Workshop Shop Theory and Practice

Charlie L. Hernandez
 VISION
Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational
institution of choice providing holistically developed
individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.

MISSION
Laguna University is committed to produce academically
prepared and technically skilled individuals who are socially
and morally upright citizens.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MISSION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is committed to produce academically prepared
and technically skilled mechanical engineers who are socially
and morally upright citizens.
VISION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is envisioned to be the provincial college of choice
producing well-equipped mechanical engineers who
specializes on energy management.
 Table of Contents

Module 1: OPPORTUNITIES IN THE MACHINE TRADES

Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1.Opportunities in the Machine Trades 2
Lesson 2. Types of Shops 2
Lesson 3.Job Descriptions 4
Lesson 4. Engineering Positions 16
Assessment Task 1 19
Summary 19
Reference 31

Module 2: Safety in the Machine Shop

Introduction 32
Learning Objectives 32
Lesson 1. The Safe Worker 33
Lesson 2. General Shop Safety 35
Lesson 3. Safety on the Bench 37
Lesson 4. Hacksaw Safety 39
Lesson 5. Drill Press Safety 40
Lesson 6. Safety on Lathe 43
Lesson 7. Milling Safety 45
Lesson 8.Shaper Safety 47
Lesson 9. Safety on the Grinding Machines 49
Assessment Task 2 50
Summary 50
Reference 62

Module 3: Basic Hand tools for Bench

Introduction 63
Learning Objectives 63
Lesson 1. Hammer 64
Lesson 2. Punches 66
Lesson 3.ScrewDrivers 71
Lesson 4.Pliers 74
Lesson 5. Clamping and Holding Devices 76
Lesson 6. Wrenches 79
Assessment Task 3 83
Summary 84
Reference 88

Module 4: Basic Measuring and Layout Tools

Introduction 89
Learning Objectives 89
Lesson 1. Measuring and Layouts 102
Assessment Task 4 102
Summary 103
 Table of Figures

Figure 1-1. A typical job shop. (Tris Manufacturing Corp.) 2

Figure 1-2. An example of a limited production shop. (Warren
Pumps Inc. and the Wilking Studio.) 2
Figure 1-3. A mass-production shop. (Caterpillar Tractor Co.) 4
Figure 1-4. Assemblers at work. (S & S Corrugated Paper
Machinery Co.) 8
Figure 1-5. Boring machine operator. (S & S Corrugated Paper
Machinery Co.) 8
Figure 1-6. Jig boring machine operator. (Moore Special Tool Co.) 9
Figure 2-1. The well-dressed worker 33
Figure 2-2. He wears safety glasses from the time he enters the
shop until he leaves it 34
Figure 2-3 Utilizing heavy attachment safely 34
Figure 3-1. Soft hammer with brass head. (GoodellPratt Co.) 64
Figure 3-2. Plastic-faced soft hammer. (Stanley Tools 64
Figure 3-3. Parts of a ball-peen hammer. (Stanley Tools.) 65
Figure. 3-4. Straight-peen hammer. (Stanley Tools.) 65
Fig. 3-5. Parts of a cross-peen hammer. (Stanley Tools.) 66
Fig. 3-6. Stretching a piece of stock in the direction
of its width, using a cross-peen hammer. (Stanley Tools.) 66
Figure. 3-7. Drift punch. (Stanley Tools.) 67
Fig. 3-8. A set of drive-pin punches. (Lufkin Rule Co.) 68
Figure. 3-9. Setting a taper pin, using a drive-pin punch 69
Fig. 3-10. Too much hammering can mushroom the end of a pin. 69
Figure. 3-11. A prick punch. (L S. Starrett Co.) 70
Figure 3-12. Prick-punch point 70
Fig. 3-13. A center punch. (Lufkin Rule Co.) 70
Fig. 3-14. Center-punch point 70
Fig. 3-15. Automatic center punch. (L. S. StarrettCo.) 71
Fig. 3-16. A plain screwdriver. (Stanley Tools.) 71
Fig. 3-17. A set of jeweler' screwdrivers. (L. S.Starrett Co.) 72
Figure. 3-18. Correct way to use a jewelers'
screwdriver. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 73
Figure. 3-19. A stubby screwdriver. (Stanley Tools.) 73
Fig. 3-20. Heavy-duty square-shank screwdriver. (Stanley Tools) 73
Figure. 3-21. Double-ended (Stanley Tools.) 74
Figure. 3-22. Method of grinding a screwdriver
blade to fit a screw slo 75
Figure. 3-23. Combination Pliers J.H. Williams & Co,) 75
Figure. 3-24. Long-nose pliers. (J. H. Williams & Co.) 75
Figure. 3-25. Diagonals. (J. H. Williams & Co.) 75
Fig. 3-25. (A) Right and (8) wrong way to use diagonals 76
Figure. 3-26. C clamp. (Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.) 77
Figure. 3-27. Toolmakers' parallel clamps. (Lufkin Rule Co.) 77
Figure. 3-28. Right and wrong way to use
toolmakers' parallel clamps 78
Fig. 3-29. Toolmakers' hand vise (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) 78
Fig. 3-30. Combination vise. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 79
Fig. 3-31. Protective jaw caps for vise. (Columbian Vise & Mfg. Co.) 79
Fig. 3-32. Single-ended wrench. (J. H. Williams & Co.) 80
Fig. 3-33. Double-ended wrench. (J. H. Williams & Co.) 80
Fig. 3-34. Closed-end, or box, wrench. (Billings & Spencer Co.) 81
Fig. 3-35. Adjustable wrench. (Billings & Spencer Co.) 81
Fig. 3-6. Monkey wrench. (Billings & Spencer Co.) 81
Figure 3-37. Right and wrong way to use an adjustable wrench 82
Fig. 3-38. Lever-jaw wrench. (Peterson Mfg. Co.) 82
Figure. 3-39. Combination wrench. (J. H. Williams & Co. ) 83
Figure 4-1. A toolmaker's work bench for measuring,
laying out, and inspecting workpieces 90
Figure 4-2. Graduated lines on a steel rule subdivide
the inch into its• common fractional. Parts 91
Figure 4-3 Standard rigid tempered-steel
rule shown actual size. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) 91
Figure 4-4. Thin flexible steel rule 92
Figure 4-5. Narrow steel rule. (L S. Starrett Co.) 92
Figure 4-6. Hook rule. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 92
Figure 4-7. Narrow hook rule. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 92
Figure. 4-8. Measuring with a hook rule 93
Figure 4-9. Slide caliper rule. (L S. Starrett Co.) 93
Figure 4-10. Rule depth gage. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 94
Figure 4-11. Set of short rules with holder. 94
Figure 4-12 Combination set showing square,
protractor, and center heads. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 95
Figure 4-13. Bevel protractor. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 95
Figure 4-14. Plain steel protractor. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 96
Figure 4-15. (A) Universal and (8) combination bevels.
(L. S. Starrett Co.) 96
Figure 4-16. Applications of bevels. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 97
Figure 4-17. Outside calipers. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg.Co.) 97
Figure 4-18. Thickness gage. (Lufkin Rule Co.) 98
Figure 4-19. A nonprecision type of layout 100
Figure 4-20. A precision layout job 100
Figure 4-21. Coloring the workpiece before layout.
(L. S. Starrett Co.) 101
Figure 4-22. Laying out a casting 101
Course Code: Eng’g 107

Course Description: The course deals with the properties of engineering

materials including mechanical acoustic, electrical, magnetic, chemical, optical and
thermal properties, laboratory experiment using equipment include tension.
Compression , bending shear, torsion and impact tests..

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Understand the types, properties and characteristics of engineering
materials
2. Identify the different new engineering materials and their industrial usage.
3. Know the behavior of materials subject to different kinds of testing.

Course Requirements:
Assessment Tasks - 60%
Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Computation of Grades:

PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim exam)

MIDTERM GRADE = 30%(Prelim Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 5-7) + 40% (Midterm exam)]

FINAL GRADE = 30%(Midterm Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 8-10) + 40% (Final exam)]
 MODULE 1
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE MACHINE TRADES

Introduction

The tools, the machines, and the skilled workers in the machine trades have played a
most important part in every step that man has taken as he has travelled from medieval times
to the space age. Everything from the kitchen utensil to the most complicated instrument in a
space capsule owes its existence to the skilful use of a machine tool (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

.
Machine tools and their operators are required in the development and manufacture
of almost everything used in our present-day lives. Machines are used in the manufacture of
newspapers, books, washing machines, automobiles, airplanes, typewriters, telephones,
radios, television sets, and many, many more of our everyday conveniences. Machines are
used to dig foundations and to build houses, factories, colossal office buildings, and the
furnishings within them. All of these machines are made by a special family of machines-
machine tools. In · that family can be found lathes, milling machines, drilling machines,
shaping and planning machines, grinding and polishing machines, gear-cutting machines, and
many more with specialized purposes (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Name, Identify the job description in the job shop.

2. Know and familiarity in machine shop set up.
3. Cite three criteria that are important in the materials selection process.

