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Overview of Industrial
Process Automation
Second edition

KLS Sharma
Automation Education and Training,
Bengaluru, India

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK

OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE
SYDNEY • TOKYO
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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Copyright © 2017, 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Cover page background image courtesy: Yokogawa, India (www.yokogawa.com/in) and Bosch
Rexroth, India (www.boshrexroth.co.in)

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using
such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the
safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or
ideas contained in the material herein.

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Dedication

This book is dedicated to ABB India, where the author learned

and practiced automation for over 24 years.
About the Author

KLS Sharma graduated from University of Mysuru, India, and received his masters
and doctoral degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India.

He has worked for the following organizations:

• Technical manager, Electronics Corporation of India, Hyderabad, India
• Assistant vice president, ABB, Bengaluru, India
• Consultant, Honeywell Technology Solutions Lab, Bengaluru, India
• Professor, International Institute of Information Technology, Bengaluru, India
• Professor emeritus, MS Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, India
• Member, Campus Connect Program, Automation Industry Association of India, Delhi, India
• Distinguished visiting professor, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, India

His current positions are:

• Advisor, Automation Education and Training, Bengaluru, India
• Principal
consultant, Advanced Engineering Group, Infosys, Bengaluru, India
• Member, Editorial Advisory Board, A&D Magazine on Industrial Automation, Pune, India

Association
• Senior member, International Society of Automation (ISA)

Awards and Recognitions

• ISA Celebrating Excellence Member’s Choice Award for Student Mentor of the Year 2015.
Foreword

The industrial revolution replaced the need for human muscles; the computer revolution
substituted the routine functions of our brains. Today we operate robots on Mars that can
vaporize rocks by laser to determine their composition, and soon we will be ordering
pizza while sitting in our hydrogen-fueled driverless cars and the drone-delivered pizza
will be waiting for us in the driveway by the time our smart car parks itself.
Similar advances took place in the field of industrial automation. 50 years ago we
were tuning single loop pneumatic controllers and were perfectly satisfied with using
filled bulbs for temperature and orifices for flow measurement. At that time the main
job of the instrument department in the plant was to clean plugged pressure taps and
open stuck control valves, and our control panels were full of push buttons, blinking
lights, and manual loading stations. Over the past decades our tools changed into
self-checking digital components, wireless transmission, and redundant safety backup
systems that provide ease of configuring complex algorithms and generating dynamic
displays. Today automation is minimizing operating and energy costs while maximiz-
ing both safety and profitability of our industries.
Yet the totality of the automation field is poorly understood because that knowledge
is fragmented, since our colleagues are working only in particular segments of the
field. Few have an overall view of the totality of the automation profession. This book
of Dr. Sharma serves to fill that gap by describing the totality of this field.
We live at a time when cultural attitudes concerning automation are changing as we
debate the proper role of machines in our lives. Whereas in everyday life we accept the
spread of automation, that our mobile phones can do just about anything except sharpen
our pencils (but who needs pencils or handwriting anymore, for that matter?), industrial
attitudes change much more slowly. Our industries are still mostly run by human oper-
ators, and although they are assisted by machines, it is the operator who usually has the
“last word.” In other words, automation is seldom used to prevent human errors.
xvi Foreword

Safety statistics tell us that the number one cause of all industrial accidents is human
error. One could refer to Three-Mile Island, where operators poured water into the instru-
ment air supply; the BP accident, where there was no automation to keep the drill pipe
straight; the ferry accident in Korea, where safety overrides were not provided to prevent
the captain from turning sharply into a fast ocean current; or airplane accidents, where
pilots are allowed to fly into mountains or attempt to land at wrong speeds. Yet we know
that in addition to its other contributions, automation can overrule the actions of pan-
icked or badly trained operators who often make the wrong decisions in emergencies.
To achieve this higher level of industrial safety, an override safety control (OSC)
layer of safety automation is being added to our control systems, one that cannot be
turned off or overruled by anything or anybody. With this design, if the plant condi-
tions enter a highly accident-prone life- or safety-threatening region of operation, the
uninterruptible safe shutdown of the plant is automatically triggered. The functioning
of this layer of automation is free from possible cyber attacks because it is not con-
nected to the Internet at all. In short, once the OSC layer of protection is activated, the
plant is shutting down and nothing and nobody can prevent that.
In addition to safety improvements, advances in standardization are also taking place.
Just as it occurred in the “analog age,” a global standard is now evolving for digital
communication that could link all digital “black boxes” and could also act as a “transla-
tor” for those automation devices that were not designed to “speak the same language.”
Naturally, this standardization should apply to both wired and wireless systems, thereby
eliminating “captive markets” and allowing the easy mixing of different manufacturers’
products in the same control loop. This trend is most welcome because once completed,
it will allow the automation and process control engineers to once again concentrate
on designing safe and optimized control systems and not worry about the possibility
that the “black boxes” of the different suppliers might not be able to talk to each other.
Therefore it is hoped that the “Babel of communication protocols” will shortly be over.
The automation profession can simultaneously increase gross domestic product
and industrial profitability without building a single new plant, just by optimizing
existing ones. We can achieve that goal while also reducing both pollution and energy
consumption, solely through applying the state-of-the art of automation. We can
increase productivity without using a single pound of additional raw material and
without spending a single additional BTU of energy. We can also protect our indus-
tries not only from human errors but also from sabotage or cyber terrorism by replac-
ing manual control with OSC-type automatic safety controls.
Our profession can do all this and much more, but to do so it is necessary for the
people entering or working in this field to have an overall view of this profession, and
this book of Dr. Sharma serves that goal.
May 1, 2016 Béla Lipták
Stamford CT, USA [email protected]

Béla Lipták is president of the consulting firm Lipták Associates, PC.

Foreword xvii

Future of Industrial Automation

Extract from the article by Jim Pinto
“As the second decade of the 21st century moves forward, technology continues to
accelerate and is generating rapid changes in industrial automation & control systems.
Industrial automation can and will generate explosive growth in the next decade,
with several new inflection points:
• Nanotechnology will bring tiny, low-power, low-cost sensors and nano-scale electromechan-
ical systems. The Internet-of-Things (IoT)—Europeans call it Industry 4.0—will be perva-
sive and change the face of industrial automation, generating vast productivity gains.
• Wireless sensors and distributed peer-to-peer networks will give rise to major new software
applications—tiny operating systems in wireless nodes will allow nodes to communicate
with each other in a larger complex adaptive systems.
• Today’s pervasive smart-phone has more power than a super-computer of just a couple of
decades ago. The use of WiFi-connected tablets, smartphones and mobile devices with new
real-time monitoring software (Apps) will be used widely in industrial plants and process con-
trol environments.
• Conventional Real-time control systems will give way to multi-processors and complex
adaptive systems

These are the waves of the future. The leaders will not be the traditional automation
majors, but new start-ups with innovative ideas that will generate industrial productiv-
ity gains to drive significant growth.”

June 28, 2016 Jim Pinto

Carlsbad, CA, USA [email protected]

Jim Pinto is an international speaker, technology futurist, automation consultant, and writer
(http://JimPinto.com).
Preface to the First Edition

During my 33-year career in the computer and automation industry and subsequently
my 7 years in academic institutions, I have observed a gap between academia and indus-
try regarding the automation domain. These observations are based on my time spent
training new recruits in Indian industry and later, on my teaching experience in Indian
academic institutions. One of the ways this gap can be bridged is by introducing the basics
of modern automation technology to those who are beginning careers in automation. This
includes students and persons in industry who are switching to the automation domain.
Prior knowledge of automation provides these beginners with a better and quicker start.
In many academic institutions, curriculum is being upgraded in instrumentation/
control engineering courses to prepare students for careers in the automation industry.
Currently the automation industry spends considerable time and money training and
preparing new recruits for the job. The situation is more or less the same for persons
switching to the automation domain in industry. This motivated me to write this book
introducing the principles of automation in a simple and structured manner.
This book teaches beginners the basics of automation, and it is also intended as a
guide to teachers and trainers who are introducing the subject. It addresses the current
philosophy, technology, terminology, and practices within the automation industry
using simple examples and illustrations.
The modern automation system is built out of a combination of technologies, which
include the following:
• sensor and control
• electronics
• electrical drives
• information (computer science and engineering)
• communication and networking
• embedded
• digital signal processing
• control engineering, and many more

Current automation technology is one of the few engineering domains that use
many modern technologies. Among these, information, communication, and network-
ing technologies have become integral parts of today’s automation. Basic subsystems
of a modern automation system are instrumentation, control, and the human inter-
face. In all of the subsystems, the influence of various technologies is visible. By and
large, the major providers of automation use similar philosophies in forming their
products, systems, and solutions.
xx Preface to the First Edition

As of now, most of the information on modern automation exists in the form of

technical documents prepared by automation companies. These documents are usually
specific to their products, systems, solutions, and training. This knowledge has not yet
been widely disseminated to the general public, and the books that are available deal
with specific products and systems. Most of this industry material is difficult for begin-
ners to understand. It is good for next-level reading after some exposure to the basics.
Automation of the industrial process calls for industrial process automation sys-
tems. These involve designing, developing, manufacturing, installing, commission-
ing, and maintaining automation systems, which calls for the services of qualified and
trained automation engineers. In addressing the basic concepts of automation, this
book provides a starting point for the necessary education and training process.
Over the years, considerable advances have taken place in hardware technologies
(mainly in electronics and communication). However, in computer-based automation
systems, hardware interfaces have remained virtually the same, except that control
has become more powerful owing to the availability of large memory and increased
processor speeds. In other words, the memory and speed constraints present in earlier
systems are not an issue today. In view of this, many aspects of hardware interface
and function have been taken over by software, which does not need special inter-
face electronics. Today, complete operation and control of industrial processes are by
software-driven automation systems. Furthermore, this software provides maximum
support to the user. The user is now only required to configure and customize the auto-
mation system for a particular process. Therefore the emphasis in this book is placed
on hardware, engineering, and application programming.
This book is intended for:
• students beginning automation careers
• teachers of automation and related subjects
• engineers switching to automation careers
• trainers of automation

How to read the book:

• Follow the book from beginning to end, because its sequence is structured as a guided tour
of the subject.
• Skip appendixes if you already have the background knowledge. They are provided for the
sake of completeness and to create a base for easy understanding of the book.

Benefits the book provides for readers:

• does not call for any prior knowledge of automation
• presents a guided tour of automation
• explains the concepts through simple illustrations and examples
• makes further study easy
• prepares the reader to understand technical documents in the automation industry
Preface to the First Edition xxi

Based on my experience in training, teaching, and interacting with trainees and

students, I have specially formulated and simplified the illustrations and discussions
in this book to facilitate easy understanding.
The book is organized as follows:
Chapter 1: Why Automation?—Industrial process, Undesired behavior of process, Types
and classifications of process, Unattended, manually attended, and fully automated pro-
cesses, Needs and benefits of automation, Process signals
Chapter 2: Automation System Structure—Functions of automation subsystems, Instru-
mentation, control, and human interface, Individual roles
Chapter 3: Instrumentation Subsystem—Structure and functions, Types of instrumenta-
tion devices, Interface to control subsystem, Interfacing standards, Isolation and protection
Chapter 4: Control Subsystem—Functions and structure, Interfaces to instrumentation
and human interface subsystems
Chapter 5: Human Interface Subsystem—Construction, Active display and control ele-
ments, Types of panels, Interface to control subsystem
Chapter 6: Automation Strategies—Basic strategies, Open and closed loop, Discrete, con-
tinuous, and hybrid
Chapter 7: Programmable Control Subsystem—Processor-based subsystem, Controller,
Input–output structure, Special features—communicability and self-supervisability
Chapter 8: Hardware Structure of Controller—Construction of controller, Major func-
tional modules, Data transfer on the bus, Structure and working of functional modules,
Integration
Chapter 9: Software Structure of Controller—Difference between general-purpose com-
puting and real-time computing, Real-time operating system, Scheduling and execution of
tasks, Program interrupt
Chapter 10: Programming of Controller—Programming of automation strategies, high-
er-level languages, IEC 61,131-3 standard, Ladder logic diagram, Function block diagram
Chapter 11: Advanced Human Interface—Migration of hardwired operator panel to soft-
ware-based operator station, Layout and features, Enhanced configurations, Logging station,
Control desk
Chapter 12: Types of Automation Systems—Structure for localized and distributed pro-
cess, Centralized system, Decentralized/distributed system, Remote/networked system,
Multiple operator stations, Supervisory control and data acquisition
Chapter 13: Special-Purpose Controllers—Customization of controller, Programmable
logic controller, Loop controller, Controller, Remote terminal unit, PC-based controller, Pro-
grammable automation controller
Chapter 14: System Availability–Availability issues, Improvement of system availability,
Cold and hot standby, Standby/redundancy for critical components
Chapter 15: Common Configurations–Configurations with operator stations, Supervisor
stations, Application stations
Chapter 16: Advanced Input–Output System—Centralized input–output, Remote input–
output, and Fieldbus input–output, Data communication and networking, Communication
protocol
Chapter 17: Concluding Remarks—Summary, Application-wise classification of automa-
tion systems, Data handling, Future trends
xxii Preface to the First Edition

Appendixes: Hardwired Control Subsystems, Processor, Hardware–Software

Interfacing, Basics of Programming, Advanced Control Strategies, Power Supply Sys-
tem, Further Reading.
I wish to emphasize that the content in this book is mainly a result of my learning,
practicing, teaching, and training experience in automation areas in ABB India, where
I worked for over 24 years. I would also like to mention the following organizations,
where I gained valuable automation teaching and training experience:
International Institute of Information Technology, Bangalore, India (http://www.iiitb.ac.in)
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, India (http://www.nitk.ac.in)
Axcend Automation and Software Solutions, Bangalore, India (http://www.axcend.com)
Honeywell Technology Solutions Lab, Bangalore, India (http://www.honeywell.com)
Emerson Process Management, Mumbai, India (http://www.emerson.com)
M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India (http://www.msrit.edu)

For their help with this book, I respectfully and gratefully acknowledge the kind
guidance and support of my senior colleagues:
Prof. S.S. Prabhu, senior professor at IIIT/Bangalore, former professor at IIT/
Kanpur, and a veteran on control systems and power systems.
Prof. H.N. Mahabala, former professor at IIT/Kanpur, IIT/Chennai, and IIIT/
Bangalore, a veteran on information technology, and a founder of computer education
in India.
I also acknowledge the help of my student, Mrs. Celina Madhavan, who developed
the automation program examples for the book and reviewed the manuscript.
In addition, the following professionals supported me at every stage of preparation
of the manuscript with their valuable suggestions and input:
Prof. R. Chandrashekar, IIIT/Bangalore, India.
Mr. Hemal Desai, Emerson Process Management, Mumbai, India.
Mr. Shreesha Chandra, Yokogawa, Bangalore, India.
I also gratefully acknowledge the support and encouragement of Prof. S. ­Sadagopan,
director of IIIT/Bangalore, and Mr. Anup Wadhwa, director of Automation Industry
Association of India (AIA).
Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Mrs. Sumitra Sharma, for her kind encour-
agement and support through it all.

March 1, 2011 KLS Sharma

Bangalore, India
Preface to the Second Edition

Greetings,
This is a continuation of the preface given in the first edition, also reproduced in
this edition. Most of my observations enumerated in the preface of the first edition
continue to be applicable for this edition as well, although a lot of progress has taken
place in this area over the past 5 years, and hence not repeated here. Since the publica-
tion of the first edition of this book in August 2011, more advances have taken place
in industrial automation technology. The purpose of this edition is to cover these new
developments to the extent possible. As stated earlier in the first edition, industrial
automation technology is one of the few engineering domains that employ many mod-
ern technologies such as:
Engineering technologies:
• sensor and control elements
• control engineering
• electronics, embedded, and digital signal processing
• micro-electromechanical and nano-electromechanical systems
• electrical, mechanical, etc.

