Breakdown) static reduction and
tumbling
Reducibility Weight decrease dur- %/min (dR/dt)40 > 0.5 %/min ISO 4695
ing reduction

Table 3.3 Characterisation of pellets

34 Chapter III

3.6 Lump ore

Lump ores are natural iron–rich materials, which are used directly from the
mines. Because the lump ores are screened out at the mines, the mines generally
produce lump ore as well as (sinter) fines. Major lump ore deposits are present in
Australia (Pilbara region), South America (Carajas and Iron Ore Quadrangle),
and South Africa (Sishen). In many other places limited amounts of lump ores
are produced. Lump ores are becoming more and more scarce.

The lump ores are cheaper than pellets. For this reason in many blast furnaces
high amounts of lump ore are being considered. The lower cost of the lump ore
compared with pellets is offset by the poorer metallurgical properties. Generally
speaking, in comparison with pellets, lump ores:
– Show some decrepitation due to evaporating moisture in the upper stack of the
furnace
– Generate more fines during transport and handling.
– Have poorer reduction degradation properties and may have poorer reducibility
properties.
– Have a lower melting temperature.
– Have greater diversity in physical properties due to being naturally occurring

Lump ore is used in an appropriate size fraction, such as 8–30 mm.

For blast furnace operation at high productivity and high coal injection levels,
lump ore is not the preferred burden material. As lump ore is a natural material,
properties can differ from type to type. Certain types of lump ores can compete
favourably with sinter, and in the case of Siderar blast furnace in Argentina,
they have operated successfully with up to 40% in the burden of a Brazilian
lump ore at high furnace productivity.
The Ore Burden: Sinter, Pellets, Lump Ore 35

3.7 Interaction of burden components

The results of burden tests on the total burden can differ greatly from results
on sinter, pellets and lump ore alone. An example is given in Figure 3.11. A
relatively poor quality of lump ore is blended with good sinter. It is shown that
the behaviour of the blend is better than expected from the arithmetic mean of
the data. Generally speaking, blending of materials dilutes the disadvantages of
a certain material. Therefore, the blast furnace burden components have to be
properly blended when charged into the furnace.

Sinter
1100
Softening Temperature (°C)

1000
50/50
Lump ore blend

900

800

0 20 40 60 80

Degree of reduction

Figure 3.11 Softening temperature of a 50/50 blend of sinter and lump ore (Example
taken from Singh et al, 1984)
This page intentionally left blank
IV Coke
4.1 Introduction: function of coke
in the blast furnace

Coke is basically a strong, non–melting material which forms lumps based on a

structure of carbonaceous material internally glued together (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 Coke

The average size of the coke particles is much larger than that of the ore burden
materials and the coke will remain in a solid state throughout the blast furnace
process.

For blast furnace ironmaking the most important functions of coke are:
– To provide the structure through which gas can ascend and be distributed
through the burden. Coke is a solid and permeable material up to very high
temperatures (> 2000 °C), which is of particular importance in the hearth
and melting and softening zone. Below the melting zone coke is the only solid
material, so the total weight of the blast furnace content is supported by the
coke structure. The coke bed has to be permeable, so that slag and iron can flow
downward to accumulate in the hearth and flow to the tap hole.
– To generate heat to melt the burden
– To generate reducing gases
– To provide the carbon for carburization of the hot metal
– To act as a filter for soot and dust.
38 Chapter IV

The permanent efforts aimed at reducing the costs of iron making have lead
to an increasing portion of substitute reduction materials for coke, which
has mainly been coal injected through the tuyeres. Nowadays, blast furnaces
with total coal injection rates in excess of 200 kg/tHM are operated with coke
consumptions of less than 300 kg/tHM. At these high coal injection rates, coke
is subjected to more rigorous conditions in the blast furnace. Dissection of
furnaces taken out of operation and probing and sampling through the tuyeres
of furnaces in operation have allowed the assessment of the extent of coke
degradation in the furnace. Coke degradation is controlled by the properties of
feed coke, i.e. mechanical stabilization, resistance to chemical attack (solution
loss, alkalis, and graphitization) and by the blast furnace operating conditions.
At high coal injection rates the amount of coke present in the furnace decreases
and the remaining coke is subjected to more vigorous mechanical and chemical
conditions: increased mechanical load as the ore/coke ratio becomes higher;
increased residence time at high temperatures; increased solution loss reaction
(CO₂, liquid oxides); and alkali attack. More severe coke degradation during its
descent from the furnace stock line into the hearth can therefore be expected at
high coal rates.
However, high coal injection rates can also affect the direct reduction reactions.
1. Coal injection increases hydrogen content and at elevated temperatures (800–
1100 °C), hydrogen is a very effective agent in gas reduction of iron oxides.
2. The unburnt soot remaining after the raceway is more reactive than coke and
used for direct reduction in preference of coke.
3. The alkali cycle is reduced as a consequence of the elimination of alkali through
the hot furnace centre.
Therefore, at high coal injection rates the attack of coke by direct reduction
reactions may also decrease. This is beneficial for coke integrity in the lower part
of the furnace.

In this chapter we will discuss coke quality parameters, test methods,

degradation processes of the coke in the blast furnace, and finally the range of
coke qualities targeted by blast furnaces who are or are aiming to operate at the
highest production levels, so are more demanding in terms of coke quality.

4.2 Coal blends for coke making

The coal selected to make coke is the most important variable that controls the
coke properties. The rank and type of coal selected impacts on coke strength
while coal chemistry largely determines coke chemistry. In general, bituminous
coals are selected for blending to make blast furnace coke of high strength with
acceptable reactivity and at competitive cost. For the conventional recovery
coking process the blend must contract sufficiently for easy removal from the
oven and pressure must be acceptable. For the heat–recovery process type these
constraints are not valid, which leads to an increase of usable coal types in this
type of process. Table 4.1 shows the typical chemical composition of coke that
may be considered to be of good quality.
Coke 39

Typical Coke Analysis % (db)

Coke Analysis Fixed Carbon 87–92
Nitrogen 1.2–1.5

Ash 8–11

Sulphur 0.6–0.8

Volatile Matter 0.2–0.5

(for well carbonised coke)

Ash Analysis Silica SiO2 52.0

Alumina Al2O3 31.0

Iron Fe 7.0

Lime CaO 2.5

Potassium K 2O 1.8

Magnesia MgO 1.2

Sodium Na2O 0.7

Phosphorous P 0.3

Manganese Mn 0.1

Zinc Zn < 0.02

Table 4.1 Coke chemistry for a typically acceptable coke quality grade

Ash directly replaces carbon. The increased amount of slag requires energy to
melt and more fluxes to provide a liquid slag. Ash, sulphur, phosphorous, alkalis
and zinc can be best controlled by careful selection of all coal, coke and burden
materials. The financial repercussions of ash, sulphur and phosphorous may
be assessed by value–in–use calculations for PCI–coal, coking coal blends and
burden materials. Alkalis and zinc should remain below certain threshold levels
(Section 6.2).

4.3 Coke quality concept

Now the question is: how to characterize coke quality; how to define and
measure the coke properties. In other words, how to establish a target for coke
manufacturing based on determined coke properties in line with the needs of
the blast furnace process. From the above discussion, the following parameters
should be considered to limit the coke degradation and maintain suitable
coke behaviour in the blast furnace, especially at high coal injection rates.
Qualitatively the coke should:
– Be made up of large, stabilized particles within a narrow size distribution band
– Have a high resistance against volume breakage
– Have a high resistance against abrasion
– Have a high resistance against chemical attack (CO2, Alkali)
– Have a high residual strength after chemical attack
– Have sufficient carburization properties (the dissolution of carbon in hot metal).
40 Chapter IV

4.3.1 Coke degradation mechanisms in the blast furnace

The basic concepts of coke degradation in the blast furnace, according to the
interconnected thermal, physical, and chemical conditions coke is subjected to
in the furnace are described in Figure 4.2.

Stockline

Stabilised Coke Fines

Shaft

Gasification and Abrasion Fines

Bosh

Unreacted Core

Alkali Enrichment Coke Weakening

Raceway Deadman

Vaporisation of alkalies
Gasification Solution loss Unreacted,
Combustion Coke Fines Reaction Alikali–Carbon strong core
Graphitisation Breakage Abrasian
Breakage Abrasion

Figure 4.2 Basic concepts of coke degradation in a blast furnace

At the stockline, the coke is generally well stabilized. The effect of gasification
on strength is controlled by the mechanisms of the heterogeneous reaction. In
general, diffusion is the limiting step and the reaction is located at the surface
of the lumps, the core remaining quite unaffected. As gasification and abrasion
proceed simultaneously, a peeling of coke particles occurs (3 – 5 mm size
reduction), leaving an exposed unreacted core and fines.

Beyond gasification, coke reacts with alkali vapours when passing through the
alkali circulating zone and the structure is penetrated by alkalis. This reaction
reduces the strength of the coke, making it more susceptible to size reduction
by breakage from mechanical action. Coke that has been already weakened
arriving in the high temperature zone of raceway loses its alkalis by gasification.
High temperature, mechanical action and graphitization bring about severe
degradation, decrease of size and formation of fines.

The coke travelling to the dead man is exposed to moderate temperatures, high
alkalis during long periods of time along with additional reactions (reduction of
slag, carburization) that mostly effect the surface of the coke lumps. Dead man
coke, sampled by core drilling corresponds more or less to the unreacted core of
the initial lumps and it is not surprising that it exhibits similar strength to the
coke that is charged at the top.
Coke 41

4.3.2 Degradation of coke during its descent in the blast furnace

To discuss the phenomena leading to coke degradation during descent in the
blast furnace we make use of Figure 4.3 representing the different zones of the
process, the relevant process conditions and the development of the coke size
under these conditions.

Figure 4.3 Development of coke size under the conditions that are present in the
blast furnace throughout the journey from the top to the bottom of the
furnace.

1. Charging zone: Due to the fall of the coke onto the stockline some breakage
and abrasion will occur during charging.
2. Granular zone: In this region the coke and ore remain as discrete particles
within their separate layers. Drying occurs and recirculating elements such as
zinc, sulphur and alkalis deposit on the burden materials as they descend to
the bottom of the granular zone. From a temperature of 900 °C coke starts to
oxidize with CO₂, continuing to do so as the temperature increases to over 1000
°C. In this zone coke degradation (mostly abrasion) occurs due to mechanical
load and mild gasification.
3. Cohesive zone: This zone starts where ore agglomerates begin to soften and
deform, creating a mass of agglomerate particles sticking together. This mass
is barely permeable and the rising gas can only pass through the remaining
coke layers. Coke gasification with CO₂ becomes significant due to increased
reaction rates at the higher temperature level (1000 – 1300 °C). The contact
between the softened or molten materials and the coke lumps becomes more
intensive, leading to increased mechanical wear on the outer surface of the
coke particle. The residence time within the cohesive zone is rather short (30
to 60 minutes) depending on productivity and softening properties of the
agglomerates.
42 Chapter IV

4. Active Coke or Dripping zone: This is a packed bed of coke through which
liquid iron and slag percolate towards the furnace hearth. The coke particles
play an active role in further reducing the remaining iron oxides and increasing
the carbon content of the iron through dissolution of carbon from the coke
into the iron. The bulk of the coke arriving in this zone (also referred to as
bosh coke) flows towards the raceway region. The remaining part will move
into the dead man. The residence time estimates varies from 4 to 12 hours. The
temperature increases gradually from 1200 to 1500 °C.
5. Raceway: Hot blast containing oxygen is introduced through the tuyeres. The
kinetic energy of the blast creates a raceway (cavity) in front of each tuyere.
Coke particles circulate at very high velocity in this semi–void region while
being gasified together with injectants such as coal, oil and natural gas. A part
of the coke and injected reductants is not burnt completely. Soot is produced
during injection of coal and natural gas. Soot and dust are transported upwards
by the gas stream. They cover coke particles and react later following solution
loss reaction. They decrease the reactivity of coke and cause an increase in
apparent viscosity of liquid phases. The temperature increases rapidly to over
2000 °C due to the exothermic oxidation of coke and injectants. Coke and
injectant fines that are generated in the raceway either completely gasify or
get blown out of the raceway into the coke bed. Coke and coal fines may
accumulate directly behind the raceway, forming an almost impermeable zone
called the bird’s nest. Observations of the raceway were made in blast furnaces
in operation by inserting an endoscope through a tuyere. These observations
showed that in this zone the coke is subjected to very severe conditions.
6. The Hearth: Since the rate of coke consumption is the highest in the ring of the
raceway, an almost stagnant zone (not directly feeding the raceway) develops
in the furnace centre. This zone is called the dead–man, and is thought to
have a conical shape and a relatively dense skin structure. Molten iron and
slag accumulates throughout the structure before being tapped through the
tapholes. Tracer experiments in a German furnace gave values in the range of
10 to 14 days, but in literature also residence times of 60 days are mentioned for
the deadman coke.

The above mentioned processes are summarized in Table 4.2.

Coke 43

Blast Furnace Function of Coke Coke Degradation Coke Requirements

Zone Mechanism
Charging Zone – Impact Stress – Size Distribution
– Abrasion – Resistance to
Breakage
– Abrasion Resistance
Granular Zone – Gas permeability – Alkali Deposition – Size & Stability
– Mechanical Stress – Mechanical Strength
– Abrasion – Abrasion Resistance
Cohesive Zone – Burden support – Gasification by CO2 – Size Ditribution
– Gas permeability – Abrasion – Low Reactivity to CO2
– Iron and slag – High Strength after
drainage Abrasion
Active Zone – Burden support – Gasification by CO2 – Size Ditribution
– Gas permeability – Abrasion – Low Reactivity to CO2
– Iron and slag – Alkali attack and – Abrasion Resistance
drainage ash reactions
Raceway Zone – Generation of CO – Combustion – Strength against
– Thermal Shock Thermal Shock and
– Graphitisation Mechanical Stress
– Impact Stress and – Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion
Hearth Zone – Burden support – Graphitisation – Size Distribution
– Iron and slag – Dissolution into – Mechanical Strength
drainage hot metal – Abrasion Resistance
– Carburisation of iron – Mechanical Stress – Carbon Solution

Table 4.2 Coke functions, degradation mechamisms and requirements

4.4 Coke size distribution

The shape of the coke particles and the size distribution of the particles are the
decisive factors for the permeability of the coke bed, for ascending gas as well
as for the descending liquids. Research has shown that the harmonic mean size
(HMS), of the coke mass gives the highest correlation with the resistance to
flow of gas passing through the coke bed. HMS is the size of uniform size balls
with the same total surface as the original coke size mixture.

The lowest flow resistance is obtained when large coke is being used of high
uniformity. Fines in particular have a strong decreasing effect on the harmonic
mean size and so on the bulk resistance of the coke. Although excellent blast
furnace operations are reported with screening at 24 mm (square) there are also
plants where screening even at 40 mm is preferred.

Once the coke bulk has been classified by screening and crushing (see also
Figure 4.4) the aim is to have a resulting coke with a high mechanical strength
under the blast furnace conditions. This is to prevent an excessive formation of
coke fines during its descent in the blast furnace.
44 Chapter IV

4.5 Mechanical strength of coke

4.5.1 Coke particle formation and stabilization

During carbonization in a coke oven, fissures in the coke are generated due to
stresses that arise from the differential contraction rates in adjacent layers of
coke, which are at different temperatures. Typically they are longitudinal, that
is perpendicular to the oven walls. Additionally, many transverse fissures are
formed during pushing. These fissures determine the size distribution of the
product coke by breakage along their lines during subsequent handling. But not
all the fissures lead to breakage at this early stage, and a number of them remain
in the coke particles. The initial coke distribution is a function of the coal blend
and the coking conditions. A significant number of internal fissures remain
present and cause further degradation under mechanical loads during transport
and charging of the blast furnace. This process of coke degradation is called
stabilization. Stabilization lowers the mean size of the coke, but the resulting
particles are less prone to further breakage. For blast furnace performance it
is not only important to have large, stabilized and narrow size distribution
coke charged into the furnace, but it is even more important to have the
same qualities present during its descent through the furnace as well. With
mechanical handling coke particles will degrade due to breakage and abrasion.
Breakage is the degradation of coke by impact due to fissures already present
in the coke. Abrasion is the degradation of the surface by relatively low impact
processes (rolling and sliding). It is one of the main mechanical processes for
decreasing the coke size below the stock line, next to breakage in the race way
area. Abrasion causes the formation of fines which may hamper blast furnace
permeability.

60
Belt coke average size (as HMS, mm)

50 Wharf
CP screen

BF screen
40

BF top

30

Tuyere
20
0 50 100 150 200

Cumulative drop (m)

Figure 4.4 Development of Harmonic Mean Size after mechanical handling in the
form of drops between conveyors and screens.
Coke 45

The resistance to abrasion will deteriorate in the blast furnace, due to reactions
such as graphitization, gasification and carburization of the iron. Graphitization
results in a more crystalline form of carbon in the coke that is more brittle. In
Figure 4.4 the typical development of the HMS of coke from the coke wharf to
the tuyeres is presented.

In the presented transport route the coke is screened at 35 mm (square) at the

coke plant and at 24 mm (square) at the blast furnace. The increase in HMS of
the sample after screening is due to the removal of the undersized coke from the
batch.

4.5.2 Coke strength simulation tests

Although it is known that coke degrades more rapidly at high temperatures,
there is no test in practical use that is performed at high temperatures. Not
only because of the complexity and high costs but also that it has been proven
that coke with poor low–temperature strength also exhibit poor strength at
high temperatures. Therefore most tests in practical use are done at ambient
temperature.

Coke strength is traditionally measured by empirical tumble indices. During

mechanical handling coke size degradation takes place by two independent
processes, those being breakage into smaller lumps along fissures and cracks
still present in the lumps, and abrasion at the coke surface resulting in small
particles (< 10 mm). So it is common to measure a ‘strength’ index related to
degradation by volume breakage, for example, I₄₀, M₄₀; and an ‘abrasion’ index,
for example, I₁₀, M₁₀, D¹⁵⁰₁₅. These empirical indices cannot be directly related
to fundamental coke properties.

Figure 4.5 Schematic showing the motion of coke in a tumble test

Figure 4.5 shows a schematic representation of particle motion in a tumble

drum. As a lifter sweeps around, it picks up a portion of the coke. Some of the
coke rolls off the lifter before it reaches the horizontal plane. The coke that is
not picked up slips and rolls against the bottom of the drum (a). The coke that
46 Chapter IV

is lifted past the horizontal is dropped over a fairly narrow angular range as the
lifter approaches the vertical plane (b). This coke impacts with the bottom of
the drum. Tests have shown that there is a relationship between the degradation
of coke in a drum test and that after a number of drops. This makes it possible
to translate the effect on coke size after a number of drops, in metres, into a
number of rotations in a drum, and vice versa.

4.6 Overview of international quality parameters

Table 4.3 gives an overview of typical coke quality parameters and their
generally accepted levels for a ‘good’ coke quality. Although not complete, the
values given in the table represent coke qualities that have assisted in securing
excellent blast furnace results over a long period.
We have to stress, however, that blast furnace operation is very much influenced
by coke variability: the gas flow in the furnace can only be held consistent if
the layer build–up is consistant and if day to day consistency of the coke is very
good. There are, however, no international standards or criteria for day to day
consistency.

What is Results Accept. Best Reference

measured? Range
Mean Size Size Distribution AMS mm 40–60
HMS mm 35–50
% < 40 mm < 25
% < 10 mm <2%
Cold Strength Size Distribution I40 % > 40 mm > 45 60 Irsid Test
after Tumbling I10 % < 10 mm < 20 16
M40 % > 40 mm > 80 87 Micum Test
M10 % < 10 mm <7 5.5
Micum Slope 0.55–0.7 0.55 Ext. Micum
Fissure Free Size 35–55
DI15015 84–85 85 JIS Test
Stability at Wharf % > 1” > 58 ASTM Test
Stab. at Stockh. % > 1” > 60
Hardness % > ¼” > 70
Strength after CSR % > 9.52 mm > 58 70 Nippon
reaction Steel Test
Reactivity CRI % weight loss < 29 22 Nippon
Steel Test

Table 4.3 Acceptability range for coke quality parameters

(for tests, see Annex IV)
V Injection of Coal, Oil and Gas
The energy inputs and outputs of the blast furnace are schematically shown
in Figure 5.1. The major sources for energy in the furnace are the coke and
injectants (coal, gas, oil) and the sensible heat of the hot blast. The major part
of the energy is used to drive the change from iron oxides to iron and the other
chemical reactions. The remaining energy leaves the furnace as top gas, as
sensible heat of iron and slag and as heat losses.

Figure 5.1 Schematic overview of energy inputs and outputs

Use of injection of pulverised (or granular) coal, oil and natural gas can lower
the coke rate and thus the cost of hot metal. The auxiliary reductants are mainly
coal, oil and natural gas, but tar and other materials can also be used. The
precise financial balance depends very much on local situations. Up until the
early 1980’s oil injection was a commonly used, however the changes in relative
prices between coal and oil has resulted in coal becoming the more widely
used injectant. Note, that the preparation of coal for injection involves a rather
48 Chapter 5

high investment cost. The pay–back of the investment heavily depends on the
hot metal production level. Most major sites have been equipped with coal
injection. When coke is scarce and expensive, the feasibility of coal injection for
smaller sites increases. The most important arguments for the injection of coal
(or natural gas) in a blast furnace are;
– Cost savings by lower coke rates. Cost of coke is substantially higher than that
of coal, moreover, the use of an injectant allows higher blast temperatures to be
used, which also leads to a lower coke rate.
– Increased productivity from using oxygen enriched blast.
– Decrease of the CO₂ foot print, i.e. the amount of CO₂ produced per ton of
steel.

The reason for the apparent versatility of the blast furnace in consuming
all types of carbon containing materials is that at the tuyeres the flame
temperatures are so high that all injected materials are converted to simple
molecules like H₂ and CO and behind the raceway the furnace “does not know”
what type of injectant was used.

Coal injection was applied in the blast furnace Amanda of ARMCO (Ashland,
Kentucky) in the 1960’s. In the early days of coal injection, injection levels of
60–100 kg coal per tonne hot metal were common. Presently, the industrial
standard is to reach a coke rate of 300 kg/t with injection levels of 200 kg coal
per tonne hot metal (McMaster 2008, Carpenter 2006).

5.1 Coal injection: equipment

The basic design for coal injection installations requires the following functions
to be carried out (Figure 5.2):
– Grinding of the coal. Coal has to be ground to very small sizes. Most
commonly used is pulverised coal: around 60 % of the coal is under 75 μm.
Granular coal is somewhat coarser with sizes up to 1 to 2 mm.
– Drying of the coal. Coal contains substantial amounts of moisture, 8 % to more
than 10 %. Since injection of moisture increases the reductant rate, moisture
should be removed as much as possible.
– Transportation of the coal through the pipelines. If the coal is too small the
pneumatic transport will be hampered. It may result in formation of minor
scabs on the walls and also lead to coal leakage from the transportation pipes.
– Injection of the pulverised coal: Coal has to be injected in equal amounts
through all the tuyeres. Particularly at low coke rate and high productivity the
circumferential symmetry of the injection should be maintained.

There are various suppliers available for pulverised coal injection (PCI)
installations, which undertake the functions mentioned above in a specific way.
The reliability of the equipment is of utmost importance, since a blast furnace
has to be stopped within one hour, if the coal injection stops.
Injection of Coal, Oil and Gas 49

5.2 Coal specification for PCI

5.2.1 Coke replacement

Coal types are discriminated according to their volatile matter content. The
volatile matter is determined by weighing coal before and after heating for
three minutes at 900 °C. Coals that have between 6 and 12 % volatile mater
are classified as low volatile, those between 12 and 30 % are mid volatile and
anything over 30 % are high volatile. All types of coal have successfully been
used. The most important property of the injection coal is the replacement ratio
(RR) of coke. The composition and moisture content of the coals determine
the amount of coke replaced by a certain type of coal. The replacement ratio
of coal can be calculated with a mass and heat balance of the furnace. The
chemical composition of the coal (i.e. carbon percentage, hydrogen percentage,
ash content), the remaining moisture and the heat required to crack the coal
chemical structure (especially the C–H bonds) have to be taken into account.
A simplified formula for the replacement ratio (compared with coke with 87.5%
carbon) is:

RR= 2x C%(coal)+ 2.5x H%(coal)– 2x moisture%(coal)–86 + 0.9x ash%(coal)

50 Chapter 5

This formula shows, that the coke replacement depends on carbon and
hydrogen content of the coal. Any remaining moisture in the coal consumes
energy introduced with the coal. The positive factor of the ash content comes
from a correction for heat balance effects.