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Lesson 1. Opportunities in the Machine Trades

All of these machine tools are operated by men and women with specialized skills.
The one important common skill that these operators must have is an understanding of
measurement because precision and accuracy are the most important characteristics of their
work. The tools with which they measure their work are graduated to one ten-thousandth
(0.0001) of an inch, and the finished machined surfaces must meet a required smoothness
measured in millionths of an inch. Such accuracy is· necessary not only for the effective
functioning of the part within a specific machine, but also if the part is to be interchangeable
in any one of thousands of similar machines (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 2. Types of Shops

There are many divisions in the machine trades. There are divisions in .the grouping
of machines, divisions in the skills required of machine operators, and divisions in the types
of shops where the works done. These shops can be divided into three groups: job shops,
limited production shops, and mass-production shops (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a job shop?

A job shop is a machine shop that is equipped with machines and workers that can
undertake a wide range of machining jobs of limited quantity and usually of a very specialized
nature (Fig. 1-1). (In this case, the word "job" refers to the product that has to be made and
not to the fact that the worker is employed.) A job shop may be called upon to develop the
prototype of an idea thought up by a design engineer or an inventor. It may be employed to
make a single piece or a dozen or a hundred pieces in a standard or a special shape. Job
shops are often used to repair machinery for manufacturers who do not have a mechanical
maintenance department. Speed is frequently an important factor in work of this kind, and
overtime work is often necessary to complete a job on schedule. The machine tools used in a
job shop must be adaptable to a wide variety of work; they must also be rugged and reliable
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.

2
 Figure. 1-1. A typical job shop(Tris Manufacturing Corp.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975)

What it is a limited production shop?

A limited production shop falls between a job shop and a mass production shop (Fig.
1-2). It specializes in producing identical parts in limited quantities ranging from one hundred
to several thousand. Machine tools used in limited production shops are designed to withstand
hard wear. They can be easily changed from one setup to another, with each setup able to
make many repetitive operations. In recent years, limited production shops, as well as job
shops, have been using automatic and numerically controlled machine tools(Anderson &
Tatro, 1975).
.

Figure. 1-2. An example of a limited production shop (Warren Pumps Inc. and the Wilking Studio.)
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975)
.

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What is a mass-production shop?

This is a shop where parts are manufactured in vast numbers (Fig. 1-3). Automatic
and numerically controlled · machines are utilized to the fullest extent. Machines are set up to
perform several operations with several different cutting tools. Quite often the work is
positioned and repositioned by mechanical arms thus enabling one operator to attend to
several machines. These shops have their own numerical control systems, programming
computers, and tape making departments (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.

Figure. 1-3. A mass-production shop (Caterpillar Tractor Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 3. JOB DESCRIPTIONS

The Apprentice
How does a person become a machine tool ·operator?
Most often by completing a training program as an apprentice in a machine shop
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is an indentured apprentice?

Indenture was a contract which contained all the conditions of employment. Typically,
the master agreed to teach the apprentice all of the skills of the trade and to pay him specified
wages, which were periodically increased. The apprentice promised m work diligently for a
specified number of years, preserve his master's secrets, and attend evening
school in order to learn mathematics, trade drawing, and trade theory. Work time lost because
of illness and holidays usually had to be made up (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

4
. The apprentice's parent or guardian was bound to the agreement as a third and
responsible party, and the contract was witnessed by two or three respected members of the
community, such as the apprentice's school teacher and minister (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

At the completion of his training period, the apprentice received the signed copies of
his indenture and an evaluation of his services and skilI (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

APPRENTICE-This title is intended to mean a worker not less than 16 years of age
engaged under direct journeyman supervision, and according to a prescribed or traditional
series of work processes graded to coincide with increasing trade maturity in learning a skilled
occupation that requires, during the learning process, several years of reasonably continuous
employment prior to the time that the worker may be considered a qualified journey man. In
general, apprenticeship is legally recognized only if recorded in a written contract, indenture,
or agreement, in which, in return for services rendered, the employer promises to teach the
worker the processes of his trade. The terms of an apprenticeship agreement usually include
specific reference to the duration of the apprenticeship period, a progressive scale of wages,
and the nature of the processes to be taught. Frequently the agreement also specifies the
amount and nature of the related schooling in vocational subjects in which the worker shall
engage during his apprenticeship period. When the conditions of the agreement' have been
satisfactorily completed the apprentice is given a written statement of this fact with an
evaluation of his record (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How much time must a machinist apprentice serve?

A machinist apprentice usually serves from three to five years, depending on the type
of work being done in the shop to which he is apprenticed. The longer period Is required if the
work is particularly painstaking and requires a high degree of accuracy. During his
apprenticeship, the young person is instructed in the use of all machines, tools, equipment,
and materials used in the shop, and he is expected, in his last apprenticeship year, to use
them all with skill and understanding (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Is it possible and desirable for a machinist to specialize in one type of industry?

At the beginning of a young person's career, jobs are usually limited to the type of
industry that is found locally. It is desirable to obtain varied experience in all facets of the

5
machine trades. This is best done at the beginning of one's journeyman career, when family
responsibilities are less demanding and confining (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Can the apprentice specialize in one area of the machinist's trade?

An apprentice can specialize in any one of the several specializations of the
machinist's trade (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How is the time of apprenticeship scheduled among the various machines to be learned?
The following is the apprentice schedule developed and recommended by the National
Tool, Die, and Precision Machining Association (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Processes Hours Approximate

Tool Crib. To learn the names and types of tools required in the
trade. 200
Drill Press. Drill grinding, drilling, reaming, counter-boring,
lapping, tapping, lubrication, speeds, feeds, and safety. 500
Shaper. Tool bit grinding, holding work, surface and angle cutting,
squaring, speeds, feeds, and safety. 600
Milling Machine. General setup, slotting, face milling, vertical and
horizontal milling, angle milling, dividing head, lubrication, speeds,
feeds, and safety. 600
lathes (Engine and Bench). Use of face plates, straight turning,
facing, tapping, threading, setup, lubrication, speeds, feeds, and safety 1000.
Grinders. Selection of grinding wheels, mounting wheels, taper,
form, and angle grinding, jig grinding, lubrication, speeds, feeds, and
safety. 1400
Filing Machine. Selection of machine files, die filing, straight and taper
filing. 200
Contour Cutting. Selection of saws, internal and external cutting,
speeds, feeds, and safety. 100
Heat Treating. Types and treatments of tool steels, hardening and draw
temperatures, carbide brazing, case hardening, annealing, Rockwell
testing and safety. 100

6
Bench Work. Hand filing, micrometer reading, use of gages, layout
work, assembling and finishing of tools and dies, and tool and die
repair work. 3000
Miscellaneous Machines. Machinery repair and such other work as
May be considered necessary to complete the experience adequate to
attain the skill and versatility –required of a journeyman. 300

Related Instruction
The apprentice shall take a minimum of 144 Hours per year (or 2,000-hour period) of
related instruction at an approved school. The time spent in such classes shall not be
considered as hours of work unless the apprentice is required to attend classes during his
regular working hours. Such classroom instruction should include, but need not be limited to
the following subjects: mechanical drawing and shop sketching, elementary physics, science
of metals (metallurgy), blueprint reading, shop mathematics, elements of tool and die design,
and elementary economics (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Assembler-Fitter
Assembles machine parts according to assembly plans and blueprints (Fig. 1-4).
Studies blueprints to determine how the parts go together. Lays out the position of holes to
be drilled. Checks the alignment of shafts, bearing, gears, and cams. Chips, scrapes, and files
the parts, using hand tools to make sure that the machine's movement, travel, fit, and function
are correct. The skills of an all-around machinist are preferred so that the solution of any
malfunction can be diagnosed and corrected (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 1-4. Assemblers at work. (S & S Corrugated Paper Machinery Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

7
Boring Machine Operator
Sets up and operates a boring machine to bore, drill, mill, or ream metal parts
according to specifications, tooling instructions, standard charts, and knowledge of boring
procedures (Fig. 1-5). Reads blueprints for job description and specifications, hole locations
and dimensions, and tooling instructions. Determines holding fixtures, feed rates, cutting
speeds, and cutting tools to be used. Lifts work-piece manually or with hoist. Positions and
clamps it in fixture on machine table, using wrenches. Secures cutting tool and moves
controls. Sets cutting speed and feed rate and depth of cut. Controls feed of tool either
manually or by automatic feed. Controls amount and direction of coolant. Verifies conformity

Figure. 1-5. Boring machine operator. (S & S Corrugated Paper Machinery Co.) (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

of bored work-pieces to specifications, using fixed gages, calipers, micro-meters and vernier
measuring tools. Computes cutting speed, feed rates, and dimensions, using standard charts
and shop mathematics (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.
Jig Boring Machine Setup Operator
Performs operations similar to that of the boring machine operator but with greater
accuracy (Fig. 1-6). Sets up and operates machine to drill, bore, and ream holes in metal
work-pieces such as jigs, fixtures, and dies. Plans sequence of work, lays out reference lines
and location of holes according to blueprints and knowledge of shop mathematics. Positions
and secures work-piece on table, verifying parallelism of reference line to axis of table motion
using dial indicators, edge finders, and similar sensitive instruments(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

8
.