Information technologies:
• computer science and engineering
• data communication and networking, etc.

Among these, information technology has been the enabling and driving force.
In line with the first edition, this edition is also primarily intended for:
• students about to embark on industrial automation careers
• teachers of industrial automation and related subjects
• engineers switching to industrial automation careers
• trainers of industrial automation

I suggest readers complete all chapters in the book from beginning to end. The
sequence of chapters is structured as a guided tour of the subject. Readers may skip
the appendixes if they are already familiar with the legacy technologies and basics.
The appendixes are included for the sake of completeness and to create a base for easy
understanding of the book.
xxiv Preface to the Second Edition

Benefits of this edition for readers are that they:

• provide working knowledge for engineers without prior knowledge of industrial automation
and present a guided tour of industrial automation
• explains the concepts of industrial automation through simple illustrations and examples
• make further study of industrial automation easy
• prepare understanding of technical documents in the industrial automation industry

I believe in imparting the basic knowledge and concepts of any subject to give
readers a feel for the subject to prepare them for further learning on their own. The first
edition followed this philosophy and this edition continues it.
Based on my experience in training, teaching, and interacting with trainees, stu-
dents, and professionals, I have continued the same style followed in the first edition
in this edition with specially formulated and simplified illustrations and discussions to
facilitate easy understanding. This edition is organized in three parts.

Part 1: Basic Functionalities

Chapters 1–12 are repeated from the first edition with updated and reformatted con-
tent. These chapters introduce the reader to the basic concepts of automation:
1. W hy automation? explains industrial processes and its management to deliver products
and services of required quality, consistency, and cost-effectiveness. Also, the needs met by
industrial automation and the resulting benefits are discussed.
2. Automation system structure: explains the basic subsystems in industrial automation
systems. Their individual functions and interfacing among themselves and with the process
for the management of industrial processes are also discussed.
3. Instrumentation subsystem: explains the interface between the process and control sub-
system for the conversion of physical process signals into electronic signals and vice versa.
4. Human interface subsystem: explains the facility for manual interaction with the process
to observe the status of process parameters and effect their control, if required.
5. Control subsystem: explains the heart of the industrial automation system, which not only
coordinates the functions of all the subsystems but also manages the industrial process.
6. Automation strategies: explains the control philosophy specific to the individual pro-
cesses that is required for its management to achieve the desired results.
7. Programmable control subsystem: explains the realization of the control subsystem with
soft-wired or microprocessor technology.
8. Data Acquisition and Control Unit (DACU) - Hardware: explains the hardware ­modules
(basic and functional) for realizing the DACU.
9. Data Acquisition and Control Unit (DACU) - Software: explains the software structure
and application programming for implementing the automation strategy.
10. Advanced human interface: explains the application of computer-based platforms for
realizing the software-based human interface that provides many more functionalities than
are available in hardware-based operator panels.
11. Types of automation systems: explains different types of industrial processes based on
their physical arrangements and specific automation systems for their management.
12. Special-purpose Data Acquisition and Control Units (DACUs): explains different types
of DACUs that are optimized for different application requirements.
Preface to the Second Edition xxv

13. S ystem availability enhancements: explains typical standby/redundancy schemes for all
types of automation systems to increase their availability.
14. Common configurations: explains configurations that are commonly employed in distrib-
uted control systems and network control systems that are need based.
15. Customization: explains the realization of a tailor-made industrial automation system
from a common platform.

Part 2: Extended Functionalities

Chapters 16–21 are added to this edition to take the traditional industrial automation
system into the connected world integrated with enterprise and business processes.
16. D ata communication and networking: explains the deployment of this technology to ­manage
inter and intra system data exchange in industrial automation systems in a secure way.
17. Fieldbus technology: explains moving from conventional centralized input–output (I/O)
to fieldbus I/O to eliminate control and signal cabling and field asset management.
18. Safety systems: explains the management of safety in process plants and machines to
avoid or reduce damage to the people, property, and their environment in case of a hazard.
19. Management of industrial processes: explains the different kinds of industrial processes
such as manufacturing (process plants and factories) and utility (civic and backbone) and
their management.
20. Information technology–operation technology (IT-OT) convergence: explains the inte-
gration of OT (plant and automation system) and IT (business systems) to derive opera-
tional and business excellence.
21. Concluding remarks: Summarizes basic, extended, and some additional functionalities,
and a peek into some emerging trends in industrial automation technology

Part 3: Appendixes
As mentioned, these are provided for the sake of completeness and to create a base for
easy understanding of the relation between hardware and software in DACU.
1. 
Hardwired control subsystem: explains legacy technologies in the realization of control
subsystems to implement all types of automation strategies.
2. 
Processor: explains the architecture of a hypothetical processor-based DACU with all of its
basic and functional modules
3. 
Hardware-software interfacing: explains how software in a DACU is interfaced to hard-
ware in a DACU to execute the automation strategy.
4. 
Basics of programming: explains the programming of DACU, starting from machine level
to higher level and its conversion into executable code.

Acknowledgment
I wish to acknowledge that the content in this book is mainly the result of my learning,
practicing, teaching, and training experience in industrial automation in ABB India,
where I worked for over 24 years followed by teaching and training experience in
xxvi Preface to the Second Edition

industry and academic institutions. I would also like to mention the following orga-
nizations, where I gained valuable teaching and training experience in the industrial
automation area:
Training and teaching programs in:
• ABB, Bengaluru, India (www.abb.com)
• Automation Industry Association of India, Campus Connect, Delhi, India (www.aia-india.org)
• Axcend Automation and Software Solutions, Bengaluru, India (www.axcend.com)
• Emerson Process Management, Mumbai, India (www.emerson.com)
• Honeywell Technology Solutions Lab, Bengaluru, India (www.honeywell.com)
• Infosys, Bengaluru, India (www.infosys.com)
• International Society of Automation, Bengaluru, India (www.isabangalore.org)
• International Institute of Information Technology, Bengaluru, India (www.iiitb.ac.in)
• M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, India (www.msrit.edu)
• National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, India (www.nitk.ac.in)
• Power Engineering and Technology Consultants, Bengaluru, India (www.poetconsultants.in)

Faculty development and short student programs in:

• Adi Shankara Institute of Engineering Technology, Kochi, India (www.adishankar.ac.in)
• BMS College of Engineering, Bengaluru, India (www.bmsce.acin)
• BVB College of Engineering and Technology, Hubballi, India (www.bvb.edu)
• Dayanand College of Engineering, Bengaluru, India (www.dyanandasagar.edu)
• Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, India (www.dr-ait.org)
• Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, India (www.mcehassan.ac.in)
• Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, India (www.manipal.edu/mit)
• MS Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, India (www.msrit.edu)
• PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India (www.psgtech.edu)
• RNS Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, India (www.rnsit.ac.in)
• RV College of Engineering, Bengaluru, India (www.rvce.edu.in)
• SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad, India (www.sdmcet.ac.in)
• Shri Siddhartha Institute of Technology, Tumukuru, India (www.ssit.edu.in)
• Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumukuru, India (www.sit.acin)
• Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India (www.vit.ac.in)
• Vidya Vikas Institute of Technology, Mysuru, India (www.vidyavikas.edu.in)

This edition is also primarily a collection of information from various sources

(books, websites, scholarly articles, white papers, technical documents, technical
­discussion with experts, technical presentations, industry literature, etc. in the public
domain) and a presentation as a structured and guided tour on industrial automation
for easy and quick understanding by readers. The sequence of presentation is based
on the way I have understood the subject and interpreted it. I express my indebtedness
and gratitude to all professionals who have made their rich knowledge and experience
on industrial automation technology available in the public domain.
Notwithstanding this, I would like to specifically and gratefully acknowledge:
Béla Lipták, well-known as the father of modern industrial process automation, for his
wonderful forward to this book.
Preface to the Second Edition xxvii

Jim Pinto, well-known critic, commentator, and futurist in industrial automation, for his
thoughts on the future of industrial automation for this book.
Ana Claudia Garcia, editorial project manager, Elsevier, for her excellent and comforting
support all through the preparation of the manuscript.

Furthermore, I would like to acknowledge kind support and encouragement from:

Fellow professionals from the International Society of Automation, Bengaluru, India.
Colleagues from Infosys, Bengaluru, India.
Friends and colleagues (past and present) from industrial automation companies and aca-
demic institutions.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Sumitra Sharma, for her kind patience,
encouragement, and support through it all.
July 1, 2016 KLS Sharma
Bengaluru, India [email protected]
Acknowledgments
Institutional Support
The following organizations have extended their full support for this book with technical information and images of their products,
systems, and solutions.

Companies Location Country Address Products

3S-Smart Software Solutions Kempten Germany www.codesys.com IEC 61131-1 Programming software
Adept Fluidyne Pune India www.adeptfluidyne.com Strip-chart recorder
Adept Technologies San Ramon, CA United States www.adept.com Industrial robots
Adobe Metal Products Bengaluru India www.adobemetals.com Mimic panels
Aplab Mumbai India www.aplab.com Float-boost chargers, uninterruptible power
supply system
Avcon Controls Mumbai India www.avconindia.com Solenoid valve
B&R Automation Pune India www.br-automation.com Safety programmable logic controller (PLC)
Behr GmbH & Co. KG Charleston, SC United States www.mahle.com Coolant module assembly
Control Dynamics Vadodara India www.mimicpanels.net Annunciator windows, Mosaic panels
DiFacto Bengaluru India www.difacto.com Robotic end-effectors
ELCOM Mumbai India www.elcom-international.com Push button switch
Emerson Process Mumbai India www.emerson.com Control valve, flow transmitters, visual display
Management units, control desk, control center, controller,
remote input–output, fieldbus devices, wire-
less field devices, safety PLC
Exide Industries Kolkata India www.exide.co.in Battery banks
Fabionics Bengaluru India www.fabionics.co.in Distribution panel
Fuji Electric Tokyo Japan www.fujielectric.com Variable-speed drive, PLC, single loop controller
General Industrial Controls Pune India www.gicindia.com Electronic counter, PLC

Continued
—Cont’d
Companies Location Country Address Products

xxx
Ingenious Technologies Bengaluru India www.aquamon.in Water level controller and indicator
Integral Systems Bengaluru India www.integralsys.in Thumb wheel switch
Jai Balaji Chennai India www.jaibalaji.firm.in Limit switch, indication lamps
JSW Steels Vidyanagar India www.jsw.in Hot strip mill
Kevin Technologies Ahmadabad India www.kevintech.com Temperature transmitter
Levcon Controls Kolkota India www.levcongroup.com Flow switch
Manikant Brothers Mumbai India www.watermeter.co.in Water meter
MECO Instruments Navi Mumbai India www.mecoinst.com Analog panel meter, digital panel meter
Megacraft Enterprises Mumbai India www.megacraft.net Potentiometer
OEN India Kochi India www.oenindia.com Supervision relay, control relay, voltage switch
Omron Kyoto Japan www.omron.com PLC, push button switches, indication lamps,
limit switches
OPTO 22 Temecula, CA United States www.opto22.com PC-based controller, programmable automation
controller
Pankaj Potentiometers Bengaluru India www.pankaj.com Potentiometer
Pepperl-Fuchs India Bengaluru India www.pepperl-fuchs.com Proximity switch, safety barriers
Renu Electronics Pune India www.renuelectronics.com Operator terminals
Rishabh Instruments Nashik India www.rishabh.co.in Energy meter
Rockwell Automation Milwaukee, WI United States www.rockwellautomation.com Safety PLC
Sahyadri Electro Controls Bengaluru India www.secoindia.com Electronic buzzer
Schneider-Electric Bengaluru India www.schneider-electric.com Safety PLC
Secure Gurgaon India www.securetogether.com Intelligent energy meter
Shridhan Automation Bengaluru India www.shridhan.com Level transmitter, level switch
SICK India Bengaluru India www.sick.com Technical protective devices
Siemens Mumbai India www.siemens.com Remote terminal unit (RTU)
Strategi Automation Bengaluru India www.strategiautomation.com Industrial robots
Sunlux Technologies Bengaluru India www.sunluxtech.com Field-programmable gate array controller,

Acknowledgments
embedded controller, Internet of things–
enabled device
VA Tech WABG Chennai India www.wabag.in Sewage treatment plant
V-Guard Industries Kochi India www.vguard.in Voltage stabilizer
Yokogawa India Bengaluru India www.yokogawa.com Pressure transmitter, Single loop controller,
controller, RTU, fieldbus devices, wireless
field devices, safety PLC
Technical Support

Acknowledgments
The following experts have extended their full support for this book with technical input and have reviewed the topics for their correct-
ness and completeness.

Name Organization Location Country Address

General
Amit Tiwari Rockwell Automation Delhi India www.ra.rockwellautomation.com
Jitendra Vasista JSW Steels Vidyanagar India www.jsw.in
PV Sivaram B&R Automation Pune India www.br-automation.com
Rajesh Nair Siemens Mumbai India www.siemens.com
Rajesh Rathi Control Infotech Bengaluru India www.control-infotech.com
Sachin Kulkarni Bosch India Ahmadabad India www.boshrexroth.co.in
Sameer Gandhi Omron Mumbai India www.omron.com
Siva Prakash Schneider Electric Bengaluru India www.schneider-electric.com
Suhas Bhide Emerson Delhi India www.emersom.com
Sunil Nambiar Yokogawa Bengaluru India www.yokogawa.com/in
Sunil Shah Communications, Diagnostics, and Controls Bangalore India www.cdcontrolsit.com
TV Gopal VA Tech WABG Chennai India www.wabag.in

Chapter 15: Customization

BK Suresh Consultant Bengaluru India [email protected]
Girish Ayya Avadhoot Automation Bengaluru India www.avadhoot.in
Sunil Nambiar Yokogawa Bengaluru India www.yokogawa.com/in

Chapter 16: Data Communication and Networking

Mallikarjun Kande ABB Bengaluru India www.abb.com/in
Prasanna Inamdar Senseops Tech Solutions Bengaluru India www.sense-ops.com
Ram Kerur Sunlux Technologies Bengaluru India www.sunluxtech.com
Vijay Murugan Schneider Electric Bengaluru India www.schneider-electric.com

xxxi
Continued
—Cont’d

xxxii
Name Organization Location Country Address

Chapter 17: Fieldbus Technology

Prasanna Inamdar Senseops Tech Solutions Bengaluru India www.sense-ops.com

Chapter 18: Safety systems

Jan Baldauf SICK Düsseldorf Germany www.sick.de
Rajendran Menon Rockwell Delhi India www.ra.rockwell.com
S Vinod Yokogawa Bengaluru India www.yokogawa.com
Shabad Khan Honeywell Pune India www.honeywell.com

Chapter 19: Management of Industrial Processes

Ajay Gopalaswamy Difacto Bengaluru India www.difacto.com
Arun Menon Strategi Automation Bengaluru India www.strategiautomation.com
BS Sugunanada ABB Bengaluru India www.abb.com
Deven Patel Wipro Bengaluru India www.wipro.com
HR Shivaprakash JSW Steels Vidyanagar India www.jsw.in
K Srinivasan VA Tech WABG Chennai India www.wabag.in
KA Sampath Kumar Newfield Engineers Bengaluru India www.newfieldengineers.com
KV Rehani Automation Consultant Mumbai India [email protected]
Mark Sauls Control Infotech Morrisville, NC United States www.control-infotech.com
Srinivas Patnaik ABB Bengaluru India www.abb.com

Chapter 20: Information Technology–Operations Technology Convergence

Bhaskar Rao Technospehere Bengaluru India www.technospehere.com

Acknowledgments
Krishnanada Shenoy Infosys Bengaluru India www.infosys.com
MK Kumar Infosys Mysore India www.infosys.com
Nampuraja Enose Infosys Bengaluru India www.insosys.com
Ram Kerur Sunlux Technologies Bengaluru India www.sunluxtech.com
Sunil Shah Communications, Diagnostics, and Controls Bangalore India www.cdcontrolsit.com
Vijay Murugan Schneider Electric Bengaluru India www.schneider-electric.com
 Acknowledgments
Name Organization Location Country Address

Chapter 21: Concluding Remarks

BR Mehta Reliance Industries Mumbai India www.ril.com
GK Raviprakash Infosys Bangalore India www.infosys.com
Sunil Shah Communications, Diagnostics, and Controls Bangalore India www.cdcontrolsit.com
Vikas Kukshya Infosys Bangalore India www.infosys.com

Media Support
The following publishing houses have extended their full support and have provided ­technical information and established contacts with auto-
mation companies and experts.

