BIOL207

General Ecology
Terrestrial Biomes
• Plant growth and terrestrial biomes
• Categories of terrestrial biomes
Aquatic Biomes
• Streams and rivers
• Ponds and lakes
• Wetlands
• Salt marshes/estuaries
• Mangrove swamps
• Intertidal zones
• Open ocean
 Terrestrial Biomes
Climate and Plant growth forms

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 3

Survival strategies and climate

• Successful survival vary with the climate
• In deserts, plants are adapted to scarce water availability
• In North American deserts cacti species (a) have thick wax layer
• In Africa, euphorbs are not related to North American cacti but share similar features (b)

• These plants descended from different ancestors yet they look similar
• They evolved under similar selective forces (including climate)
• This process is called convergent evolution

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 4

Climate and Plant growth form

• Convergent evolution
• Convergent evolution explains the association between organisms forms and the environment
• The organisms that have similar adaptations are found regrouped in geographical regions = BIOMES
• Convergent evolution categorizes terrestrial ecosystems by dominant plant forms
• These dominant forms are associated with distinct climatic patterns: seasonal TºC and precipitation regimes
• Biome concept
• It provides reference points for comparing ecological processes around the globe
• It enables ecologists to understand the structure and function of ecological systems
• Exceptions occur in this classification system
• Boundaries between biomes are not clear
• Not all plant forms correspond to climate in the same way
• Plant communities reflect other factors: topography, soil, fire, herbivory, etc.
• The adopted classification recognizes 9 major terrestrial biomes
• Most places on Earth are located in a triangular area with corners representing
• Warm-moist
• Warm-dry
• Cool-dry
• Cold regions with high precipitation are rare because of low water vapor

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 5

Climate and Plant growth form

• Biome concept
• Cold biomes have annual T°C < 5ºC
• Boreal
• Tundra
• Temperate biomes have annual 5°C < T°C < 20°C
• Temperate rainforest
• Temperate seasonal forest
• Woodland / Shrubland
• Temperate grassland/cold deserts
• Tropical biomes have annual T°C > 20°C
• Tropical forest
• Tropical seasonal forest/savanna
• Subtropical desert

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 6

Climate and Plant growth form

• Biomes geographical “hypothetical” distribution

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 7

Climate Diagrams
• Graphs of average monthly T°C and precipitation on a specific location on Earth

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
TUNDRA

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 9

Tundra
• Geographical distribution
• Arctic Russia, Canada, Scandinavia, and Alaska
• On the edge of Antarctica and nearby Islands
• In alpine Tundra within Temperate latitudes
• North American rocky mountains
• Alps of Europe
• Tibetan Plateau

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 10

Tundra
• Description
• T°C << 5°C
• Precipitation < 600mm/yr
• Plants
• Are growing over permanently frozen soil (permafrost)
• Dominant plants are dwarf - no trees
• Soil
• The permafrost blocks soil drainage
• Thawing reach 50-100cm depth
• The soil becomes saturated in water
• Rich in organic matter = highly acidic
• Poor soil – poor in nutrients

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
BOREAL (Taiga)

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 12

Boreal Forests
• Geographical distribution
• It expands below the Tundra belt at high elevations
• Only present in the northern hemisphere
• About 60°N in Europe and Asia
• About 50°N in North America

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 13

Boreal Forests
• Description
• T°C < 5°C (sometimes reaching - 60°C)
• 40mm < Precipitation < 1000mm per year
• Short growing season (< 100 days) and cold winters
• Low evaporation causes moisture retention in the soil
• Plant form:
• Populated by dense evergreen needle-leaved trees
• Called “Taiga” forests (10 to 20m tall trees)
• Species: spruces and firs ; frost-tolerant ; low diversity
• Soil form:
• Low nutrients and high acidity
• Strongly podsolized
• High reservoir of organic Carbon

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 15

Temperate Rainforests
• Geographical distribution
• Relatively closer to the equator
• Extensive near the pacific coast
• In northwestern North America (trees may grow to over 100m height)
• South of Chile, New Zealand, and Tasmania

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 16

Temperate Rainforests
• Description
• Mild T°C and abundant precipitation
• Plants
• Dominated by evergreen forests
• Coastal redwood and Douglas-fir (Sequoia)
• Fossil record shows a larger dispersion of these trees
• They occupied vast surfaces
• They were extensive about 70 m.y.a.

