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Student note: Introduction to Manufacturing Systems

This note is an introduction for Manufacturing systems. For mechanical engineering students.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

81 views235 pages

Student note: Introduction to Manufacturing Systems

This note is an introduction for Manufacturing systems. For mechanical engineering students.

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hakanavci1212

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Manufacturing System

(ME 418)
Textbook:
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing:
Materials, Processes, and Systems, 3rd Ed., by
Mikell P. Groover, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Reference books:
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 4th ed., by Serope Kalpakjian, and
Steven R. Schmid, Prentice Hall, Pearson
Educational Int., 2003.
Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, by E.
Paul De Garmo, J.T. Black, and Ronald A.
Kohser, Prentice Hall of India, 2001.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
1. Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing

1. What is Manufacturing?
2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Production Systems
5. Organization of the Book

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
ME 351
Manufacturing Technology I
Lecture Objectives
Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing
 Definition
Historically

Technologically
Economically

 Materials in Manufacturing Process

Metals

Ceramics
Polymers
Composites
1. Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing

1. What is Manufacturing?
2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Production Systems
5. Organization of the Book

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
What is Manufacturing?
The word manufacture is derived from two Latin
words manus (hand) and factus (make); the
combination means “made by hand”
 “Made by hand” accurately described the
fabrication methods that were used when the
English word “manufacture” was first coined
around 1567 A.D.
 Most modern manufacturing operations are
accomplished by mechanized and automated
equipment that is supervised by human
workers

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing - Technologically
Application of physical and chemical processes to
alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance
of a starting material to make parts or products
 Manufacturing also includes assembly
 Almost always carried out as a sequence of
operations
Figure 1.1 (a)
Manufacturing
as a technical
process

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing - Economically
Transformation of materials into items of greater
value by means of one or more processing and/or
assembly operations
 Manufacturing adds value to the material by
changing its shape or properties, or by combining
it with other materials

Figure 1.1 (b)

Manufacturing
as an economic
process

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing is Important
 Historically
 Technologically
 Economically

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing - Historically Important
Throughout history, human cultures that were
better at making things were more successful
 Making better tools meant better crafts &
weapons
 Better crafts allowed people to live better
 Better weapons allowed them to conquer
other cultures in times of conflict
 To a significant degree, the history of
civilization is the history of humans' ability to
make things

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing - Technologically Important
Technology - the application of science to provide
society and its members with those things that
are needed or desired
 Technology provides the products that help our
society and its members live better
 What do these products have in common?
 They are all manufactured
 Manufacturing is the essential factor that makes
technology possible

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing - Economically Important

U.S. economy:

% of
Sector
GDP
Manufacturing 20%
Manufacturing is one
Agriculture, minerals, etc. 5%
way by which nations
create material wealth Construction & utilities 5%

Service sector – retail, 70%

transportation, banking,
communication, education, and
government

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing Industries
Industry consists of enterprises and organizations
that produce or supply goods and services
 Industries can be classified as:
1. Primary industries - those that cultivate
and exploit natural resources, e.g.,
farming, mining
2. Secondary industries - take the outputs of
primary industries and convert them into
consumer and capital goods -
manufacturing is the principal activity
3. Tertiary industries - service sector
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing Industries - continued
 Secondary industries include manufacturing,
construction, and electric power generation
 Manufacturing includes several industries
whose products are not covered in this book;
e.g., apparel, beverages, chemicals, and food
processing
 For our purposes, manufacturing means
production of hardware
 Nuts and bolts, forgings, cars, airplanes,
digital computers, plastic parts, and ceramic
products
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Production Quantity Q

The quantity of products Q made by a factory has

an important influence on the way its people,
facilities, and procedures are organized
 Annual production quantities can be classified
into three ranges:
Production range Annual Quantity Q
Low production 1 to 100 units
Medium production 100 to 10,000 units
High production 10,000 to millions of

Product variety P refers to different product types

or models produced in the plant
 Different products have different features
 They are intended for different markets
 Some have more parts than others
 The number of different product types made
each year in a factory can be counted
 When the number of product types made in the
factory is high, this indicates high product
variety
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
P versus Q in Factory Operations

Figure 1.2 P-Q Relationship

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
More About Product Variety
Although P is a quantitative parameter, it is much
less exact than Q because details on how much
the designs differ is not captured simply by the
number of different designs
 Soft product variety - small differences between
products, e.g., between car models made on
the same production line, with many common
parts among models
 Hard product variety - products differ
substantially, e.g., between a small car and a
large truck, with few common parts (if any)

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing Capability
A manufacturing plant consists of processes and
systems (and people, of course) designed to
transform a certain limited range of materials
into products of increased value
 The three building blocks - materials,
processes, and systems - are the subject of
modern manufacturing
 Manufacturing capability includes:
1. Technological processing capability
2. Physical product limitations
3. Production capacity
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
1. Technological Processing Capability
The available set of manufacturing processes in
the plant (or company)
 Certain manufacturing processes are suited to
certain materials
 By specializing in certain processes, the
plant is also specializing in certain materials
 Includes not only the physical processes, but
also the expertise of the plant personnel
 Examples:
 A machine shop cannot roll steel
 A steel mill cannot build cars
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
2. Physical Product Limitations
Given a plant with a certain set of processes,
there are size and weight limitations on the
parts or products that can be made in the plant
 Product size and weight affect:
 Production equipment
 Material handling equipment
 Production, material handling equipment, and
plant size must be planned for products that lie
within a certain size and weight range

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
3. Production Capacity
Defined as the maximum quantity that a plant can
produce in a given time period (e.g., month or
year) under assumed operating conditions
 Operating conditions refer to number of shifts
per week, hours per shift, direct labor manning
levels in the plant, and so on
 Usually measured in terms of output units, such
as tons of steel or number of cars produced by
the plant
 Also called plant capacity

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
1. Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing

1. What is Manufacturing?
2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Production Systems
5. Organization of the Book

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Materials in Manufacturing
Most engineering materials can be classified into
one of three basic categories:
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
 Their chemistries are different
 Their mechanical and physical properties are
dissimilar
 These differences affect the manufacturing
processes that can be used to produce
products from them
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
In Addition: Composites
Nonhomogeneous mixtures of the other three
basic types rather than a unique category

Figure 1.3 Venn

diagram of three
basic material types
plus composites

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
1. Metals
Usually alloys, which are composed of two or more
elements, at least one of which is metallic
 Two basic groups:
1. Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises
about 75% of metal tonnage in the world:
 Steel = Fe-C alloy (0.02 to 2.11% C)
 Cast iron = Fe-C alloy (2% to 4% C)
2. Nonferrous metals - all other metallic
elements and their alloys: aluminum, copper,
magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, titanium, etc.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
2. Ceramics
Compounds containing metallic (or semi-metallic)
and nonmetallic elements.
 Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbon
 For processing, ceramics divide into:
1. Crystalline ceramics – includes:
 Traditional ceramics, such as clay
(hydrous aluminum silicates)
 Modern ceramics, such as alumina
(Al2O3)
2. Glasses – mostly based on silica (SiO2)
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
3. Polymers
Compound formed of repeating structural units
called mers, whose atoms share electrons to
form very large molecules
 Three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers - can be
subjected to multiple heating and cooling
cycles without altering molecular structure
2. Thermosetting polymers - molecules
chemically transform (cure) into a rigid
structure – cannot be reheated
3. Elastomers - shows significant elastic
behavior
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
4. Composites
Material consisting of two or more phases that are
processed separately and then bonded together
to achieve properties superior to its constituents
 Phase - homogeneous mass of material,
such as grains of identical unit cell structure
in a solid metal
 Usual structure consists of particles or fibers of
one phase mixed in a second phase
 Properties depend on components, physical
shapes of components, and the way they are
combined to form the final material

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
ME 351
Manufacturing Technology I
Lecture No. 05
Lecture Objectives
Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing
 Manufacturing Processes
Processing Operations

Assembly Operations
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

 Production Systems
Production Facilities

Manufacturing Support Systems

1. Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing

1. What is Manufacturing?
2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Production Systems
5. Organization of the Book

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Manufacturing Processes
Two basic types:
1. Processing operations - transform a work
material from one state of completion to a
more advanced state
 Operations that change the geometry,
properties, or appearance of the starting
material
2. Assembly operations - join two or more
components to create a new entity

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Figure-1.4
Classification of
manufacturing
processes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Processing Operations
Alters a material’s shape, physical properties, or
appearance in order to add value
 Three categories of processing operations:
1. Shaping operations - alter the geometry of
the starting work material
2. Property-enhancing operations - improve
physical properties without changing
shape
3. Surface processing operations - to clean,
treat, coat, or deposit material on exterior
surface of the work
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Figure-1.4
Classification of
manufacturing
processes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Shaping Processes – Four Categories
1. Solidification processes - starting material is a
heated liquid or semifluid
2. Particulate processing - starting material
consists of powders
3. Deformation processes - starting material is a
ductile solid (commonly metal)
4. Material removal processes - starting material
is a ductile or brittle solid

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Solidification Processes
Starting material is heated sufficiently to
transform it into a liquid or highly plastic state
 Examples: metal casting, plastic molding

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Particulate Processing
Starting materials are powders of metals or
ceramics
 Usually involves pressing and sintering, in
which powders are first compressed and then
heated to bond the individual particles

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Deformation Processes
Starting workpart is shaped by application of
forces that exceed the yield strength of the
material
 Examples: (a) forging, (b) extrusion