Editor Publisher Location Country Address

Publisher of A&D India Automation & Drives

Shekhar Jitkar Publish Industry India Pune India www.industr.com/in/en/
Publisher of Automation & Controls Today
Jigar Patel Himani Infomedia 8 Ahmadabad India www.aandctoday.com

July 1, 2016 K.L.S. Sharma

Bengaluru, India [email protected]

xxxiii
Why Automation?
1
Chapter Outline

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Physical Processes 2
1.2.1 Natural 2
1.2.2 Self-regulated 3
1.2.3 Industrial 3
1.2.3.1 Application 3
1.2.3.2 Operational 3
1.2.3.3 Physical 4
1.3 Localized and Distributed Processes 4
1.4 Process Behavior 6
1.4.1 Water Tap 6
1.4.2 Electric Bulb 6
1.5 Process Management 7
1.5.1 Unattended 7
1.5.2 Attended 8
1.5.3 Automated 9
1.6 Process Signals 9
1.6.1 Input Signals 11
1.6.2 Output Signals 11
1.7 Automation Steps 12
1.7.1 Data Acquisition 12
1.7.2 Data Analysis, Monitoring, and Decision Making 12
1.7.3 Control Execution 12
1.8 Needs met by Automation 12
1.9 Benefits of Automation 13
1.9.1 Manufacturing Processes 13
1.9.2 Utility Processes 14
1.10 Summary 14

1.1  Introduction
Over the past few decades, the emphasis in industry worldwide has been to produce
goods or deliver services which are of quality, consistency, and cost-effective, to stay
in the market. Quality, consistency, and competitiveness cannot be achieved with-
out automating the process of manufacturing goods and of delivering services. In
line with this trend, the application of automation today is omnipresent in almost all

Overview of Industrial Process Automation. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805354-6.00001-3

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

applications, from deep water sea to space, and has gained the confidence of the world
for achieving desired results. Over the years, automation technology has advanced
along with various other technologies. The main driving and enabling technologies are
information, communication, networking, and electronics.
This list below shows the evolution of automation technology over the past decades:
• 1940–1960: Pneumatic
• 1960–2000: Analog: Electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic
• 1980–1990: Digital: Proprietary
• 2000 onward: Digital: Open.

The technology has already moved to an open network of embedded systems.1

This chapter gives a brief introduction to automation and explains why it is necessary
to automate the production of goods and delivery of services to achieve the required
quality, consistency, and cost-competitiveness for today’s marketplace. Apart from
these tangible requirements, there are many more complex requirements that cannot
be achieved without automation.

1.2  Physical Processes
Physical process2 is a series of actions, operations, changes, or functions that takes
place within, bringing about changes or producing an output or a result. It is also a
sequence of interdependent operations or actions which, at every stage, consumes one
or more inputs or resources to convert them into outputs or results to reach a known
goal or the desired end result.
Whatever we see and work within reality are all physical processes. Physical
­processes can be broadly divided into three categories:
• Natural processes,
• Self-regulated processes, and
• Industrial processes.

1.2.1  Natural
Natural processes3 are presented by or produced by nature. The best example
is a human body that generally does not need external assistance to regulate its
body parameters (e.g., body temperature) irrespective of the effects of surround-
ing environmental conditions. The human body maintains or regulates all of its
parameters. Typically, in natural processes no abnormal behavior is present in
most of the conditions.

1 Pinto, Jim. Automation Unplugged, ISA, 2004.

2 http://www.wikipedia.org.
3 http://www.wikipedia.org.
Why Automation? 3

1.2.2  
Self-regulated
Self-regulated processes4 are not natural but do not need external assistance for
regulation. The best example is a domestic geyser that is designed such that the water level
in it is always maintained to be full irrespective of any condition. Another typical exam-
ple is an irrigation dam in which the water automatically overflows whenever the inflow
exceeds the storage threshold. All natural processes are self-regulated but the reverse is
not true.

1.2.3  
Industrial
Industrial processes5 are systematic series of physical, mechanical, chemical,
or similar kinds of operations that produce a result. They manufacture goods or
deliver services. These processes are not always self-regulating and need external
regulation on a continuous basis to produce desired results. Typical examples of
industrial p­ rocess are factories manufacturing goods or equipment providing services
such as passenger lift, traffic signals, etc. They are also known as Man-made Processes.
Technically, all industrial processes can be broadly classified into three levels
(application, operational, and physical).

1.2.3.1  
Application
Regarding application, any industrial process can be either manufacturing that creates
physical values to deliver goods/products as per specification or utilities that deliver
services as per requirement.
Manufacturing processes are further divided into process plants and factories.
­Typical examples are:
• Process plants: Chemical, cement, power generation, fertilizer, cement, etc.; and
• Factories: Engineered products, automobiles, assembly lines, etc.

Utility processes are further divided into civic utilities and backbone utilities. Typical
examples are:
• Civic utilities: Water distribution, power distribution, gas distribution, water/sewage treatment,
etc.; and
• Backbone utilities: Power transmission, water transmission, oil/gas pipelines, etc.

1.2.3.2  
Operational
Regarding operation, any application process can be continuous, discrete, or batch.
Typical examples are:
• Continuous: Process plants, distribution of power, water, gas; treatment plants, etc.;
• Discrete:Factories, assembly lines, etc.; and
• Batch: Pharma, food, beverage, etc.

4 http://www.wikipedia.org.
5 http://www.wikipedia.org.
4 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

1.2.3.3  Physical
All processes are physically classified as either localized or distributed (even geo-
graphical). Typical examples are:
• Localized: Process plants, factories, electrical substations, pump stations, etc.; and
• Distributed: Distribution of water, power, and gas; transmission of water, power, and
gas, etc.

Chapter 19 will discuss more about the industrial process and its management.
This chapter discusses only the physical classification of the industrial processes.

1.3  Localized and Distributed Processes

Among the industrial processes, the localized process is present in a relatively
small physical area with all of its subprocesses or components closely intercon-
nected. Conversely, the distributed process is present in a relatively larger physical
area with its subprocesses or components distributed and loosely interconnected.
A distributed process can also be termed a network of many localized processes
distributed over a larger physical area and interconnected. Some simple compara-
tive examples are:
• 
Several water taps (localized processes) connected to a common water supply line (water
supply system) in a building

Here, the coupling or networking of the water taps is through the water pipeline
supplying the water to all the taps in a building. Each water tap is a localized process,
whereas the group of water taps, networked through the common water supply pipe,
is a distributed process.
• 
Several electric bulbs (localized processes) connected to a common electric supply line
(electric supply system) in a building

Here, the coupling or networking of the electrical bulbs is through the electricity
supply cable supplying the electricity to all bulbs in a building. Each electrical bulb
is a localized process, whereas the group of electrical bulbs, networked through the
common electricity supply cable, is a distributed process.
Fig. 1.1 illustrates the above concept.
It is generally difficult to draw a fine line between localized and distributed pro-
cesses because processes that fall in the border area can be treated either way and
managed. The distributed process network can even be spread over a large geo-
graphical area.
Figs. 1.2–1.4 illustrate some typical comparative industry examples.
The distributed process treats the entire network of localized processes as a single
entity (not as individual/independent localized subprocesses). Here, each localized
process has some effect on the operation and performance on the other individual
localized processeses in the network.
Why Automation? 5

Figure 1.1 Localized and distributed processes.

Figure 1.2 Power distribution system.

Figure 1.3 Water distribution system.

6 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

Figure 1.4 Oil transportation system.

1.4  Process Behavior
Following are some simple examples of the processes that are discussed here to
demonstrate the behavior of industrial processes before we proceed further.

1.4.1  Water Tap
The function of the simple water tap in the house is to provide water when the tap is
opened. The actions involved are to open the tap and wait for the water to flow. Here,
the process is the water tap, the action is turning on the tap, and the output is the water.
The intention is to get the water with the desired flow. This may not always happen
for several reasons, such as low or no water pressure (external factors) or a clog in the
pipe or in the tap (internal factors), resulting in either inadequate or no flow of water,
leading to an undesired result.

1.4.2  Electric Bulb
Similarly, the function of a simple electric bulb in the house is to provide light when
it is switched on. The actions involved are to switch the bulb on and wait for the bulb
to glow. Here, the process is the electric bulb, the action is turning on the switch, and
the output is the light. Once again, the intention is to get the light with the desired
illumination. This may not always happen for several reasons, such as low or no volt-
age (external factors) or a faulty/broken filament (internal factors), resulting in either
improper or no illumination, leading to an undesired result.
As seen, an undesired behavior is expected under unusual conditions in any indus-
trial process owing to either external and/or internal factors that cannot be eliminated.
Special efforts are required to overcome or minimize the effects of these factors to
ensure that the process behaves the way we want or produces the desired results.
Because our discussion will focus on industrial processes and their manage-
ment to get the desired results, the term “process” hereafter will refer only to
industrial processes. These processes may also be called plants or process plants.
Why Automation? 7

Figure 1.5 Water-heating process.

1.5  Process Management
The next obvious question is on managing the process to make it deliver the desired
results. To understand and analyze this aspect, let us take a simple water heater as
an example Fig. 1.5. The intention of the water heater is to have a heating process to
maintain the temperature of the water at a desired value. There are three possibilities
to achieve this.
In this example, internal disturbances are the quality of heating element, insulation,
etc. whereas external disturbances are over-/under-voltage, outside temperature, etc.,
which are uncontrollable.

1.5.1  
Unattended
In an unattended process, the actions involved are to:
1. Turn on the power supply to the water heater.
2. Wait for the water to heat up.

After switching on the power, water starts to heat up and continues even after cross-
ing the desired level if not checked. Also, the heating time depends on the effects of
internal and/or external factors, which are not in our control. In this setup, the heating
process is totally uncontrolled and there is no guarantee that at any point of time we
have the water with the desired temperature. Leaving the power switched on to the
heater can also be a safety hazard if left unchecked.
Fig. 1.6 illustrates the schematic and operation of the unattended water heater
system.
This approach is the simplest and most cost-effective approach. However, there
is no mechanism to judge whether the temperature of the water is higher than,
lower than, or equal to the desired level. Hence, the unattended processes not
only do not produce the desired result but also can also lead to serious safety con-
sequences such as overheating of the water, burning of the heating element, etc.
Hence, unattended management of a process always produces poor results.
8 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

Figure 1.6 Unattended process.

1.5.2  Attended
In an attended process, the actions involved are to:
a. Turn on the power supply to the water heater.
b. Check the temperature of the water.
c. Turn off the power supply to the water heater when the temperature of the water reaches/
crosses the desired level.
d. Repeat the steps [Go to (b)] periodically

With these steps, almost all drawbacks seen in the unattended process management
are rectified, although with a lot of burden on the operator. The more frequently the
operator checks, the better the result is, but the increased work for the operator is
unproductive.
Fig. 1.7 explains the schematic and the operation of the attended water heater
system.

Figure 1.7 Attended process.

Why Automation? 9

Furthermore, the effects of both the internal and external factors are taken care
of without additional effort. Hence, attended management of a process produces
better, but average, results.

1.5.3  
Automated
In an automated process (with a temperature controller installed), the steps involved are:
a. Set the desired or reference temperature at which the temperature of the water is to be maintained.
b. Start the process by turning on the power to the heater.
c. The temperature controller continuously measures and checks the actual temperature and
keeps the heater on if the actual temperature of the water is less than the reference tempera-
ture. The controller turns off the power to the heater if the actual temperature the water is
either equal to or more than the reference temperature.
d. Repeat the cycle [Go to step (c)] as long as the process is on.

Fig. 1.8 illustrates the schematic and the operation of the automated water heater system.

Figure 1.8 Automated process.

The cycle continues and the process management goes on with no manual inter-
vention until the operator decides to stop the process. The operator’s job is performed
automatically by the temperature controller. Hence, automated management of pro-
cess always produces the best results.
Fig. 1.9 illustrates the water heater system with automated temperature control.

1.6  Process Signals
A process signal6 is a fluctuating or varying physical quantity (such as electrical,
mechanical, chemical, thermal, etc.) whose variations represent the coded or embed-
ded information of the process parameters. In practice, the process signals exist in one
6 http://www.wikipedia.org.
10 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

Figure 1.9 Automated water-heating process.

of the physical forms: discrete or digital, continuous or analog, and pulsating or pulse.
Normally, all discussions on discrete or digital signals are equally valid for pulsating
or pulse signals, because they are variations of discrete or digital signals.
Fig. 1.10 explains the nature and differences among the three types of physical signals.

Figure 1.10 Physical signals.

The process signals are further divided into input and output signals. Signals that
are sent by the process and received by the automation system (to understand the pro-
cess behavior) are called input signals. Signals that are sent by the automation system
(to change the process behavior) and received by the process are called output signals.
The input and output signals are always defined with reference to the automation
system.
Fig. 1.11 illustrates the relationship among the process, input–output signals, and
automation system.
The input and output signals can be in any form, such as discrete, continuous, or
pulsating. The form depends on which parameters of the process are being monitored
and which parameters of the process are being controlled.
Why Automation? 11

Figure 1.11 Input and output signals.

Figure 1.12 Process signals in water-heating process.

Fig. 1.12 illustrates various types of input and output signals in the water-heating
process equipped with automated temperature/level control and water/power con-
sumption reading.

1.6.1  
Input Signals
Typical examples of input signals (measurements from process) are:
• 
Discrete/digital:Breaker status (on or off), control valve status (open or closed), etc.;
• 
Continuous/analog: Temperature value, pressure value, level value, flow value, etc.; and
• 
Pulsating/pulse: Energy consumption readings, water consumption readings, etc.

1.6.2  
Output Signals
Typical examples of output signals (commands to process) are as:
• 
Discrete/digital: Open/close breaker, open/close control valve, start/stop motor, etc.;
• 
Continuous/analog: Vary control valve opening/closing, vary voltage output of the drive, etc.; and
• 
Pulsating/pulse: Stepper motor control, etc.
12 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

1.7  Automation Steps
A process automation system is an arrangement for automatic monitoring and control
of the industrial process to obtain the desired results with no manual interventions. As
discussed earlier, a typical automation system executes the automation steps sequen-
tially, cyclically, and continuously, effecting corrections to the process operation and
producing the desired results consistently.
Fig. 1.13 illustrates a typical automation cycle.
The basic automation steps are listed below:

1.7.1  Data Acquisition
The data acquisition step observes the behavior of the process by sensing or measuring
the process parameters of interest. These parameters are called process inputs.

