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Understanding Food 4th ed Principles and Preparation
4th Edition Amy Christine Brown Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Amy Christine Brown
ISBN(s): 9780538497954, 0538497955
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 63.81 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
 The perfect recipe for success.

Make the most of your class experience—and increase your odds of success—
with the Lab Manual for Understanding Food, 4E.
Organized to follow Understanding Food, each chapter of this lab manual reinforces what you learn in the
text. Hands-on experiments and recipes, covering all the major food categories in the book, enhance your
understanding of the concepts covered and can help improve your performance in the course.
▶ Each lab begins with introduction pre-lab questions, followed by an overview of the objectives,
procedures, recipes, and post-lab questions.
▶ NEW! Many photographs throughout help illustrate the lab procedures.
▶ A broad array of recipes encourages culinary creativity and diversity, and introduces you to foods from a
variety of cultures.
▶ Study questions for each chapter help prepare you for your next exam.
▶ NEW! Lab exercises include “Sampling of Yogurt Products,” “Preparation of Applesauce—
Effects of Apple Variety and Cooking Medium,” “Comparison of Types of Pasta,” and
“Chemical Leaveners.”

Table of C
If your book is not bundled with the ontents
Lab Manual, you can purchase it 1. Sensory
Evaluation
online at: CengageBrain.com. 2. Food P
reparation 11. Cerea
3. Meat Basics ls and Flo
12. Starch urs
Recipe for Success 4. Poultry es
Understanding Food 4E 13. Quick
5. Fish an Breads
Core Text + Lab Manual d Shellfish 14. Yeast
ISBN 978-1-111-48535-1 6. Milk Breads
15. Fats a
7. Cheese nd Oils
A la Carte 16. Cakes
Lab Manual standalone 8. Eggs
17. Pastry
ISBN 978-0-538-49795-4 9. Vegeta
bles and F 18. Candy
10. Legum ruits
es 19. Frozen
Desserts
20. Bevera
ges

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Understanding Food
Principles and Preparation
Fourth Edition

Amy Brown
University of Hawaii at Manoa

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights
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Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Understanding Food: Principles and © 2011, 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Preparation, Fourth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10

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 Brief Contents
PART I FOOD SCIENCE COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES—
CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS
AND NUTRITION 16 Cereal Grains and Pastas 345
1 Food Selection 1 17 Flours and Flour Mixtures 367
2 Food Evaluation 23 18 Starches and Sauces 391
3 Chemistry of Food Composition 31 19 Quick Breads 407
20 Yeast Breads 418

PART II FOOD SERVICE

DESSERTS—REFINED
4 Food Safety 64 CARBOHYDRATES & FAT
5 Food Preparation Basics 99 21 Sweeteners 435
6 Meal Management 120 22 Fats and Oils 453
23 Cakes and Cookies 478
24 Pastries and Pies 498
PART III FOODS
25 Candy 518
PROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY, FISH,
26 Frozen Desserts 534
DAIRY, & EGGS
7 Meat 140
WATER—BEVERAGES
8 Poultry 172
27 Beverages 549
9 Fish and Shellfish 188
10 Milk 210
11 Cheese 232 PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY
12 Eggs 249 28 Food Preservation 574
29 Government Food Regulations 591
PHYTOCHEMICALS—VEGETABLES,
30 Careers in Food and Nutrition 609
FRUITS, SOUPS, & SALADS
13 Vegetables and Legumes 270
14 Fruits 298 APPENDIXES
15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins 327 A Food Preparation Equipment A-1
B Approximate Food Measurements B-1
C Substitution of Ingredients C-1
D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1
E Cheeses E-1
F Common Food Additives F-1
iii
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Contents
Preface xiv 2 Food Evaluation 23

About the Author xvii Sensory (Subjective) Evaluation 23

Two Types of Sensory Testing 23
Taste Panels 25
Sample Preparation 25
PART I FOOD SCIENCE Objective Evaluation 26
AND NUTRITION Physical Tests 26
Chemical Tests 27

1 Food Selection 1
Pictorial Summary 28
Sensory Criteria 1 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 29
Sight 1 References 29
Odor 2 Websites 30
Taste 2
Professional Profile 4 3 Chemistry of Food Composition 31
Touch 5
Hearing 5 Basic Food Chemistry 31
Six Key Atoms—CHNOPS 32
Nutritional Criteria 5
Dietary Guidelines for Americans 6 Water 33
MyPyramid 6 Water Content in Foods 33
Consumer Dietary Changes 6 Free or Bound Water 33
Composition of Water 33
Cultural Criteria 10 Measuring Calories 33
Ethnic Influences 10 Specific Heat 34
Place of Birth 10 Freezing Point 34
Geography and Climate 11 Melting Point 34
Cultural Influences on Manners 11 Boiling Point 35
Religious Criteria 11 Hard vs. Soft Water 35
Buddhism 11 Functions of Water in Food 35
Hinduism 11 Chemical Reactions 36
Seventh-Day Adventist Church 11 Food Preservation 38
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon Church) 11
Carbohydrates 39
Judaism 12
Foods High in Carbohydrates 39
Islam 12
Composition of Carbohydrates 39
Psychological and Sociological Criteria 13 Monosaccharides 40
Bioengineering 13 Disaccharides 40
Organic Foods 16 Oligosaccharides 41
Natural Foods 17 Polysaccharides 41
Functions of Carbohydrates in Foods 46
Budgetary Criteria 17
Lipids or Fats 46
Pictorial Summary 18 Foods High in Lipids 46
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 19 Composition of Lipids 46
References 19 Triglycerides 46
Websites 22 Fatty Acid Structure 46

iv
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Contents v

Fatty Acids in Foods 47 Chemical Hazards—Harmful Chemicals in Food 75

Fatty Acid Nomenclature 47 Seafood Toxins: Chemicals from Fish/Shellfish 75
Phospholipids 47
Sterols 48 Food Allergy 76
Functions of Lipids in Foods 49 Prevention 76
Most Common Food Allergens 76
Proteins 49 Cross-Contamination 76
Protein Quality in Foods 50
Composition of Proteins 50
Physical Hazards—Objects in Food 77
Amino Acids 50 Preventing Foodborne Illness 77
Functions of Proteins in Food 51 Location, Location, Location 77
Personnel 77
Vitamins and Minerals 55
Vulnerable Foods 78
Foods High in Vitamins and Minerals 55
Purchasing 80
Composition of Vitamins and Minerals 55
Inspection 80
Functions of Vitamins and Minerals in Food 55
Storage 81
Nonnutritive Food Components 56 Preparation 82
Food Additives 56
Proper Use of Thermometers 84
Purposes of Food Additives 56
Types of Thermometers 84
Plant Compounds 59
How to Use a Thermometer 84
Calibration of Thermometers 84
Pictorial Summary 60
Sanitation 89
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 61
Food Safety Monitoring 90
References 61
Websites 63
Pictorial Summary 94
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 95
References 96
PART II FOOD SERVICE Websites 98

4 Food Safety 64 5 Food Preparation Basics 99

What is a Foodborne Illness? 65 Heating Foods 99

What Causes Foodborne Illness? 65 Moist-Heat Preparation 99

Biological Hazards—Living Culprits 65 Types of Moist-Heat Preparation 100

Bacteria: Number-One Cause of Foodborne Illness 65 Scalding 100
Poaching 100
Bacterial Food Infections 68 Simmering 100
Salmonella 68 Stewing 100
Listeria monocytogenes 68 Braising 100
Yersinia enterocolitica 68 Boiling 100
Shigella 69 Steaming 101
Microwaving 101
Bacterial Food Intoxications 69
Dry-Heat Preparation 101
Staphylococcus aureus 69
Clostridium botulinum 69 Types of Dry-Heat Preparation 102
Roasting 102
Bacterial Toxin-Mediated Infections 69
Broiling 102
Escherichia coli 69
Grilling 102
Campylobacter jejuni 71
Barbecuing 102
Vibrio 71
Frying 102
Molds 71
Types of Heat Transfer 103
Viruses 71
Measuring Heat 104
Parasites 72
Prions—Mad Cow Disease 73 Cutlery Techniques 105
New Virulent Biological Hazards 74 Handling Knives 105
Advanced Techniques for Detecting Contamination 74 Cutting Styles 106

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
vi Contents

Measuring Ingredients 107 Accessories 136

Approximating the Amount of Required Food 107 Centerpieces 136
Selecting the Right Measuring Utensil 108
Using an Accurate Measuring Technique 109 Pictorial Summary 137
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 138
Mixing Techniques 110 References 138
Conventional (Creaming) Method 110 Websites 139
Conventional Sponge Method 111
Single-Stage Method 111
Pastry-Blend Method 111
Biscuit Method 111
PART III FOODS
Muffin Method 111 PROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY, FISH,
Seasonings and Flavorings 111 DAIRY, & EGGS
Types of Seasonings and Flavorings 111
Adding Seasonings and Flavorings to Food 115 7 Meat 140

Food Presentation 116 Types of Meats 140

Plate Presentation 116 Beef 140
Garnishes 116 Lamb and Mutton 141
Pork 141
Pictorial Summary 117
Composition of Meats 141
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 118
Structure of Meat 141
References 118
Antibiotics and Hormones 144
Websites 119
Pigments 145
Extractives 145
6 Meal Management 120
Purchasing Meats 146
Food Service Organization 120 Inspection 146
Commercial Food Service Organization 121 Grading 146
Hospital Food Service Organization 122 Tenderness of Meats 148
Cuts of Meat 152
Meal Planning 123 Processed Meats 156
USDA Menu Patterns 123
Hospital Menu Patterns 124 Preparation of Meats 160
Creating the Menu 124 Changes During Heating 160
Determining Doneness 162
Purchasing 126 Dry-Heat Preparation 163
Buyers 126 Moist-Heat Preparation 165
Food Stores and Vendors/Suppliers 126 Carving 166
Keeping Food Costs Down 127
Reading Label Product Codes 131 Storage of Meats 166
Reducing Waste Saves Costs 131 Refrigerated 167
Frozen 167
Time Management 132
Estimating Time 132 Pictorial Summary 168
Efficient Meal Preparation 133 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 169
References 169
Types of Meal Service 135 Websites 171
Russian Service 135
French Service 135
8 Poultry 172
English Service 135
American Service 135 Classification of Poultry 172
Family Service 135 Chickens 172
Buffet Service 135 Turkeys 173
Other Domestic Poultry 173
Table Settings 135
Cover and Linens 135 Composition of Poultry 173
Flatware/Dinnerware/Glassware 136 Pigments 173

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Contents vii

Purchasing Poultry 174 Nutrients 211

Inspection 174 Color Compounds 214
Grading 174 Food Additives 214
Types and Styles of Poultry 174
How Much to Buy 176
Purchasing Milk 214
Grades 214
Preparation of Poultry 176 Pasteurization 214
Preparation Safety Tips 177 Ultrapasteurization 215
Changes During Preparation 178 Homogenization 215
Determining Doneness 178
Dry-Heat Preparation 179 Types of Milk 216
Moist-Heat Preparation 182 Fresh Fluid Cow Milks 216
Professional Profile 183 Fresh Fluid Milks from Animals Other Than Cows 216
Flavored Fluid Milks 217
Storage of Poultry 183 Ultrahigh-Temperature Milk (UHT) 218
Refrigerated 184 Nutritionally Altered Fluid Milks 218
Frozen 184 Plant-Based “Milks” 219
Canned Fluid Milks 220
Pictorial Summary 185
Dry Milk 220
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 186
Cultured Milk Products 221
References 186
Creams and Substitutes 223
Websites 187
Milk Products in Food Preparation 224
9 Fish and Shellfish 188 Flavor Changes 224
Coagulation and Precipitation 224
Classification of Fish and Shellfish 188 Whipped Milk Products 225
Vertebrate or Invertebrate 188
Salt- or Freshwater 189 Storage of Milk Products 227
Lean or Fat 189 Refrigerated 227
Dry Storage 227
Composition of Fish 189
Structure of Finfish 189
Pictorial Summary 228
Pigments 191
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 229
Purchasing Fish and Shellfish 191 References 229
Inspection/Grading 191 Websites 231
Shellfish Certification 192
Selection of Finfish 192
11 Cheese 232
Selection of Shellfish 197
Classification of Cheeses 232
Preparation of Fish and Place of Origin 233
Shellfish 201 Moisture Content 233
Dry-Heat Preparation 201
Moist-Heat Preparation 203 Cheese Production 234
Milk Selection 234
Storage of Fish and Shellfish 204 Coagulation 234
Fresh Finfish 204
Curd Treatment 236
Fresh Shellfish 205
Curing and Ripening 236
Frozen 205
Whey and Whey Products 239
Canned and Cured 205
Process (Processed) Cheeses 240
Pictorial Summary 206 Food Additives in Cheese 241
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 207
Purchasing Cheese 241
References 207
Grading 241
Websites 209
Forms of Cheese 242

10 Milk 210 Food Preparation with Cheese 242

Selecting a Cheese 242
Functions of Milk in Foods 211
Temperatures 243
Composition of Milk 211 Cutting Cheese 244

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
viii Contents

Storage of Cheese 244 Structure of Plant Cells 270

Dry Storage 244 Plant Pigments 272
Refrigeration 244 Plants as Functional Foods 273
Frozen 244 Additives 275
Professional Profile 245
Purchasing Vegetables 277
Pictorial Summary 246 Grading Vegetables 277
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 247 Selecting Vegetables 277
References 247
Websites 248 Legumes 285
Textured Vegetable Protein 285
12 Eggs 249 Tofu 285
Fermented Soybean Foods 286
Composition of Eggs 249
Structure 249 Preparation of Vegetables 286
Yolk 249 General Guidelines 286
Albumen 250 Changes During Heating 287
Shell Membranes 250 Dry-Heat Preparation 288
Air Cell 251 Moist-Heat Preparation 290
Shell 251 Preparing Legumes 290
Purchasing Eggs 251 Preparing Sprouts 291
Inspection 251
Storage of Vegetables 292
Grading 251
Refrigerated 292
Sizing 253
Freezing 292
Egg Substitutes 253
Dry Storage 292
Value-Added Eggs 253
Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 293
Types of Eggs 254
Pictorial Summary 294
Functions of Eggs in Foods 254
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 295
Emulsifying 254
References 295
Binding 254
Websites 297
Foaming 256
Interfering 257
Clarifying 257 14 Fruits 298
Color 258
Classification of Fruits 298
Preparation of Eggs 258
Classification Exceptions 299
Changes in Prepared Eggs 258
Dry-Heat Preparation 259 Composition of Fruits 299
Moist-Heat Preparation 261 Organic Acids 299
Storage of Eggs 264 Pectic Substances 299
Refrigerator 264 Phenolic Compounds 300
Frozen 265 Fruits as Functional Foods 301
Dried 265 Food Additives in Fruits 304
Safety Tips 265 Purchasing Fruits 304
Grading Fruit 304
Pictorial Summary 267
Selecting Fruits 304
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 268
Processed Fruits 312
References 268
Dried Fruits 313
Websites 269
Fruit Juices 313
PHYTOCHEMICALS–VEGETABLES, Preparation of Fruits 315
FRUITS, SOUPS, & SALADS Enzymatic Browning 315
Changes During Heating 315
13 Vegetables and Legumes 270 Professional Profile 316
Dry-Heat Preparation 317
Classification of Vegetables 270
Moist-Heat Preparation 318
Composition of Vegetables 270 Fruit Spreads 318

