PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SOAP FROM

LOCAL/CAUSTIC POTASH

1
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The metal salts of the high molecular weight organics acids that occurs in

fats as esters are called “soap” soaps are alkali salts of a fatty acid and or

are detergents derived from naturally occurring oils, fats and waxed which

in turns are available from vegetable sources.

Scientifically, soaps can be defined as a chemical compound or mixture of

chemical compound that resulting from the interaction of fatty glyceride

with a metal radical or organic base. The metal generally concerned with

soap production are sodium (Na) and potassium (k), which produces

water-soluble soap.

Soap belong to a class of the products that have the ability for cleaning

materials/substances. It obtains the its useful cleaning characteristic from

the combination of a long chaim hydrocarbon, which has good solvent

action on others hydeocarbon, and its high water solubility.

Soft soap such as toilet soap, uses higher quality fat with water content

reduced to about 10% or less. This soap is could and flaked, and passed

through a hot air drying oven to reduce the water content prior to milling.

2
Trace constituents are metered at the milling stage, since the soap is dried

and higher pressure are required and subsequent plodding, the properties

of the soft soap produced depends mainly on the alkali (potassium) and

the fat/oil need. Due to this properties, it can be dissolved in water easily

with high formability which makes it easy for washing soft soaps also

contain additives such s perfumes, dyes, and antiseptic like sodium

Tripoliphosphate (STPP).

The main difficulty with soaps is that in hard water which typically

contains calcium (ca) ions, the soap propitiates as an insoluble calcium

salt and this creates various problems particularly in laundering cloths.

Soap contains a basic cleaning agent called a “surfactants or surface

active agent”. The surface active agents consist of molecules that attach

themselves to the dirt particles. The molecules pull these dirt particles out

of the materials and hold them in the wash water until they are rinsed

away.

3
Successful improvement in the production of soap industries have made it

possible for the soap to receive public patronage as a result of certain

materials that were added, vix alky/benzene sulphanate (ABS), which

originated from the petrochemicals such as prophlene and benzene. This

involves alkylatin of benzene with propylene and consequent suphonation

of the resultant alky/benzene with sulphuric acid.

The alky/benzene sulphnates suffers from a major disadvantage; micro

organism cannot degrade them, also the disposal of the waste products of

soap causes a serious environmental pollution. As a result of this, in era

alky/benzene sulphonate were developed which are more easily degraded

by micro-organism.

Soap being derived from naturally substances were developed long before

the mechanism of the detergent. There are a number of soaps prepared for

special uses. Scouring soaps contain sand, pumice or similar material for

abrasive action. Medicated soaps and soaps that smell like sheep dip

contain antiseptics, and tailow is the must important fat for the

4
production of soap, although coconut, babassu and palm-kernel oils are

used in conjunction with tallow.

The term soap is broad enough to include the metal salts of carboxylic

acids which are not used for cleaning purposes.

Those include the aluminum , calcium and aithium soaps used in greases,

aluminum soaps used in cosmetics and zinc soaps used in antiseptic

powers. Other metal soaps are used for water proofing, as derivers in

paints, to kill fungi and as mordents.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this project are:

a. to produce soft soap either from the local potash (Ngu) or from the

laboratory grade.

b. To compare the characteristic of the soft soap produced with the

characteristics of the either soaps produced from different sources.

c. To provide a means of producing soft soaps in the most economic

way for the commercial grade.

1.3 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SOAP

5
Soap have many household and industrial beneficial uses. People use

these products to wash their dishes and laundry to scrub flours, to clean

wall and windows and to do may other household job.

Industrially, soaps and detergents can be used as cleaners, lubricants,

softeners and polishers. For instance tire manufactures apply soap to hot

tire to prevent them foom sticking to the moulds used in vulcanizing or

hardening rubber. However, therefore, soaps can be used to polish jewelry

and to soften leather for shoes and purses.