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Material Removal Processes
Excess material removed from the starting piece
so what remains is the desired geometry
 Examples: machining such as turning, drilling,
and milling; also grinding and nontraditional
processes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Waste in Shaping Processes
Desirable to minimize waste in part shaping
 Material removal processes are wasteful in unit
operations, simply by the way they work
 Most casting, molding, and particulate
processing operations waste little material
 Terminology for minimum waste processes:
 Net shape processes - when most of the
starting material is used and no subsequent
machining is required
 Near net shape processes - when minimum
amount of machining is required
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Figure-1.4
Classification of
manufacturing
processes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Property-Enhancing Processes
Performed to improve mechanical or physical
properties of work material
 Part shape is not altered, except
unintentionally
 Example: unintentional warping of a heat
treated part
 Examples:
 Heat treatment of metals and glasses
 Sintering of powdered metals and ceramics

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Figure-1.4
Classification of
manufacturing
processes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Surface Processing Operations
 Cleaning - chemical and mechanical
processes to remove dirt, oil, and other
contaminants from the surface
 Surface treatments - mechanical working
such as sand blasting, and physical
processes like diffusion
 Coating and thin film deposition - coating
exterior surface of the workpart

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Figure-1.4
Classification of
manufacturing
processes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Assembly Operations
Two or more separate parts are joined to form a
new entity
 Types of assembly operations:
1. Joining processes – create a permanent
joint
 Welding, brazing, soldering, and
adhesive bonding
2. Mechanical assembly – fastening by
mechanical methods
 Threaded fasteners (screws, bolts and
nuts); press fitting, expansion fits
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Figure-1.4
Classification of
manufacturing
processes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
1. Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing

1. What is Manufacturing?
2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Production Systems
5. Organization of the Book

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Production Systems
People, equipment, and procedures used for the
combination of materials and processes that
constitute a firm's manufacturing operations
 A manufacturing firm must have systems and
procedures to efficiently accomplish its type of
production
 Two categories of production systems:
 Production facilities
 Manufacturing support systems
 Both categories include people (people make
the systems work)
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Production Facilities
The factory, production equipment, and material
handling systems
 Production facilities "touch" the product
 Includes the way the equipment is arranged in
the factory - the plant layout
 Equipment usually organized into logical
groupings, called manufacturing systems
 Examples:
 Automated production line
 Machine cell consisting of an industrial
robot and two machine tools
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Facilities versus Product Quantities
A company designs its manufacturing systems
and organizes its factories to serve the
particular mission of each plant
 Certain types of production facilities are
recognized as the most appropriate for a given
type of manufacturing:
1. Low production –
2. Medium production –
3. High production –
 Different facilities are required for each of the
three quantity ranges
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Low Production
Job shop is the term used for this type of
production facility
 A job shop makes low quantities of specialized
and customized products
 Products are typically complex, e.g., space
capsules, prototype aircraft, special
machinery
 Equipment in a job shop is general purpose
 Labor force is highly skilled
 Designed for maximum flexibility
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Low Production

Figure-1.9 (a) Fixed Position Layout

Medium Production
Two different types of facility, depending on product
variety:
 Batch production
 Suited to hard product variety
 Setups required between batches
 Cellular manufacturing
 Suited to soft product variety
 Worker cells organized to process parts
without setups between different part styles
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Medium Production

Figure-1.9 (b) Process Layout

Medium Production

Figure-1.9 (c) Cellular Layout

High Production
 Often referred to as mass production
 High demand for product
 Manufacturing system dedicated to the
production of that product
 Two categories of mass production:
1. Quantity production
2. Flow line production

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Quantity Production
Mass production of single parts on single
machine or small numbers of machines
 Typically involves standard machines equipped
with special tooling
 Equipment is dedicated full-time to the
production of one part or product type
 Typical layouts used in quantity production are
process layout and cellular layout

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Flow Line Production
Multiple machines or workstations arranged in
sequence, e.g., production lines
 Product is complex
 Requires multiple processing and/or
assembly operations
 Work units are physically moved through the
sequence to complete the product
 Workstations and equipment are designed
specifically for the product to maximize
efficiency
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
High Production

Figure-1.9 (d) Product Layout

Manufacturing Support Systems
A company must organize itself to design the
processes and equipment, plan and control
production, and satisfy product quality
requirements
 Accomplished by manufacturing support
systems - people and procedures by which a
company manages its production operations
 Typical departments:
1. Manufacturing engineering
2. Production planning and control
3. Quality control
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Automation in Manufacturing
(MEPD-4014)
Mechanical/Mechatronics Engineering
Unit-2 By
Varun Pratap Singh
Disclaimer
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed textbooks. The
information presented here is merely a collection by the subject faculty members for their respective teaching
assignments, research articles, subject books, and any other sources of information. Various sources, as mentioned on
each slides or at the end of the document as well as freely available material from the internet, were consulted for
preparing this document. The ownership of the information lies with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this
document is not intended to be used for commercial purposes and the subject faculty members are not accountable for
any issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of the use of this document. The subject faculty members make no
representations or warranties concerning the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document and
specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. The subject faculty
members shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special,
incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Content
1. Basic elements of an automated system
2. Advanced automation functions
3. Levels of automation
4. Continuous and discrete control systems
5. Computer process control
6. Common measuring devices used in automation
7. Desirable features for selection of measuring devices.
Syllabus
Unit 1: Production systems Lectures
Categories of manufacturing systems, manufacturing support systems, automation in production systems, automated
manufacturing systems, opportunities for automation and computerization, types of automation, computerized manufacturing
8
support systems, reasons for automating, automation principles and strategies, the USA principle, ten strategies for automation,
automation migration strategy.
Unit 2: Automation and control technologies in production syste Lectures
Basic elements of an automated system, advanced automation functions, levels of automation, continuous and discrete
control systems, computer process control, common measuring devices used in automation, desirable features for 8
selection of measuring devices.
Unit 3: Material handling system Lectures
Material handling equipment, design considerations for material handling system, material transport equipment, analysis of
material transport systems, storage systems and their performance and location strategies, conventional and automated storage 8
systems, overview of automatic identification and data capture, bar code technology, RFID, other AIDC technologies.
Unit 4: Production and assembly systems Lectures
Automated production lines- fundamentals, system configurations, work part transfer mechanisms, storage buffers, control of
production line, applications. Automated assembly systems- fundamentals, system configurations, parts delivery at work 8
stations, applications.
Unit 5: Cellular manufacturing Lectures
Group technology, part families, parts classification and coding, production flow analysis, Opitz coding system, composite part
7
concept, machine cell design, applications of GT
Unit 6: Flexible manufacturing systems Lectures
Introduction to FMS, types of FMS, FMS components, applications and benefits, planning and implementation issues in FMS,
6
Suggested Text/Reference Books
Text Book:
1. Mikell P. Groover, Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-integrated Manufacturing,
prentice Hall.
Reference Book:
1. Theory of Automation of Production Planning and of Tooling: Algorithms for Designing
Machine Tools in Automated Industrial Plants, By G. K. Goranskiĭ"
2. Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid, Manufacturing – Engineering and
Technology, 7th Edition, Pearson.
3. Yoram Koren, Computer control of manufacturing system, 1st edition.
4. Ibrahim Zeid , CAD/CAM : Theory & Practice, 2nd edition.
MOOC:
Automation in Manufacturing - NPTEL Online Courses:
1. https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_me120/preview
2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112103293
3. https://elearn.nptel.ac.in/shop/nptel/automation-in-manufacturing/
Video Lectures:
1. YouTube Channel: Real Pars; https://www.youtube.com/c/realpars
Basic elements of an automated system
• Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished without human assistance.
• It is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a control system that executes the
instructions, to automate a process. power is required, both to drive the process itself and to operate the
program and control system.
• Although automation can be applied in a wide variety of areas, it is most closely associated with the
manufacturing industries.
• It was in the context of manufacturing that the term was originally coined by an engineering manager at
Ford Motor Company in 1946 to describe the variety of automatic transfer devices and feed mechanisms that
had been installed in Ford's production plants.

It is ironic that nearly all modern applications of automation are controlled by computer
technologies that were not available in 1946.

Automation and control technologies in the production system.

In addition to driving the manufacturing process itself, power is also required for the following material handling functions.
Loading and unloading the work unit:
All of the processes listed in Table 3.1 are accomplished on discrete parts. These parts must be moved into the proper
position.
Material transport between operations:
In addition to loading and unloading at a given operation. the work units must be moved between operations.