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Contents ix

Storage of Fruits 320 Farro and Spelt 354

Storing Fresh Fruit 320 Millet 354
Storing Canned Fruit 321 Sorghum 354
Oats 354
Pictorial Summary 322 Rye 355
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 323 Other Grains 356
References 323
Websites 326 Preparation of Cereal Grains 356
Moist-Heat Preparation: Boiling/Simmering 356
15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins 327 Microwaving 358

Soups 327 Storage of Cereal Grains 358

Types of Soups 327 Dry 358
Stocks 328 Refrigerated 358
Clear and Thin Soups 330 Frozen 358
Thickened Soups 330
Pastas 358
Salads 332 Types of Pasta 359
Salad Ingredients 332 Pasta Nomenclature 359
Principles of Salad Preparation 335
Preparation of Pasta 360
Salad Dressings 336
Moist-Heat Preparation 360
Gelatins 339 Microwaving 362
What is Gelatin? 339
Storage of Pasta 362
Is Gelatin Nutritious? 339
Preparation of a Gel 339 Pictorial Summary 363
Phases of Gel Formation 340 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 364
Unmolding a Mold 340 References 364
Factors Influencing Gel Formation 340 Websites 366
Storage of Gelatin 341

Pictorial Summary 342 17 Flours and Flour Mixtures 367

Chapter Review and Exam Prep 343
References 343
Flours 368
Gluten 368
Websites 344
Cereal-Grain Allergies 371
Milling 371
Wheat Flour Classifications 372
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES— Types of Wheat Flour 373
Types of Non-Wheat Flour 373
CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS
Treated Flours 374

16 Cereal Grains and Pastas 345 Flour Mixture Ingredients 375

Leavening Agents 375
Composition of Cereal Grains 345 Sugar 379
Structure 345 Salt/Flavoring 380
Food Additives in Grain Products 347 Liquid 380
Fat 380
Uses of Cereal Grains 347
Eggs 382
Flour 347
Commercial Additives 382
Pasta 347
Breakfast Cereal 347 Preparation of Baked Goods 384
Alcoholic Beverages 348 Doughs and Batters 384
Animal Feeds 348 Changes During Heating 385
High-Altitude Adjustments 385
Types of Cereal Grains 349
Wheat 350 Storage of Flour and Flour Mixtures 385
Rice 350 Dry Storage 385
Corn 352 Cool Storage Temperatures Required 385
Barley 353 Frozen 385

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
x Contents

Pictorial Summary 387 Proofing: Fermentation Causes the First Rising 422
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 388 Punching Down—Second Rising 423
References 389 Shaping 423
Websites 390 Selecting a Baking Pan 424
Second Proofing (Optional) 424
18 Starches and Sauces 391 Decorating 425
Baking 425
Starches as Thickeners 391
Sources of Starch 391 Types of Yeast Breads 428
Starch in Food Products 392 Loaf Breads 428
Starch Structure 393 Rolls 429
Pita Bread 429
Starch Characteristics 394 Bagels 429
Gelatinization 394 English Muffins 430
Gel Formation 395 Pizza Crust 431
Retrogradation 396 Pretzels and Bread Sticks 431
Dextrinization 396 Raised Doughnuts 431
Resistant Starches 396
Modified Starches 397 Storage of Yeast Breads 431
Fresh 431
Sauces 397 Refrigerated 431
Functions of Sauces in Foods 398 Frozen 431
Types of Sauces 398
Preparation of Thickened Sauces 399 Pictorial Summary 432
Preparation of Unthickened Sauces 401 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 433
References 433
Storage of Starches and Sauces 403 Websites 434

Pictorial Summary 404

Chapter Review and Exam Prep 405 DESSERTS—REFINED
References 405 CARBOHYDRATES & FAT
Websites 406
21 Sweeteners 435
19 Quick Breads 407 Natural Sweeteners 436
Sugars 436
Preparation of Quick Breads 408
Syrups 438
The Muffin Method 408
Sugar Alcohols 441
Additives Used in Quick Breads 408

Varieties of Quick Breads 408 Nonnutritive Sweeteners 442

Saccharin 443
Pour Batters 408
Aspartame 443
Drop Batters 409
Acesulfame-K 444
Doughs 412
Sucralose 444
Professional Profile 414
Neotame 445
Stevia: Dietary Supplement and GRAS Additive 445
Pictorial Summary 415
Pending Nonnutritive Sweeteners 445
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 416
Other Sweeteners 446
References 416
Websites 417 Functions of Sugars in Foods 446
Sweetness 446
20 Yeast Breads 418 Solubility 446
Crystallization 447
Preparation of Yeast Breads 418 Browning Reactions 447
Ingredients 418 Caramelization 447
Food Additives in Baked Products 419 Moisture Absorption (Hygroscopicity) 448
Mixing Methods 420 Texture 448
Kneading 421 Fermentation 448

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Contents xi

Preservation 448 Preparation of Cakes 482

Leavening 448 Ingredients 482
Other Uses 448 Other Factors 483
Preparing Shortened Cakes 483
Pictorial Summary 449
Frostings/Icings 488
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 450
Flat Frostings 488
References 450
Decorating Frosting 488
Websites 452
Cooked Frosting 488
Whipped Cream Frosting 488
22 Fats and Oils 453 Ganache 488
Garnishes 489
Functions of Fats in Food 454
Heat Transfer 454 Storage of Cakes 489
Shortening Power 454
Emulsions 455 Types of Cookies 489
Melting Point 456 Bar Cookies 490
Plasticity 456 Dropped Cookies 490
Solubility 457 Pressed Cookies 491
Flavor 457 Molded Cookies 491
Texture 457 Rolled Cookies 491
Appearance 457 Icebox/Refrigerator Cookies 492
Satiety or Feeling Full 457 Cookies as Functional Foods 492

Preparation of Cookies 492

Types of Fats 457 Ingredients and Mixing Methods 492
Butter 457
Baking Cookies 493
Margarine 460
Shortenings 461 Storage of Cookies 494
Oils 461
Lard/Tallow/Suet 464 Pictorial Summary 495
Cocoa Butter 465 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 496
References 497
Fat Replacers 465 Websites 497
Types of Fat Replacers 465
Composition of Fat Replacers 465
24 Pastries and Pies 498
Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 465
Protein-Based Fat Replacers 465 Types of Pastry 498
Lipid-Based Fat Replacers 465 Nonlaminated and Laminated Pastries 498
Plain Pastry (Nonlaminated) 498
Food Preparation with Fats 467 Brioche Pastry (Nonlaminated) 499
Frying Care 467 Choux Pastry (Nonlaminated) 500
Lower-Fat Preparation Techniques 469 Puff Pastry (Laminated) 500

Storage of Fats 470 Preparation of Pastry 500

Rancidity 470 Ingredients of Pastry 500
Mixing 505
Pictorial Summary 474 Rolling 507
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 475 Fillings 509
References 475 Toppings 512
Websites 477 Baking 513
Testing for Doneness 513
23 Cakes and Cookies 478
Storage of Pastry 514
Types of Cakes 478
Shortened Cakes 478 Pictorial Summary 515
Unshortened Cakes 480 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 516
Chiffon Cakes 480 References 516
Professional Profile 481 Websites 517

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
xii Contents

25 Candy 518 Carbonated Beverages 551

Early Soft Drinks 551
Classification of Candies 518 Soft Drink Processing 551
Syrup Phase or Fat Phase 518 Soft Drink Health Concerns 551
Crystalline or Non-crystalline (Amorphous) 519 Diet Soft Drinks 552
Preparation of Candy 520 Food Additives in Soft Drinks 552
Steps to Confectionery Preparation 520 Functional Beverages 552
Crystalline Candies 520 Types of Functional Beverages 552
Noncrystalline Candies 524
Coffee 554
Chocolate 525
Coffee Processing 555
Chocolate Production 526
Composition of Coffee 556
Types of Chocolate Products 529
Types of Coffee 556
Storage of Candy 530 Preparation of Coffee 557
Shelf Life of Chocolate 530 Storage of Coffee 559

Pictorial Summary 531

Tea 559
Tea Processing 559
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 532
Types of Tea 560
References 532
Grades of Tea 561
Websites 533
Composition of Tea 561
Health Benefits of Tea 561
26 Frozen Desserts 534 Preparation of Tea 561
Storage of Tea 562
Types of Frozen Desserts 534
Ice Cream 534 Dairy Beverages 562
Imitation Ice Cream 536 Cocoa Beverages 562
Gelato 536
Frozen Yogurt 536
Alcoholic Beverages 562
Calorie (kcal) Content 563
Sherbet 537
Beer 563
Sorbet 537
Wine 564
Water Ices 537
Spirits 568
Still-Frozen Desserts 537

Preparation of Frozen Desserts 537 Pictorial Summary 570

Factors Affecting Quality 537 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 571
Professional Profile 539 References 571
Mixing and Freezing 541 Websites 573
Food Additives in Frozen Desserts 544

Storage of Frozen Desserts 544

Texture Changes 544 PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY
Scooping Frozen Desserts 545
28 Food Preservation 574
Pictorial Summary 546 Food Spoilage 574
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 547 Biological Changes 574
References 547 Chemical Changes 575
Websites 548 Physical Changes 575

Food Preservation Methods 575

Drying 576
WATER—BEVERAGES Curing 577
Smoking Cured Meats 577
27 Beverages 549
Fermentation 577
Water 549 Pickling 577
Types of Water 550 Edible Coatings on Foods 578
Contaminates in Water 551 Canning 578

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Contents xiii

Cold Preservation 579 International Agencies 604

Refrigeration 579 The Food and Agriculture Organization 604
Freezing 579 The World Health Organization 604
European Regulation 604
Heat Preservation 581
Boiling 581 Pictorial Summary 605
Pasteurization 581 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 606
High-Temperature Pasteurization 581 References 606
Ohmic Heating 581 Websites 608
Other Preservation Methods 581
Irradiation (Cold Pasteurization) 581 30 Careers in Food and Nutrition 609
Pulsed Light 583
Three Major Food and Nutrition Areas 609
High-Pressure Processing 583
Ozonation 584 Nutrition Science and Dietetics 609
Aseptic and Modified Atmosphere Packaging 584 Nutrition Science 610
Dietetics 612
Nutrient Retention 584
Food Science 616
Pictorial Summary 586 Food Scientist 616
Chapter Review and Exam Prep 587 Food Science Technician 618
References 587
Websites 590 Food Service 618
Academic Preparation 618
29 Government Food Regulations 591 Types of Food Service Culinary Positions 619
Food Service Certifications 619
Federal Food Laws 591
Food And Drug Act (1906) 592 Graduate School 619
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938) 592 Prerequisites 619
Numerous Government Agencies 592 Academic Requirements 620
Professional Profile 620
Food and Drug Administration 593 Examination Requirement 621
Research/Education 593 Graduate Degree Jobs 621
The Code of Federal Regulations 593
FDA Inspections 593 Pictorial Summary 623
FDA Standards 594 Chapter Review and Exam Prep 624
Food Labeling 595 References 624
Food Allergens 597 Websites 625
FDA Allowed Claims on Labels 597
Food Additives 598
The Bioterrorism Preparedness Act 600
Appendixes
A Food Preparation Equipment A-1
U.S. Department of Agriculture 600
USDA Inspections 601 B Approximate Food Measurements B-1
USDA Grading 601
Irradiated Foods 602 C Substitution of Ingredients C-1
Organic Foods 602
D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1
Kosher/Halal Foods 602
Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) 602 E Cheeses E-1
Environmental Protection Agency 603 F Common Food Additives F-1
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 603
Glossary G-1
Other Regulatory Agencies 603
U.S. Department of Commerce 603 Answers to Multiple Choice AK-1
Federal Trade Commission 603 Index I-1
Department of the Treasury 603
State Agencies 604

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Preface
omprehensive is the word that food measurements, weights and mea- • Updated Art and Photos providing
C describes Understanding Food. It
brings together the most current in-
sures, storage temperatures, ingredient
substitutions, flavorings and seasonings,
new and intriguing ways to better
illustrate concepts in the book.
formation in food science, nutrition, and more. • Updated Chemistry Corners and
and food service. Founded on research How & Why Features expanding
from more than 35 journals covering on two popular features already in
these disciplines, the text incorporates the book.
the very latest information on food—
its science and its application. Under-
NEW TO THIS
standing Food, 4th edition, provides EDITION
students with a broad foundation to OTHER FEATURES
• Calorie Control is a new feature
launch a career in any of these food-
teaching students where the calo-
related fields. The unique features of this text allow
ries are in foods, how many daily
flexibility in t eaching and create a
calories are recommended, and
dynamic learning environment for
quick pointers on how to control
students.
calories within each food group.
ORGANIZATION Obesity is at epidemic proportions • Professional Profile features pro-
in the United States and yet the vide interviews with people in the
OF CONTENT public and many health profession- food arena and give advice to stu-
Understanding Food is o rganized als remain calorie challenged. An dents to help them on their career
according to the various food disciplines. introductory food textbook is the path.
Part I represents information related perfect place to provide this infor- • How and Why inserts answer the
to food science and nutrition, such as mation for future food and nutri- questions most frequently asked
food selection, sensory and physical tion professionals. by students. They are used to spark
evaluation, and food chemistry. Part II • New Food Evaluation Chapter re- natural curiosity, trigger inquisitive
covers aspects of food service from sponds to reviewers’ requests to cre- thought patterns, and exercise the
food safety, food preparation basics, ate a separate chapter on this topic. mind’s ability to answer.
and meal management. Part III covers Now this topic can be included as • Chemist’s Corner features provide
all of the standard food items arranged part of the basic food course or for a information on food chemistry in
into protein (meat, poultry, fish, dairy, more advanced food course. boxes within the chapters for those
and eggs); phytochemicals (vegetables, • Revised Food Safety Chapter re- students and instructors who wish
fruits, soups, salads, and gelatins); sponds to readers wanting a more to further explore the chemistry of
complex carbohydrates (cereals, flour, “applied” hands-on approach to food. These Chemist’s Corners cre-
breads); refined carbohydrates and fat food safety. The content was totally ate a book with two chemistry lev-
(sweeteners, fats and oils, cakes and revised to teach students practical els, allowing for flexibility based on
cookies, pies and pastries, candy, and tips on preventing foodborne illness the chemistry requirements of the
frozen desserts); and water (beverages) that follow food flow—purchasing, individual course.
groupings. Part IV relates to the food storage, preparation, cooking, • Nutrient Content boxes in each of
industry in terms of food preservation, holding, cooling, reheating, and the foods chapters provide an over-
government food regulations, and food sanitation. view of the nutritional composition
careers. The chapter on food careers • Temperature Danger Zone updated of the foods, reflecting the increased
introduces students to the many careers to include both FDA and USDA emphasis in the food industry on
associated with a basic foods course. In recommendations. food as a means for health promo-
addition, the Professional Profile feature, • Updated Information Added on tion and disease prevention.
found in ma ny chapters, spotlights “gluten free” definitions and labeling • Food Additive information has
individuals working in various aspects regulations, stevia sweeteners, irra- been incorporated throughout
in the food industry, so students really diation research, and new functional the book responding to students’
get a ha nds-on understanding of foods. Website links to the latest in- requests to learn more about
various career opportunities. Extensive formation have been incorporated, this topic.
appendixes provide additional key and more opportunities in food ser- • Pictorial Summaries at the end of
information, including approximate vice careers have been listed. every chapter are a proven favorite