Figure. 1-6. Jig boring machine operator. (Moore Special Tool Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Broaching Machine Operator

Sets up and operates one or more internal or external broaching machines to broach
cylindrical or flat surfaces of metal workpieces according to specifications, tooling instructions,
standard charts, and a knowledge of broaching. Reads blueprints, job order specifications to
determine dimensions and tolerances, and tooling instructions such as holding fixtures, cutting
speeds and cutting tools (broaches) to be used. Lifts workpiece manually or with hoist and
positions and secures it in fixture. Installs broach, or ram, using wrenches. Sets specified
depth of cut and ram speed. Verifies that broached workpiece conforms to specifications,
using measuring instruments such as fixed gages, calipers, and micrometers. May broach
non-metallic materials such as plastics. May be required to have experience with· custom or
production work, with particular material or product, or with machine of particular size, type,
or trade name. May be designated accordingly. Drill Press Setup Operator. Sets up and
operates drill press to perform such machining operations as drilling, countersinking, counter-
boring, spot-facing, reaming, boring, and tapping holes in metal workpieces according to
specifications, tooling instructions, charts, and a knowledge of drilling procedures (Fig. 1-9).
Reads blueprints, job orders, and tooling instructions for required specifications. These
include hole position and sizes, feed rates, type of fixture, and cutting speeds and cutting-
tools to be used. Regulates controls to set cutting speed and
feed rates and directs flow of coolant. Positions workpiece either in drill jig or on table. Verifies
that machined workpieces conform to specifications using measuring instruments and fixed
gages. May measure, mark, scribe, and center punch workpieces to lay out for machining,

9
applying knowledge of shop mathematics, machine drawing, and layout and measuring
procedures. Experience with particular product, operation, or size, type, or trade name of
machine may be required; may be designated accordingly. May be assigned to operate single-
or multiple-spindle, radialial, or tape-controlled machines (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Engine Lathe Operator.

Sets up and operates engine lathes to perform machining such as turning, facing,
boring, and threading on metal or non-metal workpieces. according to specifications, tooling
instructions, standard charts, and knowledge of machining procedures. Reads blueprints or
job order for specifications such as dimensions and tolerances, tooling instructions on holding
devices, feed rates, cutting speeds, depth of cut, and cutting tools. Positions and secures tool
in holders,using wrenches. Lifts workpiece manually or with hoist and positions and secures
by such methods as mounting between centers, inserting in chuck, or damping to faceplate.
Moves controls to set specified rotation speed, feed rate, and depth of cut and to position tool
in relation to workpiece. Verifies that machined workpiece conforms to specifications using
micrometers, verniers, calipers, and fixed gages. Controls and directs flow of coolant. May
compute such data as dimensions, tapers, speeds, and tool settings, using knowledge of
metal properties and shop mathematics. May set up tracing attachment that guides cutting
tool to follow movement of tracing stylus along template, duplicating template profile on turned
workpiece; may be designated "tracing lathe setup operator." May offset · position of tailstock
to machine tapered surfaces. May mount gears, move levers, and engage threading dial to
machine threads, using knowledge of thread cutting. May operate bench grinder to shape and
sharpen tools. May be required to have experience with custom or production work or with
particular material, product, level of precision, or size, type, or trade name of machine
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Turret lathe Operator.

Sets up and operates turret lathes to perform series of machining operations such
as turning, boring, threading, and facing on metal workpieces such as castings, forgings,
machine, tool, or die parts according to specifications, tooling instructions, standard charts,
and a knowledge of turning procedures. Reads and studies blueprints to visualize machining
to be done and plan sequence of operations. Selects method of holding workpiece. Positions
and secures workpiece to faceplate or in chuck, collet, or holding fixture.Selects cutting speed,

10
tool feed rate, depth of cut, and cutting tools for each operation according to knowledge of
metal properties and shop mathematics. Positions and secures tools in toolholders at each
station of the turret and cross-slide tool post and positions tools in relation to workpiece.
Moves stops, cams, or levers to control rotation of the workpiece and feeding of the tools.
Verifies that machined workpiece conforms to specifications, using measuring instruments
such as gages, calipers, and micrometers. May set up fixtures, sharpen tools on bench
grinder, direct flow of coola.nt, and operate tracing attachment to duplicate profile of template
or model of workpiece. May be required to have specialized experience with particular
material, product, precision level, machining process, or size, type, or trade name of lathe
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Gear-Cutting Machine Setup Operator

Sets up and operates gear-cutting machines such as shapers, hobbers, and
generators. Machines spline, rack, or gear teeth on metal blanks, analysing specifications
according to _knowledge of gear design, shop mathematics, and gear-machining procedures.
Studies blueprints to visualize machining required and plans sequence of operations. Selects
machine and method of holding workpiece Computes machine setting from gear
specifications. Positions and secures workpiece to cutting angle, or arbor in chuck or other
holding device. Selects positions and secures cutters on toolhead, in spindle or on arbor. Sets
feed rates and rotation speeds of cutters and workpiece in relation to each other by selecting
and mounting gears, cams, or templates or by moving levers. Sets cutting speeds, depth of
cut, and stroke for reciprocating cutters and positions tool and workpiece in relation to one
another. Controls and directs flow of coolant. Verifies that machined gear conforms to
specifications, using comparator, gear measuring wires, involute (curve) checker, master
gears, 'optical comparator, and other special gear-inspection equipment. May operate
broaching machine to broach internal splines or gears. May work on nonmetallic materials.
May be required to have experience with particular gear type, material, or size, type, or trade
name of machine such as special gear-cutting machines, special bevel gear generator,
straight bevel gear generator, gear hobber, gear-lapping, gear inspector, gear milling, and
gear shaper (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

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Tool Grinder Operator.
Sets up and operates variety of grinding machines such as external, internal, and
surface grinders, to grind metal workpieces such as machine parts, dies, or tools based on a
knowledge of grinding procedures.Studies blueprints or layout on workpiece to visualize
grinding to be done and plans sequence operations. May measure, mark, or scribe workpiece
to lay it out for grinding. Selects method of holding workpiece. Lifts workpiece manually or
with hoist and positions and secures workpiece in holding device, using wrenches and clamps.
Selects feed rates, grinding speeds, depths of cuts, and grinding wheel size, shape, and grade
for each operation, applying knowledge of metal properties, abrasives, and shop
mathematics. Positions and secures grinding wheel on spindle. Positions and tightens stops
to limit travel of. workpieces or grinding wheels. Positions wheel and workpiece relative to one
another and sets feed, speed, and depth of cut. Directs flow of coolant. Verifies that
dimensions of ground workpieces conform to specifications, using measuring instruments
such as templates, micrometers, dial indicators, and gage blocks (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

All-Around Machinist.
Carries through to completion the construction and repair of all kinds of tools, metal
parts, or machines. Works from blueprints and written specifications. Skillfully uses all
machinist's hand tools and measuring instruments. Operates all machine tools including drill
presses, band and power saws, latties, planers, shapers, grinding and milling machines, and
specialized machines that have been developed from them (Fig. 1-14). Should be familiar with
shop mathematics (including the use of fractions, decimals, powers and mots, and basic
algebra), the use of charts and tables, and the planning of work to obtain greatest efficiency
and accuracy. Should know the working properties of such metals as brass, cast iron, wrought
iron, and various steels and should be able to shape the metals to precise dimensions within
the close tolerances prescribed. Lays out work and establishes necessary
reference points, center lines, and guidelines. Measures with rule, calipers, micrometers,
and·verniers and uses a scriber, center punch, surface gage, and dividers to mark metals.
Must be able to set up work on all basic machine tools (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Metal Band Saw Operator

Saws metal sheets and plates, castings, or machine parts to a specified shape and
size on a band saw according to blueprints or layout lines (Fig. 1-15). Degree of skill required

12
will depend upon the job. Studies blueprints and judges allowances required for finishing
(machining). Uses layout tools to mark limits of saw cut. Adjusts guides to suit variety of saw
blades; requires ability to cut, grind, weld, and anneal blades when they are removed and .
replaced on the saw band carrier wheels. Must be able to utilize various attachments (such
as disc and contour cutting attachments) and to mount work on table and in fixtures (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

Metal Band Machine Operator

Must have all of the skills of the band saw operator plus the ability to remove the band
saw blade and replace it with a band file or an abrasive-coated polishing band. Uses both of
these attachments to a high degree of precision. Must be able to use similar machines for
electric band sawing and friction sawing (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Milling Machine Setup Operator

Sets up and operates milling machines to mill surfaces on metal workpieces. Positions
and secures workpiece in fixture or on machine bed using clamps and wrenches. Mounts
specified cutter in spindle or on arbor. Moves controls to set cutting speed, feed rate, and
depth of cut according to tooling instructions. Feeds workpiece to cutter or engages feeding
mechanism; changes worn cutters. Verifies dimensions of milled workpieces, using
micrometers, verniers, calipers, and fixed gages. Controls and directs flow of coolant over
cutting area. May compute dimensions, cutting speeds, or feed rates, using knowledge of
metal properties and shop mathematics. May mill plastics or other nonmetallic materials. May
compute indexing ratios and set up and operate dividing head to index workpiece for such
operations as milling helical cuts. May mount different tool in place of cutter and perform other
operations such as drilling and boring. May set up and operate accessories such as tracer
attachments or universal head (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Millwright.
Installs machinery and equipment according to layout plans, blueprints, and other
drawings in an industrial establishment, using hoists, lift trucks, hand tools and power tools.
Reads blueprints and schematic drawings to determine work procedures. Dismantles
machines, using hammers, wrenches, crowbars, and other hand tools. Moves machinery and
equipment, using hoists, dollies, rollers, and lift trucks. Assembles and installs equipment such

13
as shafting, conveyors, and assembly systems, using hand and power tools. Constructs
foundations for machines, using building materials such as wood, concrete, and steel. Aligns
machines and equipment, using hoists, jacks, hand tools, squares, rules, micrometers, and
plumb bobs (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Planer Setup Operator.