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
TEMPERATE SEASONAL FORESTS

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 18

Temperate Seasonal Forests

• Geographical distribution
• North America (30°N to 45°N) – East of the USA and South East Canada
• Europe (40°N to 60°N)
• Eastern Asia (30°N to 50°N)
• Not common in the Southern Hemisphere

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 19

Temperate Seasonal Forests

• Description
• Moderate T°C and Precipitation conditions
• Winter T°C < 0°C = freezing occur
• Growing season between 130 to 180 days
• Precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration
• Soils are podsolized and brown (organics)
• Plants
• Large trees with understory shrubs
• Abundant herbs n the forest floor
• In North America
• Maple
• Beech
• Oak

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 20

Temperate Seasonal Forests

• Description
• In warmer and drier parts of this biome
• Soils are mainly sandy and nutrient poor
• Forests are dominated by needle-leaved plants: Pines
• They resist nutrient shortage
• They tolerate desiccation as well
• Fires are more frequent in this section of the biome
• Most species are adapted to resist fire damage

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
WOODLAND / SHRUBLAND

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 22

Woodland / Shrubland
• Geographical distribution
• Mostly surrounding the Mediterranean sea
• This is why it is called Mediterranean climate
• Typically found at 30° to 40°
• South Europe, North Africa, South California, East Mediterranean
• Central Chile, Cape region of South Africa

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 23

Woodland / Shrubland
• Description
• Hot dry summers and cold wet winters
• 12 months growing season – limited by drought
• Plants
• Drought-tolerant grasses and shrubs
• Evergreen 1 to 3m vegetation
• Sclerophyllous “hard-leaved’ vegetation
• Fires are frequent
• Plants have fire-resistant seeds or root crowns
• They re-sprout after a fire
• Traditional human use of this biome include
• Grazing animals
• Growing deep-rooted crops (like: grapes)

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND / COLD DESERT

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 25

Temperate grassland / cold desert

• Geographical distribution
• North America – it is called “prairies”
• East Europe and central Asia – it is called “steppes”

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 26

Temperate grassland / cold desert

• Description
• Hot dry summers – Cold harsh winter
• Plant growth is restricted by:
• Precipitation in summer
• Cold T°C in winter
• Plants
• Grasses and non-woody flowering plants
• Adapted to frequent fires

• Local variations in North American grasslands

• Eastern edge
• Precipitation is ~ 1,000mm
• Grass grow tall (>200cm)

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 27

Temperate grassland / cold desert

• Description
• Local variations in North American grasslands
• Western edge
• Precipitation is ~500mm
• Grass grow short (<50cm)
• Organic matter decomposes slowly
• Soil is rich in organic matter + nutrients
• Far west of North America
• Precipitation is < 250mm
• Grasslands grade into cold deserts – less fire because of low fuel
• This is close to the rain shadow area of the Nevada
• Grazing is dangerous because of low plant productivity
• The northern part includes : sagebrush
• The southern moist part includes : juniper and pinon trees

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
TROPICAL RAINFOREST

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 29

Tropical Rainforest
• Geographical distribution
• Between 10°N and 10°S of the equator
• Locations include
• Central America and the Amazon basin
• West Africa and East Madagascar
• Southeast Asia
• North coast of Australia

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 30

Tropical Rainforest
• Description
• Warm and rainy throughout the year
• Precipitation > 2,000mm/year
• Never < 1mm/month
• Species diversity is the highest on Earth
• Soils are deeply weathered
• Low in clay and humus – fast surface organic decomposition
• Rich in iron and aluminum (red color)
• Biological productivity increases the fertility of the soil
• Plants
• Multiple layers of lush vegetation
• Continuous canopy of 30 – 40m trees
• Occasional emerging trees reach 55m
• Shorter understory plants also cover the soil
• It includes epiphytes, climbing lianas, and vines
• They grow on other plants

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
TROPICAL SEASONAL FOREST / SAVANNA