xiv
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Preface xv

with readers. Instead of a standard ANCILLARY create a well-organized manuscript; and

narrative summary, these pictorial Laura McGinn, Marketing Manager,
chapter summaries use a combina- MATERIALS who understands the process of book
tion of art and narrative text to An assortment of student and instructor publishing and marketing to such a
encapsulate the key concepts in each support materials, thoroughly updated high degree that her presence alone is
chapter for student review. for the fourth edition, are available: invaluable. My thanks to Yolanda Cossio,
• Key terms, boldfaced in the text, are Publisher; Alexis Gl ubka, Editorial
defined in boxes on the same page • The print Lab Manual, revised by Assistant; and Bob Kauser and Dean
to allow for quick review of the Janelle M. Walter (Baylor Univer- Dauphinais, Permissions Editors. A
essential vocabulary in each chapter. sity), presents food experiments thank you also goes to Elizabeth Wong,
A glossary at the end of the book and recipes to demonstrate the Marketing for getting the word out about
assembles all of the key terms in the principles discussed in the text. Pre- this text. I also thank the tremendous
chapters in one place. test questions and materials/time production staff at Pre-PressPMG who
• Functions of ingredients are needed information for instructors worked miracles on this book, especially
highlighted in the introduction enhance the lab units, which Kristin Ruscetta, Antonina Smith, and
to each chapter to aid students in parallel the organization and Catherine Schnurr.
successful food product develop- content of the text. I gratefully acknowledge Eleanor
ment and food preparation. They • The Instructor’s Resource Whitney and Sharon Rolfes for contri-
introduce a focus of the food CD-ROM delivers several key buting the Basic Chemistry Concepts
industry that is often missing in instructor tools. appendix in this text.
other books. • PowerPoint® resources in- A special thanks goes to the person
• Problems and causes tables in clude JPEGs of text figures and who kindled my writing career, Nackey
various food chapters summarize ready-to-use (or modify) lecture Loeb, Publisher of The Union Leader.
the problems that may occur when presentations. Your early support and encouragement
preparing specific food products • An expanded Test Bank by Joan did far more than you will ever know.
and describe the possible causes, Aronson (New York University) Many colleagues have contributed
providing students with a handy provides multiple-choice, true/false, to the development of this text. Their
reference tool for deciphering “what matching, and discussion/essay thoughtful comments provided me
went wrong.” items. with valuable guidance at all stages of
• Numerous illustrations placed • The Instructor’s Manual, by Joan the writing process. I offer them my
throughout the text enhance Aronson and Cheryl Houston heartfelt thanks for generously sharing
students’ understanding of the (Fontbonne University), features their time and expertise.
principles and techniques engaging classroom activities, objec-
tives, recommendations, and lecture They are:
discussed.
• A 16-page full-color insert displays outlines. Dorothy Addario,
exotic varieties of fruits and veg- • The text’s Companion Website College of St. Elizabeth
etables, salad greens, flowers used offers various test preparation exer- Koushik Adhikari,
in salads, traditional cuts of meats cises for students, including quizzes, Kansas State University
(including the lowest-fat meat cuts), and instructor downloads. Gertrude Armbruster (retired),
and much more, all with detailed Cornell University
captions describing use and prepa- Mike Artlip,
ration tips. Kendall College
• Chapter review questions were ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Hea Ran-Ashraf,
changed from 5 to 7 questions at
the end of each chapter responding Many individuals assisted me in t he Southern Illinois University
to requests to help prepare students development of this textbook. First Mia Barker,
for their class exams and also to and foremost I thank Peter Marshall, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
help prepare them for the American Publisher, without whose knowledge
and experience this book would never Nancy Berkoff,
Dietetic Association Registration Art Institute of Los Angeles
Examination. have come to be. I als o thank Peggy
Williams, who masterfully brought this Margaret Briley,
The dynamic world of food changes book to the completion of its fourth University of Texas
rapidly as new research constantly adds edition. Helen C. Brittin,
to its ever-expanding knowledge base. I also extend my thanks to the Texas Tech University
Understanding Food: Principles and outstanding members of the Cengage
Mildred M. Cody,
Preparation, 4th edition, is designed nutrition team: Elesha Feldman,
Georgia State University
to meet the needs of this evolving and Developmental Editor, for helping
expanding discipline, and to provide me revise and enhance the fourth Carol A. Costello,
students with a strong foundation in edition; Elizabeth Howe, second University of Tennessee
any food-related discipline that they edition Developmental Editor, for her Barbara Denkins,
select. excellent skills in working with me to University of Pittsburgh

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
xvi Preface

Nikhil V. Dhurandhar, Elena Kissick, Anne-Marie Scott,

Wayne State University California State University/Fresno University of North Carolina
Joannie Dobbs, Patti Landers, Sarah Short,
University of Hawaii/Manoa University of Oklahoma Syracuse University
Linda Garrow, Deirdre M. Larkin, Sherri Stastny,
University of Illinois/Urbana California State University/Northridge North Dakota State University
Natholyn D. Harris, Colette Leistner, Darcel Swanson,
Florida State University Nicholls State University Washington State University
Sylvia Holman, Lisa McKee, Ruthann B. Swanson,
California State University/Northridge New Mexico State University University of Georgia
Zoe Ann Holmes, Marilyn Mook, M. K. (Suzy) Weems,
Oregon State University Michigan State University Stephen F. Austin University
Alvin Huang, Martha N. O’Gorman, Finally, I wish to express my appre-
University of Hawaii Northern Illinois University ciation to the students. Were it not for
Wendy T. Hunt, Polly Popovich, them, I would not have taken pen to
American River College Auburn University paper. I am grateful to be part of your
Karen Jameson, Rose Tindall Postel, academic journey.
Purdue University East Carolina University
Amy Christine Brown, Ph.D., R.D.
Faye Johnson, Beth Reutler,
University of Hawaii at Manoa
California State University/Chico University of Illinois
[email protected]
Nancy A. Johnson, Susan Rippy,
Michigan State University Eastern Illinois University
Mary Kelsey, Janet M. Sass,
Oregon State University Northern Virginia Community College

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
About the Author
Amy Christine Brown, Ph.D., R.D., received her Ph.D. from Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1986 in the field of Human
Nutrition and Foods. She has been a college professor and a registered dietitian
with the American Dietetic Association since 1986. Dr. Brown currently teaches
at the University of Hawaii’s John A. Burns School of Medicine in the
Department of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Her research
interests are in the area of bioactive plant substances beneficial to health and
medical nutrition therapy. Some of the studies she has conducted include
“Diet and Crohn’s disease,” “Potentially harmful herbal supplements,”
“Kava beverage consumption and the effect on liver function tests,” and “The
effectiveness of kukui nut oil in treating psoriasis.” Selected research journal
publications include: “Position of the American Dietetic Association: func-

© 2004 Carl Shaneff

tional foods” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association); “The Hawaii Diet:
Ad libitum high carbohydrate, low fat multi-cultural diet for the reduction of
chronic disease risk factors” (Hawaii Medical Journal); “Lupus erythematosus
and nutrition: A review” (Journal of Renal Nutrition); “Dietary survey of Hopi
elementary school students” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association);
“Serum cholesterol levels of nondiabetic and streptozotocin-diabetic rats” (Artery); “Infant feeding practices of migrant farm
laborers in northern Colorado” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association); “Body mass index and perceived weight status in
young adults” (Journal of Community Health); “Dietary intake and body composition of Mike Pigg—1988 Triathlete of the Year”
(Clinical Sports Medicine); and numerous newspaper nutrition columns.
Feedback welcome, contact: [email protected]

To Jeffery Blanton
To the person who saw me through four years of writing the first edition.
Four years, four thousand laughs, and only one you.

Always Grateful,

Amy Christine Brown

xvii
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 RapidEye/istockphoto.com

1
Sensory Criteria 1
Food Selection
food scientists focus on why people drink. The sensory criteria of sight, odor,
eat what they eat, and what it is about and taste are evaluated below.
Nutritional Criteria 5 a food or beverage that causes them to
Cultural Criteria 10 choose one over another.
People choose food and beverage Sight
Religious Criteria 11 The eyes receive the first impression of
based on several factors: how foods
Psychological and look and taste, health, cultural and re- foods: the shapes, colors, consistency,
Sociological Criteria 13 ligious values, psychological and social serving size, and the presence of any
needs, and budgetary concerns (21). outward defects. Color can denote the
Budgetary Criteria 17 ripeness, strength of dilution, and even
The factors influencing consumer food
selection are the focus of this chapter, degree to which the food was heated.
and each of the food selection criteria is Black bananas, barely yellow lem-
addressed in detail. onade, and scorched macaroni send
visual signals that may alter a person’s
ot too long ago, meats, milk, choices. Color can be deceiving; if the
N grains, nuts, vegetables, and fruits SENSORY colors of two identical fruit-flavored
beverages are different, people often
were the only foods available for con-
sumption. Today food companies offer
CRITERIA perceive them as tasting different even
thousands of prepared and packaged When people choose a particular food, though they are exactly the same (87).
foods, many of which are mixtures of they evaluate it consciously or uncon- People may judge milk’s fat content by its
these basic foods and often include ar- sciously, primarily by how it looks, smells, color. For instance, if the color, but not
tificial ingredients. The number of dif- tastes, feels, and even sounds (Figure 1-1). the fat, is improved in reduced-fat (2%)
ferent foods now available can make These sensory criteria are discussed first milk, it is often judged to be higher in fat
it more difficult, rather than easier, to because of their strong influence on food content, smoother in texture, and better
plan a nutritious diet. Food companies selection. How a food or beverage affects in flavor than the reduced-fat milk with
compete fiercely to develop ever newer the senses is more important to most its original color (71).
and more attractive products for con- consumers than other criteria when it The color palette of foods on a plate
sumers to buy. This competition makes comes to what a person chooses to eat or also contributes to or detracts from

1
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2 Chapter 1 Food Selection

FIGURE 1-1 Sensory impressions of food provided by the five senses. rabbit (18), reflecting the difference in
importance of the sense of smell be-
tween people and rabbits. The exac t
function of these specialized cells in the
sense of smell is not well understood.
S Who has not experienced the feeling
I OR of bubbles tingling in the nose brought
COL
G
H on by drinking a ca rbonated bever-
T SHINE age while simultaneously being made
SIZ
TEXTURE E
SHAPE to laugh unexpectedly? This illustrates
how the mouth and nose are connected
O and how molecules can reach the olfac-
D
O VOLATILE FLAVOR SUBSTANCES tory epithelium by either pathway.
R
SENSATIONS OF:
Bitter
Salt Sour

Salt Sour

T T
A O ARM HOT COLD
W
and U ASTRING IN
S
T
E Sweet
C
H TEXT U R E
ENCY PA
? How & Why?
FIZZ Imagine the scent of chocolate
NG chip cookies wafting through
S POP RI
PO
U LING the house as they bake. How
O BUBB
U CRACK does this smell get carried
L E
N to people? Why is the odor
D
of something baking more
intense than the odor of cold
items like ice cream or frozen
peaches?
their appeal. Imagine a plate contain- most fertile imagination; research-
ing baked flounder, mashed potatoes, ers have categorized them into major Heat converts many substances into
their volatile form. Because only
boiled cabbage, and vanilla ice cream, groups. One classification system rec-
volatile molecules in the form of gas
and then compare it to one that con- ognizes six groups of odors: spicy, flow- carry odor, it is easier to smell hot
tains a nicely browned chicken breast, ery, fruity, resinous (eucalyptus), burnt, foods than cold ones. Hot coffee
orange sweet potatoes, green peas, and and foul. The other widely used group- is much easier to detect than cold
blueberry cobbler. Based on eye appeal ing scheme consists of four categories: coffee. Relatively large molecules
alone, most p eople would prefer the fragrant (sweet), acid (sour), burnt, and such as proteins, starches, fats, and
latter. caprylic (goaty) (8). sugars are too heavy to be airborne,
so their odors are not easily noticed.
Lighter molecules capable of be-
Detecting Odors
Odor Regardless of the classifications, most
coming volatile are physically de-
tected by the olfactory epithelium
Smell is almost as important as appear- odors are detected at very low concentra- by one of two pathways: (1) directly
ance when people evaluate a food item tions. Vanillin can be smelled at 2 3 10–10 through the nose and/or (2) during
for quality and desirability. Although (0.0000000002) mg per liter of air (18). eating when they enter the mouth
the sense of smell is not as acute in hu- The ability to distinguish between vari- and flow retronasally, or toward the
man beings as it is in many other mam- ous odors diminishes over the time of back of the throat and up into the
mals, most p eople can differentiate exposure to the smells; this perception nasal cavity (Figure 1-2) (69).
between 2,000 to 4,000 odors, whereas of a continuously present smell gradually
some highly trained individuals can decreasing over time is called adaptation.
distinguish as many as 10,000 (8). People living near a noxious-smelling
paint factory will, over time, come not to Taste
Classification of Odors notice it, whereas visitors to the area may Taste is usually the most inf luential
be taken aback by the odor. factor in p eople’s selection of foods
Naming each of these thousands of
We are able to detect odors when (25). Taste buds—so named because
odors separately would tax even the
volatile molecules travel through the the arrangement of their cells is similar
air and some of them reach the yellow- to the shape of a flower—are located
ish-colored olfactory epithelium, an primarily on the tongue, but are also
Volatile molecules Molecules area the size of a quarter located inside found on the mouth palates and in the
capable of evaporating like a gas into the upper part of the nasal cavity. This pharynx. Taste buds are not found on
the air. region is supplied with olfactory cells the flat, central surface of the tongue,
Olfactory Relating to the sense of that number from 10 to 20 million in but rather on the tongue’s underside,
smell. a human and about 100 million in a sides, and tip.

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 Chapter 1 Food Selection 3

FIGURE 1-2 Detecting aroma,

mouthfeel, and taste.