Sets up and operates planers to plane and groove large metal workpieces such as
castings for metalworking dies and machine ways, analyzing specifications and deciding on
tooling according to machine-planing procedures(fig. 1-17). Studies l>lueprint or layout on
workpieces to visualize planing to be done and plans sequence of operations Selects method
of holding workpieces so that entire surface to be planed will remain parallel to table during
planing operation.Lifts workpiece manually or with hoist and positions it on table using shims,
parallel blocks, clamps, toe dogs, and poppets. Verifies workpiece po5itions with gages, rule,
square, or other instruments. Selects and mounts cutting tools on rail or side head. Selects
and sets cutting speed, length of stroke, and depth of cut according to metal properties and
shop mathematics. Sets stops to limit length of stroke .and to actuate table-reversing
mechanism. Moves controls to position tool in relation to workpiece. Verifies that planed
workpiece conforms to specifications within tolerance, using measuring instruments such as
surface gage, planer gage, vernier height gage, and micrometer. May operate bench grinder
to sharpen tools. Directs flow of coolant. May set up and operate milling attachment instead
of rail or side head (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Shaper Operator.
Performs operations on a shaping machine, such as planing or grooving of metal parts
including castings, forgings, and steel stock either in rough or simplified form (Fig. 1-18).
Selects, sharpens, and installs appropriately shaped cutting tools for each operation; clamps
or bolts work on machine table; adjusts and controls operations of machine. Requires
precision workmanship and ability to work from blueprints. Fastens work securely to the table;
may use machinist's square, scale, and surface gage to place work accurately Selects ram
speed and adjusts belts or gears to obtain that speed; selects and mounts cutting tool. Sets
the limits of travel of the ram, the depth of the cut, and the amount of feed (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

14
Instrument Maker.
Devises and constructs a variety of prototypes in accordance with sketches, drawings,
specifications, and instructions under minimum supervision. Produces parts or instruments in
single or limited quantity as required. Uses basic machine tools and performs highly complex
bench operations in shaping, forming, assembling, calibrating, and adjusting components
and/or complete instruments to extremely close tolerances on delicate parts. Applies
knowledge of shop mathematics, tables, and properties of materials. Performs duties as
assigned.Less experienced instrument makers may carry out these jobs but under general
supervision (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Inspector.
Develops gaging, setup, and surface plate layout procedures, draws patterns and
templates, and inspects a variety of parts and tools to provide inspection devices and fixtures
for use /rn machining or assembly, using blueprints, formulas, trigonometry, and precision
measuring instruments (Fig. 1-19). Analyzes inspection problems by comparing part with
blueprint or sketches, and devises procedure necessary to measure specified dimensions.
Lays out part on surface plate or positions in gaging setup to verify dimensions, using master
gages, index heads, Johansson blocks, comparators, verniers, micrometers, and indicators.
Develops and draws patterns and templates used to measure curves and angles. Tests
surface finish of machined parts, using profilometer. Tests hardness of meta~ parts. Analyzes
defective parts to determine reasons for dimensional variations, such as faulty machining or
assembly procedures, setup, tools, or fixtures. Recommends corrective procedures to design,
methods, process, or production engineering department. Inspects machining or assembly
fixtures, tools, or gages and suggests replacements or use of new equipment (Anderson &
Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 4. Engineering Positions

What opportunities are available to the ambitious, well-trained, and capable machinist?
Many men in influential positions received their earliest training in a machine shop. Machining
parts to a specified size requires careful attention to details. Having to work within close
tolerances and to a precise size develops the attitude of a perfectionist. Being able to complete
a job in a required and stipulated length of time requires patience, reliability, and a calm

15
unruffled attitude. What better training could there be for a technician or an executive? The
following descriptions of professional jobs indicate positions for which a machinist's training
provides a desirable foundation (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Industrial Engineering Technician.

Studies and records time, motion, methods, and speed involved in performance of
maintenance, production, clerical, and other work operations to establish standard production
rate and to improve efficiency. Prepares charts, graphs, and diagrams to illustrate work flow,
routing, floor layouts, material handling, and machine utilization. Observes workers operating
equipment or performing tasks to determine time involved and fatigue rate, using stopwatch,
motion picture camera, electrical recorder, and similar equipment. Recommends revision of
methods of operation or material handling, alterations in equipment or layout, or other changes
to increase production or improve standards. Aids in planning work assignments in
accordance with workers' performance machine capacity, production schedules, and
anticipated delays. Other job titles include methods-study analyst, motion-study analyst, time
study analyst (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Methods Engineer.
Plans sequence of operations to be followed in manufacturing product. Examines
blueprints, sketches, and specifications of product to be made. Itemizes steps to be followed
in the process, using knowledge of material, machine operations, plant layout, and
mathematics to select the least expensive and most efficient production methods. Specifies
machines and kinds of cutting tools and setups to be used. May be concerned with the writing
of technical reports: Other titles include plant layout engineer and production planning
engineer (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Time-Study Engineer.
Develops work-measurement procedures and directs time-and-motion studies to
promote efficient and economical utilization of personnel and facilities. Directs or conducts
observation and analysis of personnel and work procedures to determine time-and-motion
requirements of job duties. Analyzes work-study data and equipment specifications to
establish time and production standards. Applies mathematical analysis to determine validity
and reliability of sampling and work-study statistics. Applies principles of industrial

16
engineering. and applied psychology to evaluate work-method proposals and to develop
recommendations for management affecting work methods, wage rates, and budget
decisions. Trains industrial engineering technician in time-and-motion study principles and
techniques. Other titles include work-measurement engineer, production engineer ,method-
and-motion analyst (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Quality-Control Engineer.
Performs and oversees activities concerned with development, application, and
maintenance of quality standards for processing materials into partially finished or finished
products. Develops and initiates methods and procedures for inspection, testing, and
evaluation. Devises sampling procedures, designs forms for recording, evaluating, and
reporting quality and reliability data, and writes instructions on use of forms. Establishes
programs to evaluate precision and accuracy of production and processing equipment and
testing, measurement, and analytical facilities. Develops and implements methods and
procedures for disposition of defective material. Devises methods to assess cost and
responsibility of such material. Oversees workers engaged in measuring and testing products
and tabulating quality and reliability data. Compiles and writes training material and conducts
training sessions on quality control activities. May specialize in any ·of the following areas of
quality control engineering design, process control, product reliability, and
research and development. Usually required to have engineering training in a field related to
the technology of the product involved (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Foreman.
Supervises and coordinates activities of workers engaged in one or more occupations.
Studies production schedules and estimates man-hour .requirements for completion of job
assignment. Interprets company policies to workers and enforces safety regulations.
Interprets specifications, blueprints, and job orders to workers and assigns duties. Establishes
or adjusts work procedures to meet production schedules, using knowledge of capacities of
machines and equipment. Recommends measures to improve production methods,
equipment performance, and quality of product, and suggests changes in working conditions
and use of equipment to increase efficiency of shop, department, or work crew. Analyzes and
resolves work problems or assists workers in resolving work. problems. Initiates or suggests
plans to motivate workers to achieve work goals. Recommends or initiates personnel actions

17
such as promotions, transfers, discharges, and disciplinary measures. May train new workers.
Maintains time and production records. May specify, estimate, requisition, and inspect
materials (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Machine Shop foreman.

Supervises and coordinates activities of workers engaged in machining of metal,
applying knowledge of machine shop procedures, machine tool setup and operating
techniques and production, or custom machining methods.Performs duties similar to those of
a foreman (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Production Superintendent.
Coordinates, through subordinate supervisors, all activities of production departments
and subdivisions, applying knowledge of plant layout and production capacities of each
department. Consults with plant executives and analyzes economic trends, sales forecasts,
and marketing and distribution problems to plan and develop production procedures and time-
and-cost estimates. Explains company policies and production procedures to subordinate
supervisors and directs their activities. Confers with department heads to formulate programs
regarding availability of raw materials, maintenance of plant equipment and physical structure,
product quality control, related production records, labor and materials costs, and equipment
depreciation, to insure that operating costs are maintained at budgeted level. Reports
production figures and job completion dates to plant executives. Originates or assesses
measures designed to improve production methods, equipment performance, and quality of
product (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

ASSESSMENT TASK 1 (Anderson & Tatro, 1975)

1. Sample an OJT Apprentice in Machineshop in the Philippines

2. How does the Philippines. Department of labor define apprentice?
3. Do all machinists learn the trade as apprentices?
4. Is study in a day vocational school a good background for a machinist apprentice?