1.7.2  Data Analysis, Monitoring, and Decision Making

The data analysis, monitoring, and decision-making step analyzes the behavior of the pro-
cess by comparing the acquired data from the process with the desired result. Then a deci-
sion is made about the new directives or commands that would be required to effect any
corrections in the behavior of the process.

1.7.3  Control Execution
The control execution step executes the directives, which are commands decided by
the data analysis and decision-making step to effect the corrections, if any.
Fig. 1.14 illustrates the automation steps in the water heater system.

Figure 1.13 Typical automation steps and cycle.

1.8  Needs met by Automation

The basic need of any process is to produce goods or to deliver services while con-
forming to:
• Consistency,
• Quality, and
• Cost-effectiveness.

We have seen that only an automated process (with no human intervention)

p­ roduces excellent results whereas unattended or attended processes generally do not
always produce desired results. Although the foremost intention of any process is to
Why Automation? 13

Figure 1.14 Automation steps in water-heating process. temp, temperature.

meet the desired result, there are other important intangible considerations to be met.
Automation also manages the following:
• Hazardous processes (nuclear, high voltage, toxic, etc.) where human intervention is danger-
ous and is not desirable;
• Repetitive processes (traffic management, etc.) where continuous, repetitive manual opera-
tions can lead to failure owing to human fatigue;
• Sequential startup and shutdown of plants (power plants, chemical plants, etc.) while satis-
fying certain conditions at each step where sequential manual operation, with safety and/or
other conditions to be satisfied, is highly time-consuming and prone to errors; and
• Complex processes (decisions based on heavy computing such as aircraft tracking and guid-
ance) where manual computing and decision making within a short time is next to impossible.

There are many more complex situations with needs that can be met most effi-
ciently through automation.

1.9  Benefits of Automation
In addition to attaining the desired quality, consistency, and cost-effectiveness of prod-
ucts and services, there are other benefits of automation.

1.9.1  
Manufacturing Processes
The following are important benefits of automation in manufacturing processes:
• Reduction in production loss through a reduction in unproductive time through automated
decisions for:
• Restoring/restarting the plant or bringing the plant online faster during startup, after
reconfiguration to new requirements, or after breakdown
14 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

• Keeping the plant online for maximum production (revenue generation) by increasing the
overall availability of the plant
• Increasingthe productivity of the process by making performance and repetitive tasks
faster
• Optimization of resources through a reduction in:
• Staff including dependence on highly skilled personnel
• Inputs to process including energy
• Higher security, safety, and reliability for:
• Plant personnel and equipment, because they do not come in contact with the working of
the plant
• Plant operation
• Faster response and result, because there is no human intervention required to:
• Handle emergency situations
• Reduce chances of human error and therefore defects
• Ensure running of each process effortlessly and consistently every time it is run
• Compliance with:
• Internal and external regulatory requirements (statutory, safety, and environmental),
making auditing easier
• Incredible flexibility and ease with which to make changes and adapt to new environment
and requirements

1.9.2  Utility Processes
Almost all of these benefits for manufacturing processes are equally applicable to
utility processes as well.
The above benefits lead to lesser overall operational costs or higher overall opera-
tional efficiency, increased productivity, and fewer chances of human error. This way,
the production of goods or delivery of services is increased, contributing to higher
revenue and profit.

1.10  Summary
In this introductory chapter, we have covered the basics of process and its automation.
We have examined different types of processes, process classifications based on their
structure and application, steps in automation, process needs to be met by automation,
benefits of automation, and process signals and their classifications. These introduc-
tory concepts form the basis for further detailed discussions in the following chapters.
Automation System Structure
2
Chapter Outline

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Subsystems 15
2.2.1 Instrumentation 15
2.2.2 Human Interface 16
2.2.3 Control 17
2.3 Input Instrumentation Subsystem 18
2.3.1 Measurement of Data 18
2.4 Output Instrumentation Subsystem 19
2.4.1 Transfer of Control Command 19
2.5 Human Interface Subsystem 20
2.5.1 Direct Monitoring 20
2.5.2 Direct Control 21
2.6 Control Subsystem 21
2.6.1 Data Acquisition 21
2.6.2 Data Analysis and Decision Making 21
2.6.3 Control Execution 21
2.6.4 Communication 23
2.7 Summary 23

2.1  Introduction
In Chapter 1, we briefly discussed the automation functionalities, cycle, and steps. In this
chapter, those concepts are further elaborated to define the physical structure of the overall
automation system, the functions of its independent subsystems, and their interconnections.

2.2  Subsystems
The automation system is broadly divided into three subsystems: instrumentation,
control, and human interface. They are interconnected, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1.

2.2.1  
Instrumentation
The instrumentation1 is the branch of engineering that deals with the measurement and
control of process parameters. An instrumentation device measures the ­physical variable
1 www.wikipedia.org.

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16 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

Figure 2.1 Basic structure of automation system.

and/or manipulates it to produce an output in an acceptable form for further processing

in the next stage device. Instrumentation devices are not normally intelligent and are not
capable of making decisions (exceptions are discussed later in the book).

The instrumentation subsystem primarily works in two directions: one on the input
side of the control subsystem and the other on the output side. Hence the instrumen-
tation subsystem can be further divided into input and output subsystems to explain
the flow of data in the order they are received from a process, processed in the control
subsystem, and sent to a process for actions:

1. 
The input instrumentation subsystem interfaces with the process to acquire data on the
behavior of the process (measurement of process parameters) and sends them to the control
subsystem in an acceptable form.
2. 
The output instrumentation subsystem interfaces with the process to send the command
received from control subsystem to the process in an acceptable form, to change the behav-
ior of the process (control of process parameters).

2.2.2  Human Interface
The human interface subsystem2 presents information to the operator or user on the
state of the process and facilitates implementing the operator’s control instructions
to the process. The human interface subsystem is also called the human–machine
interface, man–machine interface, human–system interface, and so forth. The human
­interface subsystem is a facility for the user or operator to interact directly with the
process, via the control subsystem, for:

1. Direct monitoring of process parameters to know what is happening inside the process
(monitoring of process behavior), and
2. Direct control of process parameters by forcing a change, if required, by issuing manual
commands (controlling of process behavior).

2 www.wikipedia.org.
Automation System Structure 17

2.2.3  
Control
The control subsystem3 is a mechanism or device for automatically manipulating the
output of a process and for managing, commanding, directing, or regulating the behav-
ior of the process to achieve the desired result. The control subsystem is the heart of
the automation system. It is an intelligent device capable of making decisions.
The control subsystem manages data flow to/from the instrumentation subsystems
for process monitoring and control, and to/from the human interface subsystem for
direct interaction with the process; it can exchange data bidirectionally with other
external compatible systems if required.
Apart from data analysis and decision making, the control subsystem performs the
following functions with respect to other subsystems:
1. Acquires data on process parameters via the input instrumentation subsystem to monitor
the behavior of the process continuously,
2. Issues commands to process via the output instrumentation subsystem to correct or
change the behavior of the process,
3. Routes process data to the human interface subsystem displays for direct monitoring, and
4. Acquires direct commands from the human interface subsystem and routes them to pro-
cess for the control of process parameters.

The following sections further explain the implementation of functions associated

with the subsystems with specific reference to automation of the water-heating process.

Figure 2.2 Basic water-heating process.

Fig. 2.2 illustrates the basic water-heating process with a manual control facility for
letting cold water into the tank and switching power on to the heater. Here, the breaker
controls the flow of power to the heating element while the valve controls the flow of
water to the tank.
To implement automatic control of the water level, water temperature, and measure-
ment of water and power consumption, the following functions need to be implemented:
1. Check the actual water temperature to know whether it is higher than, equal to, or less than
the desired value.
2. Keep the breaker closed if the temperature is less than the desired value. Otherwise open the
breaker.
3. Check the actual water level to know whether it is higher than, equal to, or less than the
desired level.
3 www.wikipedia.org.
18 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

4. Keep the valve open if the level is lower than the desired value. Otherwise close the valve.
5. Measure the water and power consumptions.

The following sections illustrate the application of automation subsystems to

implement these steps.

2.3  Input Instrumentation Subsystem

2.3.1  Measurement of Data
Because they are electronics-based, modern automation systems understand and process
signals only in electronic form. Hence in measuring data from the process, instrumentation
devices need to convert physical process signals (electrical, mechanical, chemical, thermal,
etc.) into their electronic equivalents so that the control subsystem can accept and process
them. Their conversion into electronic form is carried out with no loss of information.

Required input instrumentation devices are:

1. Temperature and level sensors to measure the water level and temperature,
2. Flow switch and supervision relay to measure the valve and breaker status, and
3. Water and energy meters to measure water and power consumption.

Because they are physical signals, level and temperature are measured, converted
into their electronic equivalents, and sent to the control subsystem as analog inputs by
temperature and level sensors.
Fig. 2.3 illustrates the measurement of water temperature and level.

Figure 2.3 Measurement of water level and temperature.

Valve and breaker status are measured indirectly. The presence or absence of water
flow in the pipe indicates valve status, open or closed, whereas the presence or absence
of power flow in the line indicates breaker status, on or off. These status measurements
are converted into their electronic equivalents and sent to the control subsystem as
digital inputs by a flow switch and supervision relay. The flow switch detects the pres-
ence or absence of water flow in the pipe, whereas the supervision relay detects the
presence or absence of power in the heater.
Automation System Structure 19

Fig. 2.4 illustrates the measurement of valve and breaker status.

Figure 2.4 Measurement of status of valve and breaker.

In their physical form, water and power consumption are measured as a series of
pulse inputs converted into their electronic equivalents and sent to the control subsys-
tem by water and energy meters. The number of pulses over a period indicates con-
sumption. The water meter measures the consumption of water, whereas the energy
meter measures the consumption of power.
Fig. 2.5 illustrates the measurement of water and power consumption.

Figure 2.5 Measurement of water and power consumption.

2.4  Output Instrumentation Subsystem

2.4.1  Transfer of Control Command
Because the process understands only physical signals, electronic control signals
generated by the control subsystem are converted into their physical equivalents
(electrical, mechanical, etc.) in an acceptable form for the process to receive control
20 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

commands from the control subsystem. Here also, the conversion or transformation is
carried out with no loss of information.
Control commands (to open or close the valve and open or close the breaker) gen-
erated by the control subsystem in electronic form are converted into their physical
equivalents (electronic to mechanical) and sent to the process by a solenoid control
and control relay (digital outputs). The solenoid opens or closes the valve to allow or
disallow water to the tank, while the control relay opens or closes the breaker to allow
or disallow power to the heater.
Required output instrumentation devices are:
1. An on–off solenoid control to open and close the valve, and
2. An on–off control relay to open and close the breaker.

Figure 2.6 Control of valve and breaker.

Fig. 2.6 illustrates control of the valve and breaker.

2.5  Human Interface Subsystem

The human interface subsystem is the means by which the users or operators directly
interact with the process for direct monitoring and control of the process.
The human interface subsystem is the interface between physical processes and
the operator, via the control subsystem, for direct monitoring of the process param-
eters and to effect direct control of the process parameters. There is no need for any
interface devices between the control subsystem and the human interface subsystem
(unlike the need for an instrumentation subsystem between the process and the control
subsystem). Signals between the control and human interface subsystems are elec-
tronic in both directions and therefore are compatible.

2.5.1  Direct Monitoring
Direct monitoring provision is made for observing process variables of interest on the
displays whenever there is a need. In other words, operators can observe exactly what
is happening inside the process through visual display of parameters of interest.
Automation System Structure 21

2.5.2  
Direct Control
Direct control provision is made for manipulating or controlling process parameters
of interest whenever there is a need. This action overrides the functions performed
automatically by the control subsystem. The provision for setting reference values for
limit checking is also part of the human interface subsystem.
The operator panel allows operators to perform the following manually:
1. Observe actual values of temperature and level,
2. Observe the actual status of the valve and breaker,
3. Observe the actual consumption of water and power,
4. Set reference values for temperature and level, and
5. Control (close or open) the valve and breaker.
Fig. 2.7 illustrates a typical hardware-based human interface or operator panel.

Figure 2.7 Operator panels for water-heating system.

2.6  Control Subsystem
The control subsystem performs the following steps continuously.

2.6.1  
Data Acquisition
In this step, the control subsystem acquires process data in an electronic form from
the input instrumentation subsystem, which in turn receives them from the process in
a physical form.

2.6.2  Data Analysis and Decision Making

In this step, the control subsystem analyzes the acquired data by comparing them with
preset reference values for any deviations and decides whether to effect changes in the
behavior of the process or not.

2.6.3  
Control Execution
In this step, the control subsystem issues commands to process in electronic form to output
instrumentation devices, which in turn transfer them in a physical form to the process.
22 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

Figure 2.8 Typical automation cycle.

Figure 2.9 Inputs and outputs in control subsystems.

Figure 2.10 Automation system for water-heating process.

Automation System Structure 23

These steps are illustrated in Fig. 2.8 as a cyclic operation or automation cycle.
Fig. 2.9 illustrates the input–output to–from control subsystems to the instru-
mentation and human interface subsystems for level and temperature control in the
water-heating process.
Fig. 2.10 illustrates the fully integrated automation system with all of its subsys-
tems interconnected to monitor and control the water-heating process.

2.6.4  
Communication
Because they are intelligent and communicable, modern control subsystems can com-
municate externally with other compatible systems. This will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 7.

2.7  Summary
In this chapter, we discussed the overall structure of automation systems as well as
their functional subsystems and interconnections. These functional subsystems are
discussed further individually in greater detail in subsequent chapters.
Instrumentation Subsystems
3
Chapter Outline

3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Structure 26
3.2.1 Continuous/Analog Devices 26
3.2.1.1 Measurement 26
3.2.1.2 Control 27
3.2.2 Discrete/Digital Devices 28
3.2.2.1 Measurement 29
3.2.2.2 Control 30
3.2.3 Pulsating/Pulse Devices 31
3.2.4 Switching Devices 31
3.2.4.1 Measurement 31
3.2.5 Integrating Devices 33
3.2.5.1 Measurement 33
3.3 Signal Interfacing Standards 34
3.4 Input Data Reliability Enhancement 35
3.4.1 Analog 35
3.4.2 Digital 35
3.5 Isolation and Protection 35
3.5.1 Isolation 36
3.5.2 Protection 36
3.5.3 Solutions 37
3.6 Summary 38

3.1  Introduction
In the previous chapter, we discussed basic subsystems of the automation system. Of
these subsystems, the instrumentation subsystem is the most important. Without the
instrumentation subsystem, automation would not function. In this chapter, the instru-
mentation devices that comprise this subsystem are discussed in detail. As defined in
Chapter 2, instrumentation is the branch of engineering that deals with the measurement
and control of physical process parameters and instrumentation devices that provide an
interface between the process and the control subsystem to facilitate the following:
• 
Data acquisition: The conversion of the physical signal generated by the process into an equiva-
lent and compatible electronic signal (with no loss of data) acceptable to the control subsystem;
• 
Control execution: The conversion of the electronic control signal generated by the control
subsystem into an equivalent and compatible physical signal (with no loss of data) accept-
able to the process.

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26 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

3.2  Structure
Instrumentation devices have different structures for different input and output signals;
they are different for continuous/analog, discrete/digital, and pulsating/pulse signals.

3.2.1  Continuous/Analog Devices
Fig. 3.1 illustrates the functional components and general structure of continuous/
analog instrumentation devices for both input and output.

Figure 3.1 General structure of analog instrumentation device.

3.2.1.1  Measurement
Fig. 3.2 illustrates the general structure and input–output relationship of an analog
input instrumentation device.

Figure 3.2 Analog input instrumentation device.