Signals aroma
to brain

Olfactory
epithelium
Retro-
Upper palate nasal
aroma

Nasal
aroma
Mouthfeel
Food Taste

Swallowing

Stockbyte/Jupiter Images
Mechanism of Taste
What is ac tually being tasted? Many
tasted substances are a combination of
nonvolatile and volatile compounds.
In order for a substance to be tasted,
it must be dissolved in liquid or saliva, savory (umami), is f ound in cer tain substances that can yield bitter
which is 99.5% water. In the middle of amino acids. The ti p of the tongue is tastes are the alkaloids that are often
each taste bud is a pore, similar to a lit- more sensitive to sweet and sour tastes, found in poisonous plants (11).
tle pool, where saliva collects. the sides are sensitive to salty and sour • Salty taste comes from ionized salts
When food comes into the mouth, sensations, and the back is s ensitive such as the salt ions (Na1) in so-
bits of it are dissolved in t he saliva to bitter taste perceptions. The time it dium chloride (NaCl) or other salts
pools and they come into contact with takes to detect each of these taste stim- found naturally in some foods.
the cilia, small ha ir-like projections uli varies from a split second for salt to • Savory (umami) taste was first identi-
from the gustatory cells. The gustatory a full second for bitter substances (18). fied in 1908 by researchers at Tokyo
cells relay a message to the brain via Bitter tastes, therefore, have a tendency Imperial University. Umami is actually
one of the cranial nerves (facial, vagus, to linger. The chemical basis of these glutamate, an amino acid that imparts
and glossopharyngeal). The brain, in five categories of taste is as follows: the taste of beef broth, but without the
turn, translates the nervous electrical salt. Some people can detect mono-
• The sweetness of sugar comes from
impulses into a sensation that people sodium glutamate (MSG) in foods
the chemical configuration of its
recognize as “taste.” As people age, the because it contains glutamate.
molecule. A long list of substances
original 9,000 to 10,000 taste buds begin yield the sweet taste, including sugars,
to diminish in number, so people over glycols, alcohols, and aldehydes. Little Taste Interactions
45 often find themselves using more is known, however, about the sweet Each item used in food preparation con-
salt, spices, and sugar in their food. An- taste receptor and how “sweetness” tains several compounds, and bringing
other important factor influencing the actually occurs (37, 88). these items together creates new tastes
ability of a person to taste is the degree • Sour taste comes from the acids when all their compounds interact. Salt
to which a compound can dissolve (61). found in food. It is related to the sprinkled on grapefruit or added t o
The more moisture or liquid, the more concentration of hydrogen ions fruit pies tends to decrease tartness and
the molecules triggering flavor can dis- (H1), which are found in the natu- enhance sweetness. Conversely, acids
solve and spread over the tongue, com- ral acids of fruits, vinegar, and cer- in subthreshold concentrations, which
ing in contact with the taste buds (37). tain vegetables. are present but not yet detectable,
• Bitterness is imparted by com- increase saltiness. Adding sugar to the
The Five Taste Stimuli pounds such as caffeine (tea, coffee), point that it is not yet tasted decreases
Different areas on the tongue are as- theobromine (chocolate), and phe-
sociated with the five basic typ es of nolic compounds (grapefruit). The
tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and sa- ability to taste bitterness can act as a
vory (umami, a Japanese word meaning warning system to prevent us from Gustatory Relating to the sense of
“delicious”) (65). The fifth taste stimulus, ingesting toxins. Among the many taste.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
4 Chapter 1 Food Selection

PROFE SSIONAL PROFILE

Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield— that are now famous for their very intense
Cofounders of Ben & Jerry’s flavors.

Steve Liss/Time Life Pictures/

Ben & Jerry’s started small. Ben Cohen
It’s hard to believe, but some people taste food and Jerry Greenfield were high school
for a living. “Taste testers” have such sensitive friends on Long Island, New York, in the

Getty Images
taste buds or olfactory detection that they are late 1960s. During high school, Ben drove
hired by food companies to taste new products an ice cream truck, selling ice cream pops
being developed. Food companies need to be to kids. He went off to college, only to drop
sure that the absolute best product is being pro- Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield out after a year and to return to his ice
duced for consumers. John Harrison, the official cream job. Enrolling in another college, he studied pottery and
taste tester for Dreyer’s and Edy’s ice creams, has tasted samples jewelry, before dropping out again to teach crafts in a residen-
from over 100 million gallons of ice cream, and his taste buds are tial school for emotionally disturbed children. It was there that he
insured for $1 million. Derek Spors, who obtained his bachelor’s began to experiment with ice cream–making as an activity to do
degree in food science, works in the same capacity at Ben & Jerry’s with the students. In 1977, Ben left the school and decided to sell
as a “product developer.” The first taste tester at Ben & Jerry’s Ice ice cream with Jerry (who had applied to medical school and had
Cream was the company’s cofounder, Ben Cohen. However, he had been rejected twice). They opened up “Ben & Jerry’s Homemade
such weak taste buds that he kept asking the flavor developers Ice Cream Parlor” in a renovated gas station in Vermont. The rest
for more sugar, salt, chocolate cookies, or caramel. His challenged is ice cream history. You can visit the company website at www.
taste buds are what caused Ben & Jerry’s to produce ice creams benjerry.com.

salt concentration and also makes ac- the “taste,” or appetite, for a food eaten
ids less s our and coffee and tea less
bitter. Some compounds, like monoso-
day after day starts to diminish. Even
favorite foods consumed everyday can ? How & Why?
dium glutamate, often used in Chinese lose their appeal after a while. Some Flavors, regardless of the medium
cooking, actually improve the taste of weight-reducing fad diets are based on in which they are dissolved, do not
meat and other foods by making them this principle, banking on the idea that stay at the same intensity day after
sweeter (55, 69). people will get tired of eating just one day, but diminish over time. Sensory
type of food and therefore will come chemists and flavor technologists
to eat less of it. A routine of grapefruit know that one way to keep the food
Factors Affecting Taste products sold by manufacturers from
Not everyone perceives the taste of for breakfast, grapefruit for lunch, and
losing their appeal is to prevent the
apple pie the same way. There is con- grapefruit for dinner quickly becomes volatile compounds responsible for
siderable genetic variation among in- boring and unappetizing. flavor from deteriorating, escaping,
dividuals in sensitivity to basic tastes or reacting with other substances.
(70). Tasting abilities may also vary Definition of Flavor They look at methods in processing,
within the individual, depending on In examining the factors affecting taste, storage, and cooking, all of which
affect the volatile flavor compounds,
a number of outside influences (67). it is important to distinguish between
to devise strategies against these
One such factor affecting taste is the taste and flavor. Taste relies on the taste occurrences. One of the major
temperature of a food or beverage. As buds’ connection to the brain via nerve functions of protective packaging
food or beverage temperatures go be- cells, which signal the sensations of sour, is to retain a food’s flavor. Packag-
low 68°F (20°C) or above 86°F (30°C), salt, sweet, bitter, and savory. Flavor is ing guards flavor in several ways.
it becomes harder to distinguish their a broader concept than either taste or It protects against vaporization of
tastes accurately. For example, very hot aroma; aroma provides about 75% of the volatile compounds and against
coffee tastes less bitter, whereas slightly the impression of flavor (23, 78). To get physical damage that could expose
melted ice cream tastes sweeter. Other some idea of how the ability to smell af- food to the air and result in off odors.
factors influencing taste include the fects flavor perception, think of having It keeps unpleasant odors from the
outside from attaching to the food. It
color of the food; the time of day it is a cold with a badly stuffed-up nose. Ev-
also prevents “flavor scalping,” or the
eaten; and the age, gender, and degree erything tastes different. The nasal con- migration of flavor compounds from
of hunger of the taster (38). gestion interferes with the function of the packaging (sealers, solvents, etc.)
Variety in available food choices the olfactory sense, impairing the ability to the food or vice versa (55).
also affects taste. This can be seen when to detect the aromas contributing to the
perception of flavor. Some people ap-
ply this principle to their advantage by Whether in a package or on a plate,
pinching their nostrils shut to lessen the a commercial food’s flavor is the single
Flavor The combined sense of taste, bad flavor of a disagreeable medicine most important factor determining its
odor, and mouthfeel. they must swallow. success in the marketplace (26). There

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 1 Food Selection 5

are thousands of ways to prepare foods texture, is judged by how easily the food Hearing
and beverages, but the method or chef gives way to the pressure of the teeth.
that yields the best flavor will most Consistency is only slightly differ- The sounds associated with foods can
likely be best received by consumers ent from tenderness, and is expressed in play a role in evaluating their quality.
whose number-one selection criterion terms of brittleness, chewiness, viscos- How often have you seen someone
is how something tastes. ity, thickness, thinness, and elasticity tapping a melon to determine if it is
(rubbery, gummy). ripe? Sounds like sizzling, crunching,
Astringency, which causes pucker- popping, bubbling, swirling, pouring,
ing of the mouth, is possibly due to the squeaking, dripping, exploding (think
? How & Why? drawing out of proteins naturally found
in the mouth’s saliva and mucous mem-
of an egg yolk in a micr owave), and
crackling can communicate a gr eat
Why do flavors differ in how branes (18). Foods such as cranberries, deal about a f ood while it is b eing
quickly they are detected or lemon juice, and vinegar have astrin- prepared, poured, or chewed. Most
how long they last? gent qualities. of these sounds are affected by water
The amount of fat in a food or Another term used in the sensory content, and their characteristics thus
beverage determines how intense perception of foods is chemethesis. give clues to a food’s freshness and/or
the flavor is over time. Flavor com- Chemethesis defines how certain foods doneness.
pounds dissolved in fat (fat-soluble that are not physically hot or cold ap-
compounds) take longer to be pear to give the impression of being
detected and last longer than fla-
“hot” (hot salsa) or “cooling” (cucum-
vor compounds dissolved in water
(water-soluble compounds), which
bers) when placed on the tongue (39). NUTRITIONAL
Although extremely hot temperatures
are quickly detected but disap-
pear much more quickly (23). This can literally burn the taste buds (they CRITERIA
explains why a reduced-fat product later regenerate), the other kind of “hot” Over the past several decades, emerging
is unlikely to duplicate the flavor of that may be experienced with food is scientific evidence about health and
the original food: the original fat’s the kind generated by “hot” peppers nutrition has resulted in changing food
flavor compounds are missing, caus- (Chemist’s Corner 1-1). The ho tness consumption patterns in t he United
ing an imbalance of the other flavors in peppers is produced by a chemical States (12). Past surveys reveal at least
present. Reduced-fat cookies, for called capsaicin (cap-SAY-iss-in). Many half of all consumers reportedly making
example, taste sweeter unless they
people enjoy the sensation of capsaicin a major change in t heir diets, wi th
are modified to compensate (53). It
is even more difficult to replace cer-
in moderation, but it can cause real pain nutrition being second only to taste in
tain fats that, in addition to contrib- because it is a powerful chemical that importance to shoppers (48, 93). The
uting to traditional flavor releases irritates nerves in the nose and mouth. changing food habits are related to
and mouthfeel, also have their own In fact, this compound is s o caustic the increased awareness that diet can
distinctive flavor, as is the case for when concentrated that it is now used be related to some of the leading causes
butter, olive oil, and bacon fat (55). by many law enforcement agencies in of death—heart disease, cancer, and
place of the mace-like sprays. diabetes—as well as to other common
health conditions such as osteoporosis,
diverticulosis, and obesity (40).
Touch Obesity has r eached epidemic
The sense of touch, whether it operates proportions in the United States (24)
inside the mouth or through the fingers, and is a r isk factor for heart disease,
conveys to us a food’s texture, consis- CHEMIST’S cancer, diabetes, and other health
tency, astringency, and temperature. CORNER 1-1 conditions. Health care costs are higher
Texture is a combination of percep- Hot Peppers and Body in people who are obese compared
tions, with the eyes giving the first clue. Chemistry to people of normal weight (3). Being
The second comes at the touch of fin-
gers and eating utensils, and the third is The warming sensation experienced
mouthfeel, as detected by the teeth and by some people eating hot peppers
the tactile nerve cells in the mouth, lo- or foods made with them is due to
cated on the tongue and palate. Textural the body’s secreting catecholamines,
or structural qualities are especially ob- a group of amines composed of epi-
vious in foods such as apples, popcorn, nephrine (adrenaline), norepineph- Consistency Describes a food’s
liver, crackers, potato chips, tapioca pud- rine (noradrenaline), and dopamine. firmness or thickness.
ding, cereals, and celery, to name just a These catecholamines activate the
Astringency A sensory phenom-
few. Textures felt in the mouth can be de- “fight-or-flight” response, which
enon characterized by a dry, puckery
scribed as coarse (grainy, sandy, mealy), normally triggers increased respira-
feeling in the mouth.
crisp, fine, dry, moist, greasy, smooth tion rate, a faster heart beat, slowed
(creamy, velvety), lumpy, rough, sticky, digestion, widened pupils, and en- Chemethesis The ability to feel a
solid, porous, bubbly, or flat. Tender- hanced energy metabolism (41, 73). food’s chemical properties (e.g., cool
ness, which is somewhat dependent on mints or hot chili peppers).

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
6 Chapter 1 Food Selection

overweight is one of the biggest and MyPyramid intakes, and more people are read-
costliest health problems in the United ing the Nutrition Facts on food labels
States (3). Als o, some $33 b illion MyPyramid is a visual food group plan to understand what they are consum-
are spent annually by 65 millio n developed by the USDA to illustrate the ing (Chapter 29). Thr oughout the
Americans on “quick fix” weight loss concepts of the Dietary Guidelines. The 1990s, consumers reported their big-
solutions, most of which achieve no www.mypyramid.gov website is an in- gest nutritional concern to be fat; this
permanent results. teractive site designed to assist people exceeded concerns about salt, choles-
To reduce dietary risk factors for some in creating a personal food plan and terol, sugar, and even calories (kcal)
of the major health conditions affecting making better food and lifestyle choices (84). Today, Americans are ingesting
Americans, the U.S. government pub- by taking small steps toward those goals less red meat and whole milk, a nd
lished several diet-planning guides. Two each day. The Food Guide Pyramid, more poultry, reduced-fat (2%) milk,
important ones are the Dietary Guide- MyPyramid’s predecessor, was first de- fresh fruits, fresh vegetables, pasta,
lines for Americans and MyPyramid veloped in 1992 to encourage Americans and rice. As a r esult, fat consump-
(www.mypyramid.gov). to improve their diets and to replace tion has dropped from 42% of calories
the basic f our food groups of milk, (kcal) in t he mid-1960s to less t han
meat, vegetable/fruit, and bread/cereal 33% today (16).
(34, 91). Ot her countries have their
Dietary Guidelines own versions of this type of guideline;
Canada’s version is available online (see Health Focus
for Americans websites at end of chapter) (74). The The focus of the Dietary Guidelines
The emphasis on adjusting fat and easy-to-comprehend visual concept of since their 2010 revision has been to
other dietary factors in the diet was MyPyramid organizes foods into six promote the best diet for reducing the
reinforced by the Dietary Guidelines, food groups. The lower-fat, complex risk of chronic disease often resulting
which have been published every five carbohydrate foods such as grains are from excess consumption of the wrong
years since 1980 by the United States emphasized, followed by vegetables, kinds of foods and to boost the intake
Department of Agriculture (USDA) fruits, and milk, meat and beans, and of nutrients such as calcium, fiber, vi-
and the United States Department of oil. The narrow slivers of color at the tamin A, vitamin C, and potassium.
Health and Human Services (DHHS) top imply moderation in foods rich in According to an International Food
(92). As of this writing, the latest solid fats and added sugar. Information Council survey, the ma-
Dietary Guidelines for healthy adults Other U.S. pyramids exist and in- jority of Americans believe that some
are available in 2010. They encourage clude the Mediterranean, Asian, Latin foods can have health benefits besides
people to follow the recommendations American, and vegetarian pyramids. Re- their nutritive value and can delay
available at www.mypyramid.gov garding this last pyramid, the American the onset, or reduce the risk, of seri-
(select Dietary Guidelines). Dietetic Association suggested that ous and chronic diseases (www.health.
properly planned vegetarian diets may gov/DietaryGuidelines/). The vegetar-
reduce the risk of certain chronic, de- ian movement is gaining ground; ap-
generative diseases and conditions in- proximately 15% of college students
cluding heart disease, some cancers, define themselves as vegetarians. About
diabetes mellitus, obesity, and high 33% of Americans have used herbs or
blood pressure (2). Other factors may, herb products medicinally, and about
however, contribute to the decreased 60% take a multivitamin supplement.
Food group plan A diet-planning The concept that “food is medicine” is
morbidity and mortality from these
tool that “groups” foods together common to many cultures, and the shift
diseases among vegetarians. These in-
based on nutrient and calorie (kcal) from treating an established disease to
clude positive lifestyle differences such
content and then specifies the preventing its occurrence is slowly gain-
as lower rates of smoking and drinking.
amount of servings a person should ing ground. Overall, more people view
Nevertheless, vegetarian diet benefits
have based on their recommended foods as an integral part of maintaining
probably come from lower intakes of
calorie (kcal) intake. their health (1).
fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, and ani-
Antioxidant A compound that mal protein, balanced by higher levels
inhibits oxidation, which can cause of phytochemicals, fiber, complex car- Complementary and
deterioration and rancidity. bohydrates, antioxidants such as vita- Alternative Medicine
mins C and E, carotenoids, and folate Another influence on consumer dietary
Nutraceutical A bioactive com- (a B vitamin) (60).
pound (nutrients and nonnutrients)
changes is complementary and alterna-
that has health benefits.
tive medicine (CAM), which is making
permanent inroads in the U.S. medical
Functional food A food or bev- Consumer Dietary landscape. Terms such as nutraceuticals
erage that imparts physiological and functional foods (described more
benefits that enhance overall health, Changes fully following this section) are becoming
prevents or treats a disease or condi- As a result of these dietary guidelines commonplace. In the United States, nu-
tion, and/or improves physical/ and other influences, consumers have traceuticals is a term often used to refer
mental performance. shifted their dietary concerns and to dietary supplements, while the official