18
SUMMARY

Opportunities in the Machine Trades

 All of these machine tools are operated by men and women with specialized skills.
 The one important common skill that these operators must have is an understanding
of measurement because precision and accuracy are the most important
characteristics of their work (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Types of Shops
 There are many divisions in the machine trades. There are divisions in .the grouping
of machines, divisions in the skills required of machine operators, and divisions in the
types of shops where the works done.
 These shops can be divided into three groups: job shops, limited production shops,
and mass-production shops (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Job shop
 A job shop is a machine shop that is equipped with machines and workers that can
undertake a wide range of machining jobs of limited quantity and usually of a very
specialized nature (Fig. 1-1).
 (In this case, the word "job" refers to the product that has to be made and not to the
fact that the worker is employed.)
 A job shop may be called upon to develop the prototype of an idea thought up by a
design engineer or an inventor (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

A Limited Production Shop

 A limited production shop falls between a job shop and a mass production shop (Fig.
1-2). It specializes in producing identical parts in limited quantities ranging from one
hundred to several thousand.
 Machine tools used in limited production shops are designed to withstand hard wear
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

19
A Mass-Production Shop
 This is a shop where parts are manufactured in vast numbers. Automatic and
numerically controlled · machines are utilized to the fullest extent.
 Machines are set up to perform several operations with several different cutting tools.
Quite often the work is positioned and repositioned by mechanical arms thus enabling
one operator to attend to several machines.

JOB DESCRIPTIONS
The Apprentice
A Person Become a Machine Tool Operator
 Most often by completing a training program as an apprentice in a machine shop.
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

An Indentured Apprentice
Indenture was a contract which contained all the conditions of employment.
 Typically, the master agreed to teach the apprentice all of the skills of the trade and to
pay him specified wages, which were periodically increased.
 The apprentice promised m work diligently for a specified number of years, preserve
his master's secrets, and attend evening school in order to learn mathematics, trade
drawing, and trade theory (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Aft apprentices indentured

 Indenture as just described is no longer practiced in this country, but in some industries
(notably, construction and machine trades), a signed agreement between employer
and apprentice is still the custom (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

APPRENTICE
 This title is intended to mean a worker not less than 16 years of age engaged under
direct journeyman supervision, and according to a prescribed or traditional series of
work processes graded to coincide with increasing trade maturity in learning a skilled
occupation that requires, during the learning process, several years of reasonably

20
 continuous employment prior to the time that the worker may be considered a qualified
journey man (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.
 In general, apprenticeship is legally recognized only if recorded in a written contract,
indenture, or agreement, in which, in return for services rendered, the employer
promises to teach the worker the processes of his trade (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Time must a Machinist Apprentice Serve?

 A machinist apprentice usually serves from three to five years, depending on the type
of work being done in the shop to which he is apprenticed. (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
 The longer period Is required if the work is particularly painstaking and requires a high
degree of accuracy (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
 During his apprenticeship, the young person is instructed in the use of all machines,
tools, equipment, and materials used in the shop, and he is expected, in his last
apprenticeship year, to use them all with skill and understanding (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Time of apprenticeship scheduled among the various machines to be learned

 The following is the apprentice schedule developed and recommended by the National
Tool, Die, and Precision Machining Association (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Assembler-Fitter
 Assembles machine parts according to assembly plans and blueprintStudies
blueprints to determine how the parts go together. Lays out the position of holes to be
drilled.
 Checks the alignment of shafts, bearing, gears, and cams. Chips, scrapes, and files
the parts, using hand tools to make sure that the machine's movement, travel, fit, and
function are correct (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

21
Boring Machine Operator
 Sets up and operates a boring machine to bore, drill, mill, or ream metal parts
according to specifications, tooling instructions, standard charts, and knowledge of
boring procedures.
 Reads blueprints for job description and specifications, hole locations and dimensions,
and tooling instructions. Determines holding fixtures, feed rates, cutting speeds, and
cutting tools to be used (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Jig Boring Machine Setup Operator

 Performs operations similar to that of the boring machine operator but with greater
accuracy.
 Sets up and operates machine to drill, bore, and ream holes in metal work-pieces such
as jigs, fixtures, and dies.
 Plans sequence of work, lays out reference lines and location of holes according to
blueprints and knowledge of shop mathematics (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Broaching Machine Operator

 Sets up and operates one or more internal or external broaching machines to broach
cylindrical or flat surfaces of metal workpieces according to specifications, tooling
instructions, standard charts, and a knowledge of broaching (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
 Reads blueprints, job order specifications to determine dimensions and tolerances,
and tooling instructions such as holding fixtures, cutting speeds and cutting tools
(broaches) to be used. Lifts workpiece manually or with hoist and positions and
secures it in fixture. Installs broach, or ram, using wrenches (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
 Sets specified depth of cut and ram speed. Verifies that broached workpiece conforms
to specifications, using measuring instruments such as fixed gages, calipers, and
micrometers. May broach non-metallic materials such as plastics. May be required to
have experience with· custom or production work, with particular material or product,
or with machine of particular size, type, or trade name. May be designated accordingly.
Drill Press Setup Operator (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.

22
Engine Lathe Operator.
 Sets up and operates engine lathes to perform machining such as turning, facing,
boring, and threading on metal or non-metal workpieces according to specifications,
tooling instructions, standard charts, and knowledge of machining procedures (Fig. 1-
1,0).
 Reads blueprints or job order for specifications such as dimensions and tolerances,
tooling instructions on holding devices, feed rates, cutting speeds, depth of cut, and
cutting tools (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Turret lathe Operator.

 Sets up and operates turret lathes to perform series of machining operations such
as turning, boring, threading, and facing on metal workpieces such as castings,
forgings, machine, tool, or die parts according to specifications, tooling instructions,
standard charts, and a knowledge of turning procedures.
 Reads and studies blueprints to visualize machining to be done and plan sequence of
operations. Selects method of holding workpiece. Positions and secures workpiece to
faceplate or in chuck, collet, or holding fixture. Selects cutting speed, tool feed rate,
depth of cut, and cutting tools for each operation according to knowledge of metal
properties and shop mathematics (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Gear-Cutting Machine Setup Operator

 Sets up and operates gear-cutting machines such as shapers, hobbers, and Machines
spline, rack, or gear teeth on metal blanks, analysing specifications according to
knowledge of gear design, shop mathematics, and gear-machining procedures.
 Studies blueprints to visualize machining required and plans sequence of operations.
Selects machine and method of holding workpiece Computes machine setting from
gear specifications. Positions and secures workpiece to cutting angle, or arbor in chuck
or other holding device. Selects positions and secures cutters on toolhead, in spindle
or on arbor (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

23
Tool Grinder Operator.
 Sets up and operates variety of grinding machines such as external, internal, and
surface grinders, to grind metal workpieces such as machine parts, dies, or tools based
on a knowledge of grinding procedures
 Studies blueprints or layout on workpiece to visualize grinding to be done and plans
sequence –Qf operations. May measure, mark, or scribe workpiece to lay it out for
grinding. Selects method of holding workpiece. Lifts workpiece manually or with hoist
and positions and secures workpiece in holding device, using wrenches and clamps
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

All-Around Machinist.
 Carries through to completion the construction and repair of all kinds of tools, metal
parts, or machines. Works from blueprints and written specifications.
 Skillfully uses all machinist's hand tools and measuring instruments. Operates all
machine tools including drill presses, band and power saws, latties, planers,
shapers, grinding and milling machines, and specialized machines that have been
developed (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Metal Band Saw Operator

 Saws metal sheets and plates, castings, or machine parts to a specified shape and
size on a band saw according to blueprints or layout lines
 Degree of skill required will depend upon the job. Studies blueprints and judges
allowances required for finishing (machining). Uses layout tools to mark limits of saw
cut. Adjusts guides to suit variety of saw blades; requires ability to cut, grind, weld,
and anneal blades when they are removed and replaced on the saw band carrier
wheels (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Metal Band Machine Operator

 Must have all of the skills of the band saw operator plus the ability to remove the band
saw blade and replace it with a band file or an abrasive-coated polishing band. Uses
both of these attachments to a high degree of precision.