Instrumentation Subsystems 27

The analog input instrumentation device processes the received physical signal
generated by the process with the following functional components:
• 
Sensor: It converts an analog or continuous physical signal into its electrical equivalent sig-
nal through the transduction process.
• 
Signal conditioner: Used in the intermediate stage, the signal conditioner prepares or manip-
ulates (isolating, compensating, linearizing, amplifying, filtering, offset correcting, etc.)
the weak and noisy sensor output to meet the requirements of the next stage for further
processing.
• 
Driver: It strengthens the signal received from the signal conditioner to an appropriate form
and drives it for transmission to the control subsystem.

Generally, the analog input instrumentation device has several names, such as sen-
sor, transducer, and transmitter. Sensor outputs are in the order of millivolts or even
less and are not suitable for transmission. The device is called a transducer if its
output is suitable for transmission (in voltage or current form) over a relatively short
distance. The device is called a transmitter if the output is suitable for transmission
(in current form) over a relatively long distance.
Fig. 3.3 illustrates some industry examples of commonly used analog input instru-
mentation devices in the process industry (temperature transmitter, flow transmitter, level
transmitter, and pressure transmitter). These devices receive physical signals (tempera-
ture, flow, level, and pressure) and generate corresponding electronic outputs in current
form suitable for control subsystems. Furthermore, some devices support local display
of the process parameter in engineering units to help field maintenance personnel.

Figure 3.3 Analog input instrumentation devices: examples.

3.2.1.2  
Control
Fig. 3.4 illustrates the structure and input–output relationship of an analog output
instrumentation device for the transmission of continuous or analog signals (com-
mands) to the process for control execution.
The analog output instrumentation device processes the electronic control signal gen-
erated by the control subsystem to produce the final value acceptable to the process. The
associated components are the actuator, signal conditioner, and final control element.
28 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

Figure 3.4 Analog output instrumentation device.

Although the signal conditioner has the same function as that of the analog input
instrumentation device, the actuator and final control element have two functions:
Actuator: Transforms the command output electronic signal from the control subsystem into
• 
a signal suitable for the signal conditioner;
Final
•  control element: Performs the final control action in the process.

Fig. 3.5 illustrates some industry examples of commonly used analog output instru-
mentation devices (variable control valve and variable speed drive). These devices
receive the electronic signals in current or voltage form and generate a corresponding
physical output (valve opening and motor speed) suitable for the process.

Figure 3.5 Analog output instrumentation devices: examples.

3.2.2  Discrete/Digital Devices
Fig. 3.6 illustrates the functional components and general structure of a discrete/digi-
tal instrumentation device (both input and output).
Instrumentation Subsystems 29

Figure 3.6 Digital input and output instrumentation devices: structure.

3.2.2.1  
Measurement
Fig. 3.7 illustrates the structure and input–output relationship of a digital input instru-
mentation device used for data acquisition of discrete or digital signals from the
process.

Figure 3.7 Digital input instrumentation device.

The digital input instrumentation device processes the physical signal generated
by the process to make it suitable for the control subsystem. The associated com-
ponents are a sensor, signal conditioner, and level converter. Although the roles
of sensor and signal conditioner remain the same, the role of the level converter
is to change the level of the electrical input (presence or absence) to produce an
output (presence or absence) that meets the control subsystem requirements for
processing.
30 Overview of Industrial Process Automation

Fig. 3.8 illustrates some examples in the industry of commonly used digital
input instrumentation devices (limit switch, proximity switch, and supervision
relay).

Figure 3.8 Digital input instrumentation devices: examples.

The limit switch receives the mechanical input signal (on–off) and converts it into
an electronic output signal (on–off). Through its electromagnetic/optical field, the
inductive/optical proximity switch senses the target and converts it into an electronic
output signal (on–off). The supervision relay picks up voltage and gives a yes–no
signal.

3.2.2.2  Control
Fig. 3.9 illustrates the structure and the input–output relationship of a discrete/digital
output instrumentation device (digital control device) for the transmission of discrete
or digital signals (commands) for the process or control execution.

Figure 3.9 Digital output instrumentation device.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 “What would you gain by such a proceeding?”
“If we made his women and children and all his goods captive they would be powerless.”
“But they would still be your enemies, and they would be the most bitter, and in order to crush
you would unite with the Kurabus and others to wipe you out, would they not?”
“You speak truly.”
“My plan would be to hold them from harm, and to show them that we do not desire revenge,
and gain them as our lasting friends.”
The point was gained, and the course was immediately changed toward the country of the
Osagas.
“Do you think it would be possible for any of your warriors to pass through the country to the
northwest, and inform my people that we are on the way to assist them?”
Ralsea pondered for a time, and then said: “I have a brave man who can go anywhere that it is
possible to go; but if he is captured it will be death; and I will order him to go.”
“No; do not order him to go. I do not want to risk the lives of any of the men.”
“But I will order him to go.”
“Before doing so let me talk with him.”
The warrior was sent for, and when he appeared, the Professor smiled. He recognized him, as
the leader of the party which had captured him.
It did not require anyone to explain that this man was the ideal messenger, if his physique was
any indication. He was the most speedy one in the tribe, and had never been outrun by any other on
the island. He was the most handsome savage the Professor had seen.
To this man he explained the need of informing his friends of their intentions, and if attacked to
maintain their position at all hazards. That he was well aware of the risk attending such a mission;
that he did not wish to order him to go, but if he felt like undertaking the mission he would be
rewarded whether he succeeded or failed, and if he succeeded it would be the means of making his
people strong and powerful.
The youth, for he was still a very young man, could hardly comprehend the character of such an
order. It was so unlike anything he had known in his tribe. “I will go,” was all he said.
There was no paper or other material of like character available, and the boys were called in by
the Professor. “Can you find me any plantain leaves?” he asked.
The boys were at a loss to know what the Professor meant.
“Have you noticed what the Berees use to thatch their huts with?”
“You mean the long and wide leaves?”
“Oh, yes; we saw plenty of them near here.”
These were soon procured, long, fibrous, and strong. With a blunt instrument the Professor
wrote the following message on the leaf:
“If you are attacked hold out to last extremity. I am coming to your assistance. The bearer,
Sutoto, is our friend. Professor.”
“Do you think they will be able to read that?” asked Will.
“In a few moments you will see the message much plainer, as the texture of the leaf is crushed
where I have gone over it with this instrument, and the lines will discolor the leaf.”
It was then folded up, and the Professor took a portion of his coat, and made it up into a thin,
compact package, which the messenger concealed in his clothing. The boys watched him disappear
with wonderful speed, directly to the north.
 As this young man will be heard of frequently hereafter and take an important part in the history
of the boys, it should be stated that he had wonderful energy and intelligence, and was the favorite
of the great Chief Suros, the head of the Berees.

Fig. 14. The Plantain.

“It is my opinion,” said John, addressing Muro, “that the lesson we gave the Brabos to-day will
either make them our friends or the most bitter enemies.”
Muro shook his head. “The Brabos are not good; they do not keep their word. They cheat and
try to take everything away.”
“The Kurabus are just the same, are they not?”
 “No; the Kurabus are big fighters, but they do what they say.”
“Do you know anything about the Osagas?”
“My wife Osaga; she was Osagas people. Osagas good, but like to fight.”
“What do they fight about?”
“Kurabus want more land for hunting. Osagas got best land. Berees and Osagas have best land
for hunting.”
“In whose territory are the big forests to the west?”
“The Berees have the forest, and they have the big water, and the most trees with nuts and stalks
like this,” and he pointed to the wild barley.
“Are the Berees good people?”
“They good, strong fighters; old chief; wise man. All like him but Kurabus. I take Berees; let
him go; Berees take me; Suros let me go.”
“Who is Suros?”
“Big chief of Berees.”
“Are all the fights about the land?”
“No; when one gets too much the other want it. If Saboros get captive, Kurabus want it; when
Kurabus get three or four captive, Brabos want some of them.”
“Do they kill the captives?”
“Yes; the Tuolos, and the Kurabus, and the Illyas.”
“Who are the Illyas?”
“Mean men; we can reach them; close to. Big fighters, and nobody likes them.”
“Are they near the mountain?” he asked, pointing to the east.
He nodded an assent. Here, at last, were the people that John had long tried to find out about.
The wagon was slowly going to the southeast, and near noon John discovered, what appeared to
be indications of moving objects. The wagon was halted, and all took observations. Muro was the
first to break the silence.
“Kurabus coming,” he said.
“How do you know they are Kurabus?” asked Blakely.
“Too many for Osagas.” It is obvious he had taken an inventory of both tribes on the day of the
battle.
All looked to Muro. “Go this way fast,” he answered, as he pointed to the east.
The yaks were driven up and the wagon directed toward all the depressed portions and valleys,
so as to keep it in a concealed position as much as possible. A moving object like a wagon is much
easier to distinguish than even a body of men, at a distance.
Before they had traveled a mile they were astounded to see another band of warriors directly
ahead of them, and moving from the east. Muro suggested that they should call a halt, and determine
who the newcomers could be, and also to learn their destination and object, in going toward the
Kurabus, who were advancing from the southwest.
“Are you able to make out who they are?” asked John.
“Maybe Saboro,” and without another word he darted forward in the direction of the oncoming
host.
This intelligence stimulated the boys, and they danced about in delight at the probability of this
being true. Stut had probably reached the tribe at last.
 They were doomed to disappointment, however, for when Muro returned with the intelligence
that it was either the Brabos or the Illyas, he knew they were not his people.
“What would the Brabos be doing in that direction?” asked John.
“Probably come from Kurabu village, and more Brabos up this way.”
Properly translated this means, that the Brabos, during the absence of the Kurabus, had attacked
the latter village, with one portion of their band, and that the other part had gone to the west to
intercept the Kurabus from attacking in that direction.
“If you are correct, we are right in the center of the place where the three parties will meet,” said
John.
Muro nodded and continued: “May be Osagas coming.”
“Would they come from that direction?”
Muro again replied affirmatively. The only direction now open was to the north. “What shall we
do?” asked Blakely.
“Fight!” was John’s laconic reply.
An open place was selected, near a stream, and the fort erected within a few minutes after the
halt was made.
 CHAPTER XV

URASO CAPTURED BY THE BEREES. WELCOMED BY THE PROFESSOR

The Professor and his party halted within the boundaries of the Osagas’ territory. The next day
the principal village would be reached. This was the day before the last incident recorded in the
previous chapter.
When they approached the vicinity of the village, it was only too apparent that the warriors had
gone, and it was but the work of a few minutes to surround it, to find the women, children and the
aged and infirm, huddled together in the various huts, in consternation at what must be their fate.
They were gathered together, and the Professor addressed them through Ralsea: “We have not
come here to make war on you, and you will be left here. We want to be your friends. Tell us where
your warriors have gone.”
An old man came forward and said: “You look like a white man who took our chief Uraso and
killed him. We felt bitter, and agreed with the Kurabus to find you and be revenged. But the Saboros
wanted to go, too, and that would be too many to take the white man’s things, and before we knew it
the Saboros and the Kurabus went to find you.”
“Who told you that the white man had killed Uraso?”
“When the Kurabus and the Osagas had a fight in the north moons ago the white man took
Uraso. The Osagas sent scouts all over the land, and found where the white man had his village, and
could not see Uraso, and they knew he had been sacrificed. This was confirmed when, after the
white man had captured one of the wounded Kurabus, and set him free, because the Kurabu said
that he was not in the village.”
“I am the man,” said the Professor, “who took Uraso; we did not kill him, as we do not believe
in killing captives. We cured him, and gave him a repa (a bolo), and he ran away from us.”
The old man listened with astonishment as Ralsea translated the words. Then turning to the sub-
chief, he asked whether the white man had many warriors. The Professor understood, and without
waiting for Ralsea to interpret the question, answered:
“We have many, many times more people than you have in all this land, and we have wonderful
reckas (weapons), but we want to be friends, and not enemies.”
The old man then said that the warriors were now in the north, and that the last band had gone
there the day before to try and capture the traveling murka (wagon) which the white men had.
This information was sufficiently startling to determine the Professor to act at once; so turning
to Ralsea he spoke as follows:
“We must try and prevent the Osagas from attacking my people. They will resist, and many of
them will be killed. Let us go at once with the warriors.”
This was the most remarkable event which had ever taken place in the lives of these people—it
was the first time that a hostile tribe had ever taken a village and not exacted a tribute. It was too
astonishing for their comprehension.
The Professor and his party had no idea that John and the boys had directed the course of the
wagon eastwardly, and were, therefore, at that time in the Kurabu territory fully ten miles east of the
point where he hoped to find them.
 For the present the most important thing was to follow the Osagas, and halt them from
attacking, so the column was hurried forward, directly to the north in the trail of the fighters in the
hope that they might be overtaken before the next morning.
While this was going on John and the boys were preparing for the fight of their lives. They were
determined on forcing their way through the hostile forces. The two bands were coming forward at a
rapid rate, and they saw them unite without any hostile exhibitions.
The parties had joined for some purpose, which was not then apparent, as neither of the factions
could have known of the presence of the wagon before them. There was no movement for fully an
hour, due doubtless to consultations upon the subject at hand.
About two o’clock the combined column was set in motion, and it was noticed that the two
tribes, while marching toward them, along parallel lines, were separated from each other. John
called Muro’s attention to this. He replied:
“That is the custom here with all tribes. They will not mix up when on the march. Each tribe
keeps by itself.”
“Why is that?”
“The wise men say the arrows will not go straight.”
Blakely, who heard this conversation, said: “I know just what he means by that. I got an inkling
of that on one occasion. I put it in this way: They are mighty distrustful, and as a result are
compelled to keep an eye on each other. This prevents them from shooting accurately, or with care.”
This incident of the two tribes moving side by side conveyed another meaning, also, to Muro,
for he continued, after Blakely concluded:
“The ones over there,” pointing to the left, “are Illyas, I know.”
This was determined, as he afterwards expressed it, because they are always suspicious, and
were never known to mingle with the other tribes.
“But what are they doing in this section of the country?”
“That I do not understand. Maybe to recover captives, or something of that kind.”
The two bands approached without any expectation of meeting the whites. That was evident. In
any event it would have been impossible for the wagon to get away, because the country was too
open to shield them. They had only to hope that by some fortune they would not be revealed.
The wagon had been put in position, as stated, in the open, so that such a party, coming within a
quarter of a mile, would be likely to catch sight of it. The hope of being undiscovered was very
faint.
To their delight the party passed along fully that distance away, and did not show any alarm, but
as the last of the column of the Illyas was passing from sight there was a commotion, and the entire
column turned to face them.
This was the signal for the Kurabus, who filed to the left and danced about like demons at the
sight of the wagon, and the peculiar enclosure at one side, which was immediately recognized by
them.
The occupants of the fort showed no sign. “Keep cool, boys, and fire steadily, when we once
commence. Have all the ammunition in ready reach, and merely fire and reload. Observe our former
method. We must keep the reserve guns for an emergency.”
The information was imparted to Muro and his companions, and each had a gun in hand and
another by his side, loaded and ready for use. Both had been instructed daily in the manner of
loading and of aiming, but they had done no firing, owing to the dangerous proximity of their
enemies.
 Muro and his friend were impatient beyond measure. They had the opportunity so long craved
to attack their bitter enemies.
The Kurabus circled around the wagon to the left and the Illyas to the right. At a signal there
was a shower of arrows, all of which fell short, but contrary to expectations, did not follow it with a
concerted rush. Instead they advanced nearer, and the second volley of arrows was sent forth, and
some of them found their marks in the fort, and two struck the wagon.
John saw Muro’s appealing look. The latter pointed to the group of Illyas, and said: “Chief; see
big man, this side.”
John replied: “Can you hit him?”
Muro did not wait for a stronger invitation, and John drew back the firing hammer for him, and
told him to take a careful aim, as he had been instructed. He did this with the utmost deliberation, in
the coolest and most matter-of-fact way.
He fired. The chief threw up his hands and fell backward, while the warriors crowded about him
and began to set up a demoniacal howl.
“Now, boys, that is a good target to fire into,” muttered John. “Ready—fire!” Six shots more
found their marks in the congested mass. How many fell it was impossible to say in the confusion
produced by the volley.
“Reload, and be ready for the next.”
The first impulse of the savages was to rush for shelter, and thus left their dead and wounded
where they fell. But the chief’s body was there, and several rushed forward and recovered him,
without molestation on the part of John.
When the warriors fled they had an opportunity to see the result of the volley. The six shots had
wounded eight, more or less; how many of them were killed could not be determined at the time.
All the besiegers now withdrew to a safe distance. It was obvious to them that their arrows were
not of sufficient range to compete with the wonderful weapons possessed by the whites. Several
warriors crawled up to the nearest bunches of shrubbery, and they were permitted to do so, but when
once in their supposed concealed positions were close enough, so that it was no trouble in reaching
them with the guns.
The effect of Muro’s shot was so exhilarating that he danced about the enclosure with
expressions of joy. The boys patted him on the back, and applauded him for the masterly manner in
which he had executed the first shot.
Two hours passed by, and it did not seem possible that they would attempt to rush the fort.
Considering that there were fully two hundred warriors about them, such tactics, if pushed with
vigor, must have resulted in the annihilation of the occupants of the fort. But the savages were wary.
The Illyas had now a taste of the same medicine that the Kurabus had taken to their disgust.
Before evening the two forces disposed themselves around the fort, and the night set in with a
slight shower. Muro chuckled at this, and when questioned, responded: “Cannot use bows,” and he
smiled.
The rain increased, and as there was now no cover for the wagon, all were drenched. The
darkness was intense, and the vigil was a constant one, occupying the attention of all. Muro stated
that neither of the parties would attempt an attack in that condition, but they must be alert to resist
any daredevils who might approach for the purpose of picking off one or more of their number.
Shortly after midnight a peculiar voice was heard, calling “John, John.” They listened. “Did
some one call me?” asked John.
“Yes; we heard it!” exclaimed several of the boys.
 “John, John,” the voice repeated, and they detected a scratching on the wall of the fort. John
sprang over to the side from which the sound emanated, and saw a figure crouching close to the
ground, alongside of the fort.
“I am John; what do you want?”
A hand was held up containing an object, and John caught it, and drew it in. It was something in
fabric, and tied with a cord. The darkness was too intense to distinguish its character, but John cut
the cord and a leaf fell out.
“Here is some news,” he cried. “Get a light quickly.” One of the matches was produced, and
held close to the leaf. The writing could not be distinguished by the momentary gleam, which shot
forth, but the signature, “Professor,” caught the eye of Harry, who held the match.
“It is from the Professor,” he exclaimed excitedly, and he jumped up and peered over the top
wall, and seeing the object still there, reached down, and recognized a savage, who held up his hand.
Harry grasped it, and, calling to the others, said: “Help him in.”
The savage made no resistance, but assisted the others to draw him in. Muro recognized him as
one of the Berees, and quickly asked: “Why are you here?”
“I came from the great White Chief.”
“Where is he?”