5.2.2 Coal quality

– Composition: high sulphur and high phosphorous are likely to increase costs
in the steel plant. These elements should be evaluated prior to the purchase of a
certain type of coal. Young coals (high oxygen content) are known to be more
susceptible to self–heating and ignition in atmospheres containing oxygen.
This is also an important factor that must be considered with regard to the
limitations of the ground coal handling system.
– Volatile matter: high volatile coals are easily gasified in the raceway, but have
lower replacement ratio in the process.
– Hardness. The hardness of the coal, characterised by the Hardgrove
Grindability Index (HGI) must correspond to the specifications of the grinding
equipment. The resulting size of the ground coal is also strongly dependent
on this parameter and must correspond to the limits of the coal handling and
injection system.
– Moisture content. The moisture content of the raw coal as well as the surface
moisture in the ground coal must be considered. Surface moisture in the
ground coal will lead to sticking and handling problems.

Potential injection coals can be evaluated on the basis of “value in use”, where
all effects on cost are taken into account. It is often possible to use blends of two
or three types of injection coals, so that unfavourable properties can be diluted.

5.2.3 Coal blending

Most companies use coal blends for injection. Blending allows for (financial)
optimization of coal purchases. E.g. a company with a grinding mill for hard
coals can use a considerable percentage of softer coals by blending it into hard
coals. In doing so, an optimized value can be obtained. Blending dilutes the
disadvantages coal types. Every material has disadvantages like high moisture
content, sulphur of phosphorous level, a relatively poor replacement ratio and
so on. The blending can be done rather crudely. Depositing materials in the
raw coal bin by alternating truck loads will be sufficient. Proper control of coal
logistics and analysis of coal blend have to be put in place.
Injection of Coal, Oil and Gas 51

5.3 Coal injection in the tuyeres

Coals are injected via lances into the tuyeres, and gasified and ignited in
the raceway. The coal is in the raceway area only for a very short time (5
milliseconds) and so the characteristics of the gasification reaction are very
important for the effectiveness of a PCI system. Coal gasification consists of
several steps as outlined in Figure 5.3. Firstly the coal is heated and the moisture
evaporates. Gasification of the volatile components then occurs after further
heating. The volatile components are gasified and ignited, which causes an
increase in the temperature. All of these steps occur sequentially with some
overlap.

Ignition/Oxidation of Char

Ignition/Oxidation of Volatiles
Temperature

Gasification of Volatiles

Heating of Coal

Evaporation of Moisture

Time (msec)

Figure 5.3 Coal gasification

The effects of lance design, extra oxygen and coal type on the coal combustion
have been analysed. Originally, the coal lances were straight stainless steel
lances that were positioned at or close to the tuyere/blowpipe interface as
indicated in Figure 5.4 on the next page. Occasionally, very fine carbon formed
from gas is detected as it leaves the furnace through the top. To avoid this
problem, especially at high injection rates, companies have installed different
types of injection systems at the tuyeres, such as:
– Coaxial lances with oxygen flow and coal flow.
– Specially designed lances with a special tip to get more turbulence at the lance
tip.
– Use of two lances per tuyere.
– Bent lance tips, positioned more inwards in the tuyere.

When using PCI, deposits of coal ash are occasionally found at the lance tip or
within the tuyere. The deposits can be removed by periodic purging of the lance
by switching off the coal while maintaining air (or nitrogen) flow.
52 Chapter 5

Figure 5.4 Coal injection in the tuyeres and lance positioning

The speed of gasification increases as;

– The volatility of the coals increases.
– The size of the coal particles decreases.
– The blast and coal are mixed better. Moreover, as the injection level increases,
the amount of coal that leaves the raceway without being gasified increases.

The gasification of coal also depends on the percentage of volatile matter

(VM). If low volatile coals are used, a relatively high percentage of the coal is
not gasified in the raceway and is transported with the gas to the active coke
zone. This “char” will normally be used in the process, but might affect the gas
distribution. The high volatile (HV, over 30 % VM) and ultra high volatile coal
(over 40 % VM) produces a large quantity of gas in the raceway and a small
quantity of char. If the gas combustion is not complete, soot can be formed.
Blending a variety of injection coals, especially high volatile and low volatile
coals, gives the advantage of being able to control these effects.
It has been found that the coke at the border between raceway and dead man
contains more coke fines when working at (high) injection rates. This region has
been termed the “bird’s nest”.

5.4 Process control with pulverised coal injection

5.4.1 Oxygen and PCI

At high Pulverised Coal Injection operation about 40% of the reductant is
injected via the tuyeres. Therefore, it is important to control the amount of coal
per tonne hot metal as accurate as the coke rate is controlled. The feed tanks
of the coal injection are weighed continuously and the flow rate of the coal is
controlled. It can be done with nitrogen pressure in the feed tanks or a screw or
rotating valve dosing system. In order to calculate a proper flow rate of coal (in
kg/minute) the hot metal production has to be known. There are several ways to
calculate the production. The production rate can be derived from the amount
of material charged into the furnace. Short–term corrections can be made
by calculating the oxygen consumption per tonne hot metal from the blast
Injection of Coal, Oil and Gas 53

parameters in a stable period and then calculating the actual production from
blast data. Systematic errors and/or the requirement for extra coal can be put in
the control model.

The heat requirement of the lower furnace is a special topic when using PCI.
Coal is not only used for producing the reduction gases, but use of coal has an
effect on the heat balance in the lower furnace. The heat of the bosh gas has to
be sufficient to melt the burden: define the “melting heat” as the heat needed
to melt the burden. The heat requirement of the burden is determined by the
“pre–reduction degree”, or how much oxygen has still to be removed from the
burden when melting. The removal of this oxygen requires a lot of energy. The
“melting capacity” of the gas is defined as the heat available with the bosh gas at
a temperature over 1500 °C. The melting capacity of the gas depends on:
– The quantity of tuyere gas available per tonne hot metal. Especially when using
high volatile coal there is a high amount of H₂ in the bosh gas.
– The flame temperature in the raceway.

The flame temperature in itself is determined by coal rate, coal type, blast
temperature, blast moisture and oxygen enrichment.

From the above, the oxygen percentage in the blast can be used to balance the
heat requirements of the upper and lower furnace. The balance is dependent on
the local situation. It depends e.g. on burden and coke quality and coal type
used. For the balance there are some technical and technological limitations,
which are presented as an example in Figure 5.5. For higher injection rates more
oxygen is required. The limitations are given by:
– Too low top gas temperature. If top gas temperature becomes too low it takes
too long for the burden to dry and the effective height of the blast furnace
shortens.
– Too high flame temperature. If flame temperature becomes too high burden
descent can become erratic.
– Too low flame temperature. Low flame temperature will hamper coal
gasification and melting of the ore burden.
– Technical limitations to the allowed or available oxygen enrichment.
54 Chapter 5

Figure 5.5 Limiting factors affecting raceway conditions with Pulverised Coal
Injection (RAFT = Raceway Adiabatic Flame Temperature)

The higher the oxygen injection, the higher the productivity of the furnace as
shown in Figure 5.5, which is an example based on mass and heat balance of an
operating furnace. The highest productivity is reached, with an oxygen level,
so that the top gas temperature is at the minimum. The minimum is the level,
where all all water of coke, burden and process is eliminated from the furnace,
i.e. slightly above 100 °C. From a technological perspective it can be said,
that the heat balances over the lower part of the furnace (i.e. from 900 °C to
tuyere level) and over the upper part of the furnace (i.e. from top to the 900 °C
isotherm) are in balance (Section 8.5).

5.4.2 Effect of additional PCI

The effect of the use of extra coal injection for recovery of a cooling furnace is
twofold. By putting extra coal on the furnace the production rate decreases.
Simultaneously, the flame temperature drops. If the chilling furnace has
insufficient melting capacity of the gas, extra PCI may worsen the situation. In
such a situation the efficiency of the process must be improved, i.e. by a lower
production rate and lower blast volume.

This is illustrated in Table 5.1. The table shows that additional coal injection
slows down the production rate, because the coke burning rate decreases. It is
a typical example; the precise effect depends on coke rate and coal type used.
A furnace recovers from a cold condition by increasing PCI, because it slows
down the production rate. If, however, the flame temperature is relatively low,
the effect of the drop in flame temperature can be as large as the effect of the
decreased production rate.
Injection of Coal, Oil and Gas 55

Starting Situation
Operating parameters
Coke rate 300 kg/tHM
Coal injection rate 200 kg/tHM
Replacement ratio 0.85 kg coal/kg coke
Flame temperature 2,200 °C
Coke and coal consumption in normal operation (as kg standard coke/tHM)
Coke introduced 300
Coal introduced 170
Total coke and coal 470
Consumption to be subtracted to determine burn rates:
Carbon in hot metal –50
Direct reduction –120
Result: total burn rate in front of tuyeres 300
of which coal 170
and thus coke 130
Changed situation if an additional 10 kg/tHM of coal is injected
Total burn rate remains 300
of which coal 178.5
and thus coke 121.5
Production rate decrease (fully determined by coke burn rate) 6.5%
Flame temperature drop 32 °C
Gas melting capacity drop (heat > 1,500 °C) 4.6%

Table 5.1 Effect of additional coal injection

56 Chapter 5

5.5 Circumferential symmetry of injection

If every tuyere in a blast furnace is considered as part of the blast furnace pie
and is responsible for the process to the stock–line, it is self evident that the
circumferential symmetry of the process has to be assured to reach good, high
performance. The various systems in use for PCI have different methods to
ensure a good distribution.

Normal Operation One Tuyere Off

Figure 5.6 Schematic presentation of the effect of no PCI on one tuyere

PCI at all tuyeres PCI at one tuyere off

‡ Coke Rate 300 kg/t ‡ Burns at tuyeres 3300 kg/hr
‡ PCI 200 (RR =0,85) 170 kg/t ‡ All coke
‡ Total 470 kg/t
‡ Production 10 t/hr Production increase at this tuyere without
‡ Carbon balance: PCI of 3300/1300 = 254%!
‡ Coke 3000 kg/hr
‡ Coal (in SRE) 1700 kg/h
‡ Total 4700 kg/hr
‡ Iron carbonization -500 kg/hr
‡ To direct reduction -1200 kg/hr
‡ Burns at tuyeres 3000 kg/hr
‡ Of which Coal 1700 kg/hr
‡ and Coke 1300 kg/hr

Table 5.2 Coke use per tuyere in case a single tuyere receives no coal

However, the largest deviation from circumferential symmetry occurs when

no coal is injected in a particular tuyere. If no injection is applied, the
production rate at that particular tuyere increases substantially. Consequently,
the blast furnace operator has to take care that all tuyeres are injecting coal.
In particular, where two tuyeres next to each other are not injecting coal the
equalising effects between the tuyeres are challenged. Especially if the furnace
is operating at high PCI rates, the situation is rather serious and short–term
actions have to be taken to correct the situation.

This point can be illustrated from Table 5.2 and Figure 5.6. The calculation
shows, how much coke is consumed in front of a tuyere, where coal injection
is switched off. At high injection rates, the production can increase twofold
or more. Note, that this is an example, since in such a situation neighbouring
Injection of Coal, Oil and Gas 57

tuyeres will tend to contribute. Moreover, the calculation does not take the
oxygen of the coal itself into account.

With coal injection it is very important that the tuyeres are clear and open,
allowing the coal plume to flow into the raceway. If the tuyere should become
blocked, or a blockage in front of the tuyere appears, then the coal must be
removed immediately. If it is not, then the coal will be forced backwards into
the tuyere stock and can ignite further up in the connection with the bustle
pipe (see Figure 5.7). This can cause serious damage or even explosions. The
phenomenon has also been observed with natural gas injection.

Figure 5.7 Coal backing up into the bustle pipe, caused by scab in front of tuyere,
leading to possibility for explosion

To prevent this, a light sensor may be fitted in front of the peep-sight to detect a
blockage at the end of the tuyere, or the delta-P can be measured over the tuyere
to detect when flow has stopped, indicating that a blockage is present. The coal
to that tuyere is automatically switched off and restarted only once an operator
has checked to see if the tuyere can accept coal.

5.6 Gas and oil injectants

As stated earlier, all types of (hydrocarbon) injectants can be used. A

comparison of replacement ratio, typical chemical composition and effect on
flame temperature are given in Table 5.3.

Injectant Replacement C% H% Moisture % Effect flame

Ratio* temp. °C**
Coal 0.80 78–82 4–5.5 1–4 –32
Oil 1.17 87 11 2 –37

Natural gas 1.05 57 19 — –45

Tar 1.0 87 6 2 –25

Table 5.3 Typical data for injectants

*) Compared with standard coke with 87.5% C
**) When injecting additional 10 kg/tHM
This page intentionally left blank
VI Burden Calculation and
Mass Balances
6.1 Introduction

The blast furnace is charged with pellets, sinter, lump ore and coke, while
additional reductant might be injected through the tuyeres. The steel plant
requires a defined quality of hot metal and the slag has to be chosen for
optimum properties with respect to fluidity, desulphurising capacity and so
on. Therefore, the blast furnace operator has to make calculations to select the
blast furnace burden. The present chapter first indicates the conditions for a
burden calculation, which is then illustrated with a practical example. Later in
the chapter the burden calculation is taken a step further to indicate the process
results. To this end a simple one–stage mass balance is used.

6.2 Burden calculation: starting points

Starting points for burden calculations are the hot metal and slag quality.
– Hot metal quality: silicon, typically 0.4 to 0.5 %. Low sulphur (under 0.03 %)
and defined phosphorous levels, which vary due to variation in burden materials
from 0.05 to 0.13 %.
– Slag quality: generally the lower the slag volume the better. Typically the four
major constituents of slag contain about 96% of the total volume: Al₂O₃ (8 to
20 %), MgO (6 to 12 %), SiO₂ (28 to 38 %) and CaO (34 to 42 %). For slag
design, see Chapter X.

The burden has to fulfil requirements with respect to:

– Maximum phosphorous input, since phosphorous leaves the furnace with the
iron.
– Maximum alkali input, especially potassium, which can attack the refractory
and affect the process. Typically a limit of 1 to 1.5 kg/tHM is used.
– Maximum zinc input: zinc can condense in the furnace and can, similar to
alkali, lead to a Zn cycle.

Typically, limits for zinc input are 100–150 g/tHM. With high central gas
temperatures, zinc and alkali are partly removed with the top gas.
60 Chapter VI

6.3 An example of a burden calculation

The burden calculation uses the chemical composition (on a dry basis) and
the weights of the various materials in a charge as input parameters. A charge
consists of a layer of burden material and coke with its auxiliary reductants
as injected through the tuyeres. In order to be able to do the calculation,
the yield losses when charging the furnace are also taken into account. The
present example is restricted to the components required to calculate the
slag composition. The four main components (SiO₂, CaO, MgO and Al₂O₃)
represent 96 % of the total slag volume. The other 4 % consist of MnO, S, K₂O,
P and many more. The losses from the materials charged through the top into
the blast furnace are taken into account and are normally based on samples
of material from the dust catcher and scrubber systems. The calculation is
presented in Table 6.1.

Chemical analysis
Ash Moisture Loss Fe SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3
Coke 9% 5% 2% 0.5 % 5.0 % 3.0 %
Coal 6% 1% 0% 0.2 % 3.0 % 1.5 %
Sinter 1% 1% 58 % 4.0 % 8.3 % 1.4 % 0.6 %
Pellets 1% 1% 65 % 3.5 % 1.3 % 0.8 %
Lump 3% 1% 61 % 4.0 % 1.0 %
Burden
Weight After losses Input
kg/tHM kg/tHM kg/tHM
Coke 300 294 1 15 0 0 9
Coal 200 200 0 6 0 0 3
Sinter 1000 990 575 40 82 14 6

Pellets 500 495 322 17 0 6 4

Lump 80 79 49 3 0 0 1
Total 1580 947 81 82 20 23
Correction: HM silicon 0.46 % = 10 kg SiO2 /tHM –10
Slag 71 82 20 23
Results
Slag volume *) kg/tHM 204 SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3
Slag composition 35 % 40 % 10 % 11 %
Basicity CaO/SiO2 1.16
(CaO+MgO)/SiO2 1.45
(CaO+MgO)/(SiO2+Al2O3) 1.10
Al2O3 11%
Ore/coke ratio 5.3
*) (SiO2+CaO+MgO+Al2O3)/0.96

Table 6.1 Simplified Burden Calculation

Burden Calculation and Mass Balances 61

6.4 Process calculations: a simplified mass balance

The calculations of the previous section can be extended to include the blast
into the furnace. In doing so the output of the furnace can be calculated:
not only the hot metal and slag composition and the reductant rate, but the
composition of the top gas as well. Calculation of the top gas composition
is done in a stepwise manner in which the balances of the gas components
(nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, CO and CO₂) and iron and carbon are made.
For the calculations the example of a 10,000 t/d furnace is used. The stepwise
approach indicated in Table 6.2.

Input Nitrogen Hydrogen (H2) Iron (Fe) Carbon (C) Oxygen (O2)
Element (N2)
Main Blast Injection Burden Coke Burden (52 %)
Sources Blast Moisture Injection Blast (48 %)
What to N2 % in H % in %Fe ore %C in coke % O2 wind
know blast reductant burden and injectant
Main Top gas Top gas Hot metal Top gas (85%) Top Gas
output via Hot metal – CO (32 %)
(15%) – CO2 (64 %)
– H2O (4 %)
What to N2 % in top H2 efficiency Hot metal Rates per
know gas composition tonne
Composition
Calculation Top gas H2 % in top Oxygen Top gas
of volume gas input via composition
burden CO & CO2 %

Table 6.2 Stepwise approach for a simplified mass balance

The approach is as follows:

Step 1: nitrogen balance: from the nitrogen balance the total top gas volume is
estimated.
Step 2: hydrogen balance: from hydrogen input and a hydrogen utilisation of 40 % the
top gas hydrogen can be estimated. In practice hydrogen utilisations of 38–42
% are found.
Step 3: iron and carbon balance: the carbon use per tonne is known from the hot metal
chemical composition and coke and coal use per tonne.
Step 4: oxygen balance: the burden composition gives the amount of oxygen per tonne
hot metal input at the top, while also the amount of oxygen with the blast is
also known per tonne hot metal.
Step 5: the balances can be combined to calculate the top gas composition.

The calculations are based on basic chemical calculations. Starting points for
the calculations are, that:
– 12 kilogram of carbon is a defined number of carbon atoms defined as a
kilomole.
– Every mole of an element or compound has a certain weight defined by the
periodic table of the elements.
62 Chapter VI

– 1 kmole of a gas at atmospheric pressure and 0 °C occupies 22.4 m³ STP. The

properties of the various components used for the calculations are indicated
in Table 6.3. The present balance is used for educational purposes figures and
compositions are rounded numbers. Effects of moisture in pulverised coal and
the argon in the blast are neglected.

Atomic weight Molecular

weight
N2 28 kg/kmole CO 28 kg/kmole
O2 32 kg/kmole CO2 44 kg/kmole
H2 2 kg/kmole
C 12 kg/kmole
Fe 55.6 kg/kmole
Si 28 kg/kmole

Table 6.3 Properties of materials used for mass balance calculations

1 kmol gas (N₂, O₂, etc) = 22.4 m³ STP
1 tonne hot metal contains 945 kg Fe= 945/55.6 = 17.0 kmole

6.4.1 The nitrogen balance

Nitrogen does not react in the blast furnace, so it escapes unchanged via the top
gas. At steady state the input equals the output and the top gas volume can be
calculated with a nitrogen balance given the nitrogen input and the nitrogen
concentration in the top gas. The input data for a simplified model are shown in
Table 6.4 and the top gas volume is calculated in Table 6.5.

Blast volume 6500 m³ STP/min

Oxygen in 25.6 %
blast
Moisture 10 g/m³ STP
Production 6.9 tHM/min
Coal rate 200 kg/tHM
Coke rate 300 kg/tHM
Top gas
CO2 22 vol%
CO 25 vol%
H2 4.5 vol%
N2 48.5 vol%
C% H% O% N%
Coal 78 4.5 7 1.4
Coke 87 0.2 1.4

Table 6.4 Mass Balance Input

Burden Calculation and Mass Balances 63

Nitrogen from blast (1–0.256)x 6500 4836 m³ STP/min

From coal 16 m³ STP/min
From coke 23 m³ STP/min
Total input 4875 m³ STP/min
Top gas nitrogen 48.5 %
Top gas volume 10051 m³ STP/min

Table 6.5 The nitrogen balance and top gas volume

6.4.2 The hydrogen balance

Moisture in the blast and coal reacts to H₂ and CO according to:
H₂O + C Ⱥ H₂ + CO

All hydrogen in coal and coke are converted to H₂ in the furnace. In the
furnace the H₂ is reacting to H₂O; part of the hydrogen is utilised again.
Since the top gas volume is known as well as the hydrogen input, the top gas
hydrogen can be calculated, if a utilisation of 40% is assumed. There are ways to
check the hydrogen utilisation, but it is beyond the scope of the present exercise.
Table 6.6 shows the input and calculates the top gas hydrogen.

kg/min in m³ STP/min
From blast 7
From coal 56
From coke 4
Total input 67 750
Utilisation 40%, so 450
60% left in top gas
Top gas volume 10051
H2 in top gas 4.5%

Table 6.6 The Hydrogen Balance

6.4.3 The iron and carbon balance

Hot metal contains 945 kg Fe per tonne. The balance is taken by carbon (45
kg), silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorous, titanium and so on. The precise
Fe content of hot metal depends slightly on the thermal state of the furnace and
quality of the input. For the balance we use 945 kg Fe/tHM. This amounts to
17 kmole (947/55.6).

The carbon balance is more complicated. The carbon is consumed in front of

the tuyeres and is used during the direct reduction reaction (see section 8.2.1).
The carbon leaves the furnace via the top gas and with the iron. The carbon
64 Chapter VI

balance is made per tonne hot metal. Table 6.7 shows the results. The carbon via
the top gas is also given in katom per tonne hot metal.

Carbon used In kg/tHM katom/tHM

Carbon from coke 261
Carbon from coal 156
Total carbon use 417
Carbon via iron –45
Carbon via top gas 372 31.0

Table 6.7 The Carbon Balance

6.4.4 The oxygen balance

The oxygen balance is even more complicated. Oxygen is brought into the
furnace with the blast, with PCI, with moisture and with the burden. It leaves
the furnace through the top. The burden with sinter contains not only Fe₂O₃
(O/Fe ratio 1.5) but some Fe₃O₄ (O/Fe ratio 1.33) as well. The O/Fe ratio used
here is 1.46, which means that for every atom of Fe there is 1.46 atom O. On
a weight basis it means, that for every tonne hot metal, which contains 945 kg
Fe atoms there is 397 kg O–atoms. All this oxygen leaves the furnace with the
topgas. The balance is given in Table 6.8.

m³ STP /tHM kg O/tHM Katom O/tHM

Input From blast 240 342
From blast moisture 8
From coal 14
From burden 397
Total input 762
Output via top gas 762 47.6

Table 6.8 The Oxygen Balance

6.4.5 Calculation of top gas analysis

The oxygen in the top gas is leaving the furnace in three different states:
– Bound to the hydrogen. The quantity is known since we know how much
hydrogen has been converted to process water.
– Bound to carbon as CO.
– Bound to carbon as CO₂.

From the combination of the carbon balance and the oxygen balance we can
now derive the top gas utilisation, as shown in Table 6.9.
Burden Calculation and Mass Balances 65

Katom/
tHM
Carbon via top gas 31.0
Oxygen via top gas 47.6
Oxygen bound to hydrogen –1.9
Oxygen as CO and CO2 45.7

Oxygen balance: CO+ 2x CO2 45.7

Carbon balance: CO + CO2 31.0
CO2 14.7
CO 16.3
Utilisation CO2 /(CO+CO2) 47.3 %
CO2 volume 2283 m³ STP/min CO2 % 22.7 %
CO 2539 m³ STP/min CO % 25.3 %

Table 6.9 Calculation of Top Gas Utilisation

The calculations can be used to check the correct input data. More advanced
models are available, which take into account the heat balance of the chemical
reactions as well (e.g. Rist and Meysson, 1966). The models are useful for
analysis, especially questions like “are we producing efficiently?” and for
prediction: what if PCI is increased? hot blast temperature is increased? and so
on.
This page intentionally left blank
VII The Process: Burden Descent
and Gas Flow Control
7.1 Burden descent: where is voidage created?

The burden descends in the blast furnace from top to bottom. Figure 7.1 shows
a representation of the burden descent. It is indicated with stock rods, which
are resting on the burden surface and descending with the burden between
charging. The burden surface descends with a speed of 8 to 15 cm/minute.