1.4 SCOPE

The scope of this project work is limited to the production and

characterization of the soft soap from the caustic potash for commercial

grade.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

6
Soap is one of the oldest detergents that survived the test

of time. It has been used at least since biblical times. The invention of

soap is credited to the phonecician about 600BC.

In Rome, the literature shows that soap was discovered on “ Rome’s sapo

Hill 2500 years ago. The grease from sacrificial animals, having mixed

with ashes containing the alkali potassium trioxocarbonate IV (K 2 CO3)

van down to the tiber river where Roman laundresses found that using the

slippery liquid makes cloths clean with less effort.

Soap was mentioned by pling the elder in his historical naturalism (77AD)

as hair dye and salve used by the gauld mad from the goat fat and beech

ashes. A soap factory about 2000years old was unearthed at pompeil.

However, soap for cleaning purpose was not mentioned until Galen, a

Greek physician of Asia minor spoke of it in second century. The

civilized would first used soap for medical purpose. The both-loving

Romans spread the knowledge of soap-making along with their

civilization. during the middle age, it became an import industry in many

European nations.

7
The thrifty housewives of colonial America made their own soap. They

make sue of dye to pouring warm water through wood ashes and boiled

with waster fats to obtain a crude soft soap that was harsh and smelly.

Soap making was an established craft in Europe by the seventh (7 th)

century. Soap makers guild guarded their trade secret closely. Vegetable

and animal oils were used with ashes of plant along with fragrance.

Gradually, more varieties of soap became available for shaving and

shampooing, as well as bathing and laundering.

Italy, Spain and France were early centers of soap manufacturing due to

their ready supply or local abundance of olive oil and crude soda deposits.

The English began making soap during the 12 th century, and the soap

business was go good that in 1622, king James 1, granted a monopoly to a

soap makers for &100,000 a year. Well into the 19 th century, soap was

heavily taxed as a luxury item in several countries, and when high tax was

removed, soap became available to ordinary people and cleanliness

standards improved.

8
Commercial soap making in the American colonies began in 1608 with

arrival of several soap makers on the second strip from England to reach

Jamestown, VA. However, for many years, soap making stayed

essentially a household chores.

Eventually, professional soap makers began regularly collecting waste

fats from households in exchange for some soap.

According to the history, Paris was said to have a “soap making street”

and just before the French revolution, a French chemist named Nichlas

lablanc helped the soap industry greatly by inventing a way to make

sodium trioxocarbonate IV (Na) cheaply from common salt in 1791. soda

ash is the alkali obtained from the ashes that combiners with fat to form

soap. The lablanc process yielded quantities of good qualities,

inexpensive soda ash. The later discovery of a method for recovering

glycerine in soap making helped the industry off setting the expenses of

using oil of edible vegetables.

9
The science of modern soap making was born some 20years later. With

the discovery by Michael Eugene chevereui, another French chemist of

the chemical nature and relationship of fats, glycerine and fatty acids. His

studies established the basis for both fat and soap chemistry.

Moreso, important to the advancement of soap technology was the mid-

18005 invention by the Belgian chemist, Earnest slays of the ammonia

(NH3) process which also used common table salt called sodium chloride

(NaCl), to make soda ash. Solvays process further reduced the cost of

obtaining this alkali and increased both the quality and quantity of the

soda ash available for manufacturing soap.

These scientific discoveries together with the development of the power to

operate factories made soap making one of the America’s fastest-growing

industries by 1850. at the same time, it broad availability changed soap

from a luxury item to an everyday necessity. With this widespread use

came the development of milder soap for bathing and soap use in the

washing machines that were available to the consumers by the turn of the

century.

10
In Nigeria today, soap making regarded as a precolonial exercise is mostly

done by women.

They (the women) produced soap called “Native soap” which appears

black with unpleasant odour and are mainly used for washing of

household utensils, curing or preventing skin diseases and for thing.