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 Chapter 1 Food Selection 7

5 CALORIE CONTROL
Calorie Balance
One out of every four people in the United States was classified How Many Calories Do People
as “obese” in 2007 according to the Centers for Disease Control Consume Each DAY?
and Prevention (CDC) (14). A website link at the end of this chapter The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for calories (2403 per day for women
allows each person to calculate his/her body mass index (BMI). and 3067 for men) exceed those reported by the National Health and
This number is a ratio based on a person’s weight to height that Nutrition Examination Survey (1999–2000), which measures the actual
classifies him or her as underweight, normal weight, overweight, caloric intakes (1,833 for women and 2,475 for men) of a population
or obese. in which one fourth are obese (15). Although it’s best for people to
The CDC is concerned about obesity because of health determine their caloric and nutrient needs by seeing a registered dietitian
consequences, high health care costs, increased absenteeism, (RD), the approximate calories needed each day by healthy adults to
and work-related injuries (52). Although many other factors such “reach” and “maintain” a healthy goal weight are suggested below:
as environment, genetics, disease, and drugs may contribute to
obesity, this book focuses on the primary cause of obesity—too Women approximately 1,600 calories for each day
many calories (Figure 1-3).
The purpose of the “Calorie Control” sections in this book is Men approximately 2,400–2,600 calories for each day
to address the obesity epidemic by providing readers with calories
found in foods and healthful ways to modify their diets. Specific This estimate includes exercising three times a week for at least
topics to be included are: (1) average daily caloric intakes by 20 minutes each session. A person will need more calories if they
Americans (see below), (2) calorie sources (see Chapter 3 on Food exercise more than three times a week—approximately 300–600
Composition), (3) the average number of calories found in foods calories for each hour of aerobic exercise. The exceptions are active
(see individual chapters), (4) suggestions for practicing portion (athletes) and larger people, who need more calories; sedate and
control (see Chapter 5 on Food Preparation Basics and various shorter people, who need fewer calories; and older people, who
individual chapters), and (5) healthful preparation methods (various need fewer calories (after 40, people need 100 fewer calories for
chapters). each 10 years of age) (92).

FIGURE 1-3 Caloric balance is like a scale. To remain in balance and maintain your body weight, the calories
consumed (from foods) must be balanced by the calories used (in normal body functions, daily activities, and exercise).

If you are: Your caloric balance is:

Maintaining Weight
• “IN BALANCE”

• You are eating roughly the same number of calories that your body
CALORIES IN CALORIES OUT is using.
Food Body functions
Beverages Physical activity • Your weight will remain stable.

Gaining Weight
• “IN CALORIC EXCESS”
CALORIES IN • You are eating more calories than your body is using.
Food
Beverages CALORIES OUT • You will store these extra calories as fat and you’ll gain weight.
Body functions
Physical activity

Losing Weight
• “IN CALORIE DEFICIT”
CALORIES OUT • You are eating fewer calories than you are using.
Body functions
CALORIES IN Physical activity • Your body is pulling from its fat storage cells for energy, so your weight
Food is decreasing.
Beverages

(Continued)

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
8 Chapter 1 Food Selection

How Many Calories for Each MEAL? calories a day. This should result in a weekly 1-pound weight gain or
Because it’s challenging to count total daily calories, the easier loss, respectively.
method is to break it down for each “meal.” This is done by taking the
How Many Calories Equal a Pound?
average number of calories needed for women (1,600) and dividing it
3,500 calories 5 1 pound
by 4—three 400-calorie meals plus one 400-calorie snack (or two
200-calorie snacks). The snacks are best eaten mid-morning and mid- To lose 1 pound 5 Consume 3,500 calories less and/or burn
afternoon, but can be taken in any combination of calories during it off with exercise
any part of the day and even as part of a meal. For men, the average
To gain 1 pound 5 Consume 3,500 calories over what your body
2,400 calories a day is divided by four to equal three 600-calorie
burns
meals plus one 600-calorie snack (or two 300-calorie snacks).
Combination of Diet and Exercise
Starving Is a Bad Idea If a person can achieve a deficit of 500 calories per day through diet
About two thirds of a person’s calories are used to sustain life: heart and/or exercise, they will lose approximately 1 pound a week.
beating, lungs breathing, body temperature at 97.6°F/36.4°C, and
other bodily functions. Most of the remaining 30% of calories are Successful Weight Loss Is Usually Slow
burned by activity. Consistency is the goal. The slower you lose the weight, the more
The bottom line is that based on gender, a person should not likely it will stay off.
consume less than the following amount of daily calories: 1 pound a week for 1 month = 4 weeks 5 4 pounds
Women 1,200 calories (about 70% of 1,600) 1 pound a week for 1 year = 52 weeks 5 52 pounds
Men 1,600 calories (about 70% of 2,400)
© 2010 Amy Brown

How to Gain or Lose Weight

The recommended method of gaining or losing weight is to either
increase or decrease caloric intake, respectively, by at least 500

definition in Canada is “a product iso- and efficacy (power to produce effects reasons beyond basic caloric and nu-
lated or purified from foods, and gener- or “does it work? ”) of herbal p rod- trient content. The f unctional food
ally sold in medicinal forms not usually ucts. Germany defines herbal remedies concept first developed in Japan in the
associated with food and demonstrated in the same manner as it does drugs, late 1980s. Both Japan and Europe ap-
to have a physiological benefit or provide because its physicians, and others in pear to surpass the United States in
protection against chronic disease” (44). Europe, often prescribe herbal remedies their interest in how foods can benefit
Europe and Japan lead the way in that are paid for by government health health beyond providing carbohydrates,
complementary medicine. In Germany, insurance. protein, fat, and vitamins/minerals. In
the E Commission was created in 1978 fact, Japan is the only country that rec-
to ensure product standardization and Functional Foods ognizes functional foods as a distinc t
safe use of herbs and phytomedicines. Known in Japan as “Foods for Specified category, and the Japanese functional
Composed of a body of experts from Health Use,” functional foods are those food market is now one of the most
the medical and pharmacology profes- produced, selected, or consumed for advanced in the world (95). Purported
sions, the pharmaceutical industry, and
laypersons, the German E Commission
studies the scientific literature for re-
search data on herbs based on clinical
trials, field studies, and case studies. It
has created a collection of monographs
representing the most accurate informa-
tion available in the world on the safety

Monograph A summary sheet (fact

sheet) describing a substance in terms
of name (common and scientific),
imagebroker/Alamy

chemical constituents, functional

uses (medical and common), dosage,
side effects, drug interactions, and
references.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 1 Food Selection 9

uses for which functional foods have foods (co-published by the author)— Urinary Tract Function
been manufactured include, but are are now explained: • Cranberry juice reduces bacterial
not limited to, maintenance of gastro- concentrations in the urine (64).
1. Conventional Foods. Unmodified
intestinal health, blood pressure, and
whole foods or conventional foods Some other health conditions af-
blood cholesterol levels (4). Japan has
such as fruits and vegetables are fected by conventional foods include
imported record shipments of blueber-
the simplest functional foods. For osteoporosis, diabetes, arthritis, brain
ries from the United States because the
example, tomatoes, raspberries, health (mood, memory, depression,
blueberry’s blue pigment, anthocyanin,
kale, or broccoli are considered insomnia, stress, anxiety, and alert-
is a p owerful antioxidant thought to
functional foods because they are ness), weight (appetite, weight loss or
possibly benefit eyesight (47).
rich in such bioactive components gain), eyesight, and enhanced energy
The United States has no o fficial
as lycopene, ellagic acid, lutein, and and sports performance (64).
definition existing for “functional
sulforaphane, respectively. A few of 2. Modified Foods. Functional foods
foods” because they are not recog-
the many examples of health ben- can also include those that have
nized as a regulatory category by the
efits linked to conventional foods by been modified through fortification,
Food and Drug Administration. More-
emerging evidence include: enrichment, or enhancement. These
over, the largest organization of food
and nutritional professionals in t he Cancer Risk Reduction include calcium-fortified orange
United States, The American Dietetic • Cruciferous vegetables reduce risk juice (for bone health), folate-
Association (ADA), classifies all foods of several types of cancers (67). enriched breads (for proper fetal
as functional at some physiological • Tomato products rich in lycopene development), or foods enhanced
level because they provide nutrients or may reduce the risk of prostate, with bioactive components, such as
other substances that furnish energy, ovarian, gastric, and pancreatic margarines containing plant stanol
sustain growth, and/or maintain and cancers (54). or sterol esters (for cholesterol low-
repair the body. However, functional • Citrus fruit may reduce the risk ering), and beverages enhanced with
foods move beyond basic sur vival of stomach cancer (6). “energy-promoting” ingredients
needs by providing additional health Heart Health such as ginseng, guaraná, or taurine.
benefits that may reduce disease risk • Dark chocolate reduces high Modifying foods through biotech-
and/or promote optimal health. Spe- blood pressure (29). nology to improve their nutritional
cifically, the ADA defines functional • Tree nuts and peanuts reduce value and health attributes may also
fo o ds as inc luding conventional the risk of sudden cardiac death bring new functional foods, such
foods, modified foods (fortified, en- (59). as omega-3 fatty acid-enhanced
riched, or enhanced), medical foods, or trans fat-free oils, to the mar-
Intestinal Health Maintenance
and foods for special dietar y use ketplace (76), although the topic
• Fermented dairy products
(Table 1-1) (43). Thes e functional remains controversial.
(probiotics) may reduce irritable
food categories—published in a 2009 3. Medical Foods. The term medical
bowel syndrome symptoms (79).
ADA Position Paper on functional food, as defined by the Orphan Drug
Act, is “a food which is formulated
to be consumed or administered
TABLE 1-1 Func tional Food 1 Categories and Selec ted internally? under the supervision of
Food Examples a physician and which is intended
for the specific dietary management
Functional food category Selected functional food examples
of a disease or condition for which
Conventional foods (whole foods) Garlic distinctive nutritional requirements,
Nuts based on recognized scientific prin-
ciples, are established by medical
Modified foods
evaluation” (33). Examples of medi-
Fortified Calcium-fortified orange juice
cal foods include oral supplements
Iodized salt
Enriched in the form of phenylketonuria
Enhanced
Folate-enriched breads (PKU) formulas free of phenylala-
Enhanced energy bars, snacks, yogurts, teas, bottled nine, and diabetic, renal, and liver
water, and other functional foods formulated with formulations. How the product is
bioactive components such as lutein, fish oils, ginkgo
marketed to consumers determines
biloba, St. John’s wort, saw palmetto, and/or assorted
amino acids
the regulatory status of a product.
For example, a canned or bottled
Medical foods Phenylketonuria (PKU) formulas free of phenylalanine oral supplement used under medical
Foods for special dietary use Infant foods
supervision is a medical food; how-
ever, it becomes a food for special
Hypoallergenic foods such as gluten-free foods,
lactose-free foods
dietary use when sold to consumers
at the retail level.
Weight-loss foods
4. Foods for Special Dietary Use. The
1As defined by the American Dietetic Association Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic

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10 Chapter 1 Food Selection

Act [Section 411(c)(3)] defines disorder, and a myriad of inflamma- FIGURE 1-4 Percent distribution
special dietary use as “a particular tory disorders—and any other disease of racial/ethnic groups in the United
use for which a food purports or is or condition with a genetic link that States. Fifteen percent of Americans
represented to be used, including may be improved by dietary modifica- report themselves to be “Spanish/
but not limited to the following: tion (20). Nutrigenomics relies on nu-
Hispanic/Latino.”
(1) supplying a special dietary need tritional biochemistry to explain why
that exists by reason of a physi- differences in genes cause variations in American
cal, physiological, pathological, or absorption, circulation, or metabolism Indians
other condition . . .; (2) supplying a of essential nutrients. This knowledge 1%
Asian, Native Hawaiian,
vitamin, mineral, or other ingredient enables people to select certain foods
and Pacific Islanders
for use by humans to supplement the for optimal health or reduced risk of 4%
diet by increasing the total dietary chronic disease (30). Some have sug-
intake, and (3) supplying a special gested that this science is still in its Other
dietary need by reason of being a infancy, so its contribution to human 8%
food for use as the sole item of the health may take some time (68). African
diet. . . .” (33). Examples of such Americans
foods would include infant formu- 12%
las, and hypoallergenic foods such
as gluten-free foods, lactose-free CULTURAL
foods, and foods offered for
reducing weight.
CRITERIA
Culture is another factor influencing
Although functional foods are
food choice. Culture influences food
emerging as one of the latest trends in
habits by dictating what is or is not ac-
food and nutrition, this concept is not
ceptable to eat. Foods that are relished
entirely new; about 2,500 years ago,
in one part of the world may be spurned
Hippocrates said, “Let food be thy med- White Americans 75%
in another. Grubs, which are a good pro-
icine, and medicine be thy food” (9).
tein source, are acceptable to the aborig-
ines of Australia. Whale blubber is used
Nutrigenomics in many ways in the arctic region, where
Someday people might receive diet the extremely cold weather makes a Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

plans tailored to their genes thanks to high-fat diet essential. Dog is considered
nutrigenomics, which first appeared a delicacy in some Asian countries. Es-
in the scientific literature in 2001 (75). cargots (snails) are a favorite in France. American population being of “Hispanic
Before the term was coined, nutrig- Sashimi (raw fish) is a Japanese tradi- or Latino” descent. An increasingly di-
enomics existed undefined within the tion that has been fairly well accepted verse population in the United States,
study of metabolic disorders (inborn in the United States. Locusts, another accompanied by people traveling
errors of metabolism). These genetic source of protein, are considered choice more and communicating over longer
errors often occur due to the lack of items in the Middle East. Octopus, once distances, has contributed to a more
an enzyme within a biochemical path- thought unusual, now appears on many worldwide community, and a f ood
way resulting in a need f or dietary American menus. industry that continues to “go global”
intervention, as in the case with phe- (80). Within the boundaries of the
nylketonuria (PKU). Nutrigenomics United States alone, many foods once
includes not only these diseases, but Ethnic Influences considered ethnic are now common-
all others where less dramatic genetic Ethnic minorities comprise at least place: pizza, tacos, beef teriyaki, pastas,
differences result in different dietary 25% of the U.S. population of ap- and gyros. More recently arrived ethnic
needs—such as heart disease, diabetes proximately 300 million people, with foods, such as Thai, Indian, Moroccan,
(types 1 and 2), osteoporosis, rheuma- the four major groups being African, and Vietnamese, are constantly being
toid arthritis, hypertension, bipolor Other (includes two or more races), added to the mix to meet the escalat-
A s i a n / Na t i v e Ha w a i i a n / Pa c i f i c ing demands for meals providing more
Islanders, and Native/Alaskan Americans variety, stronger flavors, novel visual
(Figure 1-4). The U .S. Census does appeal, and less fat (85).
not classify “Hispanic” or “Latino” as a
Nutrigenomics A field of study
race. Rather, those taking the survey are
focusing on genetically-determined
asked whether or not they are “Spanish/ Place of Birth
biochemical pathways linking spe-
Hispanic/Latino” and to select the race Birthplace influences the foods that a
cific dietary substances with health
to which they identify. The belief is that person will be exposed to, and helps
and disease.
people from this group may be of any to shape the dietary patterns that are
Culture The ideas, customs, skills, race, but this makes the overall per- often followed for life. Salsa varies in
and art of a group of people in a centage “picture” a little confusing. The flavor, texture, and color depending
given period of civilization. latest U.S. Census reported 13% of the on whether it was prepared in Mexico,