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Basic elements of an automated system
(1) Power to accomplish the process and operate the
system.
Power for Automation. Above and beyond the basic
power requirements for the manufacturing operation,
additional power is required for automation. The
additional power is used for the following functions:
• Controller unit: Modern industrial controllers are
based on digital computers, which require electrical
power to read the program of instructions, make the
control calculations, and execute the instructions by
transmitting the proper commands to the actuating
devices.
• Power to actuate control signal: The commands sent
by the controller unit are carried out by means of
electromechanical devices, such as switches and
motors, called actuators. The commands are generally
transmitted by means of low-voltage control signals. To
accomplish the commands, the actuators require more
power, and so the control signals must he amplified to
provide the proper power level for the actuating device.
• Data acquisition and information processing. In
most control systems, data must be collected from the
process and used as input to the control algorithms. In
addition, a requirement of the process may include
keeping records of process performance or product
quality. These data acquisition and record keeping
functions require power, although in modest amounts.
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Basic elements of an automated system
(2) A program of instructions to direct the process
The actions performed by an automated process arc defined by a program of instructions Whether the manufacturing
operation involves low, medium, or high production, each part or product style made in the operation requires one or more
processing steps that are unique to that style, These processing steps are performed during a work cycle. A new part is
completed during each work cycle. The particular processing steps for the work cycle are specified in a work cycle program.
Work cycle programs are called part programs in numerical control.
Work Cycle Programs: In the simplest automated processes, the work cycle consists of essentially one step, which is to
maintain a single process parameter at a defined level, for example, maintain the temperature of a furnace at a designated
value for the duration of a heat treatment cycle.
An extension of this simple case is when the single-step process is defined by more than one process parameter, for
example, a furnace in which both temperature and atmosphere are controlled.
In more complicated systems, the process involves a work cycle consisting of multiple steps that are repeated with no
deviation from one cycle to the next. Most discrete part manufacturing operations are in this category A typical sequence of
steps (simplified) is:
(1) load the part into the production machine,
(2) perform the process, and
(3) unload the part.
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Basic elements of an automated system
(2) A program of instructions to direct the process
Decision-Making in the Programmed Work Cycle. In our previous discussion of automated work cycles. the only two features of
the work cycle are (I) the number and Sequence of processing steps and (2) the process parameter changes in each step. Each work
cycle consists of the same steps and associated process parameter changes with no variation from one cycle to the next. The
program of instructions is repealed each work cycle without deviation. In fact, many automated manufacturing operations require
decisions to be made during the programmed work cycle to cope with variations in the cycle. To many cases, the variations are
routine elements of the cycle, and the corresponding instructions for dealing with them are incorporated into the regular part
program. These cases include:
Operator interaction. Although the program of instructions is intended to be carried out without human interaction, the controller
unit may require input data from a human operator in order to function. For example, in an automated engraving operation, the
operator may have t0 enter the alphanumeric characters that are to be engraved on the work unit ( eg. plaque, trophy, belt buckle).
Having entered the characters, the engraving operation is accomplished automatically by the system. (An everyday example of
operator interaction with an automated system is a bank Customer using an automated teller machine. The customer must enter the
codes indicating what transaction is to be accomplished by the teller machine.)
• Different part or product styles processed by the System. In this instance, the automated system is programmed to perform
different work cycles on different part or product styles. An example is an industrial robot that performs a series of spot welding
operations on car bodies in a final assembly plant. These plants are often designed to build different body styles on the same
automated assembly line, such as two-door and four-door sedans. As each car body enters a given welding station on the line,
sensors identify which style it is, and the robot performs the correct series of welds for that style.
• Variations in the standing work units. In many manufacturing operations the starting work units are not consistent. A good
example is a sand casting as the starting work unit in a machining operation. The dimensional variations in the raw castings
sometimes necessitate an extra machining pass to bring the machined dimension to the specified value. The part program must be
coded to allow for the additional pass when necessary
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Basic elements of an automated system
(3) control system to actuate the instructions.
The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions. The control system causes the process to
accomplish its defined function. which for our purpose is to carry out some manufacturing operation. Let us provide a brief
introduction to control systems here. The following chapter describes this important industrial technology in mare detail.
The controls in an automated system can be either closed loop or open loop. A closed loop control system, also known as a
feedback control system. is one in which the output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any difference
between the two is used to drive the output into agreement with the input.
A closed loop control system consists of six basic elements:
(I) input parameter,
(II) process,
(III)output variable,
(IV)feedback sensor
(V) controller. and
(VI)actuator.
Figure: A feedback control system

Figure: An open loop control system.

Advanced automation functions
In addition to executing work cycle programs, an automated system may be capable of executing advanced functions that
are not specific to a particular work unit. In general, the functions are concerned with enhancing the performance and safety
of the equipment. Advanced automation functions include the following:
(1) safety monitoring,
(2) maintenance and repair diagnostics, and
(3) error detection and recovery.

Advanced automation function are made possible by special subroutines included in the program of instructions. In some
cases, the functions provide information only and do not involve any physical actions by the control system, A

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Advanced automation functions
1. Safety monitoring:
One of the significant reasons for automating a manufacturing operation is to remove workers from a hazardous
working environment. An automated system is often installed to perform a potentially dangerous operation that
would otherwise be accomplished manually by human workers '.However, even in automated systems. workers
are still needed to service the system. at periodic time intervals If not full-time. Accordingly it is important that
the automated system be designed to operate safely when workers arc in attendance. In addition it is essential
that the automated system carry out its process in a way that is not self-destructive. Thus. there are two reasons
for providing an automated system with a safety monitoring capability:
(1) to protect human workers in the vicinity of the system and
(2) To protect the equipment associated with the system.
The safety monitoring system is programmed to respond to unsafe conditions in some appropriate way. Possible
responses to various hazards might include one or more of the following:
• complete stoppage of the automated system
• sounding an alarm
• reducing the operating speed of the process
• taking corrective actions to recover from the safety violation
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Advanced automation functions
1. Safety monitoring:
The following list suggests some of the possible sensors and their applications for safety monitoring:
• Limit switches to detect proper positioning of a part in a work holding device so that the processing cycle can
begin.
• Photoelectric sensors triggered by the interruption of a light beam; this could be used to indicate that a part is
in the proper position or to detect the presence of a human intruder into the work cell.
• Temperature sensors to indicate that a metal work part is hot enough to proceed with a hot forging operation. If
the work part is not sufficiently heated, then the metal's ductility may be too low, and the forging dies might be
damaged during the operation.
• Heat or smoke detectors to sense fire hazards.
• Pressure-sensitive floor pads to detect human intruders into the work cell
• Machine vision systems to supervise the automated system and its surroundings

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Advanced automation functions
2. Maintenance and repair diagnostics:
Modem automated production systems are becoming increasingly complex and sophisticated, thus complicating
the problem of maintaining and repairing them. Maintenance and repair diagnostics refers to the capabilities of an
automated system to assist in the identification of the source of potential or actual malfunctions and failures of
the system. Three. modes of operation are typical of a modern maintenance and repair diagnostics subsystem
i. Status monitoring: In the status, monitoring mode, the diagnostic subsystem monitor and records the status of
key sensors and parameters of the system during normal operation. On request, the diagnostics subsystem can
display any of these values and provide an interpretation of current system status, perhaps warning of an
imminent failure.
ii. Failure diagnostics: The failure diagnostics mode is invoked when a malfunction or failure occurs. Its
purpose is to interpret the current values of the monitored variables and to analyze the recorded values preceding
the failure so that the cause of the failure can be identified
iii. Recommendation of repair procedure: the third mode of operation. the subsystem provides a recommended
procedure to the repair crew as to the steps that should be taken to effect repairs. Methods for developing the
recommendations are sometimes based on the use of expert systems in which the collective judgments of many
repair experts arc pooled and incorporated into a computer program that uses artificial intelligence techniques.

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Advanced automation functions
3. Error detection and recovery
In the operation of any automated system, there are hardware malfunctions and unexpected events that occur during
operation. These events can result in costly delays and loss of production until the problem has been corrected and
regular operation is restored. Traditionally. equipment malfunctions are corrected by human workers, perhaps with the aid
of a maintenance and repair diagnostics subroutine. With the increased use of computer control for manufacturing
processes, there is a trend toward using the control computer not only to diagnose the malfunctions but also to
automatically take the necessary corrective action to restore the system to normal operation. The term error detection and
recovery is used when the computer performs these functions.

As indicated by the term error detection and recovery consists

of two steps: (1) error detection and (2) error recovery.
The two main design problems in error detection are:
(1) to anticipate all of the possible errors that can occur in a
given process and
(2) to specify the appropriate sensor systems and associated
interpretive software so that the system is capable of
recognizing each error.
Solving the first problem requires a systematic evaluation of
the possibilities under each of the three error classifications. If
the error has not been anticipated, then the error detection
subsystem cannot correctly detect and identify it.
Advanced automation functions

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Levels of automation
The concept of automated systems can be applied to various levels of factory operations.
One normally associates automation with the individual production machines.
However, the production machine itself made up of subsystems that may themselves be
automated.
For example: one of tile important automation technologies we discussed earlier is
numerical control. A modern numerical control (NC) machine tool is an automated
system. However, the NC machine itself is composed of multiple control systems. Any
NC machine has at least two axes of motion, and some machines have up to five axes.
Each of these axes operates as a positioning system, and itself an automated system.
Similarly, a NC machine is often part of a larger manufacturing system, and the larger
system may itself be automated.
For example, two or three machine tools may be connected by an automated pact handling
system operating under computer control. The machine tools also receive instructions
(e.g., part programs) from the computer. Thus we have three levels of automation and
control included here (the positioning system level, the machine tool level, and the
manufacturing system level). For our purposes, we can identify five possible levels of
automation in a production plant.
1. Device level.
2. 2. Machine level
3. Cell or system level.
4. Plum level.
5. Enterprise level.
Levels of automation

M. Rahman, A. D. Fentaye, V. Zaccaria, I. Aslanidou, E. Dahlquist, and K. Kyprianidis, "A

Framework for Learning System for Complex Industrial Processes", in AI and Learning
Systems - Industrial Applications and Future Directions. London, United Kingdom:
IntechOpen, 2021 [Online]. Available: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/74393 doi:
10.5772/intechopen.92899 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IAhxYsMi4e8
Levels of automation

https://publica.fraunhofer.de/entities/publication/4388f6c9-e9f3-
4baa-a069-e1ef82714fc9/details: DOI: 10.24406/ipt-n-633345
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IAhxYsMi4e8
Levels of automation