However, with the introduction of the modern method of soap production,

nature soap was almost displaced in civilized state in Nigeria especially in

the cities and big towns of Lagos and Port Harcourt states.

2.2 CHEMISTRY OF SOAP

Soap making is a chemical process. Soap consists of sodium (Na) and

potassium (k) salts of the fatty acids from which fats and oils are derived.

The metal salts (Nalk salts) of the high molecular weight organic acids

that occur in fats as esters are called “ soaps”. The sodium salts are the

most widely used soaps because they are less expensive and more general

useful.

11
Soap is produced by a continuous process where in crude fats/oils are

hydrolyzed by water (H20) under pressure of about 700psig at a

temperature of 2000c.

CH2-0-C110-C17H35

1 011

CH-0-C-C17H35

CH2-0-C110-C17H35 +3H20 CH2OH +3C17H35CN-OH

CH-0-C011-C17H35 CHOH

CH2-0-C011-C17H35 CH2OH

Glyceryl stearate (oil) + water Glycerine + stearic acid

The acid obtain (ie stearic acid) by this process are neutralized by the

caustic potash (potassium hydoxide) or caustic soda solution. Then the

soap is precipitated by the addition of salt. The crude soap contains

glycerine and salt as impurities, and there are removed by boiling the

mixture with sufficient water to form homogeneous (liquid from which

the soap is reprecipitated by the addition of more salt.

12
In summary, soap is being prepared using saponifiantion of oil mixture of

oil and fat with an hydrated alkali. The hydrated alkali use could other be

sodium hdroxide (Na0H). in the saponification process, soap is only the by

product but glycerine or glycerol is parth of them. The saponification of

soap depends solely on some factors which include

i. concentration of the hydrated potassium and

ii. the type of ester (either fats or oil) used.

The saponification of oil with an hydrated alkali reaction is shown below

C17H35c00-CH2

C17H35Coo-CH +3KoH +3c17H35 C00k +CH2-OH

C17H35coo-CH2 (caustic potash) (soap) CH2-OH

(011) CH2-OH

or Glyerol)

C17H35CooH KOH

(stearic acid) (caustic C17H35CooK +H2O

potash) soap

(potassium stearic) (water)

13
2.3 EXTRACTION OF ALKALI FROM NGU

Alkali is a general term used for compounds which have the properties of

neutralizing acids, have bitter tastes, possesses soap feeling and is applied

more specifically to the highly soluble hydrates of sodium (N a) and

potassium) (K)

The caustic alkali is being extracted from the wood ash called “Ngu” Ngu

is a persistent of the inflorescene of the oil palm free- Elasi Guineeness

Ngu is wood ash obtained from the castor oil called Racimus communis,

Ugba called pentaciethra-macrophylla, raffia palm tree called sudanica,

cocoanut tree called cocos mucifera and Akpu called ceiba pentandra.

Other sources of Ngu are plantain peelings, cocoa pods, Akanwu which is

mined as potash.

Ngu is “ Igbo language, “ and it colour is grey apart from the use of Ngu

for soap production, however, it is used as a tenderizer in cooking and in

forming oil emulsions in preparing taproka, ugba and other dishes, and

finally in preservatives and in preparations of the tobacco snuff.

14
The soap manufactured using caustic alkali or potash extracted from the

wood ash possess low qualities owing to the following factors and

properties and they are as follows.

1. High carbon contents due to incomplete combustion of Ngu,

impact dirty, dark brown, grey and black colours on the soap

and often leaves stains on cloths when used in washing.

2. exudes foul soapy odour or smell which may be due to organic

and inorganic impurities present in the soap, and which

decomposed by atmospheric oxidations since odour is a function

of the degree of deterioration.

3. It is usually highly corrosive and due to this, it can be jeodised

to the materials or human-body or causing wearing out of

human’s hand.