24
  Must be able to use similar machines for electric band sawing and friction sawing.
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Milling Machine Setup Operator

 Sets up and operates milling machines to mill surfaces on metal workpieces (Fig. 1-
16). Positions and secures workpiece in fixture or on machine bed using clamps and
wrenches. Mounts specified cutter in spindle or on arbor.
 Moves controls to set cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut according to tooling
instructions. Feeds workpiece to cutter or engages feeding mechanism; changes worn
cutters.
 Verifies dimensions of milled workpieces, using micrometers, verniers, calipers, and
fixed gages. Controls and directs flow of coolant over cutting area. May compute
imensions, cutting speeds, or feed rates, using knowledge of metal properties and
shop mathematics (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Millwright.
 Installs machinery and equipment according to layout plans, blueprints, and other
drawings in an industrial establishment, using hoists, lift trucks, hand tools and power
tools.
 Reads blueprints and schematic drawings to determine work procedures. Dismantles
machines, using hammers, wrenches, crowbars, and other hand tools. Moves
machinery and equipment, using hoists, dollies, rollers, and lift trucks.
 Assembles and installs equipment such as shafting, conveyors, and assembly
systems, using hand and power tools. Constructs foundations for machines, using
building materials such as wood, concrete, and steel. Aligns machines and equipment,
using hoists, jacks, hand tools, squares, rules, micrometers, and plumb bobs
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

25
Planer Setup Operator.
 Sets up and operates planers to plane and groove large metal workpieces such as
castings for metalworking dies and machine ways, analyzing specifications and
deciding on tooling according to machine-planning procedures(fig. 1-17).
 Studies blueprint or layout on workpieces to visualize planning to be done and plans
sequence of operations Selects method of holding workpieces so that entire surface
to be planed will remain parallel to table during planning operation. Lifts workpiece
manually or with hoist and positions it on table using shims, parallel blocks, clamps,
toe dogs, and poppets (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Shaper Operator.
 Performs operations on a shaping machine, such as planing or grooving of metal parts
including castings, forgings, and steel stock either in rough or simplified form (Fig. 1-
18).
 Selects, sharpens, and installs appropriately shaped cutting tools for each operation;
clamps or bolts work on machine table; adjusts and controls operations of machine.
Requires precision workmanship and ability to work from blueprints (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Instrument Maker.
 Devises and constructs a variety of prototypes in accordance with sketches, drawings,
specifications, and instructions under minimum supervision. Produces parts or
instruments in single or limited quantity as required. Uses basic machine tools and
performs highly complex bench operations in shaping, forming, assembling,
calibrating, and adjusting components and/or complete instruments to extremely close
tolerances on delicate parts.
 Applies knowledge of shop mathematics, tables, and properties of materials.
Performs duties as assigned. Less experienced instrument makers may carry out
these jobs but under general supervision (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

26
Inspector.
 Develops gaging, setup, and surface plate layout procedures, draws patterns and
templates, and inspects a variety of parts and tools to provide inspection devices and
fixtures for use /rn machining or assembly, using blueprints, formulas, trigonometry,
and precision measuring instruments (Fig. 1-19).
 Analyzes inspection problems by comparing part with blueprint or sketches, and
devises procedure necessary to measure specified dimensions. Lays out part on
surface plate or positions in gaging setup to verify dimensions, using master gages,
index heads, Johansson blocks, comparators, verniers, micrometers, and indicators
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Engineering Positions
What opportunities are available to the ambitious, well-trained, and capable machinist?
 Many men in influential positions received their earliest training in a machine shop.
Machining parts to a specified size requires careful attention to details. Having to work
within close tolerances and to a precise size develops the attitude of a perfectionist.
 Being able to complete a job in a required and stipulated length of time requires
patience, reliability, and a calm unruffled attitude. What better training could there be
for a technician or an executive (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Industrial Engineering Technician.

 Studies and records time, motion, methods, and speed involved in performance of
maintenance, production, clerical, and other work operations to establish standard
production rate and to improve efficiency.
 Prepares charts, graphs, and diagrams to illustrate work flow, routing, floor layouts,
material handling, and machine utilization. Observes workers operating equipment or
performing tasks to determine time involved and fatigue rate, using stopwatch, motion
picture camera, electrical recorder, and similar equipment (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

27
Methods Engineer.
 Plans sequence of operations to be followed in manufacturing product. Examines
blueprints, sketches, and specifications of product to be made. Itemizes steps to be
followed in the process, using knowledge of material, machine operations, plant layout,
and mathematics to select the least expensive and most efficient production methods.
 Specifies machines and kinds of cutting tools and setups to be used. May be
concerned with the writing of technical reports: Other titles include plant layout
engineer and production planning engineer (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Time-Study Engineer.
 Develops work-measurement procedures and directs time-and-motion studies to
promote efficient and economical utilization of personnel and facilities. Directs or
conducts observation and analysis of personnel and work procedures to determine
time-and-motion requirements of job duties.
 Analyzes work-study data and equipment specifications to establish time and
production standards. Applies mathematical analysis to determine validity and
reliability of sampling and work-study statistics (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Quality-Control Engineer.
 Performs and oversees activities concerned with development, application, and
maintenance of quality standards for processing materials into partially finished or
finished products.
 Develops and initiates methods and procedures for inspection, testing, and evaluation.
Devises sampling procedures, designs forms for recording, evaluating, and reporting
quality and reliability data, and writes instructions on use of forms. Establishes
programs to evaluate precision and accuracy of production and processing equipment
and testing, measurement, and analytical facilities (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

28
Foreman.
 Supervises and coordinates activities of workers engaged in one or more occupations.
Studies production schedules and estimates man-hour .requirements for completion
of job assignment.
 Interprets company policies to workers and enforces safety regulations. Interprets
specifications, blueprints, and job orders to workers and assigns duties. Establishes
or adjusts work procedures to meet production schedules, using knowledge of
capacities of machines and equipment.
 Recommends measures to improve production methods, equipment performance, and
quality of product, and suggests changes in working conditions and use of equipment
to increase efficiency of shop, department, or work crew (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Machine Shop foreman.

 Supervises and coordinates activities of workers engaged in machining of metal,
applying knowledge of machine shop procedures, machine tool setup and operating
techniques and production, or custom machining methods. Performs duties similar to
those of a foreman (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Production Superintendent.
 Coordinates, through subordinate supervisors, all activities of production departments
and subdivisions, applying knowledge of plant layout and production capacities of
each department. Consults with plant executives and analyzes economic trends, sales
forecasts, and marketing and distribution problems to plan and develop production
procedures and time-and-cost estimates.
 Explains company policies and production procedures to subordinate supervisors and
directs their activities. Confers with department heads to formulate programs regarding
availability of raw materials, maintenance of plant equipment and physical structure,
product quality control, related production records, labor and materials costs, and
equipment depreciation, to insure that operating costs are maintained at budgeted
level.

29
  Reports production figures and job completion dates to plant executives. Originates or
assesses measures designed to improve production methods, equipment
performance, and quality of product. Recommends changes in working conditions and
modifications in machines and equipment.
 Plans surveys and projects manpower requirements. Negotiates with workers'
representatives in connection with grievance procedures and reports unsettled
grievances to plant executives (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Reference

Anderson, J. & Tatro, E. (1975). Shop Theory (6th Ed.) 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,

30
 MODULE 2
Safety in the machine shop

Introduction

An accident in a machine shop can be a messy and painful experience. Most accidents
in a machine shop are the result of carelessness. The victim knows at the time that he should
not do what he is about to do; he takes a chance. Sometimes he is lucky and gets away with
it. Accident statistics prove that he who takes a chance most often loses. The result pain loss
of time and money broken tools and equipment; spoiled work. To these could be added the
possibility of permanent disfigurement and disablement (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Learning outcome:

After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

1. Name and describe the basic hand tools for bench.
2. Apply correct tool base on application.
3. Illustrated and Identify tools base on Application (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

31
Lesson 1. The Safe Worker

It takes time and experience to develop a skilled machinist. A skilled machinist is

seldom involved in accidents. He knows that he cannot take chances with the certainty of the
machine's timing, nor with the power of its movement. There are basic rules for the
development of safe working habits. The rules must first be understood, then practiced until
they become a habit. Each machine has individual hazards to the safety of a careless and
thoughtless operator. The careful operator, however, quickly observes each potential danger
and sets up a pattern of work habits that will keep him clear of involvement with any dangerous
practice (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 2-1. The well-dressed worker (Anderson & Tatro, 1975) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.
The skilled machinist dresses safely (Fig. 2-1). He wears nothing that could get caught
on the moving job or machine. He is aware of the danger of flying chips and minute particles
from abrasive wheels and of the horrible damage that flying particles from drills and cutting
tools can do to the human eye. He wears his safety glasses from the time he enters the shop
until he leaves it (Fig. 2-2). The skilled machinist handles sharp cutting tools with care. He
keeps the floor around his workplace free of oil and short pieces of stock. He stacks the rough
castings and the finished workpieces separately and neatly. The stacked material is not
permitted to interfere with his movements around the machine, and because of this it is not a
hazard to his safety. When a workpiece or a machine attachment is too cumbersome or too
heavy for one man to handle comfortably, the careful worker asks for assistance (Fig. 2-3).