https://avani.vn/en/cac-chuc-nang-chinh-cua-thong-mes/
Levels of automation
For our purposes in this text, we can identify five possible levels of automation in a production plant.
1. Device level. This is the lowest level in our automation hierarchy. It includes the actuators, sensors, and other hardware
components that comprise the machine level.
The devices are combined into the individual control loops of the machine; for example, the feedback control loop for one axis
of a CNC machine or one joint of an industrial robot.
2. Machine level. Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines. Examples include CNC machine tools
and similar production equipment, industrial robots, powered conveyors, and automated guided vehicles. Control functions at
this level include performing the sequence of steps in the program of instructions in the correct order and making sure that
each step is properly executed.
3. Cell or system level. This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates under instructions from the plant level. A
manufacturing cell or system is a group of machines or workstations connected and supported by a material handling system,
computer. and other equipment appropriate to the manufacturing process. Production lines arc included in this level. functions
include part dispatching and machine loading. coordination among machines and material handling system, and collecting and
evaluating inspection data.
4. Plum level. This is the factory or production systems level. It receives instructions from (he corporate information system
and translates them into operational plans for production. Likely functions include: order processing, process planning,
inventory control, purchasing, material requirements planning, shop floor control, and quality control.
5. Enterprise level. This is the highest level consisting of the corporate information system. It is concerned with all of the
functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and sales, accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and master
production scheduling.
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Continuous and discrete control systems
Industrial control systems used in the process industries have tended to emphasize the control of continuous variables and
parameters. By contrast, the manufacturing industries produce discrete parts and products, and the controllers used here have
tended to emphasize discrete variables and parameters. Just as we have two basic types of variables and parameters that
characterize production operations, we also have two basic types of control:
(1) continuous control, in which the variables and parameters are continuous and analog;
(2) discrete control, in which the variables and parameters are discrete, mostly binary discrete. Some of the differences between
continuous control and discrete control are summarized in Table.
In reality, most operations in the process and
discrete manufacturing industries tend to include
both continuous as well as discrete variables and
parameters. Consequently, many industrial
controllers are designed with the capability to
receive, operate on, and transmit both types of
signals and data.
Continuous and discrete control systems
Industrial control systems used in the process industries have tended to emphasize the control of continuous variables and
parameters. By contrast, the manufacturing industries produce discrete parts and products, and the controllers used here have
tended to emphasize discrete variables and parameters. Just as we have two basic types of variables and parameters that
characterize production operations, we also have two basic types of control:
(1) continuous control, in which the variables and parameters are continuous and analog;
(2) discrete control, in which the variables and parameters are discrete, mostly binary discrete. Some of the differences between
continuous control and discrete control are summarized in Table.
In reality, most operations in the process and
discrete manufacturing industries tend to include
both continuous as well as discrete variables and
parameters. Consequently, many industrial
controllers are designed with the capability to
receive, operate on, and transmit both types of
signals and data.
Continuous control systems
Continuous Control Systems
In continuous control, the usual objective is to maintain the value of an output variable at a desired level, similar to the operation of a
feedback control system. However, most continuous processes in the practical world consist of many separate feedback loops, all of which
have to be controlled and coordinated to maintain the output variable at the desired value. Examples of continuous processes are the
following:
• Control of the output of a chemical reaction that depends on temperature, pressure, and
input flow rates of several reactants. All of these variables and/or parameters are continuous.
• Control of the position of a work part relative to a cutting tool in a contour milling
operation in which complex curved surfaces are generated. The position of the part is defined
by x, y and z coordinate values. As the part moves, the x, y, and z values can he considered as
continuous variables and/or parameters that change over lime to machine the part.
There are several approaches by which the control objective is achieved in a continuous
process control system.
Regulatory Control: In regulatory control, the objective is to maintain process performance
at a certain level or within a given tolerance band of that level. This is appropriate, for
example figure 4.2, when the performance attribute is some measure of product quality, and
it is important to keep the quality at the specified level Of within a specified range.
Feedforward Control The strategy in feedforward control is to anticipate the effete of
disturbances that will upset the process by sensing them and compensating for them
before they can affect the process. As shown in Figure 4.3, the feed forward control
elements sense the presence of a disturbance and take corrective action by adjusting a
process parameter that compensates for any effect the disturbance will have on the
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
process. In the ideal case, the compensation is completely effective.
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Discrete control systems
In Discrete Control Systems
Discrete control, the parameters and variables of the system are changed at discrete moments in time. The changes involve variables and
parameters that are also discrete, typically binary (ON/OFF). The changes are defined in advance by means of a program of instructions, for
example, a work cycle program. The changes are executed either because the state of the system has changed or because a certain amount of
time has elapsed.
These two cases can be distinguished as (1) event-driven changes or (2) time driven changes
An event-driven change is executed by the controller in response to some event that has caused the state of the system to he altered. The
change can be to initiate an operation or terminate an operation, start a motor or stop it, open a valve or close it, and so forth. Examples of
event-driven changes are:
• A robot loads a workfare into the fixture, and the part is sensed by a limit switch. Sensing the part's presence is the event that alters the
system state. The event-driven change is that the automatic machining cycle can now commence.
• The diminishing level of plastic molding compound in the hopper of an injection molding machine triggers a low-level switch, which in tum
triggers a valve to open that starts the flow of new plastic into the hopper. When the level of plastic reaches the high-level switch, this triggers
the valve to close, thus stopping the flow of pellets into the hopper.
• Counting parts moving along a conveyor past an optical sensor is an event-driven system. Each part moving past the sensor is an event that
drives the counter.

A time-driven change is executed by the control system either at a specific point in time or after a certain time lapse has occurred. As before,
the change usually consists of starting something or stopping something, and the time when the change occurs is important. Examples of time-
driven changes are:
• In factories with specific starting times and ending times for the shift and uniform break periods for all workers, the "shop clock" is set to
sound a bell at specific moments during the day to indicate these start and stop times.
• Heat treating operations must be carried out for a certain length of time. An automated heat treating cycle consists of automatic loading of
parts into the furnace (perhaps by a robot) and then unloading after the parts have been heated for the specified length of time.
Continuous and discrete control systems

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Continuous and discrete control systems
A continuous variable (or parameter) is one that is uninterrupted as time proceeds, at least during the manufacturing
operation. A continuous variable is generally considered to be analog, which means it can take on any value within a certain
range. The variable is not restricted to a discrete set of values. Production operations in both the process industries and
discrete parts manufacturing are characterized by continuous variables. Examples include force:, temperature, flow rate,
pressure, and velocity. All of these variables (whichever ones apply to a given production process) arc continuous over time
during the process, and they can take on any of an infinite number of possible values within a certain practical range.
A discrete variable (or parameter) is one that can take on only certain values
within a given range. The most common type of discrete variable is binary,
meaning it can take on either of two possible values, ON or OFF, open or
closed, and so on. Examples of discrete binary variables and parameters in
manufacturing include: limit switch open or closed, motor on or off, and work
part present or not present in a fixture. Not all discrete variables (and
parameters) are binary. Other possibilities are variables that can take on more
than two possible values but less than an infinite number, that is, discrete
variables other than binary. Examples include daily piece counts in a production
operation and the display of a digital tachometer. A special form of discrete
variable (and parameter) is pulse data, which consist of a train of pulses. As a
discrete variable, a pulse train might be used to indicate piece counts; for
example, parts passing on a conveyor activate a photocell to produce a pulse for
each part detected. As a process parameter, a pulse train might be used to drive a
stepper motor. Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Computer process control
Control Requirements
Whether the application involves continuous control, discrete control or both, there are certain basic requirements that tend
to be common to nearly all process control applications.
By and large, they are concerned with the need to communicate and interact with the process on areal-time basis. A real-lime
controller is able to respond to the process within a short enough time period that process performance is not degraded.
Factors that determine whether a computer controller can operate in real-time include:
(1) the speed of the controller's central processing unit (CPU) and its interfaces,
(2) the controller's operating system,
(3) the design of the application software, and
(4) the number of different input/output events to which the controller is designed to respond.

Real-time control usually requires the controller to be capable of multitasking, which means coping with multiple tasks
concurrently without the tasks interfering with one another.

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Computer process control
Control Requirements
There are two basic requirements that must be managed by the controller to achieve real-time control:
1. Process-initiated interrupts: The controller must be able to respond to incoming signals from the process. Depending on
the relative importance of the signals, the computer may need to interrupt execution of a current program to service a higher
priority need of the process. A process-initiated interrupt is often triggered by abnormal operating conditions, indicating that
some corrective action must be taken promptly.
2. Timer-initialed actions: The controller must be capable of executing certain actions at specified points in time. Timer-
initiated actions can be generated at regular time intervals, ranging from very low values (e.g., 100 mus) to several minutes.
or they can be generated at distinct points in time. Typical timer-initiated actions in process control include:
(1) scanning sensor values from the process at regular sampling intervals,
(2) turning on and off switches, motors, and other binary devices associated with the process at discrete points in time
during the work cycle,
(3) displaying performance data on the operator's console at regular times during a production run, and
(4) recomposing optimal process parameter values at specified times.
These two requirements correspond to the two types of changes:
(l) event-driven changes
(2) time-driven changes.
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Computer process control
Control Requirements
3. Computer commands to process: In addition to incoming signals from the process, the control computer must be able to
send control signals to the process to accomplish a corrective action.
4. System and program initiated event: These are events related to the computer system itself. They are similar to the kinds
of computer operations associated with business and engineering applications of computers. A system-initiated event
involves communications among computer and peripheral devices linked together in a network.
5. Operator-initiated events: The control computer must be able to accept input from operating personnel. Operator-
initiated events include:
(1) entering new pro grams:
(2) editing existing programs:
(3) entering customer data, order number, or startup instructions for the next production run:
(4) request for process data; and
(5) emergency stop.
Capabilities of Computer Control
The above requirements can be satisfied by providing the controller with certain capability's that allow it to interact on a
real-time basis with the process and the operator, The capabilities are: (1) polling (Data Sampling), (2) interlocks. (3)
interrupt system, and (4) exception handling.
Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Computer process control
Levels of Industrial Process Control
In general. industrial control systems possess a hierarchical
structure consisting of multiple levels of functions, similar to our
levels of automation described earlier [Table 4.2). ANSIIISA-
S88.01-1995J [This standard was prepared for batch process
control but most of the concepts and terminology are applicable to
discrete parts manufacturing and continuous process control].
The divides process control functions into three levels:
(1) basic control,
(2) procedural control, and
(3) coordination control.
These control levels map into our automation hierarchy as shown
in Figure 4.7, We now describe the three control levels, perhaps
adapting the standard to fit our own models of continuous and
discrete control (the reader is referred to the original standard,
available from the Instrument Society of America).

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Common measuring devices used in automation
Forms of computer process control
There are various ways in which computers can be used to control a process.
(1) Computer process monitoring.
(2) Direct digital control.
(3) Numerical control and robotics.
(4) programmable logic controllers.
(5) Supervisory control, and
(6) Distributed control systems and personal computers.