4. it is often coarse and hardly coherent

5. it has a poor shelf-like due to the rapid deterioration owing to

the atmospheric oxidation of the oxidasable organic matter

present in the soap.

15
The earliest source of alkali for soap making as salt or mentioned above,

is the wood ash while the oils/fats is obtained from the animals or

vegetable oils.

All over the worlds, wood ash constituted the most widely and popularly

used source of alkali for soap manufacture before the other methods of

alkali production were developed. In most localities, the sources of caustic

alkali for soap making include, ash of persistent perianth of the female

inflorescence of the oil palm tree (Eleasio-guineeness) called Ngu,

plantain peelings and cocoa pods.

Beside that, other methods include lablanc, the solvay and electrolytic

process. Brief description of these processes are as follow.

a. LEBLANC PROCESS

16
this process as alkali source involves the decomposition of sodium

chloride (Nacl) by sulphuric acid in which sodium sulphate and

hydrochloric acids are product.

The equation/reaction is shown below.

2Nacl+H2S04 Na2S04+2HCI

the sodium sulphate (Na2s04) is fluxed with calcium carbonate (CaCo 3)

and coal and a mixture is thus obtained from which sodium

trioxocarbonate (iv) can be extracted by exhausting it in water.

NaS04 +CaC032C Nz2Co3+CaS+2CO2

Caustic soda is produced from the carbonate by action of slake lime

process called cavstization

b. ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS.

This is by far the simplest of the production. In this process, potassium or

sodium chloride is electrolysed. The alkali metal immediately reacts with

water it brine in sued so that hydrate is formed in solution such that

hydrogen escupes.

17
The chlorine escapes at the anode and hydrogen gas at the eathode and

caustic alkali remains in solution

Method of producing an alkali from ngu can also be grouped into two

namely

i. Ignition of ngu or open air incineration

ii. Leacting

IGNITION OF NGU

The palm bunches collected were first reduced to ash by burning it in the

presence of air; this is carried out in a furnace at a relatively high

temperature of about 6000c. after the ignition or incineration process, it is

then collected and stored.

Nevertheless, it is very vital to stress that although the method outlines

above is incineration or burning process.

The electric furnace ignition reduces the ash to a desired micro-size, this

thus this method is preferable and often uses.

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The colour of the ash obtained is usually grayish white residue.

LEACHING

This s one of the most crucial and oldest unit operations, chemical

industries. The techniques or methods used varying frequently depending

on the nature of the material and the choice of solvent, degree of agitation

and the temperature.

However, at high temperature and modulate size reduction, leaching

operation is being effectively enhanced higher temperature brings about

higher solubility of the solute in the solvent and higher concentration in

the leached liquor.

Leaching simply means a process of dissolving one or more constituents

of soils mixture by contracting it with a suitable solvent. A separation can

only result if the solvent is able to diffuse into the mass or material and

the resulting solution diffuses out. Leaching of the solids where particles

19
become suspended in the agitated liquid accomplished by a method of

suspension, setting and decaustaion.

Although, since alkali in the burnt “Ngu” is very soluble in water, hot

water is used on ash for leaching out of the alkali during the extraction

processes.

2.4 RAW MATERIAL USED FOR SOAP PRODUCTION

The stating materials required by the soap makers are essentially

i. Additives

ii. fats and other source of fatty acids

iii. alkalis

ADDITIVES

Additives are incorporated into the soap to eliminate undesirable

properties and enhance its useful characteristics.

Additives by regarded as materials that dispersed into the soap that

improve both it physical properties and the esthetic effect. However,

certain criteria for additives selection are to be taken into consideration:

20
- that the additives must be compatible with the material’s for soap

production

- that it must be extractable with the liquid with which the

composition may come into contact during finishing,

- that it must be impair/damage the health of the person involved in

the processing.

The work of the following additives in the soap production are stipulated

below.

SODIUM SILICATE

It is a salt which is in liquid form. It is a shining and blending agent that

plays a prominent role in soap production. It also helps in the washability

of the product.