Message on part of a Plaintain leaf. Also

showing its beautiful fibre.
Fig. 15.

“Coming from the south, with all my people.”

When this was translated to them the boys were wild with the news.
“Be quiet, boys; make no demonstration. If it is not too wet, strike another light. There! steady!”
“What does it say?” was the eager question.
“If you are attacked hold out to last extremity. I am coming to your assistance. The bearer,
Sutoto, is our friend.”
Muro questioned him as John propounded the inquiries.
“Did your people capture the White Chief?”
“I took him in the hills to the west of this place.”
“You captured him?”
“Yes; I took him to the chief, and he made the chief’s daughter well. The chief told us he was a
great man, and that he was forever his friend, and when our warriors came back from the fight he
cured them, but he would not eat, and all our people marveled at this, and believed him to be a
superior being, and the chief imprisoned all our medicine men.”
“Where is he now?”
“Coming to us with all the warriors of my people, and with the two purees (boys) which we
had.”
“Purees? What does he mean?”
And Muro pointed to the boys.
“How did you get in to us?”
“I was with the people outside when it began to rain, and came up to the kramin (bush) close to
you. I was here long time.”
“George, get Sutoto something to eat; he must be hungry.” And this was speedily attended to.
When the morning sun arose bright and beautiful it was a welcome relief to the misery of the
night. The boys now had an opportunity to examine their new friend. They marveled at his youth.
But he was evidently well known to Muro. They talked long and earnestly, and the latter recounted
their experiences.
Chump told him about the wonders of the Cataract house, and of the remarkable things to be
seen there. He looked at the fort and examined the wagon, and the things possessed a remarkable
fascination for him. He was a second edition of George in the capacity to ask questions.
Muro explained that Sutoto was the fleetest runner in the country, and his finely shaped limbs
and admirable poise of his head was admired by all. He eyed Blakely for some time, and the latter
held out his hand. Sutoto grasped it, and as they held each other’s hand, said: “I think you ought to
remember me. I was one of your guests for a little time.” And he laughed, as did Sutoto.
The scene in that wagon for the next few hours was like a reunion of long-lost friends. The boys
admired Sutoto’s manly ways, and even Ralph, who often said he had no use for any of the devils,
admitted that he would have to change his mind.
While all this drama was being enacted the Professor was hurrying to the north as fast as the
warriors could travel. The Professor suggested that as they were now approaching the enemy’s
country it would be wise to send out advance guards.
This was a novel proceeding to Ralsea, but he readily assented, and four of the most skillful
were given instructions to keep well ahead and note every movement. It was most fortunate that this
was done for reasons we shall now see.
Before noon the scouts discovered a lurking savage, and as he was trying to get away a number
of others were sent out, so their movements radiated out like a fan, and in this manner the fugitive
was hemmed in and finally captured.
He was brought in by the most wildly excited and gesticulating lot of savages the Professor had
ever witnessed. This appeared to be a more than ordinary event with them, and he could not
understand it.
Before they were near he heard the cries of “Osaga, Osaga,” and the Professor was startled in
the belief that they had come up with the band they were pursuing.
The captive was brought before the Professor, and the moment he looked at him cried out,
“Uraso.” For a moment he was too much affected to speak. Uraso went up to the Professor and
embraced him, and then looked around at the Berees in astonishment.
Here was the Professor, carried by the Berees, not as a prisoner, but as an individual in state,
with the warriors under his command. He could not understand the situation.
“Didn’t we treat you right, Uraso?”
 “I tried to go back to my people and bring them to you. The Illyas captured me, and now that
they have allied themselves with the Kurabus, intended to attack and capture you.”
“Have you been with them all this time?”
“No, when they first tried to capture me I was badly wounded, so that for a long time I could not
walk, and when I was well enough, two moons ago, they did take me.”
“Your people have gone to attack my people in the wagon.”
Osaga could not credit this. His brow darkened, and his anger was terrible to witness.
Ralsea assured him that such was the case, and then told him that they had just come from the
Osaga village. At this information he grew indignant, and cast a reproachful glance at the Professor.
The sub-chief quickly informed him of the Professor’s acts, in refusing to permit anything to be
disturbed at the village.
“He is a great chief,” said Uraso, addressing Ralsea. “I saw the wonderful things he has at his
village, and I want him to teach my people the things they do.”
“You must go with us, Uraso; we must find your warriors before they attack John and the boys.”
“John, John,” and he repeated over the name again and again. His face lighted up.
“I will go; my people shall not injure you. We are your friends.”
He was then informed that Muro, the chief of the Saboros, was also with John.
“Muro? My sister is his wife.” This news made him dance with joy. He rushed up to the
Professor and again embraced him, and then went to Ralsea and rubbed his nose against him, in
token of friendship and peace between their people.
 CHAPTER XVI

A PERPLEXING MIX-UP

Muro turned to John and Sutoto and quietly said: “They are preparing to attack us.” Sutoto
looked at the guns and John divined his meaning glance. Taking one of the guns he gave it to Muro
and requested him to explain its use.
Like many of the natives he had heard of the wonderful weapons, but this was the first
opportunity to see and handle one of them. John told him it was his gun, and a smile lit up his face.
The method of loading it; the putting on of the cap; the manner in which the firing plug was drawn
back, and the firing of the piece by the pulling of the trigger were soon grasped by him.
The sights were being explained, when John called Muro’s attention to a moving object in the
distance directly to the north. Sutoto noted the hand pointing in that direction, and casting a glance,
instantly cried out: “Brabos!”
His keen eyesight saw what none of the others recognized. John turned to Muro: “I now see why
he is such a remarkable messenger. A wonderfully keen sight, and a swift runner.”
To this Muro nodded a quick assent. “Kurabus to the southwest; Illyas to the southeast, and
Brabos to the north. Well, this is a fine combination on the chessboard,” was Blakely’s summing up
of the situation.
“But are not the Brabos at war with the Kurabus?” asked Harry.
“No doubt they are; but I imagine they are after us at this particular time. Remember we
attacked, or rather their party attacked us three days ago. They are sending us an answer,” said John.
“If I am not mistaken there will be the most terrible mix-up this island has ever witnessed.” And
Blakely danced around as though he enjoyed the prospect. Evidently the besiegers had not noticed
the approach of the new element from the north, for they were now preparing to renew the combat.
New positions were taken, and the constant communications between the two tribes were
witnessed by the little party within the fort. At a signal the attacking parties advanced from all
directions. John and Sutoto were on the south side; Harry and Tom on the north side in the wagon;
Muro, Ralph and Chump on the east, and George and Blakely on the west side.
Thus eight guns were in the hands of the defenders, leaving twenty guns as reserves. As before,
they approached close enough to discharge their arrows, and then began the grand rush.
“Take careful aim and fire,” cried John. The volley came like a crash. They were stunned.
“Reload, and keep cool,” came the second command. The party halted, and the indecision was
long enough to gain time for the second shot, before they recovered and began the second concerted
action.
“They are coming again; fire as rapidly as you can and follow it up with one of the reserve
guns.”
The third shot came when they were within fifty feet of the wagon, and at this distance every
shot counted.
“Let one reload and the other fire, and make every shot count.”
John was in earnest now. One shot now followed the other, and the warriors could not
understand it. Without an order they turned and fled beyond reach of the bullets.
 The sight within the fort was now indescribable. Sutoto danced about, hugging his gun. He went
up to the boys, and crawled into the wagon, and in every imaginable way expressed his delight. A
boy with a new toy could not have shown greater pleasure. The boys enjoyed themselves watching
him.
But it was a sad day for the Kurabus and the Illyas. The latter had suffered by far the most. But
where were the Brabos by this time? They had heard the noise of the battle, and at the last volley
were within a half mile of the scene and hurried forward rapidly.
The hosts beyond the wagon had not yet discovered their approach, and after the retreat the
chiefs of the contending forces gathered in consultation. But soon there was an uproar. The Brabos
had been detected, and a new movement was discerned. The latter saw the conflict, and readily
learned who the participants were. They had before them their two bitterest tribes, and the whites
were their enemies as well.
They made no movement, however, which showed fear of their enemies, though greatly
outnumbered. For a half hour they remained at a safe distance, and the other forces did not
undertake to attack them.
Muro turned to John. “They are afraid to attack the Brabos while we are here.” That explained
the situation.
Suddenly the Brabos started to the east, and then turned to the south. The attacking parties saw
the movement, and an intense commotion resulted. John mounted the wagon top to get a better
view, and Muro followed him. What could be their object in thus getting to the south of their
enemies?
“I told you we would have some strange moves on this chessboard,” exclaimed Blakely, without
taking his eyes off the Brabos. Then the next strange movement took place. The Illyas started in
pursuit of them, leaving the Kurabus on guard.
“We might as well continue to take a hand in this,” quickly answered John, as he turned to
Muro, and spoke a few words.
The Kurabus were to the west, and at the command of John, the fort section on the east side was
pushed aside nearest the wagon, and each with an extra gun sallied out, taking a direction toward the
south of the Kurabus.
“Drive them to the west and separate them from their allies,” was his command.
The sudden appearance of the besieged force disconcerted the Kurabus, who slowly at first fell
back, but as the whites now rushed on, despite the overwhelming force in their front, they finally
broke and fled, before the party had time to fire a single shot.
“Not too far, boys. The wagon is unprotected.”
This called them to a halt, and as they ran back to the wagon Sutoto pointed to the south at the
Illyas and Brabos maneuvering for an attack. Sutoto took his place on the wagon top and observed
the Kurabus. When they saw the pursuit had ended they stopped, and began a movement to the
north.
At four in the afternoon of that day the Professor and his party were moving along to the north
as fast as the warriors could travel, and he himself was on foot, and urging them to make haste.
A sudden boom came from the north, and the Professor stopped in startled surprise. The boys
ran to him, and the warriors, who had recognized the sound before, gathered around him.
Uraso was the first to recover from the shock. “They have met and are fighting. I know what
that means.”
“Forward, forward,” cried the Professor. “Wait for nothing. Uraso, go; go quickly, and stop
them.”
 Uraso started like a shot, followed by Ralsea and several of the fleetest warriors. As the sub-
chief sprang forward he called out to his men: “Remain here with the White Chief, and follow as
fast as you are able to.”
They fairly flew to the front. The firing continued; the second and the third volleys rang out.
Would they never stop? The Professor knew what execution they were capable of, and that John
would not permit them to fire recklessly. The sub-chief had not gone an hour before the scouts to the
west came in hurriedly and reported that a tribe had appeared to their left.
“Who can they be?” asked the Professor. “Have we been discovered?” The scouts could not
inform him. “Keep on, and move to the right,” were his orders, and they hurried forward with
greater celerity, in the effort to avoid the band.
“How many are there?” asked the Professor.
“About a hundred, but of this we are not sure.”
Night came on, and still there was no news from the firing line.
“What can all this mean?” said the Professor to the boys. The firing had ceased long before, but
the mystery of the non-appearance of Uraso and Ralsea could not be accounted for.
About nine o’clock a commotion in the camp announced the appearance of a messenger from
Uraso. “My people not fighting your people. Illyas and Brabos ready to fight.”
Where were the Osagas? and with whom were John and party engaged? The night was dark, so
that it was difficult to make any attempt at a forward movement, and they impatiently awaited news
from the two chiefs.
Will and Jim were with the Professor constantly, and the latter referred to the remarkable
exhibitions of feelings expressed by the Chief Uraso during the exciting events of the day.
“I always thought,” said Jim, “that a great many people at home show their excitement when
anything happens, but it is nothing compared with the savages here. You can tell when anything
unusual happens with them a mile off.”
“The matter of expressing feeling or emotion by physical expressions has characteristic national
traits. Among civilized people the French show the most intense actions physically, while the
German is the most voluble. The Italians can cast the darkest frown, and the Turks are the least
affected outwardly. The Englishman is always cool and collected. John Bull is shown typically as a
cautious, self-satisfied individual, and Uncle Sam is always pictured in the European comic as the
alert character.”
“We noticed a big difference between two of the tribes here. The Saboros are a very quick
people; quick in their actions, and will take offense readily. The Sebrees are much slower, and show
sympathy or any excitement more slowly.”
“I was told by Uraso, the Osaga chief,” responded the Professor, “that he could distinguish his
foes, when all other tests failed, by their manner of gesticulating, or in their movements, and this
explains why, at great distances, they are so frequently able to distinguish people, when they are so
far distant that their dress does not betray them.”
“It is wonderful how the people here, ignorant as they are, will observe little things.”
“Yes; a wise man may know little, and a fool much.”
The boys laughed at the remark. “Well, isn’t a wise man the one who knows the most?”
“By no means. A man may have read and read all his life, and not be able to utilize any of the
things he has crammed himself with. The most valuable thing to man is the ability to utilize what
comes to him. The common mistake of people is endeavoring to learn too much. The proper course
in which education should be directed is to grasp the value of observation.”
 When morning came the scouts reported a tribe of warriors to their left. Neither Ralsea nor
Uraso had returned, but a messenger came in very early in the morning with the news that they
awaited the result of the conflict between the Brabos and the Illyas.
“Can you ascertain who the people are to the west of us?”
“No; but the scouts are now in that direction, and we may soon be able to tell you.”
“Send some messenger forward to find Uraso and Ralsea, and inform them of the force at our
left.”
A runner was dispatched in all haste. When Uraso and Ralsea went forward the night before,
they had with them two of the fleetest runners in the tribe, and they took a course immediately to the
north, and in the direction of the firing, avoiding the Brabos who were in their front.
It will be remembered that when the Brabos left the vicinity of the wagon, they went to the
south, and then proceeded westwardly, before the Illyas came up. The direct line of the march of the
two chiefs was, therefore, to the east of the Brabos, and as the latter continued to the west in their
movement, they were obliged to go to the east to escape them.
“Who are the warriors coming from the west?” asked Ralsea.
“They look like the Illyas,” answered Uraso.
Moving farther to the north, this was found to be true.
“Your people are not here,” said Ralsea.
“Then they must be to the north,” answered Uraso.
It was evident that the Osagas had not been in the fight with the people in the wagon; but what
did this array of forces mean, after the late fight?
Ralsea at once sent the messenger which arrived the night before, as stated, and the chiefs and
remaining runner at once started for the north.
After the Kurabus had been scattered by the charge which John had conducted they circled
around to the north, and afterwards went east and then south, thus completely encircling the wagon.
Of this John and his associates had no knowledge. This tribe was, therefore, going south, in the
attempt to assist their late allies in the fight with the Brabos.
When Ralsea and Uraso struck out for the north, in the hope that they would find the Osagas in
that quarter, they ran into the Kurabus, who at once started in pursuit. The chiefs could not go to the
south nor to the west, and their only line of retreat was to the east.
John and his companions knew that the Brabos and the Illyas were to the southwest and
supposed that the Kurabus were to the north, and the most natural thing under the circumstances
was to move to the southeast, as the route to Muro’s country was now clear.
 Map showing position of all the parties.
Fig. 16.