Zero level burden

1.30 m (Stockline)

1. Stock rod descending 1

2. Stock rod on burden 2 4
3. Stock rod descending
with burden 3
4. Stock rod ascending
for charging

6m

Figure 7.1 Stable burden descent

In order for the burden to descend, voidage has to be created somewhere in the
furnace. Where is this voidage created? See Figure 7.2.
– Firstly, coke is gasified in front of the tuyeres, thus creating voidage at the
tuyeres.
– Secondly, the hot gas ascends up the furnace and melts the burden material. So
the burden volume is disappearing into the melting zone.
– Thirdly, the dripping hot metal consumes carbon. It is used for carburisation of
the iron as well as for the direct reduction reactions, so below the melting zone
coke is consumed.
68 Chapter VII

It is possible to indicate how much each of the three mechanisms contributes

to the amount of voidage created. A large part of the voidage is created at the
melting zone. In a typical blast furnace on high PCI, only about 25 % of the
voidage is created at the tuyeres.

Figure 7.2 Creation of voidage in the Blast Furnace

This implies that the mass flow of material is strengthened towards the ring
where the highest amount of ore is charged into the furnace. Therefore, at low
coke rates high ore concentration at any ring in the circumference, especially in
the wall area, has to be avoided.

Sometimes the burden descent of a blast furnace is erratic. What is the

mechanism? Ore burden materials and coke flow rather easily through bins,
as can be observed in the stock house of a blast furnace. Hence in the area in
the blast furnace where the material is solid, the ore burden and coke flow with
similar ease to the void areas. Nevertheless, blast furnace operators are familiar
with poorly descending burden (Figure 7.3). Also the phenomenon of “hanging”
(no burden descent) and “slips” (fast uncontrolled burden descent) are familiar.
From the analysis in this section it follows that, in general, the cause of poor
burden descent must be found in the configuration of the melting zone. The
materials “glue” together and can form internal bridges within the furnace.
Poor burden descent arises at the cohesive zone. The effect of a slip is, that the
layer structure within the furnace is disrupted and the permeability for gas flow
deteriorates (See Figure 7.22).
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 69

Zero level burden

Hanging

Slow Descent

Slipping

6m

Figure 7.3 Irregular Burden Descent

7.2 Burden descent: system of vertical forces

The burden descends because the downward forces of the burden exceed
counteracting upward forces. The most important downward force is the weight
of the burden; the most important upward force is the pressure difference
between the blast and top pressure.

Tuyeres 25
Shaft Melting Active
35 %
zone zone coke
30 % 25 % zone
10 %

20
Height above tuyeres (m)

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Pressure difference (bar)

Figure 7.4 Pressure difference over burden

70 Chapter VII

The cohesive zone is the area with the highest resistance to gas flow, which leads
to a high pressure drop over the cohesive zone and to a large upward force. If
this pressure difference becomes too high, the burden descent can be disturbed.
This happens for instance, when a blast furnace is driven to its limits and
exceeds the maximal allowable pressure difference over the burden.

In addition to the upward force arising from the blast pressure, friction forces
from the descending burden are impacting on the burden descent: the coke
and burden are pushed outward over a cone of stationary or slowly descending
central coke. Also the wall area exerts friction forces on the burden. In case of
irregular burden descent these friction forces can become rather large.

The coke submerged in hot metal also exerts a high upward force on the burden
due to buoyancy forces (Figure 7.5) as long as the coke is free to move upwards
and does not adhere to the bottom.

Figure 7.5 System of vertical forces in the Blast Furnace

Figure 7.6 Upward force from hearth liquids

In operational practice poor burden descent is often an indicator of a poor blast

furnace process. The reasons can be:
– The upward force is too high. Experienced operators are well aware of the
maximum pressure difference over the burden that allows smooth operation.
If the maximum allowable pressure difference is exceeded (generally 1.6 to 1.9
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 71

bar), the process is pushed beyond its capabilities: burden descent will become
erratic, resulting in frequent hanging, slipping and chills.
– A hot furnace is also known to have poorer burden descent. This is because
the downward force decreases due to the smaller weight of burden above the
melting zone. In addition, there is more slag hold–up above the tuyeres, because
of the longer distance and the (primary) slag properties.
– Burden descent can be very sensitive to casthouse operation because of the
above–mentioned upward force on the submerged coke.

7.3 Gas flow in the blast furnace

The gas generated at the tuyeres and at the melting zone has a short residence
time of 6 to 12 seconds in the blast furnace (section 2.3). During this time
the gas cools down from the flame temperature to the top gas temperature,
from 2000 to 2200 °C down to 100 to 150 °C, while simultaneously removing
oxygen from the burden. The vertical distance between tuyeres and stockline is
around 22 metres. Therefore, the gas velocity in the furnace is rather limited, in
a vertical direction about 2 to 5 m/s, which is comparable with a wind speed of
2 to 3 Beaufort, during the 6 to 12 seconds the chemical reactions take place.

How is the gas distributed through the furnace? First consider the difference
between the coke layers and the ore burden. It is important to note, as indicated
in Figure 7.7, that ore burden has a higher resistance to gas flow than coke.
The resistance profile of the furnace determines how gas flows through the
furnace. The gas flow along the wall can be derived from heat losses or hot face
temperatures as the gas will heat the wall as it travels past.

ΔP

Voidage Diameter

Ore Burden low small 80%

Coke high large

20%

Figure 7.7 Pressure loss through coke and ore

72 Chapter VII

As soon as the ore burden starts to soften and melt at about 1100 °C, the burden
layer collapses and becomes (nearly) impermeable for gas. If this happens in the
centre of the furnace the central gas flow is blocked.

7.3.1 Observation of heat fluxes through the wall

Figure 7.8 shows the temperature at the hot face of the furnace wall. It has been
observed in many furnaces, that suddenly the temperature rises in minutes
and decreases over the next hour(s). This is often attributed to the loss of scabs
(build– up) on the furnace wall. The explanation put forward in this book is
that such temperature excursions are due to “short–circuiting” of gas along the
furnace wall. These “short–circuits” are due to the formation of gaps along the
furnace wall creating a very permeable area where the hot gasses preferentially
flow. This can be observed from pressure tap measurements (see Figure 7.25).
Low CO₂ concentrations in the wall area during such excursions have been
observed and confirm the “short–circuiting”. The basic premise of the present
book is that heat losses through the wall are caused by gas flow along the walls.
The gas is more or less directly coming from the raceway.

Figure 7.8 Temperatures at hot face

Why does the gas flow along the wall? Gas takes the route with the lowest
resistance and therefore highest permeability. The resistance for gas flow in a
filled blast furnace is located in the ore layers, since its initial permeability is 4
to 5 times less than the permeability of coke layers. There are two areas in the
blast furnace that have the highest permeability: the centre of the furnace if it
contains sufficient coke and the wall area. At the wall there can be gaps between
the descending burden and the wall. In the centre of the furnace there can be
a high percentage of coke and there can be relatively coarse ore burden due to
segregation.
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 73

7.3.2 Two basic types of cohesive zone

The efficiency of the furnace is determined by the amount of energy used in
the process. Heat losses to the wall and excess top gas temperature are examples
of energy losses. The top gas contains CO and H₂, which have a high calorific
value, therefore, the efficiency of a blast furnace is determined by the progress of
the chemical reactions and thus by the gas flow through the furnace.

Two basic types of gas distribution can be discriminated: the “central working”
furnace and the “wall working” furnace. The typology has been developed to
explain differences in operation. Intermediate patterns can also be observed.
In the “central working” furnace the gas flow is directed towards the centre.
In this case the centre of the furnace contains only coke and coarse burden
materials and is the most permeable area in the furnace. The cohesive zone takes
on an “inverted V shape”. In a “wall working” furnace the gas flow through the
centre is impeded, e.g. by softening and melting burden material. The gas flows
preferentially through the zone with highest permeability, i.e. the wall zone. In
this case the cohesive zone takes the form of “W shape“. Figure 7.9 shows both
types.

Both types of gas flow can be used to operate a blast furnace, but have their
own drawbacks. The gas flow control is achieved with burden distribution.

Figure 7.9 Two types of melting zone, Central working (left) and Wall–working
(right)

7.3.3 Central working furnace

The two types of gas flow through a furnace can be achieved with the help of
the burden distribution. In Figure 7.10 the ore to coke ratio over the radius is
shown for a central working furnace. In the figure the centre of the furnace
only contains coke. Therefore, in the centre of the furnace no melting zone can
74 Chapter VII

be formed and the gas is distributed via the coke slits from the centre towards
outside radius of the furnace. The melting zone gets an inverted V or even U
shape. The central coke column not only serves as a gas distributor, but as well
as a type of pressure valve: it functions to stabilise the blast pressure.

Figure 7.10 Central working furnace

It depends on the type of burden distribution equipment how the coke can be
brought to the centre. With a bell–less top the most inward positions of the
chute can be used. With a double bell system the coke has to be brought to the
centre by coke push (see below) and by choosing the right ore layer thickness
in order to prevent the flooding of the centre with ore burden materials. In
the central working furnace there is a relatively small amount of hot gas at the
furnace wall: hence low heat losses. As a result the melting of the burden in the
wall area takes place close to the tuyeres, so the root of the melting zone is low
in the furnace. The risk of this type of process is that ore burden is not melted
completely before it passes the tuyeres. This could lead to the observation of
lumps of softened ore burden through the tuyere peep sites. This can lead from
slight chilling of the furnace (by increased direct reduction) and irregular hot
metal quality to severe chills and damage of the tuyeres.

Limiting the risk of a low melting zone root can be done with gas and burden
distribution. Operational measures include the following.
– Maintain a sufficiently high coke percentage at the wall. Using nut coke in the
wall area can also do this. Note that an ore layer of 55 cm at the throat needs
about 20 to 22 cm of coke for the carburisation and direct reduction. So if the
coke percentage at the wall is under 27 %, a continuous ore burden column can
be made at the wall.
– Ensure a minimum gas flow along the wall in bosh and belly, which can be
monitored from heat loss measurements and/or temperature readings. If the gas
flow along the wall becomes too small, it can be increased by means of burden
distribution (more coke to the wall or less central gas flow) or by increasing the
gas volume per tonne hot metal (by decreasing oxygen).
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 75

– Control the central gas flow. Note that the gas flow through the centre leaves
the furnace at a high percentage of CO and H₂ and a high temperature. The
energy content of the central gas is not efficiently used in the process and thus
the central gas flow should be kept within limits.

The central working furnace can give very good, stable process results with
respect to productivity, hot metal quality and reductant rate. It also leads to
long campaign length for the furnace above the tuyeres. However, the process is
very sensitive for deviations in burden materials, especially the size distribution.

7.3.4 Wall working furnace

In Figure 7.11 the wall working furnace is presented. Melting ore burden blocks
the centre of the furnace and the gas flow is directed towards the wall area.

Figure 7.11 Wall working furnace

The gas flow causes high heat losses in the area of the furnace where a gap can
be formed between burden and wall i.e. in lower and middle shaft. The melting
zone gets a W shape or even the shape of a disk. In this situation the root of the
melting zone is higher above the tuyeres, which makes the process less sensitive
for inconsistencies. The process can be rather efficient. However, due to the high
heat losses the wear of the refractory in the shaft is much more pronounced
than with the central working furnace. The gas passing along the wall can
also cool down rapidly and in doing so loses its reduction capabilities. As a
consequence, the fuel rate is high. Moreover the fluctuations in the pressure
difference over the burden are more pronounced, which leads to limitations in
productivity.
76 Chapter VII

7.3.5 Gas distribution to ore layers

Gas produced in the raceway is distributed through the coke layers in the
cohesive zone and into the granular coke and ore layers, as shown in Figure 7.12.

Figure 7.12 Schematic presentation of gas distribution through coke layers

The ore burden layers account initially for about 80% of the resistance to gas
flow. The reduction process takes place within these layers.

What determines the contact between the gas and the ore burden layers? The
most important factor determining the permeability to gas flow is the voidage
between particles. As mentioned in Section 3.2.1 the voidage between particles
depends heavily on the ratio of coarse to small particles. The wider the size
distribution, the lower the voidage. Moreover, the finer the materials, the lower
the permeability (Chapter 3). In practical operations the permeability of ore
burden material is determined by the amount of fines (percentage under 5 mm).
Fines are very unevenly distributed over the radius of the furnace, as is indicated
by the typical example shown in Figure 7.13. Fines are concentrated along the
wall especially under the point of impact of the new charge with the stockline.

If a bell–less top is used, the points of impact can be distributed over the radius.
With a double bell charging system the fines are concentrated in a narrow ring
at the burden surface and close to the wall. When the burden is descending
the coarser materials in the burden follow the wall, while the fines fill the holes
between the larger particles and do not follow the wall to the same extent as
the coarser particles. Therefore, upon descent the fines in the burden tend to
concentrate even more.
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 77

Moreover, sinter and lump ore can break down during the first reduction
step (from haematite to magnetite). This effect is stronger if the material is
heated more slowly. Thus, the slower the material is heated the more fines are
generated, the extra fines impede the gas flow even more, giving rise to even
slower heating.

100%

Pellets over 10 mm

Sinter over 10 mm 50%

Sinter and pellets

under 10 mm

Sinter and pellets

under 5 mm
0
Wall Centre

Figure 7.13 Distribution of fines over the radius, double bell simulation
(after Geerdes et al, 1991)

In summary:
– The permeability of the ore burden is determined by the amount of fines.
– The amount of fines is determined by:
– The screening efficiency in the stock house.
– The physical degradation during transport and charging.
– The method of burden distribution used.
– The low temperature degradation properties of the burden. These effects
cause a ring of burden material with poor permeability in many operating
blast furnaces. This ring of material in particular is often difficult to reduce
and to melt down. Sometimes, unmolten ore burden materials are visible
as scabs through the peepsites of the tuyeres. The unmolten material can
cause operational upsets like chilling the furnace or tuyere failures. It is a
misunderstanding to think that these scabs consist of accretions fallen from the
wall.
78 Chapter VII

7.4 Fluidisation and channelling

The average gas speed above the burden is rather low, as shown in chapter 2.
However, in a central working furnace the gas speed might locally reach 10 m/s
or more especially in the centre of the furnace. This is well above theoretical
gas velocities at which fluidisation can be observed (Figure 7.14). Coke fluidises
much more easily than ore burden because of its lower density. It is believed
that the ore burden secures the coke particles in the centre, nevertheless, if local
gas speeds become too high, fluidisation may occur. Fluidisation of coke has
been observed in operating furnaces as well as models of the furnace. It leads to
a relatively open structure of coke. It has even been observed, that pellets on the
border of fluidising coke “dive” into the coke layers.

15 Conditions in
furnace center
Gas velocity (m/s)

10

Coke
5
4
3
10 20 30 40 60
Particle diameter (mm)

Figure 7.14 Gas velocities for fluidisation of ore burden and coke. Shaded areas
indicate critical empty tube gas velocities for fluidization at 800 °C and
300 °C and 1 atmosphere pressure (after Biswas, 1981)

If the fluidisation stretches itself into the lower furnace, channelling can take
place, short–circuiting the lower furnace (or even the raceway) with the top.
These are open channels without coke or ore burden in it. Channelling is
observed as a consequence of operational problems, for example, delayed casts
can create higher local gas speeds, resulting in channelling. During channelling,
the gas might escape through the top with a high temperature and low
utilisation, since the gas was not in good contact with the burden. The limit of
channeling is where the furnace slips.

7.5 Burden distribution

Burden distribution can be used to control the blast furnace gas flow. The
conceptual framework of the use of burden distribution is rather complex, since
the burden distribution is the consequence of the interaction of properties of the
burden materials with the charging equipment.
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 79

7.5.1 Properties of burden materials

Figure 7.15 shows the angles of repose of the various materials used in a blast
furnace. Coke has the steepest angle of repose, pellets have the lowest angle of
repose and sinter is in between. Hence, in a pellet charged furnace the pellets
have the tendency to slide to the centre.

Figure 7.15 Segregation and angles of repose

Fines concentrate at the point of impact and the coarse particles flow
“downhill” while the fine particles remain below the point of impact. This
mechanism, known as segregation, is also illustrated in Figure 7.15.

Figure 7.16 Coke push effect with gas flow

When burden is charged into the furnace, it pushes the coarse coke particles on
the top of the coke layer towards the centre. This effect is called coke push and
is more pronounced when the furnace is on blast. It is illustrated in Figure 7.16.
80 Chapter VII

7.5.2 The charging equipment

The type of charging mechanism used has a major impact on the distribution of
fines. Figure 7.17 shows the bell–less top and double bell systems.

Figure 7.17 Bell–less top charging (left) and double bell charging (right): comparison
of the segregation of fines on the stockline

In a bell–less top the possibility exists to distribute the fines in the burden over
various points of impact by moving the chute to different vertical positions.
Coke can be brought to the centre by programming of the charging cycle.
With a double bell charging system there is less possibility to vary the points of
impact and fines will be concentrated in narrower rings. Modern blast furnaces
with a double bell charging system are mostly equipped with movable armour,
which give certain flexibility with respect to distribution of fines and the ore
to coke ratio over the diameter, especially at the wall. However, its flexibility is
inferior to the more versatile bell–less system.

7.5.3 Mixed layer formation

The model of thinking applied up to here takes clean ore and coke layers as
a starting point. However, since the average diameter of coke 45 to 55 mm is
much larger than that of pellets and sinter (typically under 15 mm and 25 mm
respectively) burden components dumped on a coke layer will tend to form a
mixed layer (Figure 7.18). This mixed layer will have permeability comparable
with the ore layer. The formation of mixed layers is also produced by protruding
or recessed parts of the wall: such as protruding cooling plates, missing armour
plates, wear of refractory at the throat and so on. The mixed layers have a
different permeability and can give rise to circumferential process asymmetry.
The smoother the burden descent, the less mixed layer formation.
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 81

7.5.4 Gas flow control

The optimised gas flow in a modern furnace operated at high productivity and
low coke rate has the inverted V shaped melting zone type as described above.
However, the gas escaping through the (ore–free) centre leaves the furnace with
a low utilisation. This loss of “unused” gas should be minimised. If the central
gas flow is too high, there is a too small gas flow along the wall for heating,
reduction and melting of the ore burden and consequently the root of the
melting zone comes close to the tuyeres. In this situation the reductant rate will
be high and there is a high chance of tuyere damage. It is essential that the gas
flowing though the centre distributes itself through the coke slits to the burden
layers. Therefore, the permeability of the central coke column must not be too
high, which means that the diameter of the central coke column must not be
too wide. If the central gas flow is (partially) blocked, a relatively large part
of the gas escapes along the wall and is cooled down low in the furnace. The
reduction reactions slow down. In this situation the central gas flow is small and
heat losses are high. Experience has shown that wall gas flow and central gas
flow are strongly correlated. Gas flow control is based on keeping the balance
between central and wall gas flow to the optimum.

The difficulty with gas flow control is that the gas flow is influenced by many
changes in burden components, process parameters and installation specifics.
The variation in the percentage of fines near (but not at) the wall and the low
temperature breakdown properties of the burden are especially important.

The gas flow is closely monitored in order to control it. Instrumentation of the
blast furnace is described in the next section.
The most important parameters to define the actual gas flow are:
– Burden descent (stock rods, pressure taps) and pressure difference over the
burden.
– The wall heat losses or temperatures at the wall.
– Stockline gas composition and temperature profile.

Gas flow control and optimised burden distribution are found on a trial and
error basis, and have to be developed for every furnace individually. Some
general remarks can be made:
1. Gas flow is mainly controlled with coke to ore ratio over the radius. An example
of a calculated burden distribution is shown in Figure 7.18. Note the ore free
centre.
2. The centre of the furnace should be permeable and no or minimal (coarse) ore
burden should be present.
3. The coke percentage at the wall should not be too low. Note that 70 cm of ore
in the throat consumes about 25 cm of coke for direct reduction (Figure 7.19). A
continuous vertical column of burden material should be prevented. A coke slit
should be maintained between all ore layers.
4. Concentration of fines near the wall should be prevented.
82 Chapter VII

5. The central gas flow is governed by the amount of ore burden reaching the
centre. The amount of ore reaching the centre heavily depends on the ore layer
thickness and the amount of coarse coke lumps. To reach a stable gas flow the
central gas flow should be kept as consistent as possible and consequently, when
changes in ore to coke ratio are required, the ore layer should be kept constant.
This is especially important when changing the coal injection level as this will
result in big changes in the relative layer thickness of ore and coke are made.
6. The coke layer thickness at the throat is typically in the range of 45 to 55 cm.
In our example in section 2.3 it is 46 cm. The diameter of the belly is 1.4 to
1.5 times bigger than the diameter of the throat. Hence, the surface more than
doubles during burden descent and the layer thickness is reduced to less than
half the layer thickness at the throat. Japanese rules of thumb indicate that the
layer thickness at the belly should not be less than 18 cm. The authors have,
however, successfully worked with a layer thickness of coke at the belly of 14
cm.

In the practical situation small changes in ore layer thickness can strongly
influence central gas flow. This effect is generally stronger in double bell–
movable armour furnaces than in furnaces equipped with a bell–less top.
An example for a burden distribution control scheme is given in Table 7.1.
If more central gas flow is required then Coke 3 replaces schedule Coke 2.
Replacing Coke 2 with Coke 1 reduces central gas flow.

Position 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Wall Centre
Coke 1 More central – 14 % 14 % 16 % 14 % 14 % 14 % – 6% – 8%
Coke 2 Normal – 14 % 14 % 14 % 14 % 14 % 14 % – 6% – 10 %
Coke 3 Less central – 14 % 14 % 12 % 14 % 14 % 14 % – 6% – 12 %
Ore 16 % 16 % 16 % 12 % 10 % 10 % 10 % 10 %

Table 7.1 Bell–less top charging schedules with varying central gas flow

Similar schedules can be developed for a double bell charging system. With
a double bell system, the use of ore layer thickness can also be applied: a
smaller ore layer gives higher central gas flow and vice versa. If a major change
in coke rate is required, the operator has the choice either to change the ore
base and keep the coke base constant, or change the coke base and keep the
ore base constant. Both philosophies have been successfully applied. The
operators keeping the coke base constant point to the essential role of coke for
maintaining blast furnace permeability, especially the coke slits. The authors,
however, favour a system in which the ore base is kept constant. The gas
distribution is governed by the resistance pattern of the ore burden layers and—
as mentioned above—by the amount of ore burden that reaches the centre.
The latter can change substantially when changing the ore base, especially in
furnaces equipped with double bell charging. An illustrative example showing
a change in coke rate from 350 kg/tHM to 300 kg/ tHM is presented in
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 83

Table 7.2. The ore base is kept constant and coke base reduced. Experience has
shown that relatively minor changes in burden distribution will be required
for optimisation of the central gas flow (i.e. coke distribution). The burden
distribution adjustments can be applied as a second step if required.

Old situation New Situation

Coke rate 350 kg/tHM 300 kg/tHM
Coke base 21 t 18 t
Ore base 90 t 90 t
Burden distribution No change until required

Table 7.2 Coke base change when PCI rate changes

Burden distribution changes should be based on an analysis of the causes

of changes in gas flow. The gas flow can also be influenced by operational
problems, such as a low burden level or problems in the casthouse. In this
situation adjustments in the burden distribution will not give satisfactory
results. Heat losses through the wall are very closely related to burden descent.
Therefore, the cause of high heat loads should be analysed together with other
process data. An example of a burden distribution is shown in Figure 7.18.

Figure 7.18 Example of burden distribution with an ore–free centre and ore burden
penetration in coke layer
84 Chapter VII

7.6 Coke layer

7.6.1 Coke percentage at wall

For optimum gas distribution through the coke layers it is desirable to have an
ore–free chimney in the centre of the furnace. This then requires a large amount
of coke to be present in the centre, but still some coke is required at the wall.
This section deals with the question as to how much coke is required at the wall
area.

A 70 cm thick ore layer at the wall contains about 1.5 tonnes ore burden in one
square metre and therefore about 1 tonne hot metal. As shown in Section 8.2.1
dealing with direct reduction, the ore burden consumes coke, at a rate of about
120 kg coke per tonne. This amount of coke corresponds to a layer thickness of
24 cm, so the minimum coke amount at the wall is about 25% of the volume,
(see Figure 7.19), assuming that the coke is used only for direct reduction.