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Desirable features for selection of measuring devices
A wide variety of measuring devices is available for collecting data from the manufacturing process for use in feedback
control. In general a measuring device is composed of two components: a sensor and a transducer. The sensor detects the
physical variable of interest (such as temperature, force, or pressure), The transducer converts the physical variable into an
alternative form (commonly electrical voltage), quantifying the variable in the conversion. The quantified signal can be
interpreted as the value of the measured variable. In some cases, the sensor and transducer are the same device; for example,
a limit switch that converts the mechanical movement of a lever to close an electrical contact.

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Desirable features for selection of measuring devices
ACTUATORS
In industrial control systems, an actuator is a
hardware device that converts a controller command
signal into a change in a physical parameter. The
change in the physical parameter is usually
mechanical. such as position or velocity change.
An actuator is a transducer because it changes one
type of physical quantity say electric current, into
another type of physical quantity, say rotational
speed of an electric motor. The controller command
signal is usually low level, and so an actuator may
also include an amplifier to strengthen the signal
sufficiently to drive the actuator.
A list of common actuators is presented in next
Table 5.4. Depending on the type of amplifier used.
most actuators can he classified into one of three
categories: (1) electrical, (2) hydraulic, and (3)
pneumatic.

Portion of this section are based on M.P. Groover; Fundamentals of manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by M.P. Groover.
Case Studies
Case Studies
Case Studies
Case Studies
Case Studies
Case Studies: Home automation system

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Case Studies: Home automation system
What Is Home Automation?
It's a system in which homeowners use high-tech devices to control their appliances, lightings, doors, etc. Its simplest application
is the use of remote control to turn appliances and lights on and off.
Throughout the years following its development, it has become more popular, and many people have adapted the system to their
own homes. It also became more affordable and simpler with the use of smart phones and other handy devices.
Some Applications of Home Automation:
•Access Control
In lieu of keys and locks, automated access control can make your home more secured. It can be a device that reads fingerprints or
key cards to permit entrance to your home. When the device cannot read the fingerprint or card, it will trigger an alarm that will
warn you of possible intruders.
•Light Control
Light control includes a motion sensor which enables light to automatically turn on as you enter the room and go off as you leave.
•HVAC System
Automation can be applied on your heating, ventilating, and air conditioning appliances. The system lets you control the level of
temperature in your home to enhance your level of comfort.
•Fire Protection
An alarm will ring when the device detects fire to warn you of an emergency. The other automated appliances will also be turned
off.
•Video Surveillance
This helps homeowners to monitor their house whenever they’re away. It is also convenient for parents who need to look after
their children, especially the babies.
Case Studies: Automation system
Case Studies: Building Automation ＆ Controls

https://www.azbil.com/products/building/building-automation-controls/index.html
Case Studies: Warehouse Automation ＆ Controls
Flexible Manufacturing System
Components

Prof. Dr. Sachin Salunkhe

Outline:
> Introduction

> Main systems of FMS

> Sub-system of FMS: (Technical system, Processing system, Tool

Management & Supply)

> Levels of FMS

> Summary
1. Main Systems/Components of FMA

The main/basic components of an FMS are:

 Workstations,

 Material handling and storage systems,

 Computer control system, and

 Personnel that manage and operate the system.

i. Workstations
Cont’d…
ii. Material Handling and Storage System

# Material handling and storage systems for FMS in three sub-sections:

× functions,

× equipment, and

× lay-out configurations.
a). Functions of the Handling System
 Allows random, independent movement of work parts between stations so as to allow for various

routing alternatives for the different parts in the system.

 Enables handling of a variety of work part configurations by means of pallet fixtures for prismatic

parts, and industrial robots for rotational parts.

 Provides temporary storage—small queues of parts awaiting processing may be allowed to build-up in

front of each station in the system.

 Provides convenient access for loading and unloading work parts at load and unload stations.

 Creates compatibility with computer control—the handling system must be under the direct control of

the computer system which directs it to the various workstations, load/unload stations, and storage

areas.
b). Material Handling Equipments (MHS)

# FMS material handling equipment uses a variety of conventional material

transport equipment, in-line transfer mechanisms, and industrial robotics.

# There is a primary and secondary MHS used in most FMSs.

# The primary MHS establishes the FMS lay-out and is responsible for moving parts

between stations in the system.

Cont’d…
# The secondary MHS consists of transfer devices, automatic pallet changers, and other

mechanisms to transfer parts from the primary MHS to the workhead of the processing

station, or to a supporting station.

# The secondary MHS is responsible also for the accurate positioning of the part at the

workstation, so that the machining process may be performed upon the part in the correct manner.

# Other purposes of the secondary MHS include:

1) re-orientation of the part if necessary to present the surface that is to be

processed; and

2) to act as buffer storage as the workstation, should this be needed

C). Flexible Manufacturing System Layout Configurations
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
3. Computer Control System
> To operate, the FMS uses a distributed computer system that is interfaced with all

workstations in the system, as well as with the material handling system and other

hardware components. It consists of a central computer and a series of micro-

computers that control individual machines in the FMS.

> The central computer co-ordinates the activities of the components to achieve smooth

operational control of the system.

> The following control functions may be noted:

Functions of Control System
# Workstation control: fully automated FMSs use some form of workstation control at each station,

often in the form of CNC control.

# Distribution of control instructions to workstations: a central computer is required to handle

the processing occurring at disparate workstations; this involves the dissemination of part

programmes to individual workstations, based upon an overall schedule held by the central

computer.

# Production control: management of the mix and rate at which various parts are launched into

the system is important; alongside data input of a number of essential metrics, such as: daily

desired production rates, number of raw workparts available, work-in-progress etc.

Cont’d…

# Traffic control— management of the primary handling system is essential so that

parts arrive at the right location at the right time and in the right condition.

# Shuttle control— management of the secondary handling system is also important, to

ensure the correct delivery of the workpart to the station’s workhead.

# Workpiece monitoring— the computer must monitor the status of each cart or pallet

in the primary and secondary handling systems, to ensure that we know the location of

every element in the system.

Cont’d…

# Tool control— this is concerned with managing tool location (keeping track of the

different tools used at different workstations, which can be a determinant on where a part

can be processed), and tool life (keeping track on how much usage the tool has gone

through, so as to determine when it should be replaced).

# Performance monitoring and reporting — the computer must collect data on the

various operations on-going in the FMS and present performance findings.

# Diagnostics— the computer must be able to diagnose, to a high degree of accuracy,

where a problem may be occurring in the FMS.

4. Human Resources

 Human personnel manage the overall operations of the system.

 Humans are also required in the FMS to perform a variety of supporting operations in the system;

these include:

> loading raw workparts into the system;

> unloading finished parts or assemblies from the system;

> changing and setting tools;

> performing equipment maintenance and repair;

> performing NC part programming;

> programming and operating the computer system; and managing the system.
Subsystem: Processing System

# It performs some activities on a given job.

# Such activities convert the job from one shape to another continuously up to the

final product.

# It enhances significance by altering the geometry, features or appearance of

the initial materials.

Subsystem: Tool Management & Supply

 Some of the cumbersome and difficult issues to deal with relative to FMS are managing, co-ordination and

controlling the wide variety of cutting tools.

 This includes not only having and maintaining the required number of cutting tools to process the required parts

through the FMS but also managing and coordinating other elements such as:

> Replacement of tools

> Tool Assembly Component requirements

> Tool storage

> Reconditioning and present considerations

> Tool life monitoring and

> Broken tool detection and other factors.

Cont’d…

i. Getting control of cutting tools

 Controlling the cutting tools involves good tooling policies, cost-effective part

programming strategies on the machine, and sound tool-related practices

in tool room manufacturing and other off-line operations.

Cont’d…
• The following items should be considered as cost-effective optimizing tactics to

begin to augment and enhance the full impact of FMS productivity effectiveness:

# Review cutting tool and indexable insert inventory and get control of usage

# Review cutting tool purchasing practices

# Reduce dependency on specialized, nonstandard tooling.

# Guidelines for tool assembly preparation and reconditioning must be established

and reinforced.
ii. Tool Management

# Regardless of how “flexible” a flexible manufacturing system is, the system is still only

capable of processing a finite number of parts.

# The overall flexibility or “randomness” of FMS is typically constrained by two support

resources:

> Palletized fixtures that control the rate of workflow coming into and going out

of the system

> Tool storage capacity.

Cont’d…
The main problems caused by tool capacity constraints and a lack of tool management are:

1) Insufficient redundant tool backup at the machine during tool breakage and tool wear

conditions.

2) Insufficient use of present tools and excess tool inventory.

3) Conflicting priorities with other areas outside the FMS over tool availability and reconditioning.

4) A limited number of workpieces being available to process due to insufficient tool, matrix

capacity.

5) Under-utilized machines and low production rates caused by too many tools and extensive tool

changing.
Cont’d…
 Generally, tool management is getting the right tool to the right place at the right

time. Having an acceptable tool management system to fulfill the tooling requirements

of an FMS means adequately addressing the following four areas:

1) Tool room service

2) Tool delivery

3) Tool allocation and data flow and,

4) Fault sensing.
iii. Tool Strategies

# Various tool strategies exist within the framework of tool management that requires

examination. Each has its advantages and disadvantages as well as particular

application for an FMS.

# The tool strategies employed in FMS are:

> Mass Exchange

> Tool sharing

> Tool migration and,

> Assigned tools

a. Mass Exchange
 The mass exchange strategy is removing all the tools in each machine tool matrix

at the completion of specific production requirements and replacing them with

the new part required for tooling.

 Mass exchange permits tool exchange control to be minimized at the expense of

an increase in tool inventory.

 The mass exchange strategy is logical and attractive for FMS applications only

where high volume and low part variety workpiece exists.

b. Tool Sharing

> The tool-sharing concept permits the logical sharing of tools within the framework of

affixed production period and workpiece requirements.