32
Many things the skilled machinist does keep him free from accidents, The wise student or
apprentice is one who observes and profits from the skilled machinist's

Figure. 2-2. He wears safety glasses from the timehe enters the shop until he leaves it
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 2-3 Utilizing heavy attachment safely (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.

example. Each workman or student in a machine shop is aware of the dangers that surround
him; he has been warned of these dangers and has been instructed in the safety rules that
apply to his shop activity. This is not sufficient to make a safe worker. Each worker in a
machine shop, whether he be a machinist, student, or helper, must develop his own
awareness of the importance of avoiding accidents, and his own awareness of the possible
hazards to safety that his job involves. He also must develop safe working techniques. He
must be alert to possible dangers, and he must be energetic in correcting conditions and
habits that could lead to accidents and injury (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

33
 Lesson 2. General Shop Safety

What is safe dress for a machinist?

He should remove his necktie, wristwatch, and jewelry such as identification bracelet
and rings .Sleeves are out of danger when they are rolled up. The machinist should wear an
apron, shop coat, or coveralls. Apron strings should be tied at the back, and bulging pieces of
cotton waste should not be carried in the pocket (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why is it dangerous for a machine operator to wear a woolen sweater?

The strands of the wool that go into the making of a sweater are long and unbroken.
One strand caught on a revolving dog or job can bring the machine operator much closer to
danger. Machine tool spindles, whether on a lathe or a drill press, turn many revolutions in a
second, and much damage can be done before the machine is brought to a stop (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

What is the objection to wearing canvas shoes in a machine shop?

The soft material from which the upper part of the canvas shoe is made offers no
resistance to a hard object, whether it is falling or stumbled against The rubber soles are easily
penetrable by steel chips and sharp-edged machined surfaces Strongly made safety shoes
having steel toe caps offer good insurance against injuries (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

When should gloves be worn in a machine shop?

Gloves should be worn when the worker is moving sheet metal or large pieces of stock,
especially when stock edges are sharp or ragged. Gloves should also be worn when the
worker is pouring liquids that are injurious to human skin and whenever it is necessary for him
to handle metal chips of any size or shape (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why should goggles or safety glasses be worn by everybody working in the machine shop?
Injury to the eye can be caused by flying particles of metal that result when the
workpiece resists the cutting tool. These flying pieces of metal do not single out the man
behind the cutting tool. Chips can fly in any direction to hit anybody in the shop. Everybody in
the shop needs the protection of safety glasses (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

34
Why is it safer to remove a necktie when working on or near machinery?
A tucked-in tie can slip out of a buttoned shirt. A loose tie can very quickly become
caught in a moving machine part; the results are painful.

Can long apron tie-strings create safety hazards?

When the ends of long or short apron tie-strings become loose, they can be easily
caught on the moving parts of any machine (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Is it safer to roll up the sleeves or button them at the wrists?

Rolled-up sleeves present far less a hazard to safety than buttoned sleeves. A button
can unfasten because of a worn buttonhole, or a button may be lost. The sleeve can then
easily become caught in a moving job, with serious consequences to the machine operator
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is the safe way to lift a heavy object?

Don't attempt to lift a job or machine attachment by yourself if it is too heavy or too
awkward for one person to handle. Before lifting, be sure that you have a firm footing; keep
your feet about 8 to 12 inches apart, and get a good balance. Keep your feet close to the job
being lifted. Bend the knees; squat down but keep your back straight. When you are ready to
lift, push your body up with the strength in your legs. Keep the job close to your body until you
have it in the normal and convenient carrying position. Walk with .firm steps; don't twist your
body to change your direction, but change the position of your feet. Breathe normally; don't
hold your 9reath. When lifting with another person's help, talk it over first, then move and lift
together (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should long steel bar stock be carried in the shop?

Although it is often easier to carry long pieces stock on the shoulder it is not a safe
way. We tend to watch where we are going and forget what happens to the part we are not
watching Stock should be carried vertically so that all of can be watched at the same time
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

35
Why is it dangerous to leave pieces of stock on the floor of the shop?
Men do not walk through a machine shop with their eyes looking at the floor; therefore
a work mark is apt to step on a small piece of stock left on the floor. A fall can cause serious
injury fall that carries the victim into a moving machining can be fatal (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

When does grease become a hazard to safety

When it drips or is dropped on the shop floor. An oil slick under a quick-moving foot
may result in a serious accident. Wipe up grease and oil that is dropped on the floor. Clean
off the excess grease that is left near bearings and grease cups (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is meant by good housekeeping in machine shop?

The term indicates cleanliness and neatness, a place for everything with everything in
its place. The-result of good housekeeping: a safe shop (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 3. Safety on the Bench

What causes the greatest number of accidents to bench workers?

Most accidents to bench workers are caused by thoughtless use of tools, which
includes using a tool incorrectly or carelessly. Many accidents result from using a tool to do
something for which it was not intended (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Many painful accidents are caused by pointed or sharp-edged tools. What can be done to
avoid this type of accident?
Sharp-edged or pointed tools should not be carried in clothing pockets. Arrange the
tools on the bench with the sharp ends toward the back of the bench. Lay the tools on a cloth
to protect edges. Pick them up carefully. Use the right tool for the job (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

What are the rules for the safe use of files?

A. Be sure that the file has a handle. See that the handle fits securely. Never use a
file without a handle.

36
 B. Remove burrs and abrasions from the file handle before using it. They cause
blisters.
C. Do not use a file as a hammer. Flying pieces of hardened steel can pierce human
skin.
D. Striking a file with a hammer will also cause steel splinters to fly.
E. Using a file as a pry bar is a sure way of breaking it
F. Keep files separated from each other and do not throw files against other files
when returning them to the tool drawer.
G. Keep file teeth clear of pins. Do not let oil and dirt collect in the gullets of the file.
A file that slips over the metal can cause skinned knuckles (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Many workers are hurt because of the misuse of hammers. What rules, if followed, will remote
the cause of these accidents?
A. Always check the fit of the handle in the hammerhead. Make sure that the wedge
is in place, and tight.
B. Do not use a hammer with a broken or split handle.
C. Always remove oil, grease, and dirt from the face and the· handle of the hammer
D. Never use the face of the hammer to strike against another hardened tool.
E. Use the right sized hammer for the job; an 8-oz hammer will not do the work of 1
1/2 lb hammer (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What rules govern the safe use of wrenches?

A. Keep wrenches clean; wipe off oil and grease before using the wrench.
B. Stop any machine before using a wrench. Whether it is to tighten, loosen, remove,
or adjust, first stop the machine.
C. Be sure that the wrench fits the nut snugly. An oversize wrench will slip and round
off the corners of the nut.
D. Whenever possible pull on the wrench; don't push.
E. Stand with proper balance whenever it is necessary to pull hard on a wrench: one
leg behind the other.
F. The design of a wrench provides sufficient length for safe leverage.
Circumstances arise, however, when extra length must be added. When this
happens, take extra safety pre-cautions.

37
 G. Do not hammer on the end of a wrench. This results· in springing the jaws of the
wrench and raising sharp, dangerous, and unsightly burrs on the end of the wrench.
H. Use an adjustable wrench only when a nonadjustable type is not available. The
jaws of an adjustable wrench are not designed to withstand excessive pressure
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 4. Hacksaw Safety

Why is it unsafe to use a dull hacksaw blade?

If a saw does not cut efficiently, it seems practical to apply more pressure. However,
this is wrong. More pressure, with poor cutting action, will cause the blade to break (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

What is the best procedure to follow if the hacksaw blade breaks before the cut is completed?
Start the new blade on the opposite side of the job so that it will run into the first cut only when
the piece is sawed through. Starting a new blade in the first cut will result in another broken
blade (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should the hacksaw blade be mounted in the saw frame?

The teeth of the hacksaw blade should be pointed away from the handle and toward
the front of the frame. Tension should be sufficient to prevent the blade from bending, and the
blade should be straight, not twisted (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Is there a proper speed for hacksawing?

The kind of metal being cut and the shape of the job will have much to do with the
number of strokes per minute of the hacksaw. The average speed when sawing cold rolled
steel that does not spring or chatter should be 50 to 60 strokes per minute, slower when
sawing harder and cast metals. The heat of the saw blade will indicate the need to slow down
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.
Why it is good practice to slow down just before the saw blade completes the cut?
When the cut is almost completed it is good practice to reduce both speed and
pressure because when the saw clears the stock, forward motion will be actually greater.

38
Many knuckles have been skinned and hands cut because this practice was forgotten
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What other rules should be observed for the practice of safety when hacksawing?
Observe these safe hacksawing practices:
A. Grip the work in the vise so that the saw cut will be near the jaws.
B. Apply pressure only on the forward stroke.
C. Start the saw cut with a light, even, forward stroke, holding the saw frame at an
angle. When the cut is established, hold the frame level and saw the full width of the
job.
D. Take the longest stroke possible, but do not permit the blade-supporting pins to
touch them.
E. Use a blade having the proper number of teeth per inch to suit the job; fine pitch
or thin metal, coarse pitch for thick pieces (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 5. Drill Press Safety

What is the most common cause of accidents· on it drill press?