The wagon was set in motion as fast as it could be driven, and within an hour Muro discovered a
band ahead, and as it was a large one, and was moving to the southwest, he could not account for it.
With his gun he went forward while the wagon was halted, and soon came back with the
intelligence that the Kurabus had circled their position, and were heading in the direction of the two
warring forces.
It thus seemed that at every turn, some unfortunate element would bar their progress. John
considered the situation from every standpoint, and in the consultations with Muro, decided that it
would be unwise to remain in the present position, as the results of the battle could not long be in
doubt, with the two forces arrayed against the Brabos.
 It would mean, either that the Brabos would be captured, en masse, or they would be driven
eastwardly, and thus again bring the two forces against them. Where were the Saboros? Stut must
have failed to reach his tribe. This was now apparent, and no hope was expected from that quarter.
The situation was indeed desperate.
To add to their perplexities, not one thing had been learned from the Professor and his party
since the arrival of Sutoto. The latter affirmed that they should now be in that vicinity, unless they
took a more westerly route. He knew they intended to go first to the Osaga village, and then follow
up the warriors from that tribe.
These reasons made an entire change in the decisions of John and Muro. Why not take the route
to the west, and thus avoid both of the tribes, and assure them of a much quicker flight to the south,
although it took them away from Muro’s country.
The wagon was headed due west, the object being to reach the river and thus move down its
banks, until they reached the Osagas’ country, where Muro believed they would find shelter. They
avoided the battle-ground which the Kurabus and Illyas occupied on one side, and the Brabos on the
other side, the Brabos being to the southwest of the other forces.
This position was such, that as the two forces would, undoubtedly, quickly defeat the Brabos,
who were not aware of the presence of the Illyas, the rout and the direction of the flight would be to
the southeast, and the trail along the river would be left free from any enemies.
When the last messenger came from Uraso, stating that the Illyas and Brabos were maneuvering
for a fight, and that they would await the result of that issue, he and Ralsea had not discovered the
presence of the Kurabus.
The positions of the hostile forces, with the Illyas to the west and the Brabos to the southeast,
with the Kurabus coming from the northeast, made the situation a difficult one for them to
determine. Were the Kurabus on the way to aid the Brabos or the Illyas?
If they knew this they would be able to decide, just as Muro did, what direction would be the
safest to go. Their only course was to escape the Kurabus, and then follow up their movements.
This description of the maneuvers will explain why the Professor did not get a messenger during
the entire day, and he waited with the warriors, who watched the tribe to the west, until late in the
afternoon, when the scouts reported that they had disappeared.
If the Professor had known that this tribe to the west was the Osagas, as was really the case, the
settlement of all their troubles would have been more speedy, but they had no means of learning
this, and the Osagas were much more intent, at this time, in watching the movements of the Illyas
and the Kurabus.
 CHAPTER XVII

THE SABOROS COMING TO THE RESCUE

Muro had just returned to the wagon from his position in the front, and John met him, as he
expected some news from his actions.
“The Kurabus have joined the Illyas.”
“In which direction did the Kurabus come up?”
“From the northeast.”
“Where are the Brabos?”
“Directly to the south of the Illyas.”
“Do you think we had better go on?”
“No; we better wait until fight over.”
“Why do you think so? The Brabos are sure to be beaten.”
“The other tribes will go northeast to find us, and will leave this side free.”
Muro’s philosophy was now apparent. The wagon had been moved a long distance westwardly
from the place where the Kurabus last saw it, and the presumption was that they would return to that
position to look for it, and thus give an opportunity to make their escape.
It was certainly a well-devised scheme to outwit their enemies, but the best-laid plans come to
nought where all the elements are not known.
“We might go a mile down the river, and reach the hill over there,” said Muro, pointing to the
south.
“That will bring us about west of the battle-ground.”
“Yes.”
In a half hour the wagon reached the spot indicated, and the hill gave them a much better view
of the conflict, and, besides, it afforded an opportunity to escape either by the north or the south, and
the fort sections also furnished a means, in an emergency, to cross the river on their right.
The forces were now in position, and were both striving to outwit each other. They maneuvered
back and forth for fully an hour.
“The Brabos do not know the Kurabus are with the Illyas,” said Muro.
“Why do you think so!”
“Because they are too confident.”
“How many warriors have the Brabos?”
“One hundred and thirty.”
“And how many do you think the others have all together?”
“About a hundred and seventy-five, or likely more.”
Suddenly the combined forces began the charge, first with the shower of arrows, followed by
the usual rush.
“The Brabos are holding their ground,” exclaimed Muro.
“But the Illyas will be too much for them,” remarked Sutoto.
“Yes; they will win in the end.”
 “But how well they are holding their line.”
“See, the Kurabus are advancing,” remarked John.
“They are trying to get around them,” ventured Harry.
“They won’t keep that up long,” said Sutoto.
Nor did they. For some reason the position of the Illyas was turned.
“What is that from the south?” asked Sutoto, as he drew himself up to a more advantageous
position.
“They are Osagas,” exclaimed Ralph.
“There is a movement to the southeast; do you see it?” asked Sutoto.
“I see it plainly now,” answered John.
“There is another tribe there,” excitedly shouted Ralph.
“Are you sure?” said John.
“It does appear so; yes, you are right; a column is coming up.”
“Who are they!” asked Harry.
“Possibly they are the Saboros,” responded George.
Muro shook his head despairingly.
“It must be the Professor and his party,” exclaimed Blakely.
“Hurrah, if it is,” cried Tom. “Won’t that give us a chance?”
“I wonder who they are going to help?”
“Why, don’t you see, Harry, they are coming up behind the Brabos, and the latter see them
now.”
“Yes; they will side with the Brabos.”
“How many can you see?”
Sutoto looked for a time, before answering: “About seventy-five or more.”
“Then it must be your people,” said John.
“I do not think so, as they would not be so far west.”
“They are, most likely, the Osagas,” was John’s comment.
“What is your reason for the conclusion?” asked Blakely.
“First, because it would be the natural direction for them to come; and second, the size of the
band would be much greater were they Saboros.”
“The white man is right. Berees would not come along the river from Osaga village, nor would
Saboros come that way.”
But some unusual movement was on foot, judging from the excitement now discernible in the
ranks of the Illyas.
“The Illyas are being driven back.”
“They have discovered the new tribe. See them trying to hold their positions.”
“The Kurabus are in just as bad shape.”
“But they are really driving the Brabos forwardly.”
“That is only temporary, however. See; the Brabos and the new warriors are after them again.”
Back and forth the combatants surged. The noise of the conflict, which consisted mainly in the
shouting and the shrieking, was plainly heard at the wagon.
“How I would like to take a hand,” said John, without taking his eyes off the fighters.
Muro looked at John. “I would like to go.” John looked around.
 Blakely shook his head. “It would be unwise to mix up in their troubles, as we have enough of
our own.”
“I should not think of doing it out of pleasure, or to gratify a spite, as I have neither of the
desires, and it occurred to me a little while ago, that if we wiped out the Kurabus and the Illyas we
would have pretty easy sailing with the Brabos.”
“That is to be considered,” said Blakely.
The unexpected reinforcements which the Brabos got, was the turning point in their fortunes. It
was a hotly contested struggle, judged from the standard of island warfare.
“The Kurabus and Illyas are being licked,” cried out George.
“Good for the Brabos.”
“But won’t they come this way?”
“This seems possible, as they are making a pretty clean sweep.”
The force assisting the Brabos now made its way around to the right of the Illyas, and it was
soon evident that the latter were beaten beyond all hope.
It thus turned out that the very plan, so apparently well selected on the part of John and Muro,
was crushed by the defeat of the two tribes.
The runner which the Professor sent back to Uraso and Ralsea did not return. He should have
been back before noon.
Calling one of the principal warriors he questioned him:
“Did you know the direction and distance that the runner went?”
“Yes; to the north.”
“Do you know what time he should have returned?”
“He should have been here when the sun was up there,” and he pointed to the position of the sun
which was well before the noon hour.
“Can you send a fast runner there?”
“Yes.”
“What have you learned about the band toward the left?”
“We have not seen them since they left early this morning.”
“Bring the runner here as quickly as you can.”
The one indicated for the mission came up quickly, and the Professor, addressing him, said:
“Ralsea and Uraso have gone to the north, and I have had no word from them since last night.
Go to them at once and tell them that I have moved the Berees to the northwest, and tell them, also,
that a tribe moved away from us this morning, in that same direction, and they may be going toward
my people.”
Then giving directions to the warriors, they started forward to follow in the trail of the
mysterious tribe that had left them early in the morning.
Before three o’clock one of the scouts from the west appeared in their midst and hurriedly
explained the situation.
“The tribe which left us was followed until they met another lot of warriors, and are now
fighting with them.”
“How long will it take to reach them?”
He indicated two hours.
“Then lead us in that direction at once.”
 In less than a half hour the Professor struck the trail of the tribe which had so peculiarly
vanished in the morning, and it was now easy to track them.
For the past three days they had heard no sounds of the guns from the party in the wagon, and
the Professor inferred, either that they had succeeded in resisting the assault made on them, or might
have been captured, and were now in the possession of one or the other of the tribes which were
fighting for possession.
Night came before they were able to reach the scene of the fight. The Professor stationed guards
around the camp, and gave instructions to inform him of any suspicious movements in either
direction.
It was singular, indeed, that the last runner sent to Uraso and Ralsea had not returned. Several
times during the night the watchers from the east came to the Professor, and he hurried out with
them to try and ascertain what the disturbances there might mean.
Early in the morning, however, it was seen that a war party was in the immediate vicinity on the
east. This news was startling enough to cause the Professor to call in the pickets and investigate the
position of the new enemy.
“Who are they?” he asked of the chief man left with him.
“They look like the Saboros.”
“Find out at once.”
Before the picket had time to return and report, others came rushing in with the announcement
that the Saboros were now forming to charge them.
At this news the Professor ordered the warriors to move forward until they had reached the
open. Then commanding the warriors to remain he marched forward alone and unarmed, to the
amazement of those with him.
“Can we go with you?” pleaded the boys.
“Yes.”
The Saboros looked on him with astonishment. With a shout one of the warriors rushed out from
the ranks and across the intervening space and embraced the Professor.
It was Stut. He looked at the boys as he was about to treat them in the same way, and started
back in surprise.
“Where are the boys?”
“Still in the wagon.”
“Where is the wagon?”
“I do not know.”
Then, looking at the Berees, he was amazed at the situation.
“Tell me,” said the Professor, “why did you not come before?”
“The Kurabus captured me, and if it had not been for the Brabos I would have been killed. But
do you know where Muro is?”
“I do not know. Three days ago they fought a battle with some one to the north, as we heard
their guns, but we know nothing more since.”
The Saboros came up. Many of them had met the Professor before—once in the battle in the
vicinity of West River, and once far to the east when they were allied with the Kurabus, at the time
Stut was captured.
Stut told about the different ones, and what their stations were, and they crowded around this
remarkable man about whom such wonderful tales had been told.
“Do you know who those people are that are fighting in the west?”
 “We heard that the Illyas had gone to the west.”
“Do you know what they went there for?”
“They were going there to attack the Berees and Osagas.”
“Do you know why?”
“They claimed that the Osagas rescued their captives from them.”
“Do you know who the captives were?”
“Yes; some of your people.”
“Were your people coming here before you reached them?”
“Yes; that is why I met them so soon. I succeeded in getting away only three days ago, when the
largest portion of the Brabos attacked and destroyed the Kurabus’ village.”
“Then they did not know Muro was with us?”
“No.”
“Why did they start on the warpath?”
“They learned that the white men who had killed Uraso were in the west, and they supposed that
if Uraso had been killed I would also be offered up as a sacrifice.”
“But Uraso was not killed.”
“Not killed? Where is he?”
“He and Ralsea are now up to the north, and watching the Illyas and the Kurabus.”
“Are they fighting?”
“Yes; but whom we do not know.”
“Then it must be the Brabos.”
“But the Osagas have also gone to the north.”
“How do you know that?”
“Because we came through their village, and have been following them.”
Stut and the Saboros looked at each other.
“If that is the case, then the Osagas have joined the Brabos.”
“No doubt, then, the force we saw to the west of us yesterday was the Osagas.”
“Where are they now?” asked Stut.
“To the northwest, and we are following them.”
This news that Osaga was safe produced a marked impression on the Saboros, because through
family ties the heads of the two tribes were united, and these two peoples were always most friendly
with each other.
“Did you know that Osaga was captured by the Illyas?” asked the Professor.
“No!” exclaimed Stut in astonishment.
He immediately imparted this news to his warriors, and the effect was such as to indicate that
they held a most bitter resentment toward that tribe.
In the absence of Muro, Stut was the chief of the tribe, and this was gratifying news to the
Professor. They must proceed to the north with their combined forces, and by uniting with the
Brabos and Osagas, crush two of the most villainous people.
One of the chief men under Stut immediately came forward, and said: “We would not have gone
to the assistance of the Osagas in their fight against the white men, but we learned that the Tuolos
and the Kurabus had also made a treaty, and intended to destroy them, as well as the Brabos, so that
we wanted to get the white men first.”
 The Professor could hardly credit this startling piece of information.
“Do you think, then, that the Tuolos also are with the Kurabus and the Illyas?” asked the
Professor earnestly.
“Yes.”
A commotion was noticed among the Berees, and one of the runners sent in advance, toward
what now appeared to be the Osagas, reported that the latter and Brabos had routed the two other
forces, and were pursuing to the north.
“If that is the case, the Tuolos have not yet come up.”
“We must go forward at once,” exclaimed the Professor.
The combined forces set out on the march. Together they numbered two hundred and twenty
men. There was the utmost good feeling between the two people, as was evident.
“Isn’t this good!” cried Will. “What a sight it will be when we reach the Osagas!”
“I wish I knew where the boys were,” responded Jim.
And the Professor echoed that sentiment.
 CHAPTER XVIII