> Common tooling among the fixed production requirements is recognized, identified and

shared among the various parts to be manufactured in the fixed production period.

> After fulfilling part requirements within the fixed production period, a new set of tools for the

next production is loaded and common tooling is again identified.

> The tool strategy requires computer software to implement due to merging of tool lists and

matching requirements to identify the common tooling.

c. Tool Migration
 The tool migration strategy is basically an extension of the mass exchange and tool sharing theory. Both consider the

workpiece to be manufactured within the fixed production period and tool matrix capacity available to support it.

 As parts are completed, many tools used to manufacture those parts become available for removal from the tool

matrix. Removing the tools frees tool points in the tool matrix and permits other tools needed for new arriving parts to

be loaded.

 Tool migration exchanges must be done in an effort to minimize spindle interruption is of primary importance.

Consequently, tools completing their manufacture service are removed from the matrix at the tool matrix, while

needed new tools are inserted in available tool pockets. Tool delivery is accomplished through various means such

as AGV.

 The Strategy requires sophisticated computer software and decision logic in order to determine the removal of

tools, adding of this tool.

d. Assigned Tools

 The above 3 strategies previously discussed assumed that a given set of workpiece be machined

at a specific machine tool. The reality of manufacturing operation force consideration of

production schedule changes, machine breakdowns, tooling and material unavailability,

flexibility among processing equipment becomes high priority. Thus, the assigned tool strategy

can address the need for increased flexibility among a set or group machine tools.

 This strategy identifies the most used tools for the production requirements and part mix and

assigns permanent residence to those tools in each machine tool matrix for the full

production run.
Cont’d…
Part #III
Levels of FMS
Types & levels of FMS
# FMS can be distinguished by how they perform, as either processing operations or assembly

operations.

# FMS are custom-built so that we may expect to find a wide range of types have been implemented

to suit differing projects.

# Each FMS is customized and unique; however, we can still define a level/typology for FMS

depending on:

(1) the number of machines it contains; or

(2) whether it is a dedicated or random-order FMS, in terms of the parts it processes.

Cont’d…
a) On the number of machines

1) Flexible Manufacturing Module (FMM): NC Machines;

2) Flexible Manufacturing (Assembly) Cell: Four FMMs and an AGV (automated guided

vehicle);

3) Flexible Manufacturing Group (FMG): Two FMCs, a FMM and two AGVs

4) Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS): A FMG and a FAC, two AGVs, an

Automated Tool Storage, and an Automated Part/assembly Storage

5) Flexible Manufacturing Line (FML): multiple stations in a line layout and AGVs.
Cont’d…

1. Flexible Manufacturing Module (FMM): Single machine cell.

> It contains one machine (often a CNC machining centre) connected to parts storage system,

which can load and unload parts to and from the storage system (as in Figure next).

> It is designed to operate in batch mode, flexible mode, or a combination of the two.

> When in batch mode, the system processes parts of a single style in specific lot sizes before

physical and programme changeover to the next batch specifications;

> In flexible mode the system satisfies three of the four tests for flexibility — the exception

being error recovery, since, if the CNC machining centre breaks down, the system stops.
Figure 1: FMM- Single machine cell with one CNC machining centre and parts storage unit
2. Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC)

 It contains 4 FMMs (often CNC machining or turning centres), plus a parts handling

system, as in Figure 2.

 This set-up can operate in flexible mode and batch mode, as necessary, and can readily

adapt to evolving production schedule and increased production volumes.

 Since there is more than one machine, error recovery is possible by re-routing the

failed machine’s intended parts for processing to the other two machines in the system; and

new part designs can be introduced with relative ease into the set-up. The flexible

manufacturing cell satisfies all four flexibility tests.

Figure 2: Flexible manufacturing cell with three FMM (identical processing stations, a load/unload
station, and parts handling system)
3. Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)

 This consists of a FMG, a FMC, and other stations connected mechanically by a common parts

handling system and electronically by a distributed numerical control system (as in Figure 3).

 FMS is larger than the flexible manufacturing cell/FMG, not only in the number of workstations

it may contain, but also in the number of supporting stations in the system, such as part/pallet

washing stations, co-ordinate measuring machines, storage stations and so on.

 Computer control is also more sophisticated; it includes functions not found in the flexible

manufacturing cell such as diagnostics and tool monitoring.

 The FMS satisfies all four flexibility tests.

Figure 3: Plan view of a seven-station flexible manufacturing system
Cont’d…
 A comparison of the three FMS types is illustrated in Figure 4, where the number of

machines is plotted against metrics of investment, production rate and annual volume.
4. Flexible Manufacturing line (FML)
> Flexible manufacturing line is like a production line and flexible manufacturing cell, but it

handles more volume and very few products compared to a flexible manufacturing cell.

> So, if the volumes are very high or if a cell is required to make only one product then it

becomes a flexible manufacturing line, if it makes more than one then it becomes a FMC is a

little more variety and a collection of flexible manufacturing cells make a flexible

manufacturing system.

> Thus FMCs have high flexibility and handle less volume while FML have less flexibility, but

can handle very large volumes. So, depending on the volume and variety, we call it an FML

or FMC.
Cont’d…

 Flexible transfer line has multiple workstations that are automated and linked

together by a work handling system that transfers parts from one station to the next,

as in Fig. 5.

 Starting—un-processed—parts enter the FTL and undergo a system of automated

processing at various workstations along the automated production line; the parts are

passed from workstation to workstation by means of a mechanized work transport

system, until the completely processed parts pass out of the automated production line

after the last process occurs to the part at the final workstation in the system.
Cont’d…

Figure 5: General configuration of an flexible transfer line

Cont’d…
# The line may also include inspection stations to perform intermediate quality checks on parts in the

system, as well as a number of manually-operated workstations that accomplish tasks that have not

been automated owing to reasons of economy or difficulty.

# Each station performs a different operation, so all the operations are required to complete one work

unit; this means that the parts’ route through the production line is fixed and cannot be changed.

# Multiple parts are processed simultaneously, with one part undergoing processing at each

workstation in the system. This means, in the simplest automated production lines, that the number of

parts in the system is found to be equal to the number of workstations that the system has; however,

in more complicated configurations, provision may have been made for some form of part storage, so

this calculation may not be accurate where buffering is manifest.

Cont’d…

 The flexible manufacturing line operates in cycles with the slowest

workstation processing time setting the pace for the whole line. Each cycle

consists of the processing time plus the time taken to transfer parts from

one workstation to the next.

Cont’d…
# Certain layouts of transfer lines may allow the use of pallet fixtures for part

handling. The alternative method of work part location is simply to index the parts

themselves from station to station; this is described as a free transfer line, and is

less expensive than the palletized transfer line as pallet fixtures do not have to be

custom-designed for the work transport system. However, certain workpart

geometries mandate the use of pallets and pallet fixtures, in which case a system

of returning them to the front of the line must be devised.

System Configurations of FTL

 A number of system configurations for the flexible manufacturing line exist;

these are:

1) In-line type layout

2) Segmented in-line type (L-shaped, U-shaped, rectangular

shaped)

3) Rotary layout.
i. In-line type layout
ii. Segmented in-line type
iii. Rotary layout
> Consists of a circular worktable around which workparts are fixed

to workholders.

> The worktable rotates to move each workpart, in turn, into each

Automated workstation which is located around the circumference of

the worktable.

> The worktable is often called a dial, and the equipment is referred to

as a dial indexing machine, or simply, indexing machine.

> Commonly limited to smaller workparts and relatively few

workstations, and they cannot readily accommodate buffer storage

capacity. However they require less floor space, and are generally

less expensive than other configurations.

Cont’d…
 Sometimes a mix of the above configurations may be favored in particular cases.

For example in Figure 6; here is illustrated two transfer lines that perform metal

machining operations on a rear truck axle.

 The first line consists of a segmented in-line configuration, in the rectangular

layout; the second line is in the conventional in-line configuration.

 There also exists a number of buffer storage locations within the configuration,

particularly from one transfer line to the next.

Cont’d…

Figure 6: Two machining transfer lines

Level of flexibility:

# The FMS can be examined to determine the level of flexibility it maintains.

# There are two levels: dedicated FMS, and random-order FMS.

i. Dedicated FMS
# It is designed to produce a limited variety of part styles, and the complete universe of parts to be

made on the system is known in advance.

# Group technology is likely to be based on product commonality rather than geometric similarity.

# Product design is relatively stable, so the system is designed with a certain amount of process

specialization in place; machines designed for specific processes can be implemented within the

system, which leads to an increased production rate from the system.

# In some cases, machine sequence may be virtually identical for all parts processed, so a transfer

line may be appropriate as the system lay-out.

ii. Random-order FMS

> It is designed to produce a large part family, where there are substantial variations in part

configurations, and where it is likely that new part designs will be introduced into the system, with

engineering changes occurring to existing parts.

> The production schedule may also be flexible, changing from day to day.

> The random-order FMS must be more flexible than the dedicated FMS to accommodate these

requirements.

> It is equipped with general purpose machines to deal with product variations, and is capable of

processing parts in random order. A more sophisticated computer control system is also required

for this FMS type.

Cont’d…
• A comparison of the two FMS types is illustrated in Figure 15.6, where the production rate and annual

volume is plotted against metrics of flexibility and part variety.

Figure 15.6: Comparison of dedicated and random-order FMS types

Computer Numerical Control
(CNC) Machine Tools

Prof. Dr. Sachin Salunkhe

Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable
automation in which the mechanical actions of a machine
are controlled by alphanumeric data and other symbols.
 These are coded in an appropriate format to define a
program of instruction
 The data represent relative positions between a work-head
(cutting tool) and a work-part (object being processed).
The program of instructions can be changed to process a
new job.
 This makes NC suitable for low and medium
production.
CNC lathe machine CNC Milling machine

NC Bending Machine
CNC Pantograph machine
Basic Components of an NC System

I. The program of instructions

 Is step-by-step commands that direct the processing
equipment.
 The commands refer to positions of a machining tool
spindle relative to the worktable (fixture).
 With spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool selection,
and other functions.
II. The machine control unit (MCU)

 This consists of a electronic and related control hardware

that stores instructions.
 Converting each command into mechanical actions of the
equipment, one command at a time.