Sodium silicate acts as filler to increase the density of the soap, and it has

been favoured principally in the formulations which required active or

reserve alkalinity where magnesium or heavy metal ion sequestration is

important.

21
PAC R (STABILITY)

This is a compound which stabilizes the composition to which it is

added by preventing oxidation. As in, it is use to prevent the degradation

of materials due to high processing temperature or to extent their life

stability under the degrading environment condition.

SODIUM TRIPOLI PHOSPHATE (STPP)

STPP, provides an active and reserve alkalinity, both of which are

important in a soap and detergent formulations. It also acts as a dispersant

in laundry washing application.

SODA ASH

Soda ash is a strong soluble compound hydrates into washing soda, which

increase the quality of the product. It acts as a builder when combined

with silicate. It also improves lathering, reduce corrosiveness and or

increase bulk.

22
COLOURANTS

These are ingredients use for colouring the materials eg dyes and pigment

are use to supply brilliant transparent colour. Colourants change the

physical outlook of the product.

MAGNESIUM SULPHATE

Magnesium sulphate is used as a dehydrating agent and it helps to

preserve the colour and glossiness of the soap.

BUTYLATED HYDROXYL THOLUENE

Butylated hydroxyl toluene,a nd antioxidant and potential virus in

activator, which can stop the problem of colour shielding in colour soaps.

PERFUME

This is an aromatic compound, usually it is a volutile liquid prepared to

gave a pleasant scent the perfume used for soap production is added to the

soap mix and must be resistant to alkali.

23
The perfume type that were used for the toilet soap making are type one-

lux and one man show.

FOAMING AGENT

The function of this additive can be deduced from its name, which has to

do with formability. Foaming agent, which added to a soap, it increase the

quality, volume and the stability of the lutter. And often, it also enhances

viscosity and impart a slight conditioned effect to the hair. It exists in both

liquid or solid foam.

The liquid one is recommended for soap making, because it contributes to

the glossy nature of the soap, makes soap retains its visious nature and

also increases the soap formability.

FATTY ACID

Fats and oils are ester compounds for organic acids with alcohols. These

acids are termed fatty acids in glycerine as the alcohol base; and different

fatty acids are contained in the fat/oil in varying proportions based on the

type and source. Some of the sources of fatty acids are coconut, palm

24
kernel, groundnut, seed, tallow and fish oil palm. The palm kernel, and

which hydrolysed by caustic solution.

Raw fats or oils can be splitted using superheated steam to fatty acids and

sweet water which contains glycerol and it (glycerol) remove before

saponification of fatty acid to yield soap.

ALKALIS

These are materials which do not contain fat that are used in soap

production. Caustic potash or soda is the main caustic alkali used in

converting fats into soaps.

2.5. METHODS OF SOAP PRODUCTION

The direct methods of making soaps, is the most modern method. It

involves the continuous hydrolysis f fats/oils to give fatty acid and

glycerol.

The fatty acids are neutralized with caustic potash or soda solution to

yield soap after glycerine must have been removed by addition of brine

(salt in water).

25
Soap can be produced by either batch wise or continuous operation and its

operation choice depends on the demand as a higher production rate.

The two major methods employed in soap production are: cold process

and hot process or saponification.

COLD PROCESS

This is the simplest process usually employed in small scale and small

batch production. Fats/oils of better quality is required then in the hot

process and also a higher concentration is used than in the hot process.

The cold process of soap making is exothermic the mixing of fatty acids

and caustic potash or soda solution generates heat in process of chemical

reaction. The reaction is carried out at room temperature (25 0) and the

mixing reaction is done in stoichiometric proportion.

The complete saponification occurs after stirring the mixture that was

powered into the cooling frame.

26
The soap is allowed to stand in the frame for two or three days, for it to

cool and solidify before cutting and packaging for distribution.