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 Chapter 1 Food Selection 11

Guatemala, Puerto Rico, or Peru. Curry More than 85% o f the American some Hindus believe that the soul is all-
blends differ drastically depending on population claims to be Christian, and important, uniting all beings as one, so
where in the world the recipe evolved. the bread (wafers) and wine served by it is against their beliefs to injure or kill a
In Mexican cuisine, the same dish may many denominations during commu- person or an animal. Thus strict Hindus
taste different in different states. nion symbolize the body and blood of reject poultry, eggs, and the flesh of
Christ. A traditional holiday meal with any animal. The cow is not considered
a turkey or ham as t he main entrée sacred among Hindus as is widely be-
Geography is usually served at Christmas and/or lieved, but it is an animal so it is not
and Climate Easter. The eggs used at Easter symbol- slaughtered for food. However, dairy
ize new life and were originally painted products from cattle are acceptable and
Not so long ago, geography and cli-
red to represent Christ’s blood. Early even considered spiritually pure (27).
mate were the main determinants of
Christians exchanged these eggs to Coconut and ghee, or clarified butter,
what foods were available to be chosen.
recognize each other. Another food are also accorded sacred status, but may
People ate foods that were grown close
used among Christians is fish, which be consumed after a fast. S ome strict
to where they lived and very rarely were
for many Catholics, until recently, was Hindus do not eat garlic, onions, mush-
presented with the possibility of eating
served on Fridays instead of meat. rooms, turnips, lentils, or tomatoes.
those of a more exotic nature. For ex-
Some of the food practices of
ample, guava fruit grown in tropical re-
Buddhists, Hindus, Seventh-Day Adven-
gions was not even a consideration in an
area such as Greenland. Now the wide
tists, Mormons, Jews, and Muslims are Seventh-Day
explored in further detail below. Adventist Church
distribution of formerly “local” foods
throughout the world provides many A vegetarian diet is r ecommended
people with an incredible variety of food but not required for members of the
choices. Buddhism
Seventh-Day Adventist Church. About
There are over 100 million Buddhists 40% of its members are vegetarians,
in China and 300 million worldwide. the majority of them lacto-ovo-
Cultural Influences Buddhists believe in karuna, which is vegetarians, meaning that they allow
on Manners compassion, and karma, a concept that milk and egg products (42). C on-
implies that “good is rewarded with sumption of between-meal snacks,
Culture not only influences what types good; evil is rewarded with evil; and
of foods are chosen, but also the way hot spices, alcohol, tea, and coffee is
the rewarding of good and evil is only discouraged (10).
they are consumed and the behavior a matter of time” (50). Many Buddhists
surrounding their consumption. In consider it uncompassionate to eat
some parts of India, for example, only the flesh of another living creature, so
the right hand is used for eating and Church of Jesus Christ
vegetarianism is often followed; how-
manipulating utensils; the left hand is ever, not all Buddhists are vegetarian. of Latter-Day Saints
reserved for restroom duties. Foods may
be served on banana leaves or wrapped
Whether Buddhists are vegetarian de- (Mormon Church)
pends on their personal choice, the reli-
in cornhusks. It may be eaten with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
gious sect to which they belong, and the
chopsticks, as is t he custom through- Day Saints discourages the consump-
country where they live (27).
out Asia, or with spoons, forks, and tion of alcohol, coffee, and tea. Section
knives as in Europe and the Americas. 89:12 of the Doctrine and Covenants
It is considered impolite in China not written in 1833 states, “Yea, flesh also
to provide your guest with a bountiful
Hinduism of beasts and of the fowls of the air . . .
meal, so an unusually large number of Most of the 930 million followers of they are to be used sparingly.” Although
food courses is served when guests are Hinduism live in India, and the Hindu not all Mormons follow these lifestyle
present. American Foundation estimates that recommendations, several studies sug-
there are 2 million Hindus in the United gest that they are healthier as a group
States. Like Buddhism, Hinduism compared to the average American. A
also promotes vegetarianism among significant number of Mormons live in
RELIGIOUS some, but not all, of its followers (57). Utah, and several studies have shown
Buddhism actually originated in India that the death rate attributed to specific
CRITERIA before being disseminated to Asia and diseases for Utah residents is 40% below
Religion is another important influence surrounding areas. The goal of both the average U.S. rate because of lower
on food choices. Religious beliefs affect Hinduism and Buddhism is to reach rates of heart disease and cancer. Other
the diets of many by declaring which “enlightenment” or “nirvana,” in which factors possibly affecting the death rate
foods are acceptable and unacceptable the soul transcends “individual” ego are the discouragement of smoking and
and by specifying preparation proce- and unites with the cosmos’ higher state using illegal drugs, the recommenda-
dures. By designating certain foods for of consciousness (sometimes described tions of regular physical activity and
specific occasions and assigning sym- as One, Supreme God). It is believed proper sleep, and a positive religious
bolic value to some, religious principles that souls who do not reach this state outlook (77). The lower fat content of
wield further influence (28). on earth are reincarnated. As a result, some vegetarian diets and the strength

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12 Chapter 1 Food Selection

of Utah’s health care system also can- FIGURE 1-5 Examples of kosher and halal food symbols.
not be ignored as possible contributing
factors. Kosher Halal

Judaism Organized Kashruth

Laboratories
The kashruth is the list of dietary laws Brooklyn, NY Islamic Services of
adhered to by orthodox Jews. Kosher America
dietary laws focus on three major Cedar Rapids, IA
issues (81): OU Kosher
Supervision Service
1. Kosher animals allowed New York, NY
2. Blood not allowed
3. Mixing of milk and meat not
allowed
Foods are sorted into one of three has been properly removed. Foods that describe halal (p ermitted) or haram
groups: meat, dairy, or pareve (contain- are tainted with blood, a substance con- (prohibited) foods (82). The five major
ing neither meat nor dairy) (58). Milk sidered by Jews to be synonymous with areas addressed by the halal follow:
and meat cannot be prepared together life, are forbidden (27).
1. Animals not allowed
or consumed in the same meal. In fact, Kosher foods are labeled with a logo
2. Blood not allowed
separate sets of dishes and utensils are such as those of the kosher-certifying
3. Improper slaughtering method
used to prepare and serve them, and a agencies shown in Figure 1-5. Manu-
4. Carrion (decaying carcass) not
specified amount of time (1 to 6 hours) facturing facilities are inspected by a
allowed
must pass between the consumption of rabbi before a kosher certification can
5. Intoxicants not allowed
milk and meat. Foods considered kosher be given for a food (13). People other
than Jews who often purchase kosher Many of the halal dietary food laws
include fruits, vegetables, grain prod-
foods include Moslems, Seventh-Day are similar to the food laws of Judaism,
ucts, and with some exceptions during
Adventists, vegetarians, individuals and like kosher foods, halal foods are
Passover, tea, coffee, and dairy products
with allergies (shellfish) or food intol- identified with symbols (Figure 1-5).
from kosher animals as long as t hey
erances (milk), and anyone who per- However, the most str iking similar-
are not eaten simultaneously with meat
ceives kosher foods as being of higher ity is that the kosher meat consumed
or fowl (82). Kosher animals are rumi-
quality (58). by Jews is permitted for Muslims be-
nants, such as cattle, sheep, and goats
Food figures prominently in the cel- cause the animal has been slaughtered
that have split hooves and chew their
ebration of the major Jewish holidays. in a manner that allows the blood to be
cud. Other meats that are considered
Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, fully drained. Halal meat is also permit-
kosher are chicken, turkey, goose, and
is celebrated in part with a large meal. ted and defined as any meat from ap-
certain ducks.
Yom Kippur, or the Day of Atonement, proved animals processed according to
Orthodox Jews are not allowed to eat
requires a day of fasting preceded by a Muslim guidelines. Most meat is al-
nonkosher foods such as carnivorous an-
bland evening meal the night before. lowed except pork, carnivorous animals
imals, birds of prey, pork (bacon, ham),
Passover, which is an eight-day celebra- with fangs (lions, wolves, tigers, dogs,
fish without scales or fins (shark, eel,
tion marking the Exodus from Egypt, etc.), birds with sharp claws (falcons,
and shellfish such as shrimp, lobster, and
is commemorated in part by a me al eagles, owls, vultures, etc.), land animals
crab), sturgeon, catfish, swordfish, un-
whose components represent different without ears (frogs, snakes, etc.), shark,
derwater mammals, reptiles, or egg
aspects of the historic event. The Jews and products containing pork or gelatin
yolk containing any blood. These foods
left Egypt without enough time for their made from the horns or hooves of cattle
are considered unclean or treif. Even
bread to leaven (rise); to commemorate (19). Alcohol and products containing
the meat from allowed animals is not
this event, leavened bread is prohibited alcohol in any form, including vanillin
considered kosher unless the animals
during the Passover celebration. As a and wine vinegar, are forbidden. Stim-
have been slaughtered under the su-
result, the five prohibited grains are ulants such as tea and coffee are also
pervision of a rabbi or other authorized
wheat, rye, oats, barley, and spelt. The discouraged.
individual who ensures that the blood
only grain allowed during Passover is Ramadan is a time of the year that
unleavened bread made f rom wheat significantly affects diet for Muslims.
(matzo). Islam teaches that the ninth month
of the lunar calendar is the month in
which the Prophet Muhammad re-
Kosher From Hebrew, food that Islam ceived the revelation of the Muslim
is “fit, right, proper” to be eaten
Worldwide, there are over 1 b illion scripture, the Koran. This mo nth,
according to Jewish dietary laws.
Muslims compared to 13 million Jews which depends on the sighting of the
Halal An Arabic word meaning (27). The Koran, the divine book of new moon, is a time of religious obser-
“permissible.” Usually refers to Islam, contains the halal dietary food vances that include fasting from dawn
permissible foods under Islamic law. laws recommended for Muslims that to sunset.

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 Chapter 1 Food Selection 13

PSYCHOLOGICAL
AND SOCIOLOG-
ICAL CRITERIA
Social and psychological factors strongly
influence food habits. For most people,
the knowledge that food is readily avail-
able provides a sense of security. The
aim of every food company’s advertising
is to develop a sense of security among
consumers about its products. A soft
drink held in the hand of an athlete, the
cereal touted by a child’s favorite cartoon
character, and diet foods offered by slim,
vivacious spokespeople create positive
associations in people’s minds for these
products and assure them of their qual-
ity. Social conscience and peer pressure
sometimes influence food choices. One
recent trend has seen consumers mov-
ing toward more environmentally sound
purchases. At a buffet, the presence of
other people may influence a person’s
choice of food and beverages.
Psychological needs intertwine with
social factors when foods are used more
for a display of hospitality or status than

Iconica/Getty Images
for mere nourishment. Caviar is just
fish eggs, but is esteemed by many as
a delicacy. Beer tastes terrible to most
people when they try it for the first time,
but the social surroundings and pressures
may cause it to become an acquired
taste. Several studies have shown that History of Biotechnology (rDNA), allows researchers to transfer
information influences expectations, In the past, it took years to accomplish genetic material from one organism to
and expectations mold choices (21), so hybridization, or crossbreeding, by another (51). Instead of crossbreeding
it is no surprise that consumers report matching “the best to the best” in the for years, researchers can now identify
that television is t heir predominant plant, livestock, and fishery worlds to the genes responsible for a desired trait
source of information about nutrition achieve the desired results. Cattle, corn, and reorganize or insert them from
(42%), followed by magazines (39%) and even dogs were bred this way to
and newspapers (19%) (9, 66). yield desirable results. Dogs would not
Psychological factors also influence look the way they do without humans’
people’s response to three relatively modifying their genes through many
recent additions to the food market: ge- years of selective breeding. Depend- Biotechnology Previously called
netically modified, organic, and natural ing on the desired results, it could take genetic engineering, this term de-
foods. decades or even centuries to develop scribes the alteration of a gene in a
a certain “look” and/or function in an bacterium, plant, or animal for the
animal or plant. Traditional ways of purpose of changing one or more of
breeding to combine the genes of two its characteristics.
Bioengineering species in order to obtain a specific trait
Genetically modified organisms
Psychological and social factors are in- were thus time consuming, cumber-
(GMOs) Plants, animals, or micro-
volved in t he formation of public at- some, and unpredictable (17).
organisms that have had their genes
titudes toward the biotechnology of Along came the age of food biotech-
altered through genetic engineering
foods, a term preferred over genetically nology (genetic engineering), which
using the application of recombinant
engineered foods (31). The resulting ge- began in the early 1970s w hen DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA)
netically modified organisms (GMOs) was isolated from a bacterium, dupli-
technology.
are slowly gaining ground, but not every- cated, and inserted into another bac-
one is knowledgeable about or accepting terium. The resulting DNA, known as Gene A unit of genetic information
of the new foods (2). recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid in the chromosome.