 The related hardware includes

 Components to interface with the processing equipment
and Feedback control elements.
 One or more Reading devices for entering part programs
into memory.
III. The Processing Equipment
 This performs the useful work to transform the starting
workpiece into a completed part.
 Its operation is directed by the MCU.
Types of NC machine tools
A. Conventional Numerical Control (NC)
 Data is sent to the machine tool by means of direct
insertion of numerical data at some point.

B. . Computer Numerical Control (CNC):

 Computer positioned right at the machine tool.
 Most/all machine tools that are numericaly controlled are
CNC machine tools.

C. Direct/Distributed Numeric Control (DNC):

 Direct NC- a single computer controls many numerical
control machine tools.
 Distributed NC - Hierarchical computers control the
Machine tools.
A. Numerical control (NC)
 Numerical Control (NC) is a system in which actions
are controlled by the direct insertion of alpha-numeric
data at some point (EIA definition).

 The system must automatically interpret at least some

portion of the data.

 The reader at the machine performs no calculations or

interpolations.

 Machines controlled by electronic systems designed to

accept numerical data and other instructions usually in
a coded form.
NC System

NUMERICAL
DATA
(NC CODE)

NUMERICAL
MANUFACTURING CONTROLLER
OPERATOR
Drive Control

PROCESSED
PART

MACHINE UNIT
CNC can be defined as an NC system whose MCU is based
on a dedicated microcomputer rather than on a hard-wired
controller, hence
 size and cost reduction of digital computers and
 substantial increase in their computational capabilities.
Features of CNC
The additional features of CNC System include:
 Sufficient capacity to store of more than one part
program
 Multiple data entry capabilities for various forms of
program input
 Punched and magnetic tape, diskette, RS-232
communications, manual data input
 Program editing at the machine tool (testing and
correcting a program at the machine site),

 Fixed cycle and programming subroutines: to store

frequently used machining cycles as macros that can be
called by the program

 Interpolation

 Positioning features for setup: facilitated alignment task

can be using certain features

 Cutter length and size compensation:

 Acceleration and deceleration calculations.

Communications: interface with other computers/ computer-
driven devices such as:
• Downloading part programs from a central data file,
• Collecting operational data,
• Interfacing with peripheral equipment,

Diagnostics: monitors and detect certain aspects of the

machine tool malfunctions. Common CNC diagnostics
system are:
 Control start-up diagnostics,
 Malfunction and failure analysis,
 Extended diagnostics for individual components,
 Tool life monitoring,
 Preventive maintenance notices,
 Programming diagnostics
The MCU for CNC consists of five elements which are
interconnected by means of a system bus.

Memory Input/output interface

Central processing
-ROM -Operating sys - Operator panel
unit (CPU)
-RAM -Part programs - Tape reader

System bus
Machine tool controls Sequence controls
- Position control - Coolant
- Spindle Speed control - Fixture clamping
- Tool changer

Fig. Configuration of CNC machine control unit

DNC involves the control of a number of machine tools by a
single (mainframe/ Central) computer.
 A program is transmitted directly to MCU at a time and on
demand


The system consists of:

 Central computer (CC), Bulk memory at CC site, Set of controlled
machines and Telecommunications lines linking machines with
CC.
In operation, the computer calls the required part program from
bulk memory and sent it (one block at a time) to the designated
machine tool.
The CC also receives feedback from the machines to indicate
operating performance in the shop.
Thus, a central objective of DNC is to achieve two-way
communication between the machines and the CC.
General configuration of a DNC system. Connection to MCU is behind
the tape reader.
In the new DNC configuration, CC is connected to MCUs, which are
themselves computers.
This permits complete part programs to be sent to the machine tools,
rather than one block at a time.
Redundant computers improve system reliability compared with the
original DNC (Direct NC).
The two way communication include:
Data & Info Down loaded from CC to Data & Info Loaded from M/c & Shop
M/c & Shop Floor Floor to CC
NC part programs Piece counts
Machining cycle time for part program Actual machining cycle times
List of tools needed for job Tool life statistics
Data about when program was last M/c up/down time statistics for m/c
used utilization and reliability assessment
Machine setup instructions Product quality data
DNC
Computer

Satellite Satellite
Computer Computer

MCU MT MCU MT MCU MT MCU MT

Functions of Satellite computers

 Each satellite control several machines
 Receive groups of part program instructions from the CC and
store in buffer
 Dispense these instructions to each machine when required
 To receive feedback from the machine tools before being
collected at central computer
Principal differences are
 DNC computers control a large number of machines.
 CNC computer control single or small number of machines

 DNC are far from the machines under their control

 CNC computers are located very near to their machine tool

 DNC software are designed both to control machine tools

and to serve as MIS
 CNC software developed to augment the capability of a
particular machine tool.
Application of NC

The applications of NC applications can be divided

into two categories:

 Machine tool applications (those usually associated

with metal work industry). These includes:
Turning, Drilling, Milling, Grinding

 Non-machine tool applications (diverse group of

operations in other industries). These may include:
Assembling, Inspection, sorting
The common NC machine tools with their
typical features are:

 NC lathe requires two-axis, continuous path control, either to

make straight or contour turning.

 NC boring mill requires continuous path, two-axis control for

creating internal cylinder

 NC drill press use point-to-point control of the spindle/ drill bit

and two axis (x-y) control of the worktable.

 NC milling machine require continuous path control to perform

straight cut or contouring operations.

 Cylindrical grinder has continuous path two-axis control,

similar to an NC lathe.
NC Application Characteristics

Characteristics that are most suited to NC application

are:

 Batch production: NC is appropriate in small/ medium

lot sizes as dedicated automation and Manual
production would be uneconomical for these quantities.

 Repeat orders: Batches of the same parts are produced

at random or periodic intervals.
NC Application Characteristics

 Complex part geometry:

 such as those found on airfoils and turbine blades, circles and
helixes.

 Much metal needs to be removed from the work part:

 complex part geometry to fabricate large structural sections
with low weights.

 Many separate machining operations on the part:

 features requiring different cutting tools, such as drilled
and/or tapped holes, slots, flats, and so on.

 The part is expensive:

 when the part is expensive, and mistakes in processing would
be costly .
NC for Other Metalworking Processes include:

 Punch presses for sheet metal hole punching.

 Presses for sheet metal bending.

 Welding machines- both spot and continuous arc

welding

 Thermal cutting Machines, oxy-fuel, laser, plasma arc

cutting.

 Tube bending machines to control location and angle of

bend such as frames for bicycles.
Part Programming (PP) is concerned with the planning and
documentation of the sequence of processing steps to be
performed on NC machine.

The planning portion of part programming requires knowledge

of
 Machining
 Geometry Trigonometry

Documentation of PP involves the input medium that is used

to transmit the program of instructions to the NC MCU.
 The input medium is the punched tape
Figure: NC punched tape format
A binary digit (called bit) has a value of 0 or 1 for the
absence or presence of holes in a certain raw and
column positions on the tape.
Character: is formed on the raw
 Character is a combination of bits which represents a
letter, number or symbol.
A word is a combination of characters used to form part of
instruction.
 Typical NC words can be x-position, y-position cutting
speed, etc.
The block is formed from combined words.
 A block of words is a complete NC instruction.
Part programming include a variety of procedures ranging
from highly manual to highly automated methods.

The methods are:

1. Manual part programming,

2. Computer-assisted part programming,

3. Part programming using CAD/CAM, and

4. Manual data input.

The process of instructions are documented on a form
called part program manuscript.
 Manuscript is a list of positions of the tool relative to
the workpiece that machine should follow to perform
the processing.
 Manuscript can also include other data such as
preparatory commands, miscellaneous instructions,
feed/speed specifications, etc.

Manual part programming is more applicable in PTP

applications and for simple contouring operations
such as milling and turning jobs.
Fundamental elements of manual part
programming are:

Type of Coordinate System

Absolute or Incremental Coordinate systems

Axis Designation
Continuous path control or PTP path control

NC Words
N-word (sequence number): used to identify the block
G-word (preparatory work): used to prepare the controller
for instructions that are to be followed
X-, Y- and Z- words (coordinates): gives the coordinate
positions of the tool
 In two axis only two word will be used
 In three axis only three words will be used
F-word (feed rate): specify the feed rate of the
machining operation in in./min
TABLE - Common G-words (Preparatory Word)
G-word Function
G00 P-t-p movement (rapid) b/n previous point and end point
G01 Linear interpolation movement.
G02; G03 Circular interpolation, clockwise counterclockwise respectively.
G04 Dwell for a specified time
G10 Input of cutter offset data, followed by a P-code and an R-code.
G17; G18; G19 Selection of x-y, x-z and y-z plane in milling respectively.
G20 Input values specified in inches
G28 Return to reference point.
G32 Thread cutting in turning.
G41, G42 Cutter offset compensation, left and right of part surface respectively.
G50 Specify location of origin relative to starting location of tool.
G90; G91 Programming in absolute & incremental coordinates respectively.
G94, G95 Specify feed/minute and feed/revolution respectively
G98; G99 Specify feed/minute and feed/revolution respectively in turning.
S-word (cutting speed): specify the cutting speed of the
process or rate at which the spindle rotates in rev./min

T-word (tool selection): needed for machines with turret or

automatic tool changer.