– 1 tHM is produced with 1.55 t ore

– 1.55 t ore is contained in a
1x1x0.70 m³ volume
0.70 m
– The 120 kg coke, required for
direct reduction is contained
in 1x1x0.24 m³

0.24 m Corresponds to 0.70 m

and 0.24 m thick layers

Figure 7.19 Coke required for direct reduction

If the amount of coke at the wall is less than the 25% of the volume, then the
ore layers will make contact between the sequential layers upon melting. This
will form a column of unmolten ore that descends down the furnace to the
tuyeres. This will lead to disturbed gas flow, but also there is a risk that this
unmolten material will rest on the tuyere nose and will cause the tuyere to tip.
This can be observed through the peepsight where an oval opening of the tuyere
is seen rather than a round one, and has been caused by the tuyere being drawn
into the furnace by the heavy weight of the scab bearing down upon it.
The coke requirement at the wall can also be met using nut coke blended into
the ore layer. In this case the nut coke is preferentially available for direct
reduction and will preserve the larger, metallurgical coke in the layer structure.
Note also, that the direct reduction percentage in the wall area can be higher
than estimated above, so that even more coke is required at the wall.
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 85

7.6.2 Coke layer thickness

When reaching higher and higher coal injection levels the question arises as to
whether a minimum coke layer thickness exists, and what would it be?
The gas ascending the furnace from the tuyeres to the top is distributed through
the coke layers, so the coke layers must be present at all elevation of the furnace
for this to continue. As the layers are made up of discrete coke particles, the
theoretical minimum coke layer thickness translates into a number of coke
particles. To produce a path for the gas it is considered that the minimum
number of coke particles that should be present in the height of one layer is
three. The minimum thickness is therefore three times the mean size of coke
in the belly of the blast furnace. Taking for example an average coke size of 50
mm, it would therefore be reasonable to expect that the minimum coke layer
thickness in the belly is 15 cm. As the effective ratio of the surfaces of belly to
throat is generally around two, the minimum coke layer thickness at the throat
should have a minimum of about 30 cm.
In operational practice of furnaces operating at high coal injection levels, the
coke layer at the top have reached values as low as 32 cm.

7.7 Ore layer thickness

What is the effect of ore layer thickness on the process? If thicker ore layers are
charged, less ore layers are present in the operating furnace and less coke slits
are available to distribute the gas. But, especially in conveyor belt fed furnaces,
the thicker the ore layer, the more charging capacity is available.
For reduction and melting two effects must be considered, those being the
reduction in the granular zone of the furnace and the melting of the layers in
the cohesive zone.

7.7.1 Reduction in granular zone

The reduction capacity of gas entering thicker ore layers will be depleted faster
and as a consequence, the reduction of ore burden in the granular zone will be
poorer.

7.7.2 Softening and Melting

As soon as an ore layer starts to soften and melt, it becomes impermeable for
gas. This means that ore layers are heated up at the contact surface between
the coke and ore layer. The thicker the ore layer, the longer it will take to melt
down completely. Moreover, the melting of the ore layer slows down because
there is more oxygen in the ore layer, because of lower rate of pre–reduction (see
preceding section). So the thicker the ore layer, the more difficult the melting of
the layer (Figure 7.20, next page).
86 Chapter VII

100% Thickness 150% Thickness

Area in thicker layer heats slowly

and has poor gas reduction

Gas reduction does not reach

normal Fe/O ratio under 0.5

When these layers melt down,

these parts are observable as
scabs through the tuyere peep
sites

Figure 7.20 Melting of thin and thick ore layers compared

7.7.3 Optimizing ore and coke layer thickness

So, the blast furnace operator wants good permeable coke layers (i.e. thick
layers) and good melting ore layers i.e. thin layers. As is often the case in BF
operation the best operational results can only be reached with a compromise
between these two factors. Generally speaking, from operational observation,
the ore layers should not exceed 70–80 cm in the throat of a blast furnace and
coke layers should not be smaller than 32 cm. The operational optimization
depends on local situations.

Experience has shown that:

– Permeable ore layers can be maintained even when the layers have become quite
thick, provided a permeable ore burden is used. For pellet burdens this would
require screening of the pellets, and for sinter it would have to be sized to a
relatively large diameter (more than 5 mm).
– The minimum coke layer thickness experienced was 14 cm metallurgical coke in
the belly.

Conveyor belt fed furnaces tend to work with thicker ore layers. This is caused
by the fact that in a conveyor fed furnace the charging capacity increases with
increasing layer thickness. In skip–fed furnaces the optimum charging capacity
is reached with full skips of coke. In the past the volume of coke was normally
the determining factor, so furnaces tended to work with full skips of coke. At
high coal injection rates the skip weight is normally the determining factor and
thus furnaces now work with full skips of ore.

Another aspect of the optimization of the coke layer thickness has to do with
the gas permeability of the coke layer. The coarser the coke is screened in the
blast furnace stockhouse, the more permeable the layer is. There are, however,
two drawbacks of the coarse (35 mm or more) screening of coke.
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 87

Consequence 1: The coarser the coke is screened, the more nut coke or small
coke is produced. The nut coke is added to the ore burden layer, increasing the
thickness of the ore burden layer and decreasing the size of the coke layer.
Consequence 2: The coarser the coke is screened at the stockhouse, the thicker
the formation of a mixed layer at the coke–burden interface.

Optimization depends on local conditions, but high productivity has been

reached with a coke screen size in the stockhouse of 25 mm and a nut coke
quantity of 25 kg/tHM.

7.7.4 “Ideal” burden distribution

The ideal burden distribution for high productivity and high PCI rates is—
according to the authors—as follows:
– An ore free centre,
– Nearly horizontal layers of coke and ore burden,
– Some nut coke in the ore burden in the wall area and
– Coarse coke in the centre.

Figure 7.21 “Ideal” burden distribution

Ore free centre

The ore free centre allows the gas to distribute itself through the coke layers
from inside to outside. We can consider the coke layers as layers with equal
pressure. If the total internal pressure difference in 1.2 bar, the pressure
difference over each of the 40 ore layers is about 0.03 bar. The ore free centre
typically has a diameter of 1.5 to 2 metres. The ore free centre can be made in
a furnace with a bell–less top by discharging 10–15 % of the coke on a very
inward chute position. In furnace with a double bell top, formation of an ore
free centre is more difficult.
88 Chapter VII

Nearly horizontal layers

Using nearly horizontal layers of coke and ore minimizes the effect of natural
deviations of parameters important for the formation of the layers. E.g. wet
pellets have a different angle of repose as compared with dry pellets. This does
not affect burden distribution if nearly horizontal layers are used. Care should
be taken, that there is no inversion of the profile, i.e. a pile in the centre of the
furnace. This can be monitored with e.g. a profilemeter.

Nut coke
The gas in the wall area is cooled by the heat losses to the wall. Moreover, in the
wall area a relatively large percentage of fine ore burden materials is located and
reduction disintegration is strongest (because of slower heating and reduction).
For these reactions, reduction and melting of the ore burden in the wall area is
most difficult. Nut coke in the wall area helps to reduce reduction gas and heat
requirements in the wall area. The nut coke has a lower heat capacity than the
ore burden. Moreover, when the ore burden in the wall area starts melting, the
nut coke is immediately available for direct reduction. In doing so, it prevents
the direct reduction attack on the metallurgical coke.

Coarse coke in the centre

The coke charged in the centre is the least attacked by the solution loss reaction
and has the smallest chance to be burnt in front of the tuyeres. Therefore, it is
thought that the coke charged in the centre finally constitutes the coke in the
hearth. Good permeability of the hearth helps to improve casting and prevents
preferential flow of iron along the wall, thus increasing hearth campaign length.

7.8 Erratic burden descent and gas flow

The burden descent sometimes becomes erratic (see Figure 7.3). What happens
in the furnace if it hangs and slips? The mechanism of hanging and slipping is
illustrated in Figures 7.22–7.24.

First, the furnace hangs because at the cohesive zone, bridges of melting ore
burden are formed. “Bridge formation” is the phenomenon, that solid materials
can be piled upon each other and will not collapse into a hole: see Figure 7.22
for a bridge formed from marbles.

Figure 7.22 Bridge formation illustrated by a theoretical experiment with marbles

The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 89

Second, while the furnace hangs, the process continues: coke is consumed and
ore burden melts. Therefore, voidage arises in or below the cohesive zone.

Third, when this voidage becomes too big, it collapses: the furnace slips. (Figure
7.23). The layer structure is completely disrupted and the gas flow through these
layers is impeded. This leads again to areas in the furnace where ore burden is
insufficiently reduced and remains in a cohesive state for too long. These areas
will form the bridges for next time the furnace hangs. The problem can only be
solved by re–establishing the layer structure within the furnace, which means,
that the complete content of the furnace has to be refreshed: the furnace has to
be operated on reduced blast volume for five to ten hours.

Figure 7.23 Creation of voidage below bridges and consequential collapse

Figure 7.24 Disrupted layer structure and impeded gas flow

After a slip, the layer structure in the furnace is disrupted and therefore the
contact between gas and burden is impeded (Figure 7.24). As a consequence, the
gas reduction reactions slow down and extra direct reduction will take place in
the hearth: the furnace will chill. The process will recover when a normal layer
structure is restored. It takes 6–8 hours to refill the furnace on a decreased wind
volume.
90 Chapter VII

7.9 Blast furnace instrumentation

An overview of blast furnace instrumentation as discussed in various parts of

the text is given in Figure 7.25.

Figure 7.25 Overview of Blast Furnace instrumentation

7.10 Blast furnace daily operational control

In this section the blast furnace daily operational control is discussed. The
better the consistency of the blast furnace input, the lower the need for
adjustments in the process. Ideally, a good consistency of the input allows
the operator to “wait and see”. The need for daily operational control is a
consequence of the variability of the input and – sometimes– the equipment.

The process must be controlled continuously, which may require changes to be

made on a daily or even shift basis. The changes are aimed towards:
– Correct iron and slag composition. The burden and coke are adjusted to get
the correct chemical composition of the iron and slag. For the latter especially
the basicity of the slag is important because of its effect on hot metal sulphur.
Correct iron and slag composition also implies control of thermal level, since
the hot metal silicon is correlated with the hot metal temperature. So, there
are daily requirements for burden calculations with updated chemical analysis
of the burden components and actual burden, and frequent adjustments of the
thermal level of the furnace. Adjusting the coke rate or the auxiliary reductant
injection through the tuyeres can achieve the latter.
– Stable process control. Burden descent (as measured by the stock rods, Figure
7.1, or pressure taps, Figure 7.26), blast furnace productivity and efficiency
are evaluated on the basis of hourly data. Raceway conditions (e.g. flame
temperature) are monitored or calculated. The total process overview gives
an indication whether or not adjustments are required. Pressure taps indicate
whether or not “short circuiting” of gas flow along the wall takes place. In stable
periods the layers of coke and ore can be followed when passing the pressure
taps.
The Process: Burden Descent and Gas Flow Control 91

Figure 7.26 Pressure taps indicating the stability of the process, 24hr graphs. The
example shows stable (left) and unstable (right) operation, with short–
circuiting of gas flow encircled in red. (Courtesy: Siderar, Argentina)

– Gas flow control. The subject of gas flow control is discussed in more detail
below. Measurements and data required for daily gas flow control are shown
in Figure 7.27. The gas flow through the furnace can be monitored with the
help of global top gas composition, top gas composition across the radius, heat
losses at the wall and gas flow along the wall. The latter can be measured with
the short in–burden probes: the probes measure the temperature about three
metres below the burden level up to 50 cm into the burden. If temperatures are
low (under 100°C) the burden is not yet dry and more gas flow in wall area is
required to increase the drying capacity at the wall.

If the furnace seems in need of an adjustment of the gas flow, a change to the
burden distribution can be considered. However, a thorough analysis of the
actual situation has to be made. For example, consider the situation whereby
high central temperatures are observed. If these high central temperatures are
observed together with low heat losses and low gas utilisation, then the central
gas flow can be considered to be too high. The appropriate action in this case
would be to consider changes to the burden distribution to decrease the central
gas flow. If, on the other hand, the high central temperatures are combined with
a good gas utilisation and good wall gas flow, then there is no need to change
the layers of ore and coke. The appropriate action in this scenario would be to
consider working with lower gas volume per tonne HM i.e. with higher oxygen
enrichment.

Note also, that the heat losses are very sensitive to the burden descent. Irregular
burden descent leads to gaps at the wall and high heat losses. So, if a furnace is
showing high heat losses, again, the cause should be investigated in detail before
adjusting burden distribution. For example, if a blast furnace is pushed to its
production limits and burden descent suffers due to the high pressure difference
over the burden, the solution of the high heat losses is to reduce production level
(or gas volume) and not to adjust burden distribution.
92 Chapter VII

Figure 7.27 Presentation of process data in an operational furnace.

The weekly graph gives an overview from the stability and development of
the process. From top downwards: Tope – CO utilisation (%), skin flow
temperature (°C) and top temperature (°C); Flujo T – Total heat loss and
sum of fields (GJ/hr); Arrabio – Hot metal temperature (°C) and silicon
(%); Viento – Blast volume (Nm³/min) and top pressure (bar)

Figure 7.28 Example of gas flow control.

The radial gas distribution is measured with above burden probes,
expressed as CO utilisation (7 day graph). The decreasing gas utilisation
in the centre of the furnace (point 1 and 2, yellow and dark green) shows
increased central working.
VIII Blast Furnace Productivity
and Efficiency
The production rate of a blast furnace is directly related to the amount of coke
used in front of the tuyeres in a stable situation. This is due to every charge
of coke at the top of the furnace bringing with it an amount of ore burden
materials. In a stable situation the hot metal is produced as soon as the coke
is consumed. The productivity of a blast furnace increases as less reductant is
used per tonne hot metal. In the present chapter the basics behind blast furnace
productivity, the chemical reactions and efficiency are discussed (see also Hartig
et al, 2000).

8.1 The raceway

8.1.1 Production rate

In the raceway hot gas is formed which melts the burden material and is used
to drive the chemical reactions in the furnace. Given a certain amount of coke
and coal used per tonne hot metal, the production rate of a blast furnace is
determined by the amount of oxygen blown through the tuyeres. The more
oxygen that is blown into the furnace, the more coke and coal are consumed
and form carbon monoxide (CO), and the higher the production rate becomes.
In addition, the lower the reductant requirement per tonne of hot metal (tHM),
the higher the production rate. A quantitative example is indicated below.
Coke (and coal) are not only gasified in front of the tuyeres, but are also used
for carburisation of iron (hot metal contains 4.5% C) and for direct reduction
reactions (section 8.2). The coke rate is expressed as standard coke, i.e. coke with
a carbon content of 87.5 %.
94 Chapter VIII

In an operating blast furnace the use of the reductants can be as follows:

Input (kg/tHM) Replacement Input, as standard
ratio coke (kg/tHM)
Coke 300 n/a 300
Coal 200 0.85 170
Total 470

Usa, as standard
coke (kg/tHM)
Total input 470
Carburisation 50
Direct Reduction 120
Gasified in front of tuyeres 300
Of which coal 170
And coke 130

Table 8.1 Reductants in a blast furnace, typical example

The 300 kg/tHM standard coke which is used in front of the tuyeres consists of
170 kg/tHM coke equivalent injected as coal and so per tonne hot metal, 130
kg coke (300–170 kg) is gasified at the tuyeres. Note the issue of efficiency: if
the same amount of oxygen is blown into the furnace, thus maintaining same
blast volume and blast conditions, while the reductant rate is 10 kg/tHM lower,
the production rate will increase. At a 10 kg/tHM lower reductant rate the
production will increase by 3 % (300/290–100)! Conversely, if extra coal is put
on the furnace for thermal control, the production rate will decrease if blast
conditions are maintained. This is a simplified approach. Secondary effects,
like the effect on gas flow throughput, the effect on flame temperature and the
oxygen content of the coal, have been neglected.

8.1.2 Bosh gas composition

The heat of the blast and the heat generated by the reactions of coke (and coal/
auxiliary reductants) in the raceway are used to melt the burden. The heat
available to melt the burden depends on the amount of gas produced and on
the flame temperature, known as the “raceway adiabatic flame temperature”
(RAFT).

The amount and composition of the raceway gas can be calculated using the
following reactions that take place in the raceway:

2 C + O₂ ȼ 2 CO
H₂O + C Ⱥ CO + H₂

In and directly after the raceway all oxygen is converted to carbon monoxide
and all water is converted to hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 95

Consider the following example; the blast furnace in section 2.3 has a blast
volume of 6,500 m³ STP with 25.6 % oxygen. Ignoring the effects of moisture
in the blast and the coal injection, what would be the raceway gas volume and
composition?

Blast into the furnace (per minute):

– Nitrogen: 4836 m³ STP/min ((1–0.256)x6500)
– Oxygen: 1664 m³ STP/min (0.256x6500)

The oxygen generates two molecules of CO for every O₂ molecule, so the gas
volume is 8164 m³ STP/min (4836+2x1664). The gas consists of 59 % nitrogen
(4836/8164) and 41% CO (2x1664/8164).
The calculation can be extended to include the moisture in the blast and the
injection of coal (or other reductants). This is done in section 6.4.

8.1.3 Raceway flame temperature

The flame temperature in the raceway is the temperature that the raceway gas
reaches as soon as all carbon, oxygen and water have been converted to CO
and H₂. The flame temperature is a theoretical concept, since not all reactions
are completed in the raceway. From a theoretical point of view it should be
calculated from a heat balance calculation over the raceway. For practical
purposes linear formulas have been derived (see e.g. Table 8.2).

Metric Units
RAFT = 1489 + 0.82xBT – 5.705xBM + 52.778x(OE) – 18.1xCoal/WCx100 – 43.01xOil/
WCx100 – 27.9xTar/WCx100 – 50.66xNG/WCx100
Where BT Blast Temperature in °C

BM Blast Moisture in gr/m³ STP dry blast

OE Oxygen enrichment (% O2 – 21)

Oil Dry oil injection rate in kg/tHM

Tar Dry tar injection rate in kg/tHM

Coal Dry coal injection rate in kg/tHM

NG Natural gas injection rate in kg/tHM

WC Wind consumption in m³/tHM

Table 8.2 RAFT Calculation (source: AIST)

Flame temperature is normally in the range of 2000 to 2300°C and is

influenced by the raceway conditions. The flame temperature increases if:
– Hot blast temperature increases.
– Oxygen percentage in blast increases.
96 Chapter VIII

The flame temperature decreases, if:

– Moisture increases in the blast.
– Reductant injection rate increases, since cold reductants are gasified instead of
hot coke. The precise effect depends also on auxiliary reductant composition.

Table 8.3 gives some basic rules with respect to flame temperature effects.

Unit Change Flame temp. Top temp.

(°C) (°C)
Blast temp. °C + 100 + 65 – 15
Coal kg/t + 10 – 30 + 9
Oxygen % + 1 + 45 – 15
Moisture g/m³ STP + 10 – 50 + 9

Table 8.3 Flame temperature effects, rules of thumb (calculated)

The top gas temperature is governed by the amount of gas needed in the
process; the less gas is used, the lower the top gas temperature and vice versa.
Less gas per ton hot metal results in less gas for heating and drying the burden.

8.2 Carbon and iron oxides

In the preceding section the formation of gas in the raceway has been described.
What happens with the gas when it ascends through the furnace and cools
down? First consider what happens with the carbon monoxide.

Carbon can give two types of oxides:

– C + ½ O₂ Ⱥ CO + heat (111 kJ/mole)
This reaction takes place in the blast furnace
– C + O₂ Ⱥ CO₂ + heat (394 kJ/mole)
This reaction does not take place in the raceway and is more typical in an area
such as a power plant.

Note that in the second step much more heat is generated than in the first step,
therefore, it is worthwhile to convert CO to CO₂ as much as possible in the
process. The ratio CO₂/(CO+CO₂) is called the gas utilisation or gas efficiency
and is used extensively in blast furnace operation.

In Figure 8.1, the equilibrium CO ȼ C + CO₂ is presented for various

temperatures. The line indicates the equilibrium of the “Boudouard” reactions.
At temperatures above 1,100°C all CO₂ is converted to CO, if in contact with
coke. Therefore, at the high temperatures in the bosh and melting zone of the
blast furnace only carbon monoxide is present. At temperatures below 500 °C
all CO has the tendency to decompose into C+CO₂. The carbon formed in this
way is very fine and is called “Boudouard” carbon.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 97

In operational practice the carbon monoxide decomposition can be observed in

refractory material, where there is a CO containing atmosphere in the correct
temperature region. This generally is a very slow process.

%CO %CO2 CO2

in gas in gas CO+CO2
0 50 100

10 40 80

20 30 60
CO2 CO
30 20 40

40 10 20

50 0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C)

Figure 8.1 Boudouard reaction: the drawn line indicates equilibrium

8.2.1 Direct reduction of iron oxides

As the hot reducing gases produced in the raceway ascend through the lower
furnace, they transfer heat to the ore burden to the extent that it becomes
molten at the lower levels of the melting zone. They also remove oxygen from
the iron oxides, i.e. they reduce the iron oxides, which contain approximately
one oxygen for every two iron atoms.

The CO₂ produced from the reaction immediately reacts with the carbon in the
coke to produce CO. The total reaction is known as direct reduction, because
carbon is directly consumed.
The reactions can be indicated as below:
2 FeO₀.₅ + CO Ⱥ 2 Fe + CO₂
+ CO₂ + C Ⱥ 2 C
Total 2 FeO₀.₅ + C Ⱥ 2 Fe + CO (consumes 155 kJ/kmol FeO)

The direct reduction reaction requires an enormous amount of heat, which is

provided by the heat contained in the hot raceway gas.

The direct reduction reaction is very important for understanding the process.
In a modern blast furnace the direct reduction removes about a third of the
oxygen from the burden, leaving the remaining two–thirds to be removed
by the gas reduction reaction. The amount of oxygen to be removed at high
temperatures, as soon as the burden starts to melt, is very much dependent on
the efficiency of the reduction processes in the shaft. See section 8.2.2.
98 Chapter VIII

Note the following important observations:

– Direct reduction uses carbon (coke) and generates extra CO gas.
– Direct reduction costs a lot of energy.

In operational practice the direct reduction can be monitored. In many blast

furnaces the direct reduction rate (the percentage of the oxygen removed from
the burden by direct reduction) or the solution loss (the amount of coke used for
the reaction) are calculated on line. Experienced operators are well aware that as
soon as the direct reduction rate or the solution loss increases, the blast furnace
starts to descend faster, the cohesive zone will come down as the coke below it is
consumed. And the furnace will chill. When properly observed, chilling can be
prevented, for example by using extra coal injection.

8.2.2 Direct reduction of accompanying elements

In addition to the direct reduction of iron (typically from FeO₀.₅) some other
materials are also directly reduced in the high temperature area of the furnace.
The amount of coke used for this direct reduction reactions is indicated in the
table below. This can be calculated from the chemical composition and the
atomic weights, considering that the amount of oxygen removed reacts with the
carbon in the coke. The 121.9 kg coke for direct reduction corresponds with an
additional 199 m³ STP of CO gas.

Material Reduced to Typically in Coke used

hot metal (%) (kg/tHM)

FeO 0.5 Fe 94.50 116.1

SiO2 Si 0.40 3.9
MnO Mn 0.30 0.7
TiO2 Ti 0.05 0.3
P 2O 5 P 0.07 0.8
Total coke used for direct reduction 121.9

Table 8.4 Coke consumption for direct reduction, typical example

8.2.3 Gas reduction or “indirect” reduction

As soon as temperatures of the gas reduce, the CO₂ becomes stable and
reduction reactions can take place, such as (see Figure 8.2):
– For Haematite:
6 Fe₂O₃ + 2 CO Ⱥ 4 Fe₃O₄ + 2 CO₂ (generates 53 kK/kmol)
– For Magnetite:
4 Fe₃O₄ + 4 CO Ⱥ 12 FeO + 4 CO₂ (consumes 36 kK/kmol)
– For Wustite:
6 FeO + 3 CO Ⱥ 6 FeO₀.₅ + 3 CO₂ (generates 17 kK/kmol)
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 99

The reduction is called “gas reduction” because the oxygen is removed from the
burden materials with CO gas. H₂ reacts in a similar way. In literature it is also
often called “indirect” reduction, since carbon is only indirectly involved in this
reaction. The reduction of the FeO₀.₅ takes place via the direct reduction.

Following the burden descent from the stockline, the reduction from haematite
to magnetite starts around 500°C. The reduction from magnetite to wustite
takes place in the temperature zone from 600 to 900°C, while the reduction
from wustite to iron takes place in the temperature region between 900 and
1,100°C. At the start of melting (1,100 to 1150°C) FeO₀.₅ is normally reached.
Here FeO is used as a symbol for wustite, however the most stable composition
is FeO₀.₉₅. The reactions are shown in Figure 8.2.