HOT PROCESS

Heating is essential in hot process of soap making. This is achieved either

by steam or direct fire heat exchanger.

Hot saponification or process brings about rapid and homogeneous phase

reaction stimulated by stirring.

The rate of reaction between fatty acids and strong alkali increase as it is

being heated. The kinetics of saponification and interfacial reacting is hot

process is limited by the application of concentrated soda solution,

emulsifying agent and so on.

In hot process, salting is carried out. It involves the use of brine solution

to separate the soap from the glycerol.

27
2.6 CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP

The process of deterging is one of dirt and grease removal from a surface.

The agent used to bring this about are called a soaps and synthetic

detergent “syndets” in industrial jargon.

The cleaning properties of soap is due to the presence of a non-polar

group eg C15H31 and C17H35 which confer solubility in grease, surface and

a polar group eg cooNa which confers solubility in water.

The non polar group are typically organic covalent without having affinity

for or tendency to dissolve in water. Non polar group a times it is being

called “hydrophobic group”.

A polar group called ‘hydrophobic group” will freely dissolve in water to

give tonic species.

Soaps and detergent actions can be simplified by dividing them into two

distinct steps. The first of these, is to bring the soap or detergent solution

into intimate contact with the surface to be cleaned, a process called

28
‘wetting” and the second is to remove the dirt from the surface region by

‘emulsification in the aqueous phase”.

The soap molecules placed themselves at the boundary between the grease

and the water, and this lowers the surface tension of water, as in, it

weakens the boundary of separation and permits the oil droplets to

disperse as an emulsion in the water. As a result of lowering the surface

tension of water, the formation of bubbles occur, dirt is being entrained

and carried away in the foam, or the oil droplets or globules that dispersed

as an emulsion is soluble which can be washed way easily with water.

Both wetting and emulsification mechanisms are dependent on the

chemical structure of the soap and detergent molecules. A typical

structure consists of long hydrocarbon chain terminating in a highly polar

function. This the sodium salt of a long chain carbotylic acid like steraic

acid or the quaternary ammonium salt or a long chain amine like

cetyltrimethy lamine.

29
 Oil
drop water

Soap
molecules

Fig 1.0 an oil water emulsion stabilized by the addition of soaps; which

consists of long chain molecules, one end of which is soluble in oil and

the other is soluble in water.

Fig 2.0 Oil layer

Hydrocarbon tall
in oil

Polar head in
water

Water layer

When soap is dissolved in water, the soap molecules form spherical

clusters called micelles. Each micelles may contains hundreds of

molecules, which are arranged with the hydrocarbon tails, pointing

30
inwards and the ionic heads pointing outwards into the water. Repulsion

between the similarly charged ionic heads keep the micelles apart.

Fig 3.0

Hydrocarbon tail CH3

(CH2)x hydrophoabic tail
Ionic head

So3 mate
hydrophilic heads.

31
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 EXPERIMENTAL

APPARATUS

The following laboratory apparatus were used in soap making

i. Thermometer

ii. Measuring cylinder

iii. Hydrometer

iv. Reactor

v. Crucible

vi. Stove

vii. Calibrated/graduated buckes

viii. Mould

ix. Stirrer

x. Stop water

MATERIAL S

i. 1kg of caustic potash (ROH)

ii. 1kg of soda ash

iii. 1kg of caustic soda

32
 iv. Palm kernel oils (4litres)

v. Water

vi. Cellophane

vii. sellotape

viii. Additives

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE (COLD PROCESS)

About 1kg of caustic potash was dissolved in 2 Litres of clean water. The

solution was stirred very well and allowed to stand for 2 days or 48hours.

Also, 1kg of caustic soda was dissolved in 2 litres of clean water, stirred

and was allowed to stand for a minimum period of 24 hours. About 1kg of

soda ash was also dissolved in 2 litres of water, stirred to ensure complete

dissolution and was further diluted to about 1275 of hydrometer reading.