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 32

Tropical Seasonal Forest / Savanna

• Geographical distribution
• Located mostly beyond 10°N and 10°S of the equator
• Central America, Atlantic coast of South America
• Sub-Saharan Africa
• Southern Asia
• Northwestern Australia

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 33

Tropical Seasonal Forest / Savanna

• Description
• Warm temperatures and clear wet and dry seasons
• Growth is limited for a part of the year by drought
• Driest months receive ~ 5 mm rain
• Plants
• Deciduous trees (tropical deciduous forest)
• In areas with longer drought
• Vegetation becomes short with thorns – thorn forests
• This protects it from grazers
• Thorn forests eventually grade into savannas
• Open spaces with grasses and few trees (acacia & baobab)
• Excessive grass spread is controlled by grazing and fire
• This preserves the community composition in Savannas

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Terrestrial Biomes
SUBTROPICAL DESETS

BIOL207 - General Ecology Dr Adib Kfoury

Terrestrial Biomes 35

Subtropical Desert
• Geographical distribution
• Develop between 20° to 30° north and south of the equator
• Covers areas impacted the descending air masses of the Hadley cells
• Mojave desert (north America)
• Sahara desert (Africa)
• Arabian desert (Middle East)
• Victoria desert (Australia)

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Terrestrial Biomes 36

Subtropical Desert
• Description
• Hot temperatures, scarce rainfall, sparse vegetation
• Organisms adaptations
• Opportunistic lifestyle
• After summer rain they sprout from dormant seeds
• Grow and reproduce before the soil dry out
• Long-lived sluggish species (cacti)
• Diversity
• Low, mostly nomadic species
• Still higher than in temperate arid lands
• Soils
• Shallow and almost void of organic matter
• pH is around neutrality
• Plants
• Creosote bush dominate in American deserts
• Succulent cacti, shrubs, small trees (mesquite, paloverde) dominate at moister sites

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Aquatic Biomes
STREAMS & RIVERS

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 38

Streams and Rivers

• They are referred to as lotic system because they are characterized by flowing freshwater
• Streams vs Rivers
• Streams are also known as creeks
• Streams are narrow channels of fast flowing freshwater
• Streams merge together to form larger channels: river
• Rivers are wide channels of slow moving freshwater
• Rivers and streams are usually ordered by a riparian zone
• It is a band of terrestrial vegetation
• It is influenced by seasonal flooding and elevated water levels
• Conditions of the stream/river vary greatly between locations
• Upstream at the source of the river
• Downstream where the river ends

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 39

Streams and Rivers

• Upstream features
• T°C is low in upstream location (shading by riparian plants)
• Water flow in riffles (high turbulence)
• Oxygen is high due to mixing with air
• River is poor in nutrients
• A simpler ecosystem is usually formed here
• Allochthonous organic matter input
• Streambed is shaded – limited algal development
• Organic matter coming from fallen leaves (high cellulose)
• Herbivores are shredders and collectors (gatherers and filterers)

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 40

Streams and Rivers

• Downstream features
• T°C is higher in wide downstream locations (reduces O2 solubility)
• Water flow in pool (slow and deep)
• Oxygen is low due to high T°C
• River is richer in nutrients deposited from upstream locations
• A complex ecosystem is usually formed here
• Autochthonous organic matter input
• Streambed is subjected to solar radiation – algae develop inside
• The organic matter provided by algae is used by herbivores
• Herbivores are grazer-scrapers

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Aquatic Biomes
PONDS & LAKES

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 42

Ponds and Lakes

• They are aquatic biomes characterized by non-flowing freshwater (ponds << lakes)
• They enclose some area of deep water with no plants rising above the surface
• Lake compartments
• Littoral zone
• Shallow area around the edge
• Contains rooted vegetation
• Limnetic (pelagic) zone
• Open water zone
• Dominated by floating phytoplankton
• Profundal zone
• Only in deep lakes
• Not illuminated – low in oxygen
• Benthic zone
• The bottom of the lakes and ponds
• Encloses
• Burrowing animals
• Microorganisms
BIOL207 - General Ecology
Aquatic Biomes 43