6 9
+
Carbon Monoxide Haematite (Fe2O3)
Gas
Reduction
6 8
+
Magnetite (Fe3O4)
Gas
Reduction
6 6
+
Carbon Dioxide Wustite (FeO)
Gas
Reduction
6 3
+
FeO ½
Carbon Direct
Reduction
6 0
+
Carbon Monoxide Fe

Figure 8.2 Overview of the reduction of iron oxides

(Black dots are carbons atoms, blue dots hydrogen atoms,
red dots iron atoms)
100 Chapter VIII

%CO %CO2 CO2

in gas in gas CO+CO2
0 50 100

Fe 3O4 + CO
10 40 Magnetite 80

FeO + CO2
20 30 60
Wustite

30 20 FeO + CO 40

40 10 Iron Fe + CO 2 20

50 0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C)

Figure 8.3 Schematic presentation of the relation between temperatures, CO/CO₂

gas composition and iron oxides. The drawn lines indicate equilibrium.

The equilibrium between the various iron oxides and the gas is shown in Figure
8.3. The figure shows at what level of temperatures and gas compositions further
gas reduction of the burden is no longer possible. The reduction of wustite
to iron requires gas with a relatively high percentage CO. Gas utilisation for
reduction of wustite should be below 30 %. If CO₂ is higher, wustite is no
longer converted to iron.

The progress of the reduction reactions in a blast furnace can be detected in two
different ways:
– Burden: from quenched furnaces an overview of the progress of the reduction
can be derived. An example is shown in Figure 8.4
– Gas: by sending gas sampling devices down into the furnace, the progress of
temperature/gas composition can be derived. Figure 8.5 shows typical results
from a gas sampling exercise. The data can be depicted in the graph of the
equilibrium between gas and iron oxides. The gas normally shows a “thermal
reserve zone”, that is, a zone in which the temperature does not change rapidly
as well as a “chemical reserve zone”, a zone in which the chemical composition
of the gas does not change. The thermal reserve zone decreases and can
disappear when the furnace is pushed to high productivities.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 101

O/Fe

1.30
1.10
0.75
0.50

Figure 8.4 Reduction progress in a quenched furnace

(Hirohata, after Omori, 1987, p. 8)

1500
Temperature

Center
1000

Wall Thermal
reserve zone 100
500

80 Magnetite
0

60 60
ηCO Wustite

40 Chemical 40
ηCO reserve zone

20 20 Iron

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time Temperature (°C)

Figure 8.5 Gas composition in operating furnace. CO, CO₂, H₂ and temperature
were measured with descending probes (Chaigneau et al, 2001). Typical
measurements from various furnaces are shaded. After McMaster, 2002.
102 Chapter VIII

8.2.4 Gas reduction and direct reduction

The direct reduction and gas reduction reaction combine to create a very
efficient process. Suppose that all oxygen is removed by direct reduction. Then,
the following reaction takes place:
Fe₂O₃ + 3 C Ⱥ 2 Fe + 3 CO

Iron contains about 945 kg Fe per tonne hot metal. Coke contains about 87.5%
carbon. Atomic weights of Fe and C are 55.6 and 12 respectively. A tonne of
iron contains 17 kmole (945/55.6). For every atom of iron we need 1.5 atoms
of carbon, so the carbon requirement is 25.5 kmole (1.5x17), which is 306 kg
carbon (25.5x12). In addition, about 45 kg carbon is dissolved in iron. In total,
351 kg carbon is used per tonne hot metal, which corresponds to 401 kg of
coke. This is a very low equivalent coke rate and a blast furnace will not work,
because the heat generated in this reaction is too low.

Now consider that all reduction reactions are done via the gas reduction, what
coke rate is required in this situation? It is assumed that coke combustion
generates the CO required. The reaction is:
3 FeO + 3 CO Ⱥ 3 Fe + 3 CO₂

We only consider the reduction of wustite since the resulting gas is powerful
enough to reduce magnetite and haematite. We know from the above (Figure
8.3) that for gas reduction the maximum gas utilisation is 30%. To get 30% gas
utilisation more CO is needed and the reaction becomes:
3 FeO + 10 CO Ⱥ 3 Fe + 3 CO₂ + 7 CO (gas utilisation: 3/(3+7) = 30%)
So the coke requirement is calculated as above: every tonne iron contains 17
kmole.

There is a need of 10 atoms carbon per 3 atoms of Fe. So the carbon

requirement is 57 kmole (10/3x 17), which corresponds to 684 kg carbon
(57x12). Again, the extra 45 kg carbon in iron has to be added giving a carbon
rate of 729 kg/t and a coke rate of 833 kg coke per tonne hot metal (729/0.875).
This reaction has a poor coke rate and a high heat excess.

The conclusion of the considerations above is, that the counter–current

character of the blast furnace works efficiently to reduce the reductant rate
by combining direct and gas reduction reaction. Approximately 60–70% of
the oxygen is removed by gas and the remaining oxygen is removed by direct
reduction.

8.2.5 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is formed from moisture in the blast and injectants in the raceway.
Hydrogen can act as a reducing agent to remove oxygen and form water. The
reaction is comparable with that for carbon monoxide:
H₂ + FeO Ⱥ Fe + H₂O
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 103

The major differences with the reactions for hydrogen and carbon monoxide are
as follows:
– Figure 8.6 shows the equilibrium of the iron oxides and hydrogen. Hydrogen
is more effective for the reduction at temperatures above 900 °C. From
measurements in the blast furnace it has been derived, that hydrogen reactions
are already nearly completed at this temperature.
– Hydrogen utilisation as measured from the top gas is normally around 40 %
while CO utilisation is close to 50 %. At the FeO level (900 °C) hydrogen is
utilized for 35 %, which means that it is already close to its final utilization of
40 %.
– Hydrogen is less effective a reductant at lower temperatures, becuase it generates
less heat when reducing iron oxides.

At high temperatures H2O that is formed in the furnace reacts with coke
according to the water–gas–shift reaction:
H₂O (steam) + C ȼ H₂ + CO (consumes 124 kJ/mole)
This reaction consumes a lot of heat. At higher temperatures (over 1000 °C) the
reaction proceeds rapidly to the right hand side. This reaction is particularly
manifest when a furnace is blown down: water vapour is in contact with CO₂
rich, hot top gas (see also section 11.5).

%CO %CO2 CO2 H2Oprocess

or
in gas in gas CO+CO2 (H2+H2Oprocess)

0 50 100

10 40 Fe3O4 80

20 30 60
FeO

30 20 40

40 10 Fe 20

50 0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C)

Figure 8.6 Equilibrium iron oxides with hydrogen and carbonmonoxide

Note that the hydrogen utilisation cannot be measured directly. The H₂O
formed in the process cannot be discriminated from the water put in the
furnace with coke and burden moisture. The hydrogen utilisation of the top gas
is defined as H₂O/(H₂+H₂Oprocess). The H₂+H₂Oprocess can be derived from the
input, the hydrogen leaving the furnace can be measured with the gas analysis.
104 Chapter VIII

When working at high hydrogen input (via moisture, natural gas, coal), the
competition between the reduction reactions will lead to lower top gas CO₂
utilisation. The simple reasoning is, that H₂ competes with CO. All oxygen
taken by H₂ is not taken by CO₂ and thus CO increases and CO₂ decreases.
1 % extra H₂ in topgas will lead to 0.6 % extra H₂Oprocess in top gas and thus
to a 0.6 % lower CO₂ and a 0.6 % higher CO percentage. 1 % extra topgas
hydrogen leads to a decrease in topgas CO–utilisation of 1.3 %, e.g from 49 %
to 47.7 %. If a more advanced model is used and the efficiency of the furnace
is kept constant at the FeO level, a 1% increase in topgas hydrogen leads to a
decrease of 0.8 % in topgas CO–utilisation.

8.3 Temperature profile

The temperature profile and the chemical reactions in a blast furnace are
closely related. It is summarised in Figure 8.7. The reduction of the oxides to
wustite takes place at temperatures between 800 and 900 °C. Thereafter, in
the temperature range of 900 to 1100 °C, the wustite can be further reduced
indirectly without interference from the Boudouard reaction. This chemical
preparation zone can take up to 50 to 60 % of the height of the furnace and has
a relatively constant temperature. This region is called the thermal reserve zone.

Figure 8.7 Progress of the reduction reactions and temperature of the burden

8.4 What happens with the gas in the burden?

In the preceding section the temperature profile in the blast furnace has been
shown. In this section the gas in the furnace will be dealt with in more detail.

Step 1 Wind is blown into the tuyeres along with coal and moisture. All these
components react to form carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen and nitrogen. So,
the conditions at the end of the raceway are a high temperature of 2000 to 2200
°C and CO, H₂ and N₂ in gaseous form.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 105

Step 2 The gas ascends in the furnace and cools down to 1100 °C. The direct reduction
reactions take place generating additional CO gas. When reaching 1100 °C
the gas leaves the cohesive zone and enters into the furnace stack filled with
granular materials. At temperatures over 1100 °C gas reduction is very limited as
the CO₂ formed by direct reduction reacts instantaneously with coke to return
to CO, a reaction which is thermodynamically equivalent to direct reduction.
Step 3 The gas ascends further and its temperature decreases from 1100 °C to 900 °C.
In this temperature range the hydrogen is very effective and about 35 % of the
hydrogen picks up an oxygen from the ore burden. About 24 % of the carbon
monoxide does the same.
Step 4 The gas ascends further reaching an area of 500 to 600 °C. At this temperature
the ore burden has the composition of magnetite, Fe₃O₄.
Step 5 The gas cools down further to the temperature at which it will leave the top (110
to 150 °C). In this area the carbon monoxide is utilized further and removes
more oxygen from the ore burden.

In terms of gas volume, once the temperature of the gas has dropped below
1100 °C, the total gas volume in m³ STP remains the same, and only the
composition of the gas changes, as shown in figure 8.8.
2200 °C 1400 °C 1000 °C 900 °C 500 °C 120 °C
1600

1400 CO2

1200
Gas volume (m³ STP/min)

CO
1000
O2

800

600

N2
400

200

H2
0
Input Combustion Direct Gas Gas Gas
through in raceway reduction reduction reduction reduction
tuyeres

Figure 8.8 How top gas is formed from wind

It is clear from figure 8.8, that the major part of the gas through the furnace
consists of nitrogen. Nitrogen is chemically inert and delivers only its heat from
the hot blast to the burden. During its eight to twelve second journey through
the furnace it cools down from the blast temperature to the top gas temperature.
106 Chapter VIII

8.5 Oxygen and productivity

The productivity of blast furnaces vary enormously and in this section the
question of what is the optimum productivity a furnace can reach is tackled.
The first point to consider is that the furnace is a gas reactor, so the more blast
you blow into the furnace, the more it produces. The furnace can be driven to
a maximum ΔP, but when going to a ΔP over the burden above this maximum,
the burden descent will deteriorate and the process will slow down.

Therefore the first limit is maximum ΔP, or, with constant top pressure,
maximum blast pressure. The ‘allowable’ maximum ΔP depends on the furnace
and the burden and is a specific value for each furnace. Large 14 metre hearth
diameter furnaces can work up to levels of a maximum ΔP of 1.95 bar. Note
that this is an instantaneous maximum. Systems which automatically lower the
blast volume when reaching the maximum ΔP help to prevent hanging, slips
and process upsets.
Secondly, consider how the furnace works: the 900 °C isotherm is also the
plane where the ratio Fe/O (on atomic basis) is 1. So, between the 900 °C
isotherm and the tuyeres the gas has to be able to melt the burden, to reduce
the remaining oxides and execute the other direct reduction reactions. So, the
heat balance over the lower part of the furnace has to be closed. At 900 °C the
remaining gas and heat is used for the heating up the burden and coke from
ambient temperature to 900 °C and reduction of the oxides. So the net effect
translates to a top gas temperature. If top gas temperature is high, well above
110 °C, the gas volume in the upper part of the furnace increases as gas expands
at higher temperatures. Therefore, the productivity is highest if the top gas
temperature is at its minimum. The minimum we recommend is to stay above
the dewpoint so that all moisture is driven off. This translates to a narrow band
slightly above 100 °C.

Since the top gas temperature decreases when using higher oxygen, the
maximum productivity in a furnace (with a given burden) is reached when;
– Top pressure is at the maximum value.
– Blast volume is set so that the furnace is operated to the maximum ΔP.
– Fuel injection (coal, gas, oil) is at the maximum the furnace accepts.
– The top gas temperature is controlled to slightly above 100 °C with oxygen
injection.

The quality of the burden affects the productivity by means of the coke rate: the
lower the coke rate per tonne hot metal, the more hot metal can be produced
with the same amount of blast. On average for every 3–3.5 kg/tHM decrease in
coke rate (or coal rate) the productivity increases by 1 %.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 107

8.6 Use of metallic iron

Metallic iron can be used to boost the productivity of the furnace. The metallic
units can be scrap, but Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI) can also be used. As a rule
of thumb: about 250 kg per tonne hot metal of coke (or coal) is required to
generate the heat for melting metallic iron and to provide the carbon that
dissolves in the hot metal. When charging 10% metallic iron units, fuel rate
decreases from approximately 500 kg/tHM to 475 kg/t and productivity
increases by (500–475)/3.5=7 %.

8.7 How iron ore melts

This section deals with the subject of hot metal and slag formation in and
around the cohesive zone of the blast furnace.

8.7.1 Ferrous burden

Ferrous burden is the collective term used to describe the iron–containing
materials that are charged to the furnace, namely, sinter, pellets and lump ore.
The melting properties of these materials depend on the local chemical slag
composition. Lump ore has its natural slag composition as it is found, gangue
consists of mainly acid components like SiO₂ and Al₂O₃. Pellets and sinter have
an artificial composition with components added to the natural iron ores, such
as limestone (CaCO₃), dolomite (MgCO₃.CaCO₃), olivine (2MgO, SiO₂) and
others. Sinter has a basicity, CaO/SiO₂ > 1.6 and, can even be as high as 2.8
or higher. Pellets have a wide variety of chemical compositions, especially acid
pellets (CaO/SiO₂ < 0.2) or fluxed pellets (CaO/SiO₂ > 0.8).

The chemical composition of the materials is not only based on the design of the
optimum properties of the final slag, with respect to fluidity and desulphurizing
properties, but also on the design of the metallurgical properties of the sinter
and the pellets. Optimal metallurgical properties means that the materials
should have good reduction–disintegration properties and melting temperatures
as high as possible. The reason for these requirements is defined by the nature
of the blast furnace process, that being a gas–reduction process. If material falls
apart in small particles, the gas flow through the ore layer is impeded and the
normal reduction process is limited. In addition, materials which start to melt
form an impermeable layer and will also affect the reduction progress.
Note that the efficiency of a blast furnace is largely determined by the gas
reduction process, and the amount of oxygen bound on the iron, which is
removed by gas (CO and H₂).
108 Chapter VIII

8.7.2 Reduction from haematite to magnetite and

reduction–disintegration
The reduction process starts at temperatures of about 500 °C in the atmosphere
of a reducing gas, that is, the blast furnace top gas. The reduction of haematite
(Fe₂O₃, Fe/O = 1.5) to magnetite (Fe₃O₄, Fe/O 1.33) takes place rather easily
and generates a small amount of heat. In haematite 6 atoms of iron are bound
to 9 atoms of oxygen, which changes to 8 atoms of oxygen upon transition to
magnetite. The extra oxygen is bound to the CO gas, forming CO₂.

The first step in the reduction process has a profound effect on the properties
of the ferrous burden. The crystal structure where 6 iron atoms and 9 oxygen
atoms were happily conjoined is forced to change to 6 iron atoms on 8 oxygen
atoms. The crystal structure changes and this leads to stress within the particles
and the particles can fall apart. This is called reduction disintegration, and is
represented by the Reduction Disintegration Index (RDI) or, more commonly
in the USA by Low Temperature Breakdown (LTB). Pellets are not very prone
to reduction disintegration, as pellets have about 30 % voidage in the structure,
which can take care of local expansion. Moreover, pellets form a solid shell so
they retain their round shape and do not impede the local permeability for gas.

Some lump ores have a very tight structure and are difficult to reduce, with
the reduction starting on the outside of the particle. These lump ores will have
reasonable RDI values, however, if a lump ore has a relatively open structure,
which is easily permeable for gas, then the RDI will be poor. Lump ored with
this characteristic are not suitable for direct use in the blast furnace.

Sinter, on a micro–scale has a relatively tight structure with limited possibilities

for local expansion. Therefore, sinter has inherently poor RDI unless measures
are taken to improve it. The RDI can be improved by impeding the formation
of the secondary haematite on the sinter strand. Secondary haematite is the
material which is reoxidized on the sinter strand, from magnetite back to
haematite. This takes place when sinter is cooled with air. It is these secondary
haematites that are very prone to reduction disintegration in the blast furnace.
The reduction disintegration stops when all haematite is reduced to magnetite.

8.7.3 Gas reduction of magnetite

The magnetite (Fe₃O₄) is further reduced by gas (CO and H₂) to wustite
(FeO₁.₀₅). At around 900 °C equilibrium is reached between the reducing
power of the gas and the composition of the iron oxides, that is the FeO
level of one atom of oxygen per atom of iron. In this area the temperature
is relatively constant (thermal reserve zone), as is the chemical composition
of the gas (chemical reserve zone). When blast furnaces are operated at very
high productivities, these reserve zone becomes smaller and are ultimately
eliminated.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 109

At temperatures around 900 °C the temperature of the coke is still too low
to react with the CO₂ gas. The coke reactivity reaction (CO₂ + C Ⱥ 2 CO)
starts around 1050 °C. Therefore, all reduction is taking place by means of gas
reduction: (Fe₂O₃ + CO Ⱥ 2 FeO + CO₂), and in this temperature range also
for a small part by (Fe₂O₃ +H₂ Ⱥ 2 FeO + H₂O). The gas reduction continues
to a gas temperature above 1000 °C and a reduction of iron oxide to a level
of FeO₀.₄₅. The higher the temperature, the more H₂ contributes to the gas
reduction. The gas reduction continues to rise until the temperature has risen
to that where the coke reactivity reaction begins. If material starts to soften and
melt (around 1100 °C) the direct reduction reaction (FeO + C Ⱥ Fe + CO) will
take place.

8.7.4 Melting
Melting starts at local chemical compositions with the lowest melting
temperatures. This is where there are high local concentrations of SiO₂ and
FeO. Internal migration of atoms will cause larger and larger parts of the
particles to soften. The first internal ‘melts’ of material will form at around 1100
°C and will consist of 60 % gangue and 40 % FeO. In the case of fluxed pellets
the first melts will form at around 1150°C with a gangue/FeO ratio of 70/30
%. If the basicity increases further, the starting temperature of melt formation
increases to close to 1200 °C, where even less FeO is required. However at the
basicity of superfluxed sinter, the formation of melts require again high FeO%,
up to 50–60 %. This explains why reduction melting tests of superfluxed sinter
generally show a relative large part of residual material, that cannot be melted
even at temperatures up to 1530 °C.

When gangue starts to melt, it will come into contact with the slag components
of other parts of the ore burden and the slag composition will be averaged. This
happens at high FeO concentrations.

Note that a sponge iron skull around a particle has a much higher melting
temperature than hot metal. The sponge iron does not yet contain carbon
and its melting temperature comes closer to the 1535 °C of the elemental iron
temperature, rather than the 1147 °C of iron with 4.2 % carbon content.
In summary, the first melts that are formed in the blast furnace come from
acid slag components mixed with iron oxides (FeO₀,₄₅) and iron. As soon as
melts are formed the ore bed collapses. The order of events are firstly that the
lump ore structure collapses, due to the acidic gangue, next the collapse of
sinter structure followed by the collapse of the pellet structure. As soon as the
layers are collapsed, the permeability for gas decreases. It is estimated that
permeability for gas disappears more or less completely between 1200–1350 °C.
In that situation the layers of cohesive material are only heated with gas flowing
along its surface. Reduction by hydrogen plays a special role in this situation.
Since hydrogen can easily diffuse into a more solid structure, the hydrogen
reduction continues after CO reduction has stopped.
110 Chapter VIII

When the melts are heated further and start to drip, the melt consists of a blend
of the gangue, FeO and finely dispersed iron, which has not been separated
from the melt. The first process in the ‘primary’ melt is that the gangue loses
its FeO. As soon as the FeO is removed and the primary melt flows over coke,
the iron starts to dissolve carbon from the coke, which lowers the melting
temperature rapidly. This has the affect of making the iron much more liquid
when flowing over coke. The carbon of the coke diffuses into or is taken up by
the metallic Fe, allowing the iron droplets to separate from the primary melt.
After this process has taken place, the iron starts to increase in silicon content,
which comes from the SiO gas that was created in the raceway flame.

It is thought that the iron diffuses out of the primary melts and reaches the
hearth faster than the slag components. When blowpipes have been filled
with bosh slag (primary slag) finely distributed iron has never been observed
within the slag. This is attributed to the improved fluidity of the iron due to
the carbon dissolution from the coke into the melt, dramatically lowering the
melting temperature. This means that the iron droplets will pass through a layer
of slag. As long as the slag contains FeO, the silicon in the hot metal will be
oxidized back to SiO₂ and the FeO in the slag reduced to Fe. As a consequence,
the hot metal formed and dripping down in the centre of the furnace will have
high silicon and the hot metal formed at the wall will have low silicon. The
final silicon level observed during a cast is a blend of these two ‘hot’ and ‘cold’
components.

The formation of the final composition of hot metal and slag is a stepwise
process, which is illustrated in Figure 8.9.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 111
112 Chapter VIII

In comparison: in a blast furnace, the process of oxygen steelmaking is reversed.

With oxygen steelmaking, the elements removed from the hot metal by blowing
oxygen are first silicon and manganese, which are oxidised, then carbon is burnt
and finally iron starts to be re–oxidised. In the blast furnace, the opposite takes
place as is illustrated in figure 8.10.

Figure 8.10 The basic oxygen furnace and blast furnace as counterparts
(Rectangular brackets indicate that the element is dissolved in hot metal)

8.8 Circumferential symmetry and direct reduction

High performance operation of a blast furnace requires that the complete

circumference of the furnace contributes equally to the process. A furnace
can be divided into sectors in which every tuyere forms one sector. See Figure
8.12 for an example. If all sectors do not contribute equally to the process,
asymmetry in the melting zone will arise, as shown in Figure 8.11. Local heat
shortages will drive the melting zone downwards in certain sectors and upwards
in other sectors. This can result in an increase in direct reduction in some
sectors. Increasing the thermal level of the entire furnace affecting its overall
efficiency can only compensate for the effect and not resolve it.
Blast Furnace Productivity and Efficiency 113

Figure 8.11 Asymmetric melting zone

Asymmetry in the process can arise from various sources:

– By asymmetry of the charging. With a bell–less top this can be prevented by
alternating the coke and ore top bins and by changing the rotational direction
of the chute. With a double bell system it is possible to alternate the last skip in
a dump. Note that the changes have to be made on a time scale smaller than the
blast furnace process i.e. more frequent than every six hours.
– Blast distribution: if the blast speed is too low (under 100 m/s), tuyeres will
not efficiently function as blast distributors. This can be observed especially
at the tuyeres opposite the inlet between hot blast main and bustle main.
Blast distribution can also be effected by plugged tuyeres (above a taphole or
refractory hot spots) and slag deposits in the tuyere.
– Worn refractory or armouring plates at the top of the furnace.
– From uneven coal injection. Especially tuyeres without PCI (section 5.6).
– Deviation of furnace centre line from vertical line. This is especially a concern
in older furnaces.

Measures to correct for deviations of circumferential symmetry are available,

such as removing PCI injection from specific tuyeres. However, it is preferred to
eliminate the causes of the circumferential asymmetry instead of correcting for
it.

Asymmetry in the gas flow can be derived from the radial heat loss distribution.
In the figure below, the heat losses are measured in eight segments of the
furnace over four vertical sections. Extended asymmetry can be investigated
with the help of this type of data and graphs.
114 Chapter VIII

Figure 8.12 24 hrs heat loss distribution (blue). Note a slight process asymmetry.
One day graph of eight sections, four levels.
IX Hot Metal and Slag
Typical hot metal and slag compositions are given in Table 9.1. Hot metal leaves
the furnace with a temperature typically in the range between 1480 and 1520
°C.