M-word (miscellaneous functions): used to specify

miscellaneous or auxiliary functions which may be
available on the machine tool
 This function is the last word in the block
M-Word Function
M00; M01 Program stop; and Optional program stop respectively
M02 End of .program. Machine stops
M03; M04 Start spindle in clockwise and counterclockwise direction respectively
.
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Execute tool change, either manually or automatically.
M07; M08; M09 Turn cutting fluid on flood, on mist and off respectively .
M10; M11 Automatic clamping and unclamping of fixture, machine slides, etc
respectively.
M13; M14 Start spindle in clockwise and counterclockwise direction and turn on
cutting fluid respectively.

M17 Spindle and cutting fluid off.

M19 Turn spindle off at oriented position.
M30 End of program. Machine stop.
Common Format of a Block

Sequence Preparatory Dimension Feed Spindle Tool Misc.

# Function Words Rate Function Function Function

N50 G90 G01 X1.40Y2.25 F10 S1500 T01 M03

Individual Words
Manual Part Programming
This example presents the NC part program for drilling the
three holes in the sample part using word address format.
The x-, y-, and z-axes are defined. The program begins with
the tool positioned at at x = 0, y = -50, and z =10 (target
point).
NC Part Program Code Comment
N001 G21 G90 G92 X0 Y-050.0 Z10.0; Define origin of axes.
N002 G00 X070.0 Y030.0; Rapid move to first hole location.
N003 G01 G95 Z-15.0 F0.05 Sl000 M03; Drill first hole.
N004 G01 Z010.0; Retract drill from hole.
N005 G00 Y060.0; Rapid move to second hole.

Fig. Aluminum Sample part

for NC part programming
It is applicable for complicated operations.
such as complex PTP and contouring operations which
are tedious and time consuming and subject to error in
manual part programming.
The various tasks in computer-assisted part
programming are divided between;
The human part programmer
The computer
The part programmer is situated for two functions
 Defining the geometry of the workpart and
 Specifying the tool path and/or operation
sequence.
Work part geometry definition:
 Work part is composed of basic geometric elements.
 The geometry can be generated by points, lines, plans,
circles, cylinders and other mathematically defined surfaces.
Examples.
P4 = POINT/35, 90,0
L1 = LINE/P1, P2
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P8, RADIUS, 30.0
Tool path construction:
The tool path is the path that the cutter follows to machine
the define part geometry. The tool path specification
involves a detailed step-by-step sequence of cutter
moves. Can be
Point-to-Point command:
 GOTO/P0
Continuous path command:
 GOLFT/L2, TANTO, C1
.
Other Functions in Computer-Assisted Part
Programming

• Specifying cutting speeds and feed rates

• Designating cutter size (for tool offset calculations)
• Specifying tolerances in circular interpolation
• Naming the program
• Identifying the machine tool.
The computer is also situated for four functions

1. Input translation: convert the part program using

APT languages and then converts to computer usable
form.

2. Arithmetic calculations: consists of a

comprehensive set of subroutines for solving the
mathematics required to the part surface.

3. The cutter offset computation: offsets the tool

path from the desired part surface by the radius of the
cutter.
4. Postprocessor: a unit that take the general
instructions and make them specific to a particular
machine tool system.

Cutter Offset
Automatically programmed tool (APT) is a three
dimensional NC language that can control up to five axis.

It is also a computer program that calculate to generate

cutter position based on APT statements.

There are four types of statements in the APT language.

 Geometry Statements
 Motion statements
 Postprocessor statements
 Auxiliary statements
These define the geometric elements that comprise the workpart.
The general form of an APT geometry statement is :
Symbol = geometry type/descriptive data
Ex. P1 = POINT/5.0,4.0,0.0
The statement is made up of three sections.
Symbol: identify the geometric elements
 It can be any combination of six or fewer alphabetic
and numeric characters (at least one of the six
should be alphabet).
 The symbol should not be APT word vocabulary
Ex. PZL, PADCDE, PABCDEF, 1233789, POINT, P1.2 (W/c is corr.)
APT Vocabulary: identifies the types of the geometry
element.
 The geometry elements in the APT vocabulary include
POINT, LINE, PLANE, and CIRCLE.

Descriptive data: defines the element precisely,

completely and unique.
 These data may include quantitative dimensional and
positional data, previously defined geometry elements and
other APT words.
 The slash separates the surface from the descriptive data,
and the comma separates words and numbers in the
descriptive data.
Defining the geometry elements
1. To specify a point: a point can be defined as intersection of two
lines
P2 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2 (comment INTOF = intersection of)
2. To specify a line: a line can be defined by two points in w/c the line
passes. L3 = LINE/P3, P4
A programmer can define a line parallel to a line w/c has previously
been defined. L4 = LINE/P5, PARLEL, L3
3. To specify a plane: a plane can be defined by three points through
w/c it passes. PL1 = PLANE/P1, P4, P5
A plane can also be defined by a plane parallel to other previously
defined
PL2 = PLANE/P2, PARLEL, PL1
4. To specify a circle: a circle can be defined by center point and the
radius. C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 5.0
Ground Rules:
1. The coordinate data must be specific in the order x, y,
and z.
P1 = POINT/5.0, 4.0, 0.0.

2. Any symbols used as descriptive data must have been

previously defined.
P2 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2
L1 and L2 must have first been defined.

3. A symbol can be used to define only one geometry

elements
P1 = POINT/1.0, 1.0, 1.0 Not correct (P1, P1)
P1 = POINT/2.0, 3.0, 4.0
4. Only one symbol can be used to define any given
element
P1 = POINT/1.0, 1.0, 1.0
Not correct (1.0, 1.0, 1.0)
P2 = POINT/1.0, 1.0, 1.0

5. Lines defined in APT are considered to be of infinite

length in both directions. Similarly, plane extend
indefinitely and circles defined in APT are complete
circles.
Are used to describe the path taken by the cutting tool.
The general form of APT motion statement is given by
Motion command/descriptive data
Ex. GOTO/P1
The basic motion command (GOTO): tells the tool what
to do.
The descriptive data (P1): tells the tool where to go.
At the beginning of the motion statement, the tool must be
given a starting point.
FROM/TARG

The FROM is APT vocabulary word w/c indicates that this

is the initial point from w/c others will be referenced.
TARG is symbol given to the starting point.
Other form is FROM/-2.0, -2.0, 0.0
The PTP Vs Contouring motion
PTP motions: there are two commands GOTO and
GODLTA
GOTO instructs to a particular point
GOTO/P2
GOTO/2.0, 7.0, 0.0
GODLTA: specifies an incremental move for the tool
GODLTA/2.0, 2.0, 0.0
The tool is directed to a particular hole by GOTO then
the GODLTA will be used for drilling the hole.
Illustration:
Write the APT geometry and motion statements necessary
to perform the drilling portion of this job. The plane is
defined by z = 0 about ¼ in. above the part surface. The
part is assumed to be ½ in. thick.
Contouring commands are somewhat complicated due to
continuous control of tool path.

There are six motion commands

GOLFT GOFWD GOUP GORGT GOBACK GODOWN
The tool is directed along three intersecting surfaces
(drive, part and check surface).

Drive surface: the surface that guides the side of the

cutter

Part surface: the surface on w/c the bottom of the cutter

rides. This may or may not be actual surface of the
workpart.

Check surface: is an additional surface that stops the

movement of the tool in its current direction.
 It checks the forward movement of the tool.
.
APT motion statement commands the cutter to move along
the drive and part surfaces and the movement ends when
the tool is at the check surface
There are several ways in which the check surface can
be used. This is determined by the modifier words

Four modifier words

TO: moves the tool in to initial
contact with the check
surface

ON: moves the tool until tool

center is on check surface
PAST: moves the tool beyond
the check surface

TANTO: moves the tool to a

point of tangency
between two surfaces, at
least one of which is
circular.

(d)TANTO
The FROM is used as an initial, like in PTP. FROM defines the
initial drive surface, part surface, and check surface.
FROM/TARG
GO/TO, PL1, TO, PL2, TO, PL3
TARG is a target point the operator has set up the tool.
GO instructs the tool to the intersection of the drive surface
(PL1), the part surface (PL2), and the check surface (PL3)
The periphery of the cutter is tangent to the PL1 and PL3 due to
the modifier word TO.
The three surfaces are ordered as drive, part surface, check
surface.
After initialized, the tool is directed along its path by one of the
six command words.
GORGT/PL3, PAST, PL4
Illustration with examples
Write an APT geometry and motion statement for the workpart of the
figure shown below.
P0 (0, -1.0, 0)
P1 (6.0, 1.25, 0)
P2 (0, 0, 0)
P3 (6.0, 0, 0)
P4 (1.75, 4.5, 0)
These complete function which are not addressed by
geometry statement and motion commands.

Postprocessor statement: control the operation of the machine

tool and supporting role in generating the path. Such
commands are the cutter size, specify speed and feed, turn
coolant flow on and off, and others.

Syntax
POSTPROCESSORCOMMAND/descriptive data

Postprocessor command: indicates the type of function or action

Descriptive data: consists of APT words and numerical values.
Ex. SPINDL/1000, CLW
Auxiliary statement: identifies the part program,
which processor to use, insert remarks into the
program, etc.

These statement has not effect on the generation of

the tool path.

Ex. PARTNO: the first program in an APT program, used

to identify the program.
CLPRT: “cutter location print” used to printout the
cutter location sequence.
Part geometry is to be designed and manufactured from Low carbon steel in an automated
single machine cell which is dedicated for end milling. A 20mm diameter cement carbide
multi-teeth end milling cutter with the clockwise spindle rotation capacity is used. The top
surface of the workpart is 20 mm above the machine table. The cutting speed is 1200 rev/min
and feed rate is 75 mm/min. A fixed positioning, located at the lower left corner of the
workpart, with a absolute coordinate system is adopted for this typical machine cell. Since
the cuter cuts only 5mm of the 20mm thick workpart at a time, it needs four round program
for the full cut. Considering the workpart is laid on the x-y plane and the initial position of
the tool is at (-5, 0,25); develop a part program for the first round to generate the geometry
as shown in the figure-1(below) using Computer assisted part programming using the APT
language (6)

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