THE TERRIBLE FIGHT AND FINAL VICTORY

“I suppose we are in for it again,” was John’s terse comment, when he saw how the tide of battle
had turned.
“We must go to the north,” was Muro’s answer.
And sorrowfully and sadly the march began. It was not a march; it was a hurried retreat. They
had nothing to hope from the Brabos, and if the force to the south had staked their fortunes with the
latter, it was evident that they would not interfere with the desire of that tribe.
John knew that the Brabos were the first tribe they had seen and engaged on the island. If they
had known that the Osagas were the allies of that tribe, they would have halted and shown fight to
the fleeing warriors.
The day had been a most trying one to the poor yaks. The roads were terrible to travel over, and
they had been forced every step of the way. Jill, the smaller of the two animals, began to show the
effect of the pace, and would not be urged along.
Angel, as usual, was in the trees, wherever they were near the line of travel. While thus going
forward, he was seen to spring down from a tree, and began setting up the most violent chatter.
George knew what that meant. “What is it, Angel? Which way?”
He selected a tree, and Angel was up alongside and looked to the north. Far in the distance
could be seen a large body of warriors coming down rapidly.
Muro and Sutoto sprang to the tree, but not before George cried out: “A big party is coming in
from the north.”
Sutoto looked at Muro, and then, addressing John, said:
“The Tuolos are coming.”
This information was almost overwhelming. They were about to be crushed between three of
the bitterest and most vindictive foes on the island. It could not be helped. They must now fight to
the last extremity, as the Professor had said.
“Our situation here will depend, largely, on the actions of the warriors who are pursuing the
Illyas and Kurabus. If they follow up vigorously, it will surely involve us.” John’s conclusions were
acquiesced in by Muro.
“How far are we from the river?” asked John.
Sutoto answered: “Probably a half hour,” which he indicated by the sun.
“Turn in that direction at once.”
The boys now saw where their salvation lay; but Muro and Sutoto at once protested. Chump
now spoke: “You do not know what a wonderful way they have to cross streams. These pieces
(pointing to the fort sections) are used to float the wagon across.”
“But what will they do with the curees (yaks)?”
“The curees pull them over.”
There was no further protest. A half hour would not be long, and within ten minutes after they
reached the river bank the floats could be ready, and from that vantage point they would be able to
defy the island.
 Muro kept his position in the wagon top and soon called out to John:
“They are driving the Kurabus toward the river. We had better stop.”
“If that is the case the fort should be erected,” answered John.
“By all means.”
“Harry, drive the wagon up to the large tree at the elevation to the right; and get ready, boys, to
unload and place the sections in position.”
Within five minutes the wagon was turned around and one end abutted the tree. This was a small
pine, with the branches not far from the ground, and the lower limbs could be easily reached by
those in the wagon top.
The fort sections were installed within ten minutes thereafter, and the guns and ammunition
arranged in the order agreed on. The victorious bands were having things their own way. The Illyas
were next to the river, and the Kurabus were farther inland.
The pursuing Brabos were following direct after the Kurabus, and the other tribe, which had not
yet been made out, were on the trail of the Illyas, and the latter were, therefore, moving directly
toward the wagon.
John and Muro were up in the tree, watching the movements.
The former called down: “At the rate they are now coming forward, they will reach us in less
than a half hour.”
“What shall we do when they pass us?” asked Harry.
“We shall certainly give them a salute,” was his response.
Muro called John’s attention to an object not far to the northwest. Both watched it intently.
There was no doubt a savage there coming up stealthily.
With an expression John did not understand, Muro glided down the tree and leaped over the end
of the wagon, and sprang out into the brush.
John saw him go forward unhesitatingly to the place of concealment, and finally the object
appeared, and rushed toward Muro.
He saw them embrace, and both came forward, and long before they came to the wagon, John
recognized Uraso.
“Uraso is here,” cried John, and the boys leaped up to the top of the fort, and each one tried to
be the first to grasp him by the hand and welcome him.
He had never seen Blakely before, but nevertheless Blakely gave him a welcome, and when his
eyes lighted on Sutoto, he could not wait to get over the barrier to extend a welcome to him.
“How did you happen to come here?”
“I escaped from the Illyas, and found the Professor at the head of the Berees, and he is below
here following up the fighters.”
“My people are helping the Brabos.”
“Then they are the ones nearest the river?”
Uraso looked to the south, and his face lighted up as he said: “They are the Osagas,” and he felt
proud to know that his people were in the coalition against the two tribes.
 The Battle Ground at the Wagon.
Fig. 17.

John pointed to the north: “Do you see that tribe coming?”
“Yes; and they are the Tuolos.”
“How did you know they were coming?”
“I found one of the Brabos that you wounded three days ago.”
“Did he tell you where we were?”
“Yes; without him, I should have returned to the Professor last night.”
“Where is the Professor now?”
“He is probably near the Brabos, or southeast of the position now occupied by the Osagas.”
“Why did you leave the Professor?”
“I came with Ralsea to find the Osagas, but when we came up, found that the Kurabus were
coming from the north and had joined the Illyas, so that my route to the Osagas was cut off.”
“Why did the Professor try to follow the Osagas?”
“Because he was told at the Osaga village that they had gone to capture the wagon.”
 “Why should the Osagas be at enmity with us?”
“They understood I had been killed by the white men.”
“Do you know where my people are?” asked Muro.
“They are with the Professor,” and when Muro learned this he danced around in delight.
The boys manifested every evidence of joy at this good news. The Professor was not only safe,
but with the Berees and Saboros, and coming forward as rapidly as possible. This was glorious,
indeed.
The first indications the Professor had that they were near the contending forces was during the
afternoon, when they passed over the scene of the battle ground the day before. Here were bows and
arrows, articles of clothing, broken spears, and here and there articles of food scattered about in
confusion.
This is where the Kurabus made the first stand. The Osagas were not in sight, and, indeed, the
Brabos were not yet in evidence. Before six o’clock Ralsea came in and at once sought out the
Professor. “I have good news for you,” were his first words.
“Have you seen my people?” asked the Professor in excitement.
“No; but Uraso has gone to them.”
“Where are they now?”
“Somewhere north of the Kurabus and Illyas.”
“Then they must be in their line of retreat.”
“Yes.”
“Have you seen any signs of the Tuolos?”
“Yes, they are coming down direct to the position held by your people.”
“Is there anything we can do to assist them?”
“That is why I came to tell you, while Uraso went to them.”
“Can we go part of the way to-night?”
“Yes; I can lead the way.”
“Then send a messenger to the Osagas at once and inform them that you are here to assist them
and that Uraso is here, and all are opposed to the Kurabus, the Illyas and the Tuolos.”
“I can get a good runner for that purpose.”
“Also tell the runner to inform the Osagas that the Tuolos are on the way from the north to aid
their enemies.”
“How did you learn that the Tuolos have joined with the others?”
“Uraso and myself found one of the Brabos who had been wounded by your friends, and he
informed us of this.”
“Why are the Brabos at war with the Kurabus?”
“Because on their last raid against the Berees, and while their warriors were absent, they
captured and destroyed one of their principal villages.”
The Professor was further informed that at no time had the Brabos and the Saboros been at war
with each other, and he thus learned sufficient to know that the meeting with the Brabos could be
easily arranged so as to leave no resentment on their part.
This feature of the case was one which gave the Professor a great deal of concern. He desired to
weld together the tribes in bonds of unity, and it was highly important that they should come up with
the Osagas first, because, as the latter were allies, they could more forcibly impress on the Brabos
the desirability of cementing a lasting peace.
 Another thing of importance, which he had learned from the Chief Suros of the Berees, was the
unstable character of the Brabos, and the more or less vindictiveness which was one of their traits.
The Professor hoped that they might be able to reach the field of battle before the fight was
decided, because, now that the wagon and its occupants were safe, as they had reason to believe, he
was anxious to prevent the Osagas and Brabos from wreaking terrible vengeance on the two
vanquished tribes. It would be a poor beginning for the work of pacification.
Camp had to be made again that day without reaching the Osagas. Runners were again sent out
to try and find the most direct trail, and none of them returned before morning, and the two columns
were under way as soon as it was light enough to see.
Soon the first runner came in with the stirring news that the Brabos were engaged with a party
of Kurabus, which had tried to break through to the east, and by ten o’clock the Professor was
startled by the sound of the guns at the fort.
The firing came from a direction which was almost due north, and turning to Ralsea, said: “I
supposed they were way to the left of that position.”
“No; the river makes quite a turn at the point where they are, and from the information we
received from the wounded Brabo, the wagon must be somewhere near the bend, which projects out
to the east.”
“Then to reach the Osagas we must go still farther west?”
“Yes.”
The firing was a rapid one, and showed that they must be attacked with vigor.
Soon the firing ceased, and the Professor breathed freer, and the column pushed forward directly
to the river.
The runner came in with news that the Osagas were within two hours’ march, and renewed
energy was put into the marching force.
Uraso danced about the boys and expressed his delight at the opportunity to help them. He told
them about the Professor, and of the two boys, but he did not know their names. He also told about
several other boys who were held by the Illyas, and of a white man.
This latter information interested John and Blakely, of course. All of them ached for an
opportunity to go to the Illyas’ country and effect their release.
“That is the first thing which will be done after this little affair here is settled,” exclaimed John,
with some energy.
“The Tuolos are close at hand,” cried out George. The latter came down the tree in a hurry now.
“Where are the Kurabus?”
“Some of them are trying to break across the country to the east.”
“Let us keep the same order we did four days ago.”
Uraso needed no instructions, but he had never yet fired one of the guns, and he really felt
ashamed when he saw Muro, Chump and Sutoto with guns.
John saw the situation at once, and placed him by the side of Muro, who told him hurriedly what
to do. The character of the attack on the part of the Tuolos was sufficient to inform the occupants of
the wagon that they knew who were before them. It is singular, however, that neither the Kurabus
nor the Illyas knew of it being in that spot.
This intimate knowledge of the situation was brought about by the Tuolos’ perfect system of
scouting the country, and this ignorance on the part of the two fighting tribes could be excused only
on the ground that they were making the fight of their lives, and had enough to do to keep out of the
way of the advancing Brabos and Osagas.
 As the Tuolos rushed to the wagon all the garrison were collected together at that side, and
when they had come within less than a hundred and fifty feet, John ordered the first volley.
“Cease firing and reload,” he ordered.
The shot at this distance was a frightful one to the attacking party; but they considered for a
moment only, and then, slightly wavering, were again urged forward by the chief.
“Take the reserve guns.” They had no time to reload before the rush was again on.
This second shot produced the indecision necessary to finish the reloading of the guns.
“Fire the moment you reload, and make every shot count,” was the next injunction.
“The Kurabus are coming.” Ralph saw the movement.
“The noise of the volleys is bringing them up, and we are going to be in for it now,” exclaimed
Blakely. “Well, let us give the best we have.”
“This will be the best notice we can give to the Professor,” replied John, who was now on all
sides of the wagon, and inspecting the guns and ammunition.
“Reserve your fire, and wait until you can get absolutely sure marks. From this time on we will
fire as fast as we can reload.”
At no time in the history of their struggles did they face such a critical period. To the north were
the Tuolos, to the southwest the Illyas, and to the south the Kurabus.
It is true that the two latter tribes were being pursued by the Brabos and Osagas; but the coming
up of their allies, the Tuolos from the north, put quite another phase to the situation.
John turned to Uraso: “Did the Professor know that the Tuolos were coming to the assistance of
their allies?”
“Yes; if Ralsea has been able to reach him.”
“Is it likely the Osagas and the Brabos know this?”
“I do not know.”
There was no further time for talk now. The Tuolos saw the Kurabus, who were the first to come
up, and in the distance, hard pressed, were the Illyas.
The Osagas and the Brabos must have heard the firing of the guns. To them it added another
exciting element to the situation. They now had an opportunity to capture the whites as well.
They had no news of the arrival of the Tuolos.
The three tribes waited until all were in position, and then with spears rushed forward to
 “Each one trying to be the first to grasp Uraso by the
hand, and welcome him”
[See p. 222]

overwhelm the little fort and its occupants by the force of numbers.
“Boys, never surrender!” cried out John, and they stood together and grimly awaited the
oncoming hosts.
The Professor and the two tribes came up to the Brabos, and the surprise on their part was
sufficient to cause a temporary stampede. Ralsea rushed forward to the chief, and held up his hands,
but seeing the Professor and the two boys, could not understand this attitude of the chief.
 “We are your friends. These white people are your friends. The Saboros are all here and have
come to aid you. Where are the Osagas?”
“To our left. They are coming up.”
Just then the second attack was made on the wagon by the combined forces of Illyas, Kurabus
and Tuolos.
Not far ahead, and to their left, were the Osagas, coming up in great excitement at the firing of
the shots. The messenger from the Professor had reached them. At first the Brabos were inclined to
be resentful, but as the Osagas came up they shouted:
“The Tuolos, the Tuolos,” and then they knew that unless they secured aid they might be
defeated and driven back.
The Professor did not wait to argue the question, and, turning to Ralsea, shouted: “Order the
men forward; go to the left and aim straight for the wagon.”
The Saboros now sprang directly to the front, passing between the Osagas and the Brabos, and
when the three forces, which had attacked the wagon, were enveloping the brave defenders, the
Professor and the two boys, Will and Jim, rushed up to the fort and the latter screamed: “Hurrah!
Hurrah!”
The Sebrees, with the Professor, followed, and surrounded the wagon. The boys within sprang
to the top of the fort the moment the shouts of Jim and Will rang out. John had seen the head of the
Saboros and checked the firing.
The sudden appearance of the Sebrees and the Osagas was noticed by the Tuolos before the
Illyas knew what was happening, and the grand retreat began. John and Muro and Sutoto leaped
from the fort.
“After them,” shrieked John, and the Sebrees and Osagas were too much in earnest now to need
the command. Uraso embraced the ones in his tribe that were nearest, and they followed him after
the fleeing warriors.
A number of the Kurabus were too near to escape from the enveloping column, and were
captured. Less of the Illyas were taken, but the Tuolos had time to make their escape. It was late that
night when all the warriors returned.
The Saboros, Osagas, Berees and Brabos surrounded the wagon, and it was a sight. The sides
were full of spears and arrows, but not a single shot had gone through, nor was one of the defenders
wounded.
They came out, and after embracing each other with tears of joy, they all went around to the
warriors and shook hands with them, and the first thing that the Professor did was to bring up the
Brabo chief and rubbed his nose in token of friendship, and this was followed up by a similar sign
on the part of the others.
But they all knew that the present victory did not mean the submission of all on the island. The
three most powerful tribes were their enemies, and the following volume, “The Conquest of the
Savages,” will tell of the thrilling exploits of the allied people under the wise guidance of the
Professor, and those who were with him.