Hot metal Typical Slag Typical Range

Iron Fe 94.5 % CaO 40 % 34–42 %
Carbon C 4.5 % MgO 10 % 6–12 %
Silicon Si 0.40 % SiO2 36 % 28–38 %

Al2O3 10 % 8–20 %
Manganese Mn 0.30 %
Sulphur S 0.03 % Sum 96 %

Phosphorous P 0.07 % Sulphur 1%

Table 9.1 Typical hot metal and slag composition

9.1 Hot metal and the steel plant

Hot metal is used for the production of steel. In a steel plant the hot metal is
refined so that the (chemical) composition can be adjusted to the metallurgical
requirements. The refining process is usually achieved in two steps:
– Removal of sulphur from the hot metal by means of desulphurisation. In most
cases the sulphur is removed with carbide and lime (stone) or magnesium,
according to:
2 CaO + 2 [S] + CaC₂ Ⱥ 2 (CaS) + CO (gas)
or
Mg + [S] Ⱥ (MgS)
(Square brackets, i.e. [S], show that material is dissolved in the hot metal.
Round brackets, i.e. (CaS), show material dissolved in slag.)
– Removal of carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorous. These elements react
with the oxygen blown into the converter. The “affinity” for oxygen decreases
in the sequence Si>Mn>C>P>Fe. In this sequence material is refined in the
converter process. At the end of the refining process iron can be reoxidised,
which is sometimes required to heat up the steel before casting. Si, Mn, P and
FeO are removed with the slag phase, the C as CO or CO₂ in the gas phase.
116 Chapter IX

The important considerations for a steel plant are:

– Consistent quality: the control of the converter process incorporates “learning”,
which adjustments to the process settings are necessary on the basis of expected
outcome versus the actual outcome. The more consistent the iron quality, the
better the results in the steel plant.
– Hot metal silicon, manganese, titanium and temperature are important energy
sources for the converter process and effect the slag formation.
– Hot metal phosphorous has a major influence on steel production process. In
the blast furnace 97 to 98 % of the phosphorous leaves the furnace with the hot
metal.
– Hot metal sulphur is a problem because sulphur is difficult to remove in the
converter process. For high grades of steel a maximum sulphur level of 0.008 %
is required, while the blast furnace produces hot metal with a content of 0.030
% and higher. Therefore, an external desulphurisation step is often required.

9.2 Hot metal composition

The final hot metal composition is the result of a complex process of iron–slag
interactions as the various elements are divided over the slag and iron phases.
The dispersion of an element over the two phases depends on the slag and hot
metal composition as well as temperature, as discussed below. As an illustration
the typical percentages of elements entering the slag and iron phases are
indicated in Table 9.2.

The following points should be noted:

– Silicon, titanium and sulphur are concentrated in the slag.
– Manganese is concentrated in the hot metal.
– Some of the potassium is discharged from the top.
– Nearly all the phosphorous goes to the hot metal.

Element Input Output Iron Output Slag

kg/tHM kg/tHM % kg/tHM %
Silicon 46 5 11 % 41 89 %
Manganese 6 4.5 75 % 1.5 25 %
Titanium 3 0.7 23 % 2.3 77 %
Sulphur 3 0.3 10 % 2.7 90 %
Phosphorous 0.5 0.48 96 % 0 0%
Potassium 0.15 0 0% 0.11 73 %

Table 9.2 Typical distributions of selected elements over iron and slag
Hot Metal and Slag 117

9.3 Silicon reduction

Silicon, manganese and phosphorous oxides are reduced via the direct reduction
reaction. Out of these three, the silicon reactions are of particular interest. The
hot metal silicon is a sensitive indicator of the thermal state of the furnace, and
the silicon variation can be used to analyse the consistency of the process. For
these reasons the silicon reactions are discussed in more detail.

Figure 9.1 Reactions of silicon in the blast furnace

The reduction of silicon takes place via three steps (Figure 9.1):
– Formation of gaseous SiO in the raceway. The first reduction step takes place
at the very high flame temperatures of the raceway. The silicon comes from the
ash of the coke (and coal). The higher the coke ash, the higher the silicon in hot
metal.
– Further reduction by means of direct reduction with the iron. The SiO gas in
contact with the iron can be reduced as follows:
SiO + [C] Ⱥ [Si] + CO
(square brackets indicate solution in iron).
– The more intimate the contact between iron and gas, the higher the hot metal
silicon content. The higher the height that the iron drips down, the greater is
the contact between the hot gasses and the liquid metal, leading to higher hot
metal temperatures. The longer contact allows more SiO gas to react with the
carbon in the hot metal, leading to higher hot metal silicon content. Therefore,
a high–located melting zone corresponds with high hot metal temperature and
high hot metal silicon.
– The hot metal silicon is in equilibrium with the slag. Important aspects are:
– When iron droplets descend and pass through the slag layer, the silicon can be
reoxidised if FeO is present in the slag, according to:
[Si] + 2 (FeO) + 2 [C] Ⱥ (SiO₂) + 2 [Fe] + 2 CO
118 Chapter IX

– The more basic the slag (less SiO₂ in slag), the lower the hot metal silicon.
– The hot metal formed in the centre has high silicon, while the hot metal formed
at the wall has low hot metal silicon. The cast result is an average value.

Hot metal silicon and manganese are both indicators of the thermal state of
the furnace. Manganese shows a quicker response on process changes due to
the fact that the equilibrium with the remaining slag in the furnace is faster for
manganese due to the smaller fraction of manganese in the slag.

9.4 Hot metal sulphur

The hot metal sulphur is governed by the input of sulphur, the slag composition
and the thermal state of the furnace.

The most important parameters are:

– Sulphur input: the sulphur input is typically 2.5 to 3.5 kg/tHM. The main
sources being coke and the auxiliary reductant such as coal or oil.
– The division of sulphur between iron and slag, indicated by the (S)/[S] ratio.
This ratio is very sensitive to the slag basicity and the thermal level of the
furnace (hot metal temperature or hot metal silicon).
– The slag volume: the lower the slag volume per tonne hot metal, the higher the
hot metal sulphur at the same (S)/[S].

Most companies have their own correlations between (S)/[S] and the slag
basicity and thermal level. The correlations are derived on the basis of historical
data for a blast furnace. As a basic guide: to reduce hot metal sulphur by 5 %:
– reduce input by 5 %.
– Increase basicitiy by 0,02 (basicity defined as CaO+MgO/SiO₂) or
– Increase hot metal silicon by 0.06 %.

9.5 Slag

9.5.1 Slag composition and basicity

Slag is formed from the gangue material of the burden and the ash of the coke
and auxiliary reductants. During the process primary slag develops to a final
slag. Composition ranges are presented in Table 9.4. Four major components
make up about 96 % of the slag, these being SiO₂, MgO, CaO and Al₂O₃. The
balance is made up of components such as manganese (MnO), sulphur (S),
titanium (TiO₂), potassium (K₂O), sodium (Na₂O) and phosphorous (P). These
components have a tendency to lower the liquidus temperature of the slag. The
definitions of basicity are given in Table 9.3.
Hot Metal and Slag 119

B2 CaO/SiO2
B3 CaO+MgO/SiO2
B4 (CaO+MgO)/(SiO2+Al2O3)

Table 9.3 Definitions of basicity (weight percentage)

Typical Range
CaO 40 % 34–42 %
MgO 10 % 6–12 %
SiO2 36 % 28–38 %
Al2O3 10 % 8–20 %
Total 96 % 96 %

Table 9.4 Typical slag compositions

9.5.2 Slag properties

Slag has much higher melting temperatures than iron. In practice it is more
correct to think in temperature ranges than in melting points, as composite
slags have a melting trajectory rather than a melting point. At the solidus
temperature the ore burden starts melting.The liquidus temperature is the
temperature at which the slag is completely molten. At temperatures below the
liquidus temperature solid crystals are present. These solid crystals increase
the viscosity of the slag. In our experience the behaviour of slag can be well
understood on the basis of its liquidus temperature. Liquidus temperatures are
presented in ternary diagrams as shown in Figure 9.2.

Figure 9.2 Phase diagram of liquidus temperatures of blast furnace slag system for 10
% Al₂O₃. The slag composition 40 % CaO, 10 % MgO and 36 % SiO₂ is
also indicated. To this end the components have to be recalculated from
96 to 100 % of the slag. The area where the liquidus termperature of the
slag is lower than 1400 °C is indicated in yellow. (After slag atlas, 1981.)
120 Chapter IX

These diagrams have been developed for pure components and in practice the
liquidus temperatures are somewhat lower. Since in the ternary diagrams only
three components can be indicated, one of the major slag components is taken
as fixed. i.e. Al₂O₃ content is 10 %. Diagrams at different Al₂O₃ percentages are
presented in Figure 9.3. The typical slag composition for a blast furnace slag is
also indicated (Table 9.4). Note that the liquidus temperature is about 1400 °C
and that the liquidus temperature increases when CaO increases (i.e. when the
basicity increases).

Figure 9.3 Phase diagrams of slag liquidus temperatures at various Al₂O₃ levels.
(After slag atlas, 1981.)

In Figure 9.4, the composition of the slag resulting from a burden of self
fluxed sinter and pellets is indicated. The liquidus temperatures of the “pure”
components give high liquidus temperatures for the slag, well above 1500 °C.
How is it possible that the material melts in the cohesive zone?

The secret behind the melting of sinter and pellets is, that the ore burden
contains a lot of FeO, which lowers the melting temperature or, as mentioned
earlier, lowers the liquidus temperature and solidus temperature. This is
indicated in Figure 9.5. Here, the diagram of CaO, SiO₂ and FeO is presented.
At a basicity (CaO/SiO₂) of 0.9 the liquidus temperature of slag decreases, when
FeO is present. At 0 % FeO, the liquidus temperature is 1540 °C, at 20 % FeO
it’s 1370 °C and at 40 % FeO it’s 1220 °C. In the presence of Al₂O₃, the effect
Hot Metal and Slag 121

is even more pronounced and FeO can lower the slag liquidus temperature to
about 1120 °C (data not shown). The primary slag, i.e. the slag formed during
melting process and prior to solution of the coke ash components into the slag,
is made liquid due to dissolved FeO.

Figure 9.4 The slag composition of typical pellets and sinter qualities

SiO2
We
O

Slag Basicity 0.9

Ca

ig
ht 0–10
0 %tage

Tliquidus = 1540 °C
pe 0 %
(
)
(0– rcen

rce

Tliquidus = 1370 °C
nt )
10
pe

ag
ht

Tliquidus = 1220 °C
ig

SiO 2
We

CaO FeO
Weight percentage FeO
(0–100 %)

Figure 9.5 Influence of FeO on slag liquidus temperature

The final slag is made liquid through the solution of SiO₂ as indicated in Figure
9.6. The SiO₂ dissolves in the slag during it descent to the hearth.
122 Chapter IX

Figure 9.6 Slag formation

9.6 Hot metal and slag interactions: special situations

During special blast furnace situations like a blow–in or a very hot furnace the
hot metal silicon can rise to very high values. Since the silicon in the hot metal
is taken from the SiO₂ in the slag, the consequence is that the basicity increases.
This leads to high slag liquidus temperature (Figure 9.7).

Figure 9.7 Slag properties if hot metal silicon increases, a typical example
Hot Metal and Slag 123

In a situation with very high basicity the final slag is no longer liquid in the
furnace and cannot be cast. It will remain in the furnace where it can form a
ring of slag, particularly in the bosh region. Burden descent and casting will be
disrupted. Therefore, for special situations where hot metal silicon is expected
too be high, the slag should be designed to handle the high hot metal silicon. To
this end, extra SiO₂ has to be brought into the furnace and the recommended
method is the use of siliceous lump ore.

Some companies use quartzite, which is suitable to correct the basicity in

normal operation however, it is not suitable for chilled situations, since the
liquidus temperature of quartzite itself is very high (1700 °C). The effect of the
use of a siliceous ore can also be shown in the ternary diagram in Figure 9.8:
by working at a lower basicity, the liquidus temperature decreases along the
indicated line.

Figure 9.8 Effect of low basicity burden on slag liquidus termperatures

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 X Casthouse Operation
10.1 Objectives

The casthouse operation is an extremely important area for the blast furnace.
The main objectives of good casthouse operation may be summarised as follows;
– To remove liquid iron and slag from the furnace at a rate that does not allow the
process to be affected by increasing liquid levels in the hearth
– To separate and sample the iron and slag that is cast from the furnace
– To direct the iron to the ladle and the slag to the slag pot, pit or granulator

The extraction of liquids from the hearth is crucial for maintaining stable
process parameters, and the damaging effects of not casting the furnace will
very quickly become apparent. In this chapter the link between casting and
the Blast Furnace process will be explained, and the factors that determine the
ability to cast the furnace are discussed.

10.2 Liquid iron and slag in the hearth

The blast furnace process results in liquid iron and slag being produced. These
two liquids drip down into the coke–filled hearth of the blast furnace where
they wait to be tapped, or cast, from the furnace. The densities of the two
liquids are quite different; with iron (7.2 t/m³) being three times that of slag (2.4
t/m³). This difference leads to very good separation between the iron and the
slag once it is outside the furnace, given the correct trough dimensions, but also
means that separation will occur inside the hearth before the liquids are tapped,
see Figure 10.1.

Iron
Slag Slag Runner Iron Runner
Mushroom
Taphole Trough Skimmer

Figure 10.1 Slag and iron separation in the iron runner, or trough
126 Chapter X

The trough will still hold liquids from the preceding cast, so when the iron from
the next cast starts flowing, it will then increase the level in the runner so that
the iron already under the skimmer will also increase in height and start flowing
again over the iron dame. This iron will then flow to the tilting runner and into
a torpedo ladle. Once the ladle is full, the tilting runner will be repositioned
into a torpedo ladle which is parked alongside the full one, for that also to be
filled. The full ladle will be changed in the meantime for an empty one, so that
the cast is not interrupted.

The slag is sitting on top of the iron, so it does not flow under the skimmer so
long as the separation remains good. Once it has reached a certain level in the
trough it will flow over the slag dam and to either slag granulator or to a slag pit
or ladle. It is very important that iron is not allowed to go down the slag dam
as this can result in explosions in the granulator, or difficulties in emptying
the slag pit. For yield reasons it is also not desirable to have slag going into the
torpedo ladle.

The hearth itself is a refractory vessel contained by the steel blast furnace
shell, as shown in Figure 10.2. Cooling of the steel shell is essential to avoid
overheating of the refractory and shell to the point of failure. The taphole or
tapholes are positioned such that a pool, or sump, of liquids remains in the
bottom of the hearth to protect the pad, even after casting. The lower part,
known as the salamander, is only tapped at the end of a campaign, to allow for
access to the pad for demolition and replacement.

Figure 10.2 The Blast Furnace Hearth

Casthouse Operation 127

10.3 Removal of liquids through the taphole

The regular removal of liquids from the hearth is done through the taphole, or
tapholes. The number of tapholes can range from one to five, depending on the
size and output of the furnace. The majority of modern high productivity blast
furnaces have been between 2 and 4 tapholes. In normal operation of a furnace
with two or more tapholes, the tapholes will be used alternately, with one cast
being on one taphole, and the next cast being on the other. This also applies to
furnace with up to five tapholes. The reason for the extra tapholes is to ensure
that there are always two tapholes in operation, even through times of casthouse
repair, or emergency breakdown.

The tapholes are openings in the Blast Furnace shell with special refractory
constructions built into the hearth sidewall. The tapholes are opened by either
drilling through the refractory or by placing a bar in the refractory that is later
removed. The holes are closed by forcing a plug of malleable refractory clay into
the hole, which quickly hardens to securely seal the hole. In normal operation
this taphole clay will extend into the hearth, forming a taphole mushroom that
will protect the original refractory construction (see Figure 10.3).

Figure 10.3 Over the taphole campaign, the original lining will gradually be worn
away and replaced by taphole clay

The tapholes are perhaps the most vulnerable areas of the blast furnace due to
the constant wear and tear and reliance on consumable materials, equipment,
and manual intervention. If any of these factors are performing less than
optimally, then a deterioration in the taphole performance is the likely result.

The common taphole degradation causes are listed below;

– Improper (e.g. not central) drill positioning when opening the taphole
– Manual oxygen lancing to open the taphole
– Clay leakage out of the taphole on closing the hole
– Water leakage from inside the furnace
– Gas leakage through refractory surrounding the taphole itself
– Slag and iron attack – both chemical and physical
128 Chapter X

The liquid iron and slag flow from the taphole are determined partially by the
flow to the taphole on the inside of the hearth, but also by the characteristics of
the taphole itself, such as:
– The length of the taphole, which is affected by the plugging practise and the
clay quality
– The diameter of the taphole, both the diameter at which it was opened, but
more the wear of the taphole over time
– The roughness of the surface of the taphole
– The pressure inside the furnace, consisting of the furnace blast pressure and the
liquid hydrostatic pressure

As the taphole will wear through the cast, especially when slag starts to flow, the
rates of iron and slag flow are not constant through the cast. Even with good
casting regimes there will be a some variation in the hearth liquid level, with
the desired situation being as little variation as possible. The taphole clay quality
determines the resistance to slag attack, and therefore the choice of clay quality
is very important. This is often determined by availability of local supply, and so
is not discussed in detail here.

The length of the taphole is determined by the amount of clay injected, and so
more clay is always injected than is needed to just close the taphole. The excess
clay is pushed beyond the end of the taphole and forms a ‘mushroom’ at the
opening of the taphole in the hearth itself. This mushroom protects the taphole
block itself from wear. The larger the furnace, the bigger the mushroom inside
the hearth, and so the longer the taphole. An 11 metre furnace can expect to
have a taphole length of 2.5 m minimum, and at 14 m hearth diameter this
increases to 3 m.

10.4 Typical casting regimes

A blast furnace will be cast between 8 and 14 times per day. These casts may last
between 90 and 180 minutes, with the end of the cast indicated by a spraying
of the liquids caused by gas from the raceway escaping out of the taphole. In
this time the furnace processes a considerable part of its working volume. As
shown in chapter 2, the residence time of the burden is approximately 6 hours.
Therefore a 2 hour cast represents a third of the content of the blast furnace
being transformed from burden material to molten iron and slag.

Figure 10.4 shows an example of regular tapping sequence using two tapholes.
Most two, three and four taphole furnaces will operate in this way, with the
extra tapholes being either a spare or out for maintenance.
Casthouse Operation 129

slag
Taphole 1 iron

Taphole 2

Taphole 3

Taphole 4

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 0 2
Time of day (hrs)

Figure 10.4 Typical casting regimes with a two taphole furnace, showing iron run
times with slag above them

When the tapholes are closed, or one is open but the stream of liquid exiting has
a low flow rate, then the liquid level in the hearth will increase. That is to say,
the production rate is higher than the tapping rate. If this continues for long
enough, then the increased liquid level in the hearth can affect the blast furnace
process in the following ways:
1. The upward force on the submerged coke deadman is increased by the increased
liquid level. This increase in the upward force will slow down the burden
descent.
2. If the slag level is so high that it reaches the tuyeres then the gas flow will be
severely affected, with increased gas flow up the wall. This can result in poor
reduction of the burden and therefore a chilling furnace.
3. The slag can be blown high up in the active coke zone, impeding normal gas
distribution
4. If the hot metal level is so high that it reached the tuyeres, then it is possible a
cut tuyere will be the result, causing water leakage into the furnace. In the worst
case scenario the tuyere will burn severely or a blow–pipe will fail. This will
then lead to a blow–out of coke and a very critical emergency stop.

slag
iron

3
(m above taphole)
hearth liquid level

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
minutes

Figure 10.5 Casting and Hearth Liquid Level

130 Chapter X

In order to avoid any of these effects, the hearth liquid level should be kept
under control and preferably at a low level, as per the example given in Figure
10.5. In a modern, high productivity blast furnace, measurement of hot metal
and slag quantities should be registered real time, so that the casthouse crew can
take timely actions.

10.5 Taphole drill and clay gun

These two pieces of equipment are two of the most critical items on the blast
furnace. The maintenance of these items must be of a very high standard as
the availability of them on an active taphole can not be any less than 100%.
Cleaning of the gun nozzle after every plug is essential for ensuring that the clay
can be pushed at the next cast, which in turn will prevent the gun nozzle being
burned.

It is important to keep the taphole face clean and to clean down the sides of
the trough regularly so that there the mud gun can swing into place without
obstruction and the nozzle gets a good seal on the taphole face.

The clay quality and method of plugging the hole with the clay are very
important for both the length of the taphole and the flow rates of iron and slag.
Plugging has to be done at the same position as the drill has opened the hole to
avoid clay spillage.

The speed of the piston and the pressure used to force the clay into the hole has
a strong influence on the ability of the clay to plug the taphole effectively. If the
clay can only partially fill the hole then the next time the cast is opened the drill
will have more difficulty in opening the hole as it is also trying to cut through
iron particles. This is one of the reasons why the production rate of the furnace
can be limited by the taphole equipment, and so serious consideration should
always be given to upgrading the taphole gun and drill whenever significantly
higher production rates are targeted.

To preserve gas tightness of the taphole the post–pressing technique can be

applied. This technique involves pressurizing the clay with the clay gun after it
has filled the hole, to try and close any small cracks or fissures in the taphole.

Ensuring that the taphole drill is in the centre of the taphole each and every
time is also very important as otherwise the gun will not be able to plug the
taphole as well as it should, leading to less clay going in the hole and so a
shortening of the taphole and also potentially burning the gun. A selection
of drill bit diameters can be used, although the aim diameter should be kept
relatively constant when aiming for consistent tapping practises. The range
of drill diameters is then useful for special situations, when the tapping is
irregular, or changes to the production rate requires changes to casthouse
practise.
Casthouse Operation 131

As an alternative to the drill, a soaking bar may be used. This is a bar of solid
steel that is hammered through the clay immediately after it has been pushed
into the hole, while it is still soft. The clay is then allowed to harden and the
bar is pulled out. This results in a very smooth taphole of equal diameter
throughout, although the hammering of the bar in and out of the taphole can
increase the stresses on the taphole block construction itself and introduce gas
leakages.

10.6 Hearth liquid level

The level of liquids in the hearth should always be kept as low as possible. This
means that the hearth should never be used as a ‘buffer’ for the containment
of produced liquids. The reason for this is that the liquid level, above a certain
level, has a direct impact on the process. As shown earlier in Section 7.2, the
liquids in the hearth act as an upward force in the blast furnace, along with
the blast pressure. Should this force be allowed to increase, it will impact on
both the blast pressure and the descending burden. It is shown schematically in
Figure 10.6 what happens in the furnace when the liquid level increases too far.

Figure 10.6 Consequences of increased liquid level

(Arrows indicate burden descent rate)

As shown, the high liquid level causes the blast to be deflected more towards
the wall, rather than through the centre of the furnace. This is because the coke
in front of the tuyeres has been infiltrated with slag, and so is much less able to
accept the flow of the gasses produced at the raceway.
132 Chapter X

In this instance the bosh is subject to much higher heat loads than normal, and
the root of the cohesive zone will increase. However, at the same time the centre
of the furnace the cohesive zone will drop due to the reduction in gas passing
through the centre.

The blast pressure will also be higher as the resistance in front of the tuyeres is
higher, and the burden descent will slow considerably. The furnace may even
begin to hang, with the danger of slag filling the tuyeres should the furnace
then slip, where material will quickly drop into the full bath of liquids.

The wall temperatures all the way up the stack will also increase, as the gas
continues to preferentially travel against the furnace wall. This then subjects the
cooling elements to a higher heat load than they will usually encounter. This
increase in heat losses, coupled with the loss in furnace efficiency can lead to
cooling of the furnace. In this scenario the furnace should be cast without delay,
and actions taken to restore the process stability.

Figure 10.7 shows the effect on stockline level in the case where high residual
liquid levels is affecting the burden descent. The burden descent slows when the
taphole is closed, and then speeds up significantly towards the end of cast, to
the extent that the charging system is unable to keep up and a lowered stockline
is the result.
Descending so fast that
the charging system can’t
keep up—stockline lost

Charging speed slows as Increased speed of burden

furnace hearth fills descent as liquids are tapped

Figure 10.7 High residual liquid levels and burden descent

10.7 Delayed casting

In most plants the casting regime will have been calculated and observed to
arrive at an optimum length of time in between casts. This is referred to as
the gap time, defined by the time between stopping liquid flow by closing one
taphole and starting liquid flow by opening another, or in the case of single
Casthouse Operation 133

taphole furnaces, reopening the same taphole. This will be determined by the
production rate, number of tapholes, and casting rate. In the majority of cases
this casting regime will be adhered to, that is to say, the gap time will be met.
However, where there are problems in meeting this schedule, remedial actions
may be required.

When casting the furnace it is required to have a good, controlled liquid flow
rate from the furnace. Where a taphole is open but is not casting well, the flow
should be improved by, for example, re–drilling the hole or re–drilling with a
larger drill bit. If the slow flow is allowed to continue then it is quite possible
that the furnace will be producing liquids at a higher rate than they are being
cast, which will lead to problems inside the furnace.

Whether the casting is delayed, or indeed the casting speed is slower than the
production speed, one of the factors that effects the filling rate of the hearth
in terms of height is that of the coke bed voidage. The coke bed voidage is an
unknown value. Studies have shown that it can vary between 20% and 30%
but as yet there is direct method of measuring it. It is also quite likely that
the voidage of the coke bed will vary between the centre and the peripheral,
and from the bottom to the top, so the assumed overall voidage is not directly
applicable to every area in the coke bed. The coke quality will have a strong
impact on the voidage, as the breakdown of the coke higher up in the furnace
will generated fines, and a wider size distribution of particles that will create a
more densely packed coke bed.