Ponds and Lakes

• Lake water column subdivision
• When stratified the water column include the following layers
• Epilimnion
• Surface water layer
• Warm
• Well illuminated
• Rich in oxygen
• Thermocline
• Layer of fast change in water T°C
• Also oxygen and light drops quickly here
• Hypolimnion
• Characterized by cold water
• Poor in oxygen
• Contains sunken dead organic matter

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 44

Ponds and Lakes

• Seasonal water circulation in lakes (case of Temperate lakes)

Spring Fall
overturn overturn

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Aquatic Biomes
FRESHWATER WETLANDS

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 46

Freshwater Wetlands
• They are aquatic biomes that contain standing freshwater or soils saturated with freshwater
• They are shallow enough to have emergent vegetation
• Most wetland plants can tolerate low oxygen concentrations in the soil
• These are adapted to anoxic conditions and grow nowhere else
• Examples:
• Swamps with emergent trees
• Marshes with emergent non-woody vegetation
• Bogs (acidic water) with sphagnum mosses
• Ecological importance
• Habitat for a variety of animals
• Waterfowl
• Larvae of numerous insects and fish
• The sediment is important
• Immobilize possible toxins/pollutants
• Natural water purification system

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Aquatic Biomes
SALT MARSHES / ESTUARIES

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 48

Salt Marshes / Estuaries

• Saltwater containing non-woody emergent vegetation
• Found on coastal areas of continents in temperate climates
• Often located within estuaries (at the mouth of rivers)
• Importance of Estuaries
• Contain an abundant supply of nutrients and sediments carried by rivers
• They are special
• They have a mix between fresh and saltwater
• There is a rapid exchange of nutrients between sediments and water
• Very high biological productivity
• Very high sediment deposition + tidal activity creates:
• Tidal marshes in temperate climates (most productive habitats on Earth)
• Mangrove wetlands in the tropics
• Habitat for numerous species
• Oysters
• Crabs
• Fish…etc.

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Aquatic Biomes
MANGROVE SWAMPS

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 50

Mangrove Swamps
• Salt water environment in tropical and subtropical coasts
• Contains salt-tolerant trees with roots submerged in water
• Salt tolerance is a key adaptation of trees that live in mangrove swamps
• The trees are important:
• They prevent erosion from incoming waves
• They provide critical habitat to many species of fish and shellfish

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 Aquatic Biomes
OCEAN
Intertidal zone
Coral reef
Open ocean

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 52

Ocean – Intertidal Zone

• Located within a narrow band between high and low tide levels
• This zone exhibit fluctuating T°C and salt concentrations
• Adaptations of species are needed to tolerate harsh conditions
• Species adapted to this biome include:
• Crabs
• Barnacles
• Sponges
• Mussels
• Algae
• Limpets
• Periwinkles

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 53

Ocean – Coral reef

• They are biomes of warm shallow water (>20°C year round)
• They often surrounds volcanic islands
• They are fed by nutrients eroding from the rich soil and upwelling currents
• They include corals
• Tiny animals (hydra and cnidarians) living in mutualism with algae
• One coral:
• Is a hollow tube that excrete a hard exoskeleton of CaCO3
• It has tentacles to sweep detritus and plankton into the tube
• They produce CO2 which is used for photosynthesis by their symbiotic algae
• The reef provides hiding and reproduction sites for species
• They are the most diverse habitat on Earth
• Climate change – Global warming is causing coral bleaching
• The high temperatures are cause the algae to be expelled
• Once outside the coral – it turns white
• It is not dead but it is more vulnerable and under high stress

BIOL207 - General Ecology

Aquatic Biomes 54

Ocean – Open Ocean

• It covers the largest surface of Earth
• Beneath this surface there is a complex realm
• It encloses a variety of conditions:
• T°C, salinity, and pressure
• Light and currents
• It is divided into:
• Neritic zone
• To ~200m depth
• Edge of the continental shelf
• High productivity zone
• Oceanic zone
• Very deep nutrient poor zone
• Limited productivity
• Photic zone (illuminated surface)
• Aphotic zone (dark zone)

BIOL207 - General Ecology

 END
BIOL207 - General Ecology