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14 Chapter 1 Food Selection

the cells of one bacterium, plant, or they are green to prevent damage during • Allergies. The concern most com-
animal into the cells of other bacteria, transport; after shipping they are typically monly expressed to the Food and
plants, or animals (2). The goal of this ripened by exposure to ethylene gas. The Drug Administration by consumers
process is to produce new species or FlavrSavr™ was taken off the market after was the possibility that the proteins
improved versions of existing ones. The a few years as some consumers objected produced by these new genes could
U.S. Department of Agriculture envi- to genetic modification and others com- cause allergic reactions. In one
sions food biotechnology being used to plained that it did not taste good. Many study, soy was infused with a gene
increase production potential, improve consumers still seek the succulence of a from Brazil nuts, a known allergen,
resistance to pests and disease, and de- vine-ripened tomato. or allergy-causing substance (56).
velop more nutritious plant and animal After the FlavrSavr, other genetically Some people participating in the
products (83). engineered foods have been introduced experiment became ill, but this was
including celery without strings, squash a preliminary research study and
that is resistant to a common plant vi- the modified soy never reached the
Foods Created with rus, presweetened melons, and toma- market (71). Researchers would
Biotechnology toes resistant to damage from both cold be prudent to avoid food aller-
Food biotechnology has so far resulted and hot temperatures. Genes have also gens in the process of genetically
in benefits that increase the food’s resis- been reorganized in strawberries to in- engineering foods because, even
tance to the following (51): crease their natural sweetness. Possible though protein food allergies af-
• Pests (less pesticide required) genetically engineered foods of the fu- fect only a small percentage of the
• Disease (lower crop losses) ture include cow’s milk with some of the population, they still exist and can
• Harsh growing conditions (drought, immune benefits of human milk (49), cause problems (35).
salty soil, climate extremes) fruits containing higher amounts of vi- • Gene Contamination. Another con-
• Transport damage (less bruising allows tamins A and C, fats and oils containing cern is that genetically engineered
more produce to make it to market) more omega-3 fatty acids (62), f oods plants might “escape” into the wild,
• Spoilage (longer shelf life) that generate proteins that could be take over, and change the environ-
used as oral vaccines (5), and soybeans ment. Scientists assure us, however,
Foods using biotechnology can be providing a more complete source of that such plants are no more dan-
categorized as one of the following (2): protein (22). Currently, the three most gerous than traditionally bred crops.
popular GMOs among U.S. farmers are The greatest fear for some is that
1. Actual food (e.g., corn)
soybeans, corn, and cotton, with GM food biotechnology will lead to
2. Foods derived from or containing
soybeans representing 92% of planted researchers using this type of bio-
ingredients of actual food (e.g.,
acres in 2008. These soybeans infiltrate technology to try to “improve” the
cornmeal)
the food supply because so many pro- human race (56).
3. Foods containing single ingredients
cessed foods contain their oil (90). • Religious/Cultural Concerns. Some
or additives from GMOs (e.g., amino
people, for religious or cultural
acids, vitamins, colors)
Clones Some people may think that reasons, do not want certain animal
4. Foods containing ingredients
cloned animals or plants are geneti- genes appearing in plant foods.
obtained from enzymes produced
cally engineered; however, that is not For example, if swine genes were
through GMO foods
the case. The Biotechnology Industry inserted into vegetables for some
What actual foods have been pro- Organization describes cloning as a purpose, those vegetables would
duced using biotechnology? Some “breeding method that does not ma- not be considered kosher. In one
examples of GMO foods include nipulate the animal’s genetic make-up instance, a group of chefs refused to
ripening-delayed fruits, grains with a nor change an animal’s DNA; it is use a genetically engineered tomato
higher protein content, potatoes that ab- simply another form of sophisticated when they found out that its disease
sorb less fat when fried, insect-resistant assisted reproduction. Cloning allows resistance was obtained from a
apples, and more than 50 other plant livestock breeders to create a genetic mouse gene. Vegetarians may object
products. The first genetically engineered copy of an existing animal—essentially to a fish gene being placed in a to-
food to be approved by the Food and Drug an identical twin. Animal clones are mato to provide resistance to freez-
Administration was Calgene’s FlavrSavr™ not ‘biotech’ or ‘genetically engineered’ ing (45). Hawaiians objected when
tomato (Figure 1-6). Introduced to the animals; and their offspring are con- researchers tried to modify the gene
consumers in the mid-1990s, this tomato sidered ‘conventional’ animals.” sequence of their sacred taro plant,
was resistant to some common tomato which is commonly used to make
crop diseases; it could also be left on the poi (a starchy paste made from the
vine until fully ripened and flavorful, yet Concerns About Food plant’s corm, its thickened under-
withstand the hardship of shipping with- Biotechnology ground stem).
out bruising (45). The FlavrSavr tomato Some consumers view genetic engineer-
softens at a slower rate because of food ing as an invasion of nature’s domain,
biotechnology that reduces the activity and fear that scientists are treading on Acceptance/Rejection of
of an enzyme responsible for breaking dangerous ground. Their concerns in- Genetically Engineered Foods
down the cell wall during ripening (94). clude allergies, gene contamination, and Despite the controversy over animal
Conventional tomatoes are picked while religious/cultural objections. genes being inserted in plant foods,

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 Chapter 1 Food Selection 15

FIGURE 1-6 Genetically engineering a tomato to soften more slowly.

1. Ripe tomatoes contain an enzyme, polygalacturonase (PG), that

causes them to soften. The PG gene that forms this enzyme is
isolated and cloned. Scientists reverse the PG gene sequence and
place it into bacteria.

2.
The bacteria are grown in a petri dish filled with cut tomato
leaves. The leaves‘ edges absorb the bacteria and the PG gene
becomes part of the tomato plant cells’ genetic material.

3. Tomato plants are regenerated from leaf cuttings containing the

reversed PG gene.

4. The genetically engineered tomatoes can now ripen more fully on

the vine prior to harvest, and be transported later with less
concern for rotting due to softening.

SOURCE: Adapted from Ref 45.

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16 Chapter 1 Food Selection

the line b etween “plant genes” and TABLE 1-2 The U.S. Government’s Criteria for Defining
“animal genes” is alr eady blurred. Organic Food Produc ts
Bacteria, plants, and animals share a
large number of the more than 100,000 What does the label mean? The USDA Organic seal tells you a product is at least
genes found in higher organisms. Nev- 95% organic.
ertheless, research into people’s attitudes Organic Term Definition Labeling Allowed
about food repeatedly reveals that con-
sumers are more likely to accept bio- 100% Organic All ingredients of the
finished product are
technology conducted on plants rather
certified 100% organic.
than on animals or fish (46).
The Food and Drug Administration
accepts genetically engineered foods
as posing no risk to health or safety,
and for this reason it does not require
mandatory labeling, unless the foods Organic 95% of finished product
contain new allergens, have modified ingredients meet organic
nutritional profiles, or represent a new criteria.
plant (17). The National Academy of
Sciences has stated that genetic trans-
fers between unrelated organisms do
not pose hazards or risks different from
those encountered by natural selec-
tion or crossbreeding. Currently, there Made with Organic 70% of finished product “Made with Organic
is no evidence that transferring genes Ingredients ingredients meet organic Ingredients”
will convert a harmless organism into a criteria.
hazardous one (51). People who wish to Contains Organic Less than 70% of finished May only list organic
avoid GMOs can ensure that their foods Ingredients product ingredients meet ingredients on the
are free of this type of genetic modifi- criteria. information panel.
cation by purchasing organic foods.
It’s also a way to avoid foods produced
with the use of antibiotics, hormones, has to fit one of the four official defi- 38 nonorganic ingredients into foods
or pesticides (36, 63). nitions listed by the U.S. Department that were 95% or less organic. This list
of Agriculture (USDA) and shown in includes whey protein concentrate,
Table 1-2. The US DA’s definition of gelatin, 19 food colorings, two starches,
Organic Foods what is organic goes beyond just de- unmodified rice starch, sweet potato
Some people prefer to select organic scribing foods that are not sprayed starch, konjac flour, intestinal casings
foods, a term that had no official defi- with chemicals. The word organic now for hot dogs, fish oil, Wakame seaweed,
nition until 2002, following the Or- refers to food products that have been fructoligosaccharides, and some flavor-
ganic Foods Production Act of 1990 produced without most synthetic pes- providing items such as chipotle chili
(31). This act created the United States ticides and fertilizers (including sew- peppers, celery powder, dill weed oil,
National Organic Standards Board age sludge), crops that have not been chia, frozen lemon grass, Turkish bay
(NOSB), which in turn makes organic genetically modified (no GM Os or leaves, unbleached orange shellac, fro-
definition recommendations to the bioengineering), food products not zen galangal (citrus flavor from a rhi-
National Organic Program (located exposed to irradiation, and livestock zome), and hops for beer (86).
in the USDA’s Agricultural Marketing produced without antibiotics or hor-
Service). Terms commonly used in mones, raised on 100% organic feed, Organic Certification
the marketplace that do not have of- and grazing on pasture at least four The government agency certifying
ficial definitions or certification by months of the year, and 30% of their that a food is organic is the USDA. A
the government include “free-range,” feed must come from grazing (86). USDA certifier inspects the facilities
“hormone-free,” “natural,” “organically A few concerns exist f or organic where the food is grown, determines
produced,” “pesticide free,” “raised foods. One is t he cost to consumers, if organic standards were met, a nd
without antibiotics,” or even “certified as they are typically more expensive then labels such food products with
organic.” Prior to 2002, products were than their conventionally grown coun- the organic seal shown in Figure 1-7.
often labeled “organic” by growers terparts. Another is that some propo- Both 100% and 95% organic products
without any real certification, or they nents mislead the public with the “fear may use the USDA organic seal, while
were certified by private agencies ac- factor” of suggesting that only organic those made wi th less t han 95% o r-
cording to a patchwork of regulations foods and beverages are healthy or safe. ganic ingredients are limited in what
that varied from state to state. Now, On the side of organic advocates is the they may place on the label. USDA
for a food to be labeled “organic” it concern that in 2007 the USDA allowed agents determine if f ood is organic

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 Chapter 1 Food Selection 17

FIGURE 1-7 USDA’s official organic seal. only minimally processed? The product
is natural if the answer to the first ques-
tion is no, and the answer to the second
question is yes (32). The lack of an offi-
cial definition for “natural” for all other
foods and beverages can lead to incon-
sistent claims and consumer confusion.

BUDGETARY
CRITERIA
Cost is a very important limiting factor
in food purchasing. In fact, debit cards
obtained through the U.S. Department

USDA
of Agriculture’s Supplemental Nutrition
Assistance Program (SNAP; formerly
the Food Stamp Program) are limited
by following the guidelines set by the Natural Foods by the “Thrifty Food Plan” that calcu-
USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Ser- lates what an average family needs to
vice (AMS), published as the National The word “natural” on a f ood label spend on food (89).
Organic Program (NOP) in the Federal may or may not mean anything about Cost helps determine the types of
Register (December 21, 2000). Produc- how the food was produced or what it foods and brands that are bought and
ers selling less than $5,000 in organic contains. This is b ecause no official, the frequency of restaurant patronage.
products are exempt from certification, United States FDA definition exists for People feeling financial strain may still
but they must still follow the standards “natural” foods except for meat, poultry, eat beef, but they may choose ground
(86). Only those food products that and eggs overseen by the USDA. Natural beef over prime rib. “Can I afford this?”
were organically grown or processed is defined by the USDA for its products is a question that also applies to time,
and certified by an accredited USDA by answering two questions: (1) Does which can make convenience foods ef-
organic–certifying agent can carry the product contain an artificial ingre- fectively more economical, even if the
the organic seal. Violators making dient, a chemical preservative, or any dollar price is higher. Budgeting and
false claims can be fi ned $10,000 per other synthetic or artificial ingredient? time management are discussed in
offense. (2) Are the product and its ingredients greater detail in Chapter 6.

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18 Chapter 1 Food Selection

P I C T O R I A L S U M M A RY / 1: Food Selection

People choose foods that satisfy their senses of sight, smell, taste, enriched, or enhanced), medical foods, and foods for special
touch, and hearing, their nutrient needs, cultural and religious dietary use.
values, psychological and social influences, and budget. MyPyramid
The colors of the pyramid illustrate variety:
each color represents one of the five food groups,
plus one for oils. Different band widths suggest
FOOD SELECTION CRITERIA the proportional contribution of each food group
to a healthy diet.

Sensory Criteria. When most people choose a particular food,

they evaluate it using the sensory reactions illustrated below rather A person climbing steps
reminds consumers to be
physically active each day.
than by considering its nutritional content. The narrow slivers
of color at the top imply
moderation in foods rich
in solid fats and added
sugars.

The broad bases at

the bottom represent
S nutrient-dense foods
I OR
COL
that should make up
the bulk of the diet.
G
H Greater intakes of grains,

T SHINE vegetables, fruit, and

milk are encouraged
SIZ by the broad bases of
TEXTURE E
SHAPE
orange, green, red,
and blue.

O
D
O VOLATILE FLAVOR SUBSTANCES
R

Bitter
SENSATIONS OF: Cultural and Religious Criteria. An increasingly
Salt Sour

Salt Sour

T T
A O WARM HOT COLD diverse population, with greater access to travel and
S and U ASTRING IN expanded global communication, has resulted in a huge
C ENCY PA
T
E H TEXTURE increase in the variety of foods that are available in the United
Sweet
FIZZ States today. Familiar taste preferences acquired in childhood as
ING well as religious tenets affect many people’s food habits through-
S POP UR LING
O PO BUBB out their lives.
U CRACK
LE
N
D Psychological and Sociological Criteria. Advertis-
ing, social conscience, and peer pressure can all play a part
in an individual’s food choices. The controversies surround-
Nutritional Criteria. Over the last several decades, ing genetically engineered, organic, and natural foods are examples
emerging awareness of health and nutrition has resulted of how food products can be affected by these criteria.
in six out of ten consumers making a major change in
their diets. Guidelines that reinforce an emphasis on better health Budgetary Criteria. Cost helps determine the types
through nutrition include the U.S. Government’s Dietary Guide- of foods and brands that are bought and the frequency of
lines and the MyPyramid food guide. Portion control starts with restaurant patronage. A shortage of time for food prepa-
understanding average daily caloric intakes. Although no official ration or eating out can result in greater use of convenience foods
U.S. regulatory definition for functional food exists, the ADA and “fast foods,” even if they are often more expensive and less
defines them as conventional foods, modified foods (fortified, nutritious.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 1 Food Selection 19

CHAPTER REVIEW AND EXAM PREP

Multiple Choice* c. Folate-enriched breads
d. Phenylketonuria (PKU) formulas free of
1. The word olfactory is most closely related to which of the phenylalanine
following senses?
a. taste 6. How many calories (kcal) equal a pound of body weight?
b. smell a. 500
c. touch b. 1000
d. sight c. 2500
d. 3500
2. Total daily calorie (kcal) needs for adults decrease by
calories (kcals) for every decade in people 7. A produce grower may place the USDA Organic label on
after age 40. a product if or more of the ingredients are
a. 100 organic.
b. 200 a. 50%
c. 300 b. 75%
d. 400 c. 85%
d. 95%
3. Which of the following religions encourage(s) a vegetarian
diet?
a. Buddhism Short Answer/Essay
b. Hinduism 1. List the five taste stimuli and the proposed mechanism of
c. Seventh-Day Adventist taste for each.
d. all of these 2. Why is the odor of just-baked bread more intense than the
odor of cold foods such as ice cream?
4. Identify the correct statement about genetically engineered
3. Give two examples of taste interactions.
foods.
4. How does taste differ from flavor?
a. Genes are programmed by sequencing the amino
5. Obesity is a rising problem. Discuss the basics of the energy
acids.
balance equation.
b. Food can be genetically engineered to delay ripening.
6. List four categories of functional foods as defined by the
c. In the United States, all genetically engineered foods
American Dietetic Association.
must be labeled.
7. Discuss three examples of cultural influences on food
d. Not a single genetically engineered food has been
intake.
approved by the FDA.
8. Discuss the possible influences that religions such as
5. Which of the following functional food examples is catego- Buddhism, Judaism, and Islam may have on food intake.
rized as a medical food? 9. Describe the process of producing a genetically engineered
a. Tomatoes rich in lycopene food. Discuss the pros and cons of this process.
b. Gluten-free foods 10. Describe the four categories of organic food and the
labeling allowed for each category.
*See p. AK-1 for answers to multiple choice questions.