By way of an illustration of filling speed, take for example an 8.5 m diameter

hearth blast furnace, with a taphole to tuyere distance of 2.6 m producing 3630
tonnes per day with a slag rate of 220 kg/tHM. By calculating the volume of
space between the taphole and tuyeres, assuming a coke bed voidage of 20 %,
the length of time until the liquid level is at the tuyere can be calculated. In this
case it is 62 minutes. If the coke bed voidage is 25 %, then this increases to 77
minutes, and at 30 % voidage it is 93 minutes. We therefore have the situation
whereby in one instance the furnace has 90 minutes of full production before
the hearth liquids are at tuyere level, and another instance when it has only 60
minutes.

Once the liquid level is at the tuyere, it is already expected that problems with
blast pressure will have been experienced, so actions may already have been
taken to reduce the blast volume. However if the problems that caused the
delayed casting are not resolved when the furnace has already reached this stage,
then it will become impossible to take the furnace off wind without slag, and
even iron flowing into the blowpipes.

For these reasons it is considered to be good practice to take remedial actions

immediately when it is known that the casting will be delayed, regardless of the
reason. Estimates may be given for the completion of work, or the restoration of
services, but as far as the blast furnace is considered it will continue to produce
134 Chapter X

iron regardless, and if the original estimates are found to be wrong, it will often
be too late to take anything than extreme reactions to try to protect the blast
furnace. If the iron, and more importantly the slag, is not removed from the
furnace in a timely manner, then the process will very quickly suffer, with the
extreme case being a frozen hearth.

In the case where the operator is faced with a casting delay, different actions
may be taken depending on the current condition of the blast furnace. If it is
still casting the previous cast, and it is safe to continue to do so, then the oxygen
and then wind rate may be reduced prior to closing the hole, reducing the
production rate and so giving a much longer safe gap time.

In this situation the action to reduce production rate should be aimed at

safe operation continuing, for example, wind rate should be reduced to the
minimum at which injection remains on the furnace. Oxygen should be
decreased to the minimum, determined by a simple formula, such as for every
30 kg/tHM injection over a limit of 70 kg/tHM the oxygen enrichment should
be increased by 1 %.

Due to the uncertainty in the available voidage for hot metal and slag, it is
prudent to make conservative estimates when determining the control actions
to be taken.

10.8 No slag casting

As the iron is below the liquid slag, and the taphole elevation will always be at
the depth of the iron pool at the start of cast, then iron will be cast before the
slag. As the liquid level drops, then a mixture of slag and iron will begin to flow.
At the end of the cast the majority of liquid is slag, with iron flowing at the
production rate. Sometimes, however, the furnace will cast iron without casting
slag, or at least not as much as should be cast.

Although the iron is the focus of the blast furnace, the iron cannot be made
without the slag, and due to the nature of it, the slag proves to be the more
difficult liquid to cast. Basic slags have a higher melting temperature than acid
slags, but the basic slags are more desirable for the desulphurisation properties,
so for hot metal quality it is required to use a more basic slag. In time of
difficulties, however, one of the first actions to ensure that the furnace will be
able to cast well is to reduce the slag basicity. This will give the operator the best
chance of being able to get the slag out of the taphole.

If events in the furnace cause a change to either the temperature or the

composition of the slag, then it can become much more viscous than the iron,
and drainage through the coke bed becomes increasingly difficult. The iron will
flow much more easily, and so it can occur that casting will continue with little
or no slag being cast. The slag is still being produced, however, and so it is very
Casthouse Operation 135

important to make sure it comes out of the furnace before it interferes with the
process.

The problem may be seen to be developing at an earlier stage by monitoring the

following parameters:
– Amount of slag cast, measured by the number of slag pots filled or by indirect
methods such as the speed at which the slag granulator drum rotates, or
temperature pick–up in the granulator outlet water.
– Percent slag time – this is the number of minutes that slag has been cast divided
by the number of minutes in the cast, expressed as a percentage. Ideally this
number should be fairly constant and representative of the slag volume that
the furnace is producing, however it is only accurate when the flow of slag is
constant between casts.
– Slag over time – this is the point in time when the slag first flows over the slag
dam. Slag will have started exiting the taphole before this point, but not in large
enough quantity to give a good indication.
– Slag Gap – this is the number of minutes from when the liquids stopped being
cast at the end of the previous cast to the slag over time of the current cast.

When it is clear that the slag is not draining from the furnace as well as it
should be, efforts should be made to improve the slag drainage. This may be
done by a variety of methods, and it is likely that procedures already exist for it.
Using a larger diameter drill bit on the next cast will increase the flow, and may
improve the situation. If the taphole is already short, however, and a short cast
caused the lack of slag, it may be better to increase the length of the hole so that
a longer cast is the result. The problem may only be at one taphole, so changing
to the other taphole will already improve the situation inside the furnace.
Opening the second taphole should be done after a defined period of no slag
casting, as specified in the standard operating procedures for the plant.

If the furnace is on a cooling trend, combined with difficulties tapping slag,

increasing the fuel injectant to warm up the fresh iron and slag may temporarily
improve the situation, but a coke rate increase will also be required.

Shortening the gap time may also be advisable, especially when it is suspected
that liquids remain in the furnace.

10.9 One–side casting

Furnaces with only one taphole are of course optimized for tapping single
sided, as are some blast furnaces that follow a routine of having one taphole in
operation and one as standby. The majority of two and more taphole furnaces,
operate on an alternating taphole basis using two tapholes. This will mean
tapping through one taphole, closing it, and then either opening the second
taphole immediately or waiting the designated gap time before opening the
hole.
136 Chapter X

The single most important effect of single taphole casting compared to

alternate casting is that of the gap time. During the gap time the furnace is
still producing liquids but not casting them. Ideally the gap time is calculated
as the optimum to allow enough liquid accumulation in the hearth to allow a
smooth cast for the desired period of time, with good iron and slag removal,
but without increasing the hearth liquid enough to affect the blast pressure.
However the gap time can also be affected by external factors such as how long
it takes to change torpedoes, clay cure time, maintaining and cleaning the
runner system, etc. Where this is the case then it is very important to remember
that the furnace is still producing liquids at the same rate, unless a change is
made to slow down the production, see Figure 10.8.

slag
iron

3
(m above taphole)
hearth liquid level

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

minutes

Figure 10.8 Effect of single taphole casting on hearth liquid levels

In single taphole furnaces the minimum gap time is often dictated by the curing
time for the clay. If the taphole is opened before the clay has hardened, much
of it will easily wash away, which will quickly erode the taphole mushroom and
expose the taphole refractory block itself. With alternating casting this is not
a problem as the clay has the time that the other taphole is in use to harden.
Therefore, single taphole furnace use resin bound clay types.

The gap time has major impact on hearth liquid level and thus on the process
results. In Figure 10.9 the effect of the gap time on hearth liquid level is
simulated: it is clear from the figure, that in this calculation the highest hearth
liquid level rises from 2.5 m above taphole to 3.8 m above taphole when gap
time is increased from 30 to 60 minutes.
Casthouse Operation 137

m above taphole
3

1
30 min gap time
0
m above taphole 4

1
45 min gap time
0

4
m above taphole

1
60 min gap time
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
minutes

Figure 10.9 Effect of gap time on hearth liquid level, single taphole operation.

If a furnace must switch from alternate to single sided casting the area to look
at firstly is the difference in gap time between the two practices. If alternate
casting requires a gap time shorter than the time it takes for the clay to harden,
then single casting will require a change in practice. If different clay is available,
then this may be applied, but caution should be used during the transition as
the clay already in the hole may not combine well with the new clay.

If there is a significant difference in the gap time then to minimize the

fluctuation in hearth liquid levels, it may be advisable to reduce the production
rate. Experience has shown that an 11m hearth diameter blast furnace can
produce 5500 to 6000 t/d with one taphole, and a 14m heath diameter furnace
can produce around 8000 t/d. This is often a significant reduction compared
with what the furnace is usually producing.

10.10 Not dry casts

A cast that has ended before all the liquids have been drained from the hearth
is described as a not dry cast. This is reported whenever the taphole has to be
stopped during a cast, such as when the torpedoes are full, or there has been
a problem in the casthouse that required the flow of liquids to be stopped.
Other causes can be a very short taphole or a crack in the taphole mushroom.
It is good practice to record the suspected reason for a not–dry cast so that
improvement plans for the worst offenders can be made.

A not dry cast may also be reported when the taphole is showing signs of end
of cast, when it can be reasonably suspected that the furnace is not empty. This
could be when the slag is not yet over, or it has only been casting for a very short
time, or not enough liquid volume has come out of the furnace.
138 Chapter X

A third example of a not dry cast is more difficult to determine, and can easily
be missed as the signs are less obvious and may only be picked up in the control
room, rather than on the casthouse itself. In the case of a series of casts where
the casting has appeared to be normal, it is still possible that some slag has been
retained in the furnace after each cast. This will not be noticed after one or two,
or depending on the amount, perhaps even more casts, but after successive casts
where a small amount of slag has been retained in the furnace, it will build up
to a large amount. At the point the blast pressure can begin to be affected.

This will be more noticeable when the furnace is closed as the blast pressure
may increase, and continue to increase until the taphole is opened again. It
may not decrease again until the slag begins to tap at a reasonable rate, and so
lowering the level in the furnace. As the signs with blast pressure are not always
a precise match with the casting times it can sometimes be dismissed as the
cause. On these occasions it is useful to look to the slag time percentage, as well
as the slag run durations themselves.

Depending on the cause of the not dry cast, slightly different reactions may
be appropriate. Where the not dry cast is known and the taphole is closed for
operational reasons, the second taphole should be opened immediately. Where
this is not possible the oxygen and then wind rate should be reduced and the
original taphole is re–opened as soon as possible. Where this is not possible, the
decision to close the taphole should be delayed as much as possible, with wind
rate being reduced as far as liquid levels will allow. At this point it is a balance
between how much damage is being caused outside the furnace due to, for
example, molten metal spill, compared to the danger of flooding tuyeres with
slag and iron.

In the case where the taphole has shown signs of the hearth being empty, but
it is thought that it is not from the casting times and amount of slag cast, then
there are a few different actions that may be considered. If there is a second
taphole available then it may be opened prior to the first being closed. Once
this is safely open the first one may then be closed, known as overlap casting.
Alternatively, the normal gap time between casts may be reduced to zero, so the
second taphole is opened immediately after the first is closed. It is important
to ensure that both tapholes do not finish casting at the same time as that will
introduce a necessary gap time, so once slag appears at one of the tapholes, it
should be closed to allow the other to cast normally. This technique of when
to open and when to close a second taphole should be included in the standard
operating procedure for casting to ensure that the best sequence, proven in
practice, is followed by all operators.

In either case, a larger drill bit may be used to open the original taphole again,
when it is due to cast. This may help in removing the liquids from this side,
assuming that a short taphole length is not the cause of the problem.
Casthouse Operation 139

Where only one taphole is available, the taphole may be closed for either a
much reduced gap time, for example 10 minutes rather than 30 minutes, with a
shorter clay stop. It is also possible to stop the taphole without clay for a minute
or so, but it should first be checked whether the gun is sufficiently protected to
do this. This practice should not be repeated on the same taphole as it will allow
the taphole mushroom to erode too quickly, causing further problems.

These same actions may also be taken if the blast pressure is being affected by a
possible build up of slag in the furnace. At the same time, however, other causes
of increasing blast pressure should also be investigated.

10.11 Defining a dry hearth

Witnessing a blow at the taphole is often considered to be the definitive critera

for whether the furnace is dry or not. Although a good indicator, and should
never be taken for granted, a blow at the taphole only indicates that the liquids
in the vicinity of the taphole are drained, and does not say anything about
liquids in other areas of the hearth. Where the drainage to the taphole is poor
from area far from the taphole, then it is possible for liquid levels in the area
of the taphole to drop sufficiently low for a blow at the taphole to appear while
there are still a lot of liquids left in the furnace. In this scenario the taphole
should still be plugged, but the cast is to be considered to be a not dry cast.
Unfortunately these are not always possible to determine from the casthouse.
The indicators of a dry hearth can be summarised as the following;
1. Casting until a blow at the taphole is witnessed
2. Enough slag and iron has been removed from the furnace to correspond with
the known production rate
3. The process parameters show no sign of the hearth holding liquids – blast
pressure normal, charging rate normal
4. The furnace can be shut down at any time, without concern that slag or iron
will flow into the tuyeres.

It is the last of these criteria that is often the defining one, where the decision
to take the furnace off for a short stop is delayed until after the next cast. This
in itself indicates that the operator is not confident that the hearth has been
drained sufficiently to avoid any residual liquid threatening to enter the tuyere
when the blast pressure is reduced. An operator who can confidently take the
furnace off blast at the end of the current cast is one who has confidence that
the furnace is draining well during the cast.

10.12 Oxygen lancing

On occasion it is unavoidable to open the taphole using oxygen lancing. This

practice should be considered a last resort as it is extremely damaging to the
taphole refractory. Where the use of oxygen lances is increasing, the situation
should be investigated very closely to identify the root cause.
140 Chapter X

Where the use of oxygen lances is unavoidable, they should only ever be used by
experienced casthouse workers, following the pre–drilled hole to ensure that the
lance is burning in a straight line down the centre of the taphole. If more than
one lance is required the interval between the two should be as short as possible,
with the practice continues until the taphole is opened. Where this is causing a
long delay to the cast, alternative or additional actions such as opening a second
taphole or reducing wind rate should be considered at an early stage.

Repeated use of oxygen lances to open the taphole is likely to cause irreparable
damage to the taphole area, and may even pre–empt a taphole break–out or
necessitate an extensive taphole repair to avoid such a break–out. There is a very
large risk associated with using oxygen lances as it is very difficult to ensure
that the lance is burning in a straight line. Damage to the taphole block or to
taphole staves are the biggest concern.

10.13 Cast data recording

For good analysis of taphole condition and casting performance it is important

to keep very good cast records. Some of the data that should be recorded on a
cast basis is as follows:
– Cast Number
– Time start drilling
– Number drills or oxygen lances used to open hole
– Time liquid start flowing
– Drill diameter used to open hole
– Taphole length
– Time slag over
– Time end cast
– Amount of clay used to close taphole
– Clay type used
– Blow at the taphole

The cast end times, drill start times, iron run and slag over times can be plotted
very easily to allow quick and easy interpretation of the casting. This method
is often much more illustrative and quicker to interpret than the lists of times
that are often meticulously recorded. Having the times plotted on a black chart
which is being constantly updated, allows problems to be identified very quickly
and so solutions applied at an earlier stage than may otherwise have been the
case.
XI Special Situations
11.1 Fines in ore burden

11.1.1 Segregation of fines and coarse material

The permeability of the ore layer is determined by the amount of fines (< 5 mm)
in that layer. Unfortunately, when bulk material is handled, fines are formed.
Therefore, normally coke and ore burden are screened before being charged into
the furnace.

Moreover, fines tend to segregate. When material is put into stock, the fine
material remains on the point of impact and the coarser material roll outwards,
known as segregation. This effect is known wherever granular material is
handled. So, when reclaiming material from stock, it is important to avoid high
amounts of fines being reclaimed and sent to the furnace without screening.

Similar segregation can take place while charging the furnace, and can impact
the furnace process. Fines in general are undesirable due to the blocking of the
spaces between the larger particles, however due to the flow characteristics of
fines, they can also deposit preferentially in certain areas. The impact of this is
particularly noticeable with bell–charged furnaces, where the fine particles will
drop directly down onto the stockline, and the large particles will flow a little
more outward and deposit at the wall (see Figure 11.1). If material hits the wall
before it reaches the burden level, the fines will accumulated close to the wall
and the coarser material will flow more inwards.

This segregation effect also takes place when filling a bunker, be it in the
stockhouse or on the bell–less top, segregation will always take place. When
material is required from a bunker, it starts to deliver the material that has been
charged in the centre: those being the fine materials, while later the coarser
materials from the sides begin to flow.
142 Chapter XI

Figure 11.1 Segregation of fines during charging, with a bell and bell–less top
charging system

A concentration of fines close to the wall can have a negative effect on the
reduction and melting of the ore as it forms a blockage for the passage of hot
reducing gasses through the ore layers, as shown in Figure 11.2.

Figure 11.2 Fines charged at wall migrating through the furnace and appearing as
‘scabs’ in front of tuyeres
Special Situations 143

Note that there is a difference between the path travelled by the coarse materials
and fines. When the burden descends though the furnace, the fines fill the holes
as soon as they are formed, while coarse materials follow the wall. Fines travel
more vertically and faster towards the cohesive zone! (See Figure 11.2) With
a bell top arrangement it is possible to deflect the fines by using the furnace
movable armour as a deflector, and with a bell–less top by charging from the
outer position to the inner.

An additional source of fines that can be avoided through slight modification in

stockhouse practices is that of bin management. The drop that the raw materials
experience can vary significantly, depending on the height of the bin. By
maintaining a standard bin fill level, such as 65 to 75 %, the quantity of fines
generated remains at a constant level. If there are screens after the bins then this
will increase the yield and if there are not, it will decrease the fines loading to
the furnace.

11.2 Moisture input

The moisture charged into the furnace with the coke and ore burden must be
removed before the process can start. This takes place in the upper part of the
furnace. The centre dries very quickly, but in the wall area it can take much
longer, as shown in the figure, about 40 minutes.

1500
Temperature

Centre
1000

Wall
500

0
0 100 200 300
Time

Figure 11.3 Temperature in furnace

If the moisture input increases, then it will take longer for the material to
dry and the isotherm where the reduction process will start will descend
downwards. As a consequence the reduction process will be less efficient and
more oxygen will be removed by direct reduction, consuming energy and so
cooling the furnace.

Most companies are equipped with moisture gauges for coke, so that variation
of the moisture input in coke is compensated for with an additional weight
of coke. Note that this is only a minimum correction to maintain the current
thermal state. If the furnace is already in a critical state the compensation with
coke moisture gauges will not be sufficient to compensate for the decreased
efficiency of the reduction process.
144 Chapter XI

Where moisture is added in place of coke the furnace cools and so the normal
thermal control procedures will be activated, usually calling for additional fuel.
If the moisture level then reduces again, the furnace will warm up, triggering
another set of actions. If this is allowed to continue, the furnace will enter a
thermal cycle that will in turn consume more fuel than required, and be at risk
of chilling.

This effect is just as important with pellet moisture, especially where pellets
have been shipped or stored under damp conditions. They can contain up to
6 % water. When a batch of these pellets are charged to the furnace the top
temperature will decrease with the additional moisture, but the furnace will
start to warm up due to the lower amount of iron that is being charged to the
furnace. Coke rate changes will normally be made to correct for this warm up,
however once this batch of wet pellets have been consumed it is very important
to realize that the furnace will then cool down due to the additional iron that
is being charged. If this is not anticipated then the furnace can cool down very
quickly, so it is better to anticipate this change by increasing coke rate when it
is known that the wet pellets have been consumed and dry pellets are soon to
arrive.

Ideally, coke and pellet moisture gauges can be installed to monitor and correct
for any changes on–line. These moisture gauges take regular readings of the
as–charged moisture levels for coke and pellets and will make corrections for
the weight, so that the required quantity of the material is charged.

The recommended approach is that the top temperature is not allowed to fall for
a prolonged period (8–16 hrs) below dewpoint temperature. Some companies
are able to run the top gas temperature at low average levels, well below 100 °C.
In these situations it is recommend even to monitor the temperatures in the wall
area (3–5 m below the burden level) to monitor whether or not the burden is
dry ‘on time’.

11.3 Recirculating elements

Potassium, sodium and zinc tend to recirculate within the blast furnace. They
form gaseous compounds, which condense on colder parts of the burden.
These elements can have a negative impact on the refractory condition. Alkalis
will affect the coke reactivity (Chapter 3) and in doing so will increase direct
reduction reactions.

In furnaces operated with a central gas flow, the top gas temperatures in the
centre increase to such a level that part of the alkalis and all the zinc leaves the
furnace with the top gas. If top gas temperatures are low, the alkalis and zinc
may accumulate in the furnace. The zinc normally condenses on the refractory.
Alkali build–up is manifest by observing the potassium content in the slag,
especially when the slag is acid and/or the furnace is cold. Alkali leaves the
Special Situations 145

furnace easier with a low basicity (B₂ < 0.9) slag and at low HM temperature.
One rule of thumb is, that as long as K₂O in a lean or cold cast is < 1%, no
significant accumulation takes place. It is also observed how fast the potassium
in the slag returns to a normal level, when slag is lean, such as when preparing
for a stop.

11.4 Charging rate variability

Most operators observe the charging rate in a furnace as defined by the amount
of charges put in the furnace per hour. If the charging rate increases, while
tuyere conditions are unaltered, the furnace will fall short of heat. Simply put,
with the same amount of heat and gas produced at the tuyeres more hot metal is
made, so the furnace will chill. The reasons for this happening can be various;
a fuel shortage as a consequence of too low coke input (correction of coke
moisture gauges); too much input of ferrous material (e.g. when changing from
‘wet’ pellets to dry pellets); or by changing process conditions.

Here we refer to increased direct reduction reactions. In some situations the gas
reduction of the burden does not progress sufficiently. This can be caused by
– Too much water input, lowering the isotherms within the furnace and
shortening the process height of the furnace, especially at the wall.
– Irregular burden descent, causing mixed layers.
– High residual level which affects the normal gas flow through the burden.
– Charging delays causing that the newly charged material to see shorter process
height and altering burden distribution.

The resultant material with insufficient pre–reduction will in any case continue
to descend to the high temperature region above the tuyeres. When this
material starts melting, all oxygen will participate in direct reduction. This
consumes coke and since coke consumption drives the production rate, the
production rate will increase further. This is a self propagating effect, and will
chill the furnace within hours.

Experienced operators equipped with the right tools can observe the increased
direct reduction long before the casthouse gives warning of low hot metal
temperature. The method to correct the incident is by slowing down the
production rate, with extra fuel injection and/or lower blast volume, and by
maximizing heat input into the furnace (maximum hot blast temperature and
no blast moisture).

11.5 Stops and start–ups

When a blast furnace in full operation is stopped, some of the processes

continue. While the blast is stopped, the direct reduction reactions within
the furnace continue as well as heat losses to the wall. The consequence is
that the temperature of the material in the melting zone is reduced to around
146 Chapter XI

1000 °C, which is the start of the carbon solution loss reaction. The decreasing
temperature re–solidifies the melting materials. Therefore, after a stop it takes
some time for the burden to start descending. The burden descent restarts as
soon as the “old” melting zone is molten (Figure 11.4).

Figure 11.4 Solidified melting zone as consequence of a stop

The heat shortage for a stop of a furnace operating with PCI is even worse:
during the stop procedure the coal injection is switched off from the furnace
and during the start–up it takes time to restart the PCI. An additional
reductant shortage results.

In addition, after a stop the hot metal silicon sometimes rises to very high
values, especially if during the stop/start procedure the furnace is operated at a
low blast volume. As shown in Figure 9.6, the basicity of the slag will be affected
by the high hot metal silicon and might even solidify within the furnace. This
results in disturbed burden descent. Heating up the slag is the only solution,
which can be achieved by charging extra coke into the furnace 6–8 hours prior
to the stop.

So, in order to compensate for the heat losses during a stop and the risk for high
hot metal silicon, the following measures have to be applied:
– Extra reductant into the furnace. Coke as well as auxiliary reductants are
possible. Additional reductant is needed for a period that the furnace is not
operated on PCI.
– Design slag composition for low basicity at high hot metal silicon. Use of a
siliceous lump ore is recommended. Even if a stop is unplanned, taking these
measures after the stop is worthwhile.

For a blow–in after a stop major pitfalls are:

– Too fast blow–in. The solidified melting zone will take time to melt during the
start–up. If allowed time is insufficient, the pressure difference over the burden
Special Situations 147

can increase too much, leading to gas escaping along the wall (high heat losses)
and poor burden descent.
– Too fast restart of the PCI. Since the melting zone is solidified, there is a risk
that solid agglomerates will block the hot blast through the tuyere. If this
happens, the coal will still be blown into the blowpipe where it can cause
blowpipe failure. It is recommended to restart coal injection only when the
burden starts descending.
– Too high slag basicity.

11.6 Blow–down

Blowing down a blast furnace requires operating the furnace without

simultaneous charging of the furnace. Therefore, all material charged into the
furnace is exposed to the same temperatures and reduction processes as if the
furnace was fully charged.