Moreso, the two caustic solutions were standardized or diluted also 1275

hydrometer readings to avoid weighing the hazardous caustic.

33
Furthermore, sodium tripoliphosphate (STPP) was dissolved in 300ml of

water, and 50g of pac-R called stabilizer was also dissolved in1 litres of

ho water having measured four litres (4litres) of palm kernel oils (pko),

with graduated bucket, it was then poured into the reactor. I litre of

caustic soda, and 2 litres of caustic potash were also poured into the

reactor. Then the mixture was properly stirred followed by the addition of

soda ash.

However, therefore, all were properly stirred after each addition to obtain

homogeneity mixture, 100ml of sodium silicate (NaSio 3) agent sodium

tripophosphate, sulphate (mgs04) were finally added and were properly

mixed after each addition followed by the addition of colourant and

perfume.

The entire/whole mixture was stirred to ensure that every component or

materials in the mixture are thoroughly mixed and becomes stable.

Finally, the mixture was cast into the prepared wooden and metal moulds

and left for some days for the completion of the saponification reaction

34
while the temperature with residence time taken at every five minutes

interval for 10 readings. The moulds were wrapped with cellophane for

easy removal of the soap when it is dried. When this was achieved, the

resulting soap was than cut into tablets with a cutting machine.

3.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

TABLE 2; SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE AND TIME AT

EVERY FIVE MINUTES FOR IN READING

Temperature10c corresponding time interval/mins

35.0 5

35.0 10

35.5 15

35.5 20

36 25

37 30

39.0 35

39.50 40

40.0 45

35
41.0 50

DATA ANALYSIS

Initial temperature reading =320c

Mass/weight of caustic potash =1kg

Mass of caustic soda =1kg

Mass of soda ash =1kg

i. TO DETERMINE THE CONCENTRATION OF CAUSTIC

POTASH

CASUTIC POTASH (KOH)

Mass of KoH =1kg

Molar mass of KoH = 39=16+1

=56kg/mole

recall, molarity (n1 = mass of koH

molar mass of KOH

=1kg

56kg/knwi

=0.018kmol

36
and, concentration =molaity volume

=n

volume of KOH of KOH in H20 =2litres

concentraton =0.018

2litre

=0.009kmle/litre.

After the KOH has been standardized to 1275 mmlyg hydrometer reading

the volume of KOH was found to be 4.1dm3 or 4.1 litrs.

Therefore, concentration =0.018 tonle

4.1litre

=0.0044kmle/litre

ii. TO DETERMINE THE CONCENTRATION OF SODA ASH

SODA ASH NaCo3

Mass of NaCo3 =1kg

Molar mass of Nao3=(23x2) +12+(16x3)

=46+12+48

=106/kmole

37
17=1kg

106/mole

=0.0094kmole

concentration of NaCo3 =n

volume fo Naco3 in water = 2litres

concentration =0.0094 kmole

2litre

=0.0047 kmole/litre

also after it has been standardized to 1275

hydrometer reading, its volume becomes 2.24litre

therefore, concentration =6.0094kmole

2.24litre

=0.0042kmol per litre

iii. TO DETERMINE THE CONCENTRATION OF SODIUM

HYDROXIDE

iv. NaoH

38
Mass of NaoH =1kg

Molar mass of NaOH =23 +16+1.0

=40kg/molar

n=mass

molar mass

=1

40

=6.025kmole

volume of NaoH =2litre

concentration =n

=0.25kmole

=0.0125kmole per litre

it new volume was found to be 4.4litres when it was standardized 1275

hydrometer reading

concentration =0.025kmole

39
 44litre

=0006kmole per litre

iv. TO DETERMINE THE DENSITY OF THE PRODUCTS

volume of materials =0.3+4+1+1+0.1+0.0060+0.006+0.06+2.240+4.1

=12.812litre

to mass of the products =13986g

density =mass

volume

=13986

12.812

=1092g/litre

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 DISCUSSION

Cold process is one of the processes used to manufacture toilet soap in

small-scale and small batch production. Fast/oils of better quality is

required than in the hot process and a higher concentration or strength of

caustic solution is used during the process of soap making, and all

materials used are made into solution for uniform reaction or mixing.