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Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
20 Chapter 1 Food Selection

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 Chapter 1 Food Selection 21

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22 Chapter 1 Food Selection

89. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Service. www.MyPyramid.gov. our food intake? Health Psychol
Center for Nutrition, Policy, and Washington, D.C.: Government 27(5):533–538, 2008.
Promotion. Official USDA food plans: Printing Office, 2005. 94. Wilkinson JQ. Biotech plants: From
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htm. Accessed 4/7/09. for Americans, 6th ed. Washington, Today: Functional Foods Japan 2006.
90. U.S. Department of Agriculture. D.C.: US Government Printing NPIcenter website. www.npicenter.
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Data/BiotechCrops. Accessed 4/22/09. B Wansink. Are we aware of the Accessed 4/7/09.
91. U.S. Department of Agriculture. external factors that influence
Human Nutrition Information

WEBSITES
Find more information on the USDA’s Find the latest obesity trends state by Find information about complementary
Dietary Guidelines: state from the Centers for Disease and alternative medicine from the
www.health.gov/DietaryGuidelines/ Control and Prevention (CDC) at: National Institutes of Health:
www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/ http://nccam.nih.gov/
Find more information on the USDA’s
trend/maps/
Food Pyramid: Learn more about herbal products from
www.mypyramid.gov Discover more about the National the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer
Organic Program (NOP) from the Center:
Canada’s Food Guide at: USDA’s website on the subject: www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/11570.cfm
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/food- www.ams.usda.gov/nop
guide-aliment/index-eng.php Explore the USDA site on Plants and
Attend free flavor classes (travel and Crops: Biotechnology, Genetics, and
Find details about the USDA’s Thrifty lodging not included) from FONA Breeding:
Food Plan: International at: http://riley.nal.usda.gov/nal_display/
www.cnpp.usda.gov/ www.fona.com/FlavorUniversity.html index.php?info_center=8&tax_
usdafoodplanscostoffood.htm level=2&tax_subject=7&topic_
Find more information about food and
Calculate your body mass index (BMI) at: id=1058&&placement_default=0
nutrition from the USDA’s Food and
www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/ Nutrition Information Center (FNIC) Note: Website page links frequently
bmi/adult_bmi/english_bmi_ located at the National Agricultural change, so if a particular URL does not
calculator/bmi_calculator.html Library (NAL): bring you to the desired website, just
Learn about the statistics on different www.nal.usda.gov/fnic enter the key words from the description
ethnic groups in the United States and into a search engine.
your state:
www.census.gov

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 Oscar Burriel/Photo Researchers, Inc.

2 Food Evaluation
determine consumer preference and/or
Sensory (Subjective)
Evaluation 23
SENSORY acceptability.
Objective Evaluation 26 (SUBJECTIVE)
EVALUATION Two Types of
Sensory evaluation (or analysis) is the Sensory Testing
scientific discipline of measuring the There are two basic typ es of sensory
responses of people to food products as tests: analytical (effective) and affective
he food industry uses an array of perceived by their senses of sight, taste,
T testing methods to me asure the
sensory factors related to food selec-
touch, smell, and hearing (2). This type
of testing is termed subjective because
(1). Analytical tests are more objective
and based on discernible differences,
whereas affective tests are more subjec-
tion and to evaluate food quality. it relies on the opinions of selected tive and based on individual preferences
These tests are conducted for research individuals. (Figure 2-1). In both types of testing,
and development (R&D), product Although certain machines are de-
improvement, sales and marketing, signed to replicate the ability to per-
quality assurance, nutrient content ceive the five senses, very few succeed
analysis for labeling requirements in matching a human being. As a result, Sensory (subjective) tests Evalua-
(Nutrition Facts), and detecting con- sensory evaluation tests are often used by tions of food quality based on sensory
tamination or adulteration (7). Food large food companies in their research characteristics and personal prefer-
evaluation is accomplished using both and development departments for the ences as perceived by the five senses.
sensory (subjective) and objective purposes of evaluating potentially new
tests (5). The specific types of tests and/or established consumer products. Objective tests Evaluations of
and tools that the food industry uses Human panels are required to evaluate food quality that rely on numbers
to evaluate the palatability of food the products through various types of generated by laboratory instruments
among consumers are the focus of this established scientific sensory tests. The that are used to quantify the physical
chapter. results are then statistically analyzed to and chemical differences in foods.

23
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24 Chapter 2 Food Evaluation

FIGURE 2-1 Summary of subjective tests for food evaluation.

SENSORY (SUBJECTIVE) TESTS

ANALYTICAL TESTS AFFECTIVE TESTS

(effective) (consumer)
(Used to detect “differences”) (Used to detect “individual preferences”)

Discriminative Tests Descriptive Tests Hedonic Tests Personal Preference

(Used to detect “discernible” (Used to “quantify” differences) (Relating to pleasure) (Selecting the preferred sample)
differences. Are the (How do the samples differ?)
samples different?)

Paired Preference Tests

Similar to the paired comparison
test (see Analytical Tests). Two
Difference Tests Sensitivity Flavor Profile Texture Profile samples are presented, but instead
(Differentiate (Detect flavor) of selecting the sample with the
Used to detail the specific flavors
between samples) greater amount of a characteristic,
Threshold (garlic, vanilla, caramel, boiled
the tester expresses a preference
dilution milk) or textures (smoothness,
for one of two samples. A ranking
springiness, moistness) of a food
test under this category ranks
or beverage.
Triangle, three or more samples in order of
duo-trio, preference.
paired comparison, Threshold. The taste tester is
ranking, presented with increasing
ordinal concentrations of dilute solutions
Example #1:
and asked to state at what point
the substance is first recognized PRODUCT SCORE SHEET
or no longer detected. 9-Point Hedonic Scale
Dilution. A test used to find the Product _________________________________________________________
minimal detectable level of a
Date _________________________________________________________
substance.
Instructions Your choices range from “Like Extremely” to “Dislike Extremely” for each of the listed food
qualities. Please circle the number under each phrase that most closely describes your
attitude about the particular description of the food or beverage sample provided. Total
each column and then add the final total row for a complete score.

Triangle. Three samples are presented simultaneously— Neither

Food Like Like Like Like Like nor Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike
two are the same and one is different. Panelists are Description Extremely Very Much Moderately Slightly Dislike Slightly Moderately Very Much Extremely
asked to identify the odd sample. Appearance 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Duo-trio. Three samples are presented at the same Odor 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
time, but a standard is designated, and the participant Taste 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
is asked to select the one most similar to the standard. Mouthfeel 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(texture)
Paired comparison. Two samples are presented, and the
Total =
taster is asked to select the one that has more of a
particular characteristic (sweet, sour, thick, thin, etc.). Final Total Score = _____________________

Ranking. More than two samples are presented and

compared by ranking them from lowest to highest for Example #2:
the intensity of a specific characteristic (flavor, odor, “Smiley” or “frowny” faces can be used for children.
color).
Ordinal. A scale that usually uses words like “weak,
moderate, strong” to describe samples that differ in
magnitude of an attribute.

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 Chapter 2 Food Evaluation 25

food samples are presented to taste panel FIGURE 2-2 Taste test panel at NASA.
participants, who evaluate the foods ac-
cording to specific standards for appear-
ance, odor, taste, texture, and sound.

Analytical (Effective) Tests

The more objective analytical tests are
usually conducted by a trained panel
that evaluates food products through
either discriminative (are the samples
different? ) or descriptive tests (how
much do the samples differ?). The most
common difference tests are the tri-
angle and duo-trio tests in which the
person compares three samples and has
to determine if a difference exists (11).
Descriptive tests rely on a trained panel
to document a product’s sensory char-
acteristics (10).

NASA
Affective Tests
Whether or not a person prefers a certain
aspect of a food is the focus of affective or
consumer testing. Because anyone can have women can usually detect sweetness a uniform fashion. Food samples must
an opinion, these types of tests are usually better than men can. Age distribution be of the same size (enough for two
given to untrained consumers. The test of the panel is also considered, because bites), from the same portion of the
instruments range from simple questions it may affect test results. food (middle vs. outside), equally fresh,
(which of the two samples do you prefer?) at the same temperature, and presented
to complex 9-point hedonic product score in containers or plates that are of the
sheets evaluating one or more factors of a
Sample Preparation same size, shape, and color. White or
food on a scale from “like extremely” to The environment in w hich the taste clear containers are usually chosen so as
“dislike extremely” (Figure 2-1). panel evaluates foods or beverages is also not to influence panelists’ perceptions
carefully controlled (8). Panelists may of the food’s color. Care is taken that the
be seated at tables, cubicles (Figure 2-3), lighting in the room is uniform and that
Taste Panels or booths, and the food is presented in the ambient temperature is comfortable
The individuals on a taste panel can
range from randomly selected mem-
FIGURE 2-3 Testers evaluating samples in private booths that minimize
bers of the population to experts who
outside influences.
are highly trained in tasting a particular
food or beverage (Figure 2-2). Vintners
and brewers rely on the latter types of
skilled tasters to evaluate the proper
timing for each step in the process of
making wine or beer (13). The ability
to detect slight differences in specific
foods is a sought-after trait, prized so
much that the taste buds of one gour-
met ice cream taste expert are insured
for $1 million. General taste panels usu-
ally consist of at least five people who
meet the following criteria: they are free
of colds, chew no gum immediately be-
fore testing, have not ingested any other
food for at least 1 hour before testing,
Al Behrman/AP Photo

are nonsmokers, are not color blind,

and have no strong likes or dislikes for
the food to be tested. An equal distri-
bution in gender is preferred, because

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
truth. But whenever we did so we would be brought back to belief
by some monstrous and haunting memory; with me, of Robert's
dream-figure and its thick voice and inverted colors; with him, of the
whole fantastic pageantry of ancient people and dead scenes that he
had witnessed. And then there was the joint recollection of that
damnable dusty odor.... We knew what it meant: the instant
dissolution of those who had entered an alien dimension a century
and more ago.
There are, in addition, at least two lines of rather more positive
evidence; one of which comes through my researches in Danish
annals concerning the sorcerer, Axel Holm. Such a person, indeed,
left many traces in folklore and written records; and diligent library
sessions, plus conferences with various learned Danes, have shed
much light on his evil fame. At present I need say only that the
Copenhagen glass-blower—born in 1612—was a notorious Luciferian
whose pursuits and final vanishing formed a matter of awed debate
over two centuries ago. He had burned with a desire to know all
things and to conquer every limitation of mankind—to which end he
had delved deeply into occult and forbidden fields ever since he was
a child.
He was commonly held to have joined a coven of the dreaded
witchcult, and the vast lore of ancient Scandinavian myth—with its
Loki the Sly One and the accursed Fenris-Wolf—was soon an open
book to him. He had strange interests and objectives, few of which
were definitely known, but some of which were recognized as
intolerably evil. It is recorded that his two Negro helpers, originally
slaves from the Danish West Indies, had become mute soon after
their acquisition by him; and that they had disappeared not long
before his own disappearance from the ken of mankind.

Near the close of an already long life the idea of a glass of

immortality appears to have entered his mind. That he had acquired
an enchanted mirror of inconceivable antiquity was a matter of
common whispering; it being alleged that he had purloined it from a
fellow-sorcerer who had entrusted it to him for polishing.
This mirror—according to popular tales a trophy as potent in its way
as the better-known Aegis of Minerva or Hammer of Thor—was a
small oval object called "Loki's Glass," made of some polished fusible
mineral and having magical properties which included the divination
of the immediate future and the power to show the possessor his
enemies. That it had deeper potential properties, realizable in the
hands of an erudite magician, none of the common people doubted;
and even educated persons attached much fearful importance to
Holm's rumored attempts to incorporate it in a larger glass of
immortality. Then had come the wizard's disappearance in 1687, and
the final sale and dispersal of his goods amidst a growing cloud of
fantastic legendry. It was, altogether, just such a story as one would
laugh at if possessed of no particular key; yet to me, remembering
those dream messages and having Robert Grandison's corroboration
before me, it formed a positive confirmation of all the bewildering
marvels that had been unfolded.
But as I have said, there is still another line of rather positive
evidence—of a very different character—at my disposal. Two days
after his release, as Robert, greatly improved in strength and
appearance, was placing a log on my living-room fire, I noticed a
certain awkwardness in his motions and was struck by a persistent
idea. Summoning him to my desk I suddenly asked him to pick up
an ink-stand—and was scarcely surprised to note that, despite
lifelong right-handedness, he obeyed unconsciously with his left
hand. Without alarming him, I then asked that he unbutton his coat
and let me listen to his cardiac action. What I found upon placing my
ear to his chest—and what I did not tell him for some time afterward
—was that his heart was beating on his right side.
He had gone into the glass right-handed and with all organs in their
normal positions. Now he was left-handed and with organs reversed,
and would doubtless continue so for the rest of his life. Clearly, the
dimensional transition had been no illusion—for this physical change
was tangible and unmistakable. Had there been a natural exit from
the glass, Robert would probably have undergone a thorough re-
reversal and emerged in perfect normality—as indeed the color-
scheme of his body and clothing did emerge. The forcible nature of
his release, however, undoubtedly set something awry; so that
dimensions no longer had a chance to right themselves as chromatic
wave-frequencies still did.
I had not merely opened Holm's trap; I had destroyed it; and at the
particular stage of destruction marked by Robert's escape some of
the reversing properties had perished. It is significant that in
escaping Robert had felt no pain comparable to that experienced in
entering. Had the destruction been still more sudden, I shiver to
think of the monstrosities of color the boy would always have been
forced to bear. I may add that after discovering Robert's reversal I
examined the rumpled and discarded clothing he had worn in the
glass, and found, as I had expected, a complete reversal of pockets,
buttons, and all other corresponding details.
At this moment Loki's Glass, just as it fell on my Bokhara rug from
the now patched and harmless mirror, weighs down a sheaf of
papers on my writing-table here in St. Thomas, venerable capital of
the Danish West Indies—now the American Virgin Islands. Various
collectors of old Sandwich glass have mistaken it for an odd bit of
that early American product—but I privately realize that my paper-
weight is an antique of far subtler and more paleologean
craftsmanship. Still, I do not disillusion such enthusiasts.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAP ***

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