However, since the temperature of the shaft gas is not transferred to the cold
charge, the off–gas temperatures increases and the gas composition changes.
Since the equipment has not been designed to withstand the high top gas
temperatures, the top gas temperatures are kept under control by spraying
water. The water sprayed above the burden should be prevented from reaching
the burden surface, either directly via descent on top of the burden or indirectly
via the wall. Special atomising nozzles are required and the success of the blow–
down heavily depends on proper spraying. The progress of the blow–down
process can be measured from the burden level as well as from the analysis of
the top gas composition. Since less and less oxygen is removed from the ore, the
CO₂ percentage decreases and CO percentage increases (Figure 11.5).
0

-4

-8
Stack
-12

-16
Bosh
-20
Tuyere level
-24

40 0.8

35 0.7
CO
30 0.6

25 0.5

20 0.4

15 H2 0.3

10 CO2 0.2

5 0.1
O2
0 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720 780 840

Figure 11.5 Typical progress of a blow–down

148 Chapter XI

Moreover, generally H₂ increases as a consequence of the (unavoidable) contact

of spraying water with the hot coke. At the end of the blow–down, when the
level of the coke is coming close to the tuyeres, the CO₂ formed at the tuyeres
has insufficient opportunity to be transformed to CO and the CO₂ percentage
in the top gas increases. As soon as half of the oxygen is in CO₂ (i.e. when the
CO₂ percentage equals half the CO percentage), the furnace should be isolated
from the gas system.

Normally, a blow–down takes 10 to 12 hours, after a preparatory stop, to reach

the tuyere level.

Prior to the blow–down the furnace contains coke in the active coke zone
and dead man, and alternating layers of coke and ore in melting zone and
stack zone. Since during the blow down the coke of the active coke zone and
dead man will be gasified, there is coke excess in the blast furnace. During
the latter stages of the blow down reduction reactions have largely stopped, so
any auxiliary reductant injection can be stopped during the early stages of the
blow down. The moment is indicated by the gas analysis: as soon as the CO₂
percentage starts to decrease to below 10%, then there is little iron oxide left to
reduce.

The burden level in the furnace is difficult to measure with standard stock
rods. Mechanical stock rods have to be equipped with chain extensions and
recalibrated for the purpose. The stock rods should be used only at intervals,
since the high temperatures above the burden may cause chain breakage. Radar
level indicators can be used if reliable. Indications from the level of the burden
can also be obtained from:
– The pressure taps.
– The casthouse operation i.e. the quantity of iron cast.
– Calculation of the amount of coke consumed in front of the tuyeres.

The required condition of the furnace after the blow–down depends on the
purpose of the blow–down and consequent repair. Generally the walls have to
be clean. Cleaning of the hearth is another important topic. If solid skulls and
scabs are expected in the hearth and have to be removed prior to the blow–
down, the furnace can be operated for a prolonged period on a high thermal
level, relatively low PCI rate and without titanium addition. The effect of these
measures is, however, uncertain.

11.7 Blow–in from new

Blowing in a furnace from new can be considered in two phases:

Phase 1 Heating–up the hearth.
Phase 2 Starting the reduction reactions and iron production. The two phases are
discussed separately below.
Special Situations 149

11.7.1 Heating up the hearth

Heat is generated by the reaction of coke carbon to CO. Coke generates 55 kJ
per mole carbon, when reacting to CO, which corresponds to 3.9 MJ/ t coke.

The heat requirement in the early stages of the blow–in is for the following:
– Heat coke in the hearth, dead man and active coke zone to 1500°C.
– Heat required for evaporation of moisture from the coke.
– Heat required to compensate for moisture in blast dissociating into hydrogen
gas (H₂O + C Ⱥ CO + H₂).
– Heat to compensate for loss of heat through the wall.

A detailed analysis of the heat requirement to fill the hearth, dead man and
active coke zone with coke of 1500°C indicates the following:
– Moisture in the coke can be neglected.
– The heat required filling the hearth, dead man and active coke zone with hot
coke of 1500°C requires an amount of coke gasified to CO of about two–thirds
of the estimated volume of the hearth/dead man/active coke zone.
– Additional heat requirement arises from the water dissociation reaction and the
heat losses through the wall. For example, if 300 tonne coke is required to fill
hearth, dead man and active coke zone with coke, a coke blank is required with
a total weight of 600 tonne: 300 tonne to fill hearth, dead man and active coke
zone with coke and 300 tonne for the generation of heat to bring the coke to
1500 °C.
– In the early stages of a blow–in, blast temperature should be maximised and
blast moisture minimised.
– Heating up the hearth requires some 7 to 8 hours after the blow–in. Heat is
generated from coke used at the tuyeres.

11.7.2 Starting the reduction processes

During the early stages of the blow–in while the hearth is heating up, the
reduction of the iron oxides has not yet begun due to the temperatures
being too low. Therefore, one has to consider the increased amount of direct
reduction. The situation may become difficult if the level of direct reduction is
too high, (and gas reduction is low). This situation manifests itself from:
– The gas utilisation.
– The direct reduction, as manifest from CO+CO₂ exceeds “normal” values.

The gas utilisation is an indication of the amount of gas reduction taking

place, while the total CO and CO₂ percentage is an indication for the direct
reduction. Especially the CO₂ percentage indicates if gas reduction takes place.

11.7.3 Slag formation

In general, the slag during blow–in has to be designed for high hot metal
silicon. However, with the proposed method the hot metal silicon should be
under control. If we continue to follow the “two–phase” blow–in approach
150 Chapter XI

mentioned here, during the first phase of the blow–in about 350 tonne coke is
gasified in 8 hours and the slag formed comes only from the coke ash. Taking
10 % ash and 30 % of the ash as Al₂O₃, we get during the first 8 hours 35 tonne
of a high Al₂O₃ slag. This will not cause a problem in the furnace because of the
small volume. The coke ash can be diluted, e.g. by using a high siliceous ore in
the coke blank. In order to dilute to 20 % Al₂O₃, some 30 tonne of a siliceous
ore has to be added to the 350 tonne coke blank.

11.7.4 Hot metal quality during blow–in

As soon as the hearth is heated the hot metal temperature exceeds 1400 °C. As
soon as the top temperature exceeds dew–point, all excess moisture has been
removed from the furnace and the process has started. There is only limited heat
required for heating up and drying of refractories, if compared with the heat
requirements of the process itself. So as soon as hot metal temperature reaches
1400 °C and top temperature exceeds 90 °C, the process has to be brought back
to normal operation conditions.

However, in this situation the coke rate in the furnace is still very high and the
hot metal silicon will rise to 4 to 5 %. The hot metal silicon can be reduced by
putting a normal coke rate in the furnace. The “normal” coke rate at “all coke”
operation is about 530 kg/tHM. In doing so, however, it takes considerable time
to consume all excess coke, which is present in the furnace. More rapid decrease
of hot metal silicon can be reached, if a lower coke rate is charged and auxiliary
injection is used as soon as required. The injectant is switched on, as soon as the
hot metal silicon decreases below 1 %.

An example of such a rapid blow–in of a furnace is presented in Figure 11.7.

At the blow–in the furnace was started–up with eight tuyeres (of 36). After
opening all tuyeres, a “heavy” burden (coke rate 450 kg/tHM) was put in the
furnace 50 hours after the blow–in and coal injection was put on the furnace 58
hours after the blow–in. Hot metal silicon reached the 1% mark 60 hours after
the blow–in. The fourth day after the blow–in, average hot metal silicon was
0.95 % and productivity was 2.1 t/m³ WV/d.

5 1600

4 1550
HMT
3 1500

2 1450

1 1400
Silicon
0 1350
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91

Figure 11.7 Charged coke rate and hot metal silicon after blow–in
Glossary
Angle of repose
The natural angle that is formed when material is discharged onto a pile.

Apatite
A group of phosphate minerals Ca₅(PO₄)₃(OH, F, Cl).

Banded Iron Formation (BIF)

A sedimentary mineral deposit consisting of alternate silica-rich (chert or
quartz) and iron rich layers formed 2.5–3.5 billion years ago; the major source of
iron ore.

Bentonite
An absorbent aluminum silicate clay formed from volcanic ash and used in
various adhesives, cements, and ceramic fillers.

Calcium ferrite
Crystal of CaO and Fe₂O₃.

Chert
A hard, dense sedimentary rock composed of fine-grained silica (SiO₂).

CO₂ Foot Print

The total amount of CO₂ emitted per ton of product over the whole route and
taking all energy requirements into account.

Decrepitation
Breaking up of mineral substances when exposed to heat.

Dolomite
Material consisting of lime and magnesium carbonates; extensively used for
adjusting the slag composition directly into the blast furnace or via sinter.

Fayalite
Compound of iron silicate: 2FeO.SiO₂.
152 Glossary

Harmonic Mean Size (HMS)

The harmonic mean is the number of values divided by the sum of the
reciprocals of the values. This gives a truer average value where ranges of values
are used as it tends to mitigate the effect of large outliers from the total data set.

Haematite
Iron oxide in the form of Fe₂O₃.

Magnetite
Iron oxide in the form of Fe₃O₄.

Mill scale
The scale removed in a hot strip mill from the steel slab, mainly iron oxide.

Olivine
A mineral silicate of iron and magnesium, principally 2MgO.SiO₂, found in
igneous and metamorphic rocks and used as a structural material in refractories
and in cements.

Serpentine
Any of a group of greenish, brownish, or spotted minerals, Mg₃Si₂O₅(OH)₄,
used as a source of magnesium and asbestos. Generally a blend of olivine and
fayalite with various impurities.

Spinel
Mineral composed of magnesium aluminate.

Wustite
Iron oxide in the form of FeO, does not occur in nature; produced during
reduction process.
 153

Annex I Further Reading

Babich, A., Senk, D. Gudenau, H.W. Mavrommatis, K. (2008) Ironmaking
textbook., RWTH Aachene, Aachen University

Biswas, A.K.: Principles of Blast Furnace Ironmaking, Cootha Publishing

House, Brisbane, Australia, 1981.

Committee on Reaction within Blast Furnace, Omori, Y. (chairman): Blast

furnace phenomena and modelling, Elsevier, London, 1987.

IISI website: worldsteel.org.

Loison, R., Foch, P., Boyer, A. (1989): Coke quality and production.
Butterworths.

McMaster University: Blast Furnace Ironmaking Course (every 2 years),

Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 2006

Meyer, K.: Pelletizing of iron ores, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1980.

Peacy, J.G. and Davenport, W.G.: The iron blast furnace, Pergamon Press,
Oxford, UK, 1979.

Rist, A. and Meysson, N.: A dual graphic representation of the blast–furnace

mass and heat balances, Ironmaking proceedings (1966), 88–98.

Rosenqvist, T.: Principles of extractive metallurgy, McGrawHill, Singapore,

1983.

Schoppa, H.: Was der Hochofner von seiner arbeit wissen muss, Verlag
Stahleisen, Düsseldorf, Germany, 1992.

Turkdogan, E.T. (1984), Physicochemical aspects of reactions in ironmaking

and steelmaking processes, Transactions ISIJ, 24, 591–611.

Wakelin, D.H.: The making, shaping and treating of steel, 11t edition, AISE
Steel Foundation, 1999.

Walker, R.D.: Modern Ironmaking Methods, Institute of Metals, London, UK,

1986.
154 Annexes

Annex II References
Biswas, A.K.: Principles of Blast Furnace Ironmaking, Cootha Publishing
House, Brisbane, Australia, 1981.

Bonnekamp, H., Engel, K., Fix, W., Grebe, K. and Winzer, G.: The freezing
with nitrogen and dissection of Mannesmann’s no 5 blast furnace. Ironmaking
proceedings, 1984, Chicago, USA, 139–150.

Carpenter, A. (2006): Use of PCI in blast furnace, IEA Clean coal center

Chaigneau, R., Bakker, T., Steeghs, A. and Bergstrand, R.: Quality assessment
of ferrous burden: Utopian dream? 60t Ironmaking Conference Proceedings,
2000, Baltimore, 689–703.

Chaigneau, R.: Complex Calcium Ferrites in the Blast Furnace Process, PhD
thesis, Delft University Press, Delft 1994

Committee for Fundamental Metallurgy of the Verein Deutscher

Eisenhüttenleute: Slag atlas, Verlag Stahleisen, Düsseldorf, Germany, 1981.

Geerdes, M., Van der Vliet, C., Driessen, J. and Toxopeus, H.: Control of
high productivity blast furnace by material distribution, 50t Ironmaking
Conference Proceedings, 1991, Vol 50, 367–378.

Grebe, K., Keddeinis, H. and Stricker, K.: Untersuchungen über den

Niedrigtemperaturzerfall von Sinter, Stahl und Eisen, 100, (1980), 973–982.

Hartig, W., Langner, K., Lüngen, H.B. and Stricker, K.P.: Measures for
increasing the productivity of blast furnace, 59t Ironmaking Conference
Proceedings, Pittsburgh, USA, 2000, vol 59, 3–16.

Kolijn, C.: International Cokemaking issues, 3rd McMaster Cokemaking

Course, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada, 2001.

Pagter, J. de and Molenaar, R.: Taphole experience at BF6 and BF7 of Corus
Strip Products IJmuiden, McMaster Ironmaking Conference 2001, Hamilton,
Canada.

Schoone, E.E., Toxopeus, H. and Vos, D.: Trials with a 100% pellet burden,
54t Ironmaking Conference
Proceedings, Nashville, USA, 1995, vol 54, 465–470.

Singh, B., De, A., Rawat, Y., Das, R. and Chatterjee, A. (1984) Iron and Steel
International, Auigust 1984, 135
Slag atlas (1995) Verlag StahlEisen
 155

Toxopeus, H., Steeghs, A. and Van den Boer, J.: PCI at the start of the 21st
century, 60t Ironmaking Conference Proceedings, Baltimore, USA, 2001, vol
60, 736–742.

Vander, T., Alvarez, R., Ferraro, M., Fohl, J., Hofherr, K., Huart, J., Mattila, E.,
Propson, R., Willmers, R. and Van der Velden, B.: Coke quality improvement
possibilities and limitations, Proceedings of 3rd International Cokemaking
Congress, Gent, Belgium, 1996, vol 3, 28–37.
156 Annexes

Annex III Rules of Thumb

Unit Change Coke Rate
Adj. (kg/t)
Si % + 0.1 + 4
Moisture g/m³ STP + 10 + 6
Top pressure bar + 0.1 – 1.2
Coal kg/t + 10 – 9
Oil kg/t + 10 – 11
Oxygen % + 1 + 1
Blast temperature °C + 100 – 9
Slag kg/t + 10 + 0.5
Cooling losses GJ/hr + 10 + 1.2
Gas Utilization % + 1 – 7

Rules of thumb for daily operation of the blast furnace process, a typical example

Unit Change Flame Top

temp. temp.
(°C) (°C)
Blast temperature °C + 100 + 65 – 15
Coal kg/t + 10 – 30 + 9
Oxygen % + 1 + 45 – 15
Moisture g/m³ STP + 10 – 50 + 9

Rules of thumb for daily operation of the blast furnace process (constant blast volume)
 157

Annex IV Coke Quality Tests

Since these drum tests are only cold simulations of the load on the coke during
its descent through the blast furnace, there are different ideas as to the best
way to generate comparative quality values using the drum test. Some of the
differences between the various tests are; how the sample is taken as input for
the test; the number of rotations; the size of the screens using to determine
the size of the resulting coke; and the dimensions of the drum. In Table 1 the
differences of the most common used drum tests are presented.

Test Strength Indices

Coke Drum Test Breakage Abrasion
Weight Size Length Diam. rpm Total
kg mm m m rev.
Micum 50 > 60 1 1 25 100 M40 M10
% > 40 % < 10
mm mm
ISO 50 > 20 1 1 25 100 M40 M10
% > 40 % < 10
mm mm
Extended 50 > 60 1 1 25 100, Fissure Micum
Micum 200, free size Slope
300, Stabilisa-
500, tion index
800
IRSID 50 > 20 1 1 25 500 I40 I10
% > 40 % < 10
mm mm
ASTM 10 2–3” 0.46 0.91 24 1,400 % > 1” (25 % > ¼”
mm) (6 mm)
Japanese 10 > 50 1.5 1.5 15 30 or % > 15
Drum 150 mm

Table 1 Differences between the most commonly applied drum tests.

To have a better understanding of coke degradation mechanism under

mechanical stress we look at Figure 1. Here the percentage of the coke > 40
mm and < 10 mm of the sample are presented as a function of the number of
rotations of the drum.
158 Annexes

Dff
Coke breakage

M40 Pure abrasion

%>4 of coke lumps
0 mm
Weight %
I40

Stabilization Point

I10
M10 % < 10 mm

100 150 500

Micum Irsid

Number of rotations of drum

Figure 1 Comparison of different mechanical tumble tests and results.

From this figure we see that the lumps > 40 mm starts to degrade only by
breakage until the point of stabilization is reached, when no further breakage
occur. From this point on only abrasion takes place to further degrade the coke.
In general the coke is stabilized after about 150 rotations of the Micum drum
or an equivalent mechanical load. From this figure we see the great difference in
number of rotations of the drum between the Micum test and the Irsid test. An
advantage of the Irsid test is that the coke is always completely stabilized which
makes the result less sensitive for the point of sampling. It further shows that it
is in principle not correct to compare test results between different production
sites unless the exact the degree of stabilization at the sampling points is known.
The weight percentage of coke > 40 mm after 100 rotations is called M₄₀ and
the percentage after 500 rotations is called the I₄₀. The weight percentage of
coke < 10 mm is called M₁₀ and I₁₀ respectively.

Besides these values, the Fissure Free Size, the Stabilization Index and the
Micum slope have been introduced as coke quality parameters. Although in
this test the parameter used is not the % > 40 mm of the coke but the average
mean size (AMS) as a function of rotations. We will explain these concepts with
Figure 1 as well. First we fit a line (shown in green) to the curve of abrasion–
only. Then we extrapolate the green line of abrasion–only to the y–intercept
(zero rotations) and calculate the AMS of the coke at this point, which gives
the Fissure Free Size (FFS), also known as Dff. This then represents the size at
which there would be no degradation due to breakage, but only abrasion. The
slope of the green line of abrasion–only is called the Micum Slope. Some mills
consider this to be a better way to evaluate abradability than traditional M₁₀
or I₁₀. The FFS was developed to simulate a maximum obtainable (theoretical)
size for stabilized coke. Some believe the FFS approximately represents the
size of stabilized industrial coke at the blast furnace stock line, which is then
 159

considered a more suitable controlling parameter. Also a stabilization index can

be defined as FFS/AMS, which maximum will be 1 for fully stabilized coke.

Chemical reactivity

Besides a high mechanical strength coke should have a high resistance against
chemical attack. There are two measurements for the reaction with CO₂ most
commonly used, the CRI and the CSR (Coke Reactivity Index and Coke
Strength after reaction).

Coke Reactivity Index

Reactivity of coke can be tested in numerous ways, but by far the most common
way to determine the coke reactivity is the Nippon Steel Chemical Reactivity
Index (CRI). With this test, coke of a certain size is put under a 100% CO₂
atmosphere at 1100°C. The percentage of coke that is gasified after 120 minutes
gives the CRI value. The more reactive the coke, the higher the mass loss will
be. Reactivity of the coke is mainly determined by the chemical composition of
the parent coal blend, because ash components act as catalysts for the reaction
of C with CO₂.

Coke Strength after Reaction

Due to the loss of mass whilst under attack by CO₂, the surface layer of the
coke particles get very porous and the mechanical strength against abrasion
drops rapidly. To measure this effect the reactivity test is normally followed by a
tumbler test to determine the residual coke strength. The percentage of particles
that remain larger than 10 mm after 600 rotations is called the ‘coke strength
after reaction’ or CSR index. For most coke produced there exists a strong
correlation between CRI and CSR.

Before CRI and CSR were developed, a series of relatively expensive tests were
carried out under various research projects that involved partially gasifying
the coke in its original particle size under realistic blast furnace conditions
before subjecting it to the standard drum test. While the results of this costly
research work showed exactly how the coke in the blast furnace was subjected
to chemical attack, it provided no better information on coke quality than the
more–simple method of determining CRI and CSR. These two parameters are
now generally adopted by the coke–making industry as the most important
parameters for determining coke quality.

Carburization of Hot Metal

There is no standard test for the dissolution of carbon in hot metal, the
carburization. Experiments were conducted on this item by the Institute of
Ferrous Metallurgy in Germany to compare different cokes of different coal
160 Annexes

blends and coke making technologies. The experiments showed a very similar
behaviour between most cokes. The only exception was the traditionally
produced beehive coke. Although it had a very good CSR and CRI it was the
only coke examined that cannot be used alone in a blast furnace because of its
poor carburization characteristics. Production trials prove that this type of coke
can only be used in a mixture with other more reactive coke.
 161

Index
Alkali 144
Angles of repose 79
Apatite 21

Bell less top 7, 79

Belly 3
Bird’s nest 126
Blast furnace construction 8
Blow–down 147
Blow–in after reline 148
Blow–in after stop 145
Bosh gas composition 3, 94
Boudouard reaction 97
Burden calculation 59
Burden descent 68
Burden descent, erratic 69, 88
Burden distribution 78
Burden distribution, control scheme 82

Calcium ferrites 27
Carbon and oxygen 96
Carburisation 160
Casthouse, 1 taphole operation 135
Casthouse, dry hearth practice 129, 139
Casting, delayed 133
Casting, no slag 134
Channelling 78
Charging rate 145
Cherts 20
Coal blending 50
Coal injection, coal selection 49
Coal injection, equipment 48
Coal injection, gasification 51
Coal injection, lances 52
Coal injection, oxygen enrichment 52
Coal injection, replacement ratio 50
Cohesive zone, types of 73
Coke 37
162 Index

Coke layer thickness 85

Coke push 79
Coke quality 39
Coke reactivity 109
Coke size distribution 43
Coke, percentage at wall 84
Coke, analysis 39
Coke, coal blends for 38
Coke, degradation 39
Coke, mechanical strength 44
Coke, quality tests 46, 158
Cold strength 25
Compression (pellets) 31
Counter current reactor 5, 12
CRI 160
CSR 160

Dead man 126

Direct reduction, iron oxides 97
Direct reduction, accompanying elements 98
Double bell top 7, 79

Efficiency 15

Fayalite 29
Fines, in ore burden 77, 142
Flame temperature 95
Fluidisation 78
Forces, vertical 69

Gas composition, vertical distribution 101

Gas flow 71, 76
Gas injection 57
Gas reduction 98
Gas utilisation 15
Gas utilisation, calculation 64
Glossary 151

Hanging 68
Hardgrove index 50
Hearth 3
Hearth, liquid level 131
Heat fluxes 72
Hot blast stoves 6
Hot metal desulphurisation 115
Hot metal, elementary distribution 116
Hot metal, quality 115
 163

Hydrogen, reduction by 102

I10 158
I40 158
Inner volume 9
Instrumentation 90
Iron ore melting 107

Lintel 8
Liquidus temperature 119
Lump ore 34

M10 158
M40 158
Melting capacity of raceway gas 53
Melting zone see cohesive zone
Mixed layer 79
Moisture input burden 143
Mushroom 125
Nut coke 88

Oil injection 57
Ore burden quality 22
Ore burden, interaction components 35
Ore burden, melting 109
Ore layer thickness 85
Oxygen lancing through taphole 139

Pellet quality 33
Pellet types 31
Permeability 22, 76
Potassium 144
Pressure taps 91
Production rate 94
Productivity, effect metallic iron 107
Productivity, effect oxygen 106
Pulverised coal injection 51

Quenched furnace, reduction progress 101

Quenched furnaces 2

Raceway 11
RAFT see Flame temperature
Recirculating elements 144
Reducibility 25
Reduction of iron oxides 14
Reduction, by hydrogen 102
164 Index

Reduction, direct 97
Reduction, gas 98
Reduction–disintegration 22, 25, 108
Residence time, gas
Residence time, ore burden 17
Resistance see permeability
Rules of thumb, daily operations 157

Segregation 79
Silicon 117
Sinter, effect basicity on structure 27
Sinter, quality 27
Sinter, types 26
Slag basicity, special situations 122
Slag, basicity 119
Slag, composition 118
Slag, primary 121
Slag, properties 119
Slipping 68
Small coke see nut coke
Sodium 144
Softening–melting 30, 86
Solution loss 98
Soot 51
Spinel 29
Stack 3
Start–up 145
Steelmaking process 112
Stockhouse 6
Stop 145
Sulphur 118
Swelling (pellets) 32
Symmetry, circumferential 56, 112

Taphole 127
Temperature, flame see flame temperature
Temperature, profile 6, 104
Throat 3
Top gas, calculation of analysis 64
Top gas, formation of 105

Water–gas shift reaction 103

Whisker 32
Working volume 9

Zinc 144