The finishing products should that for a satisfactory soap production

process the fats or oils have to be saponified to produce soap with a low

water content of about 10 or 15 percent during the preparation of the toilet

soap, the caustic potash was fermented for upwards of 48 hours or 2 days

and soda ash for upwards of 24 hours before been reacted with the palm

kernel oil (pko) to obtained not only proper dissolution but also to

allowed the soda ash to acquire water of crystallization to produce a real

or idea toilet soap.

The additions like magnesium sulphate (mgso4) was dissolved in a small

portion of the caustic or soda ash to minise the quantity of the water

41
entering the reaction sodium silicate and carbonate (iv) acid added inhibit

corrosion, bind and shine the toilet soap and improve the lathering and

hardening of the soap products.

The samples produced formed lather very well, while some smell the

caustic and this may be due to an excess caustic and very weak perfume

used. The tested one, also showed that the toilet soaps are harmless to the

skin or the substrate after use. The is, its good quality does not peels the

skin or materials after using for washing or bathing, and this is because

moderate or low strength of caustic solution was used.

The soaps have good shelf-life with complete saponification process or

reaction.

4.2 CONCLUSION

From the experimental result, it was seen from the graph of temperature

versus corresponding time that at a point there was a rise in temperature,

and this indicates that the reaction release heat which, therefore, shows

that the production of the toilet soap under goes an exothermic reaction.

42
Moreso, it can be concluded that the manufacturing process of the toilet

soap as the same as in the laundry soap up to the barring except that

caustic potash which is less corrosive or a mixture of caustic potash and

soda ash may replace the caustic soda (more corrosive), and additives are

withheld a longer drying period was required for toilet soap.

4.3 RECOMMENDATION

For commercialization, it is desired to sue the hot saponification or

process to produce soap because cold process is only application in small

scale or small batch production and its simplicity operation required low

cost of plant and labour.

However, in preparation of the toilet soap titanium dioxide (T1/2), and

additive, may be added prior to the addition of the colourant to prepare the

crude soap for the reception of the colourant. And during the process of

drying, the soap should be allowed to dry well for the complete

saponification that might eliminate oily smell of the soap or excessive

43
unsaponified oil. It is skin after wash due to the high strength of the

caustic solution used, such solution should be mined down before use.

Further research works are recommended when using the cold process for

soap production;

-that the proportion of the palm kernel oil (pko) should twice that of

caustic solution

-that the materials should thoroughly mix to avoid high water content

which after evaporation disfigure the shape of the soap.

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

REFERENCES

1. Palm GR (1976) “chemistry for technologists” pergamon press

limited, heading ton Hill Hall, Oxford pg 266-268

2. Diamond P,S and Deman R. F “Laboratory techniques in chemistry

and biochemistry butter worths London and Boston.

P 431

3. Mc Graw Hill: “Mc Graw Hill Encyclopedia of science and

technology “vol 12 5th edition Mc Graw Hill book company

4. Dazely G.H, “organic chemistry “Cambridge university press pp

217, 275-277

5. New caxton (1968), “ the new caxton encyclopedia” vol 17 the

caxton publishing company

6. steed man W, snadden R.B and Anderson I.H “ chemistry for the

engineering and applied sciences “2nd edition pg 430-433

6. William .M and slowinki E.J “chemical principles with

Qualitative analyis “W.B saunder company/ philadephi/

London/ Tolonto pg 251 and 252.

45
8. Royston M.R actal;” an introduction to modern experimental

organic chemistry Hold Rinehart and Hanston Inc pg 253-255.

46