Most drilling accidents are called by the work not being securely fastened. The job
roost be securely held, clamped, or bolted down, whatever size hole is being drilled (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

Why is it dangerous to drill work held by hand?

When the fast-moving drill bites into the work, it transfers some of its rotating force to
the workpiece. Hands cannot maintain a secure enough hold to prevent the rotating force from
whirling the work away from the operator. The force ·may be strong enough to send the flying
workpiece toward a distant area of the shop, causing injury to ·an unsuspecting co-worker
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should work be held for drilling?

Work should be held in a vise or clamped to the table (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

39
When work to be drilled is held in a vise should the vise be bolted to the table?
Whenever possible the vise should be bolted to the table to prevent the rotary force of
the drill from dislodging the work and causing personal injury, ruined work, a broken drill, or a
combination of the three (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should the vise be set on the machine table when it is not possible to secure it by bolts?
If the vise is held by hand, the force of the moving drill can twist it from the operator's
grasp. The vise should be given support by being placed firmly against the column of the
machine so that the direction of rotation forces the vise against the column.

Why should the drill press. operator keep his air cut short, or wear a cap?
To prevent stray strands of hair from being caught in the fast-moving belts or the
revolving drill spindle (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why is proper dress so important to the safety of the drill press operator?
Many accidents have been caused by long sleeves, dangling neckties, and untied
aprons. It is safer to roll the sleeves above the elbow, remove the necktie, and keep apron
strings tightly tied at the back. Do not wear rings or a wristwatch (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How can a dull drill cause an accident?

A dull drill will not cut, but the inexperienced operator will increase the pressure of the
feed, hoping to force the drill into the work. The drill will break, and the flying pieces cause
painful injuries (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is the safest thing to do if the drill digs in and the ;ob is whirled from its fastenings?
Shut off the power immediately. When all movement has stopped, turn the drill back
(reverse) by hand.

Why is it important to make sure that the quick return lever is firmly locked in place?
An insecurely locked quick-return lever can fall heavily on the operator's head causing
painful injury (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

40
What is the correct tool to use in order to release a taper shank drill from the drilling machine
spindle?
Remove the taper shank drill or taper sleeve with the drill drift. Many injuries are
caused when makeshift tools are used. Do not use drift punches, files, or wedges. By doing
so, the drill, socket, or sleeve may become permanently disfigured. Also, the tang of a file
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are the most important rules for safe operation of the drill press?
Follow these safe drilling practices:
A. Think about what you are doing. Keep your mind on the job.
B. Dress safely. Remove rings, watches, identification bracelets, and neckties. Roll
up sleeves.
D. Remove tools, damps, wrenches, and so forth from the table before starting the
drill.
E. Remove drill drift from spindle or chuck key from the drill chuck immediately after
use.
F. When the drill becomes dull, resharpen it or replace it.
G. Grind the drill correctly for the metal it is required to cut.
H. As the drill breaks through the work. Relieve the down-feed pressure.
I. Stop the machine before measuring or adjusting the job.
J. Stop the machine before using a brush to remove chips and excess coolant
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is the safe way of forcing the taper shank drill into the spindle?
First clean the shank of the drill and the tapered hole in the spindle. Use a cloth, not
fingers. After making certain that the tang of the drill is correctly aligned, jam the drill into the
spindle. Never drive the drill with a hammer because both hammerhead and drill are
hardened; the cutting point will be dulled and hard steel splinters may fly (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Lesson 6. Safety on the Lathe

Why should the lathe be stopped before making adjustments to the too/holder?
When the tool-post screw is loosened, the wrench may swing into the revolving chuck
jaws. The sharp blow would break the tool-post screw, causing it to fly and thus endangering

41
the operator and nearby workers. There is also a danger of the operator's hand being caught
between the tool-post wrench and the revolving chuck jaws (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should the chips from the lathe be prevented from winding around the job?
A short piece of wood may be used to push the winding chip down into the lathe pan.
The chip will break and remain in the pan. Accumulated chips should be swept up into a
disposal can. Lathe chips should never be touched by hand (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why is it considered dangerous to permit a large accumulation of chips in the lathe pan?
A long chip may begin to wind around the evolving job. Such a chip will carry the chips
from the lathe pan with it. Even if the winding chips do not injure the machinist who is operating
the lathe, they can spoil the job (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Is it good practice to clean the chips away from the knurling tool while it is in operation?
Yes. It is bad practice to stop the lathe before the required length of knurl is completed.
One passes knurling results in many chips accumulating on the surface of the job; remove
them carefully with a brush never with cotton waste or cloth(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why is it unsafe to permit the chips to collect when turning magnesium?

The slightest spark can ignite magnesium into a fire with tremendous heat. Friction
from a rubbing (rather than cutting) tool bit can cause this; therefore, when chips collect
around the job, or in the chip parts Stop the lathe at short intervals and clean out the chips
whenever magnesium is the metal being machined (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How can wearing jewelry create safety hazardsfor the lathe operator?
Loose-fitting jewelry, such as an identification bracelet, or an article raised above the
skin surface, such as a ring, can easily be caught on a revolving machine part which would
drag a hand or arm into the moving machinery, causing serious injury .

Can lifting a lathe chuck onto the spindle cause an accident?

Yes. Lifting a weight at an unusual angle often causes painful back dislocations {Fig.
2-39ways at the correct height and formed to the shape of the chuck will make mounting the
chuck a safe operation (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

42
What is the best means of supporting the chuck when mounting it onto the lathe spindle?
A wooden board fashioned correctly to clear the ways at the correct height and torned
to the shape of the chuck will make mounting the chuck a safe operation.

What point of safety does the machinist stress when he says, "Never let go of the chuck
key's?
If the machinist is trying to think three moves ahead, he will not concentrate on the
present. He may leave the chuck key in the chuck. Later he may start the lathe without noticing
the key in the chuck and serious injury may result (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How can the machinist avoid possible injury from a flying chuck key?
By following the rule of the old slogan: "Never let go of the chuck key" until it is put in
its proper place (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

When must care be used in clamping the tool holder in the tool post?
When facing or turning work close to the chuck (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What procedure should be followed in clamping the too/holder in the tool post when working
close to the chuck?
The tool post should be positioned at the left side of the tool-post slide . If the tool post
is clamped at the right side of the slide, the jaws may strike the edge of the compound rest,
resulting in chips, soarks, and the possibility of a broken lathe. Most engine lathes show the
scars left by careless workers (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Is parting-off a more dangerous operation than any of the other lathe procedures?
No, there are no dangerous lathe operations provided care is used in the setup and
proper trade practices are utilized shows a poor setup, which could result in an accident. Long,
slender work will bend from the pressure of the parting tool and spring out from between the
centers (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Should the cutting tool be removed before checking a bored hole with a plug gage or with .Ii
tapered plug gage if the hole is tapered?
If the carriage cannot be moved out of the way, the safest way is to remove both tool
and toolholder. Many machinists have suffered painful cuts when the plug gage released
suddenly and their hands hit the exposed cutting tool (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

43
Lesson 7. Milling Safety

Does it save time or is it safer to handle heavy milling machine attachments alone?
To handle heavy equipment alone is not time saving. To do so increases the possibility
of accident to the workman and damage to the machine equipment. When two people lift a
piece of heavy equipment, there is less chance of damaging either the attachment or the
finished surfaces of the machine table (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should milling cutters be handled?

Milling cutters have sharp cutting edges and should be handled carefully. They should
be held in a piece of doth to prevent injury to the Operator and to the cutting edges(Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

Why do careful milling machine operators place their tools on a board or piece of cloth?
Milling cutters have sharp edges that should not be chipped or dulled. Placing these
tools on a wooden board protects both the cutting edges of the cutter and the surface of the
milling machine table. It also helps the operator to keep his tools together and prevents them
from sliding around when the machine vibrates (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What common mistake is often made when tightening the milling cutter on the arbor?
A common mistake is to attempt to tighten the arbor nut before placing the overarm in
position (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What will result if this common mistake is made?

The arbor will be bent and the operator may be injured as the wrench slides off the
arbor nut. Always place the overarm bracket in position and clamp it to the overarm before
tightening the arbor nut (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Can the arbor nut be tightened by engaging the clutch and using the motor-driven power?
Power should never be turned on to tighten the arbor nut. Always stop the motor; then
engage the clutch, and when the arbor is absolutely stationary, tighten the arbor nut.

44
Is there a safe side and an unsafe side of a milling machine when the cutter is revolving?
The milling machine operator should not stand on the side that the cutter is entering
the work. The revolving cutter can drag the brush or anything else that gets near enough into
the work. The operator should always stand on the going away side of the cutter(Anderson &
Tatro, 1975).

Why do milling machine safety rules emphasize the importance of keeping away from the
cutter?
There is a tendency for the new operator to get too close to the place where the cutter
is removing metal. This makes it possible for the flying chips to cut the operator's face. Also,
fumes and spray from the soluble coolant oils may cause infection(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What rules, if followed, will assure the safe operation of a milling machine?
Observe these safe milling practices:
A. Be sure that you are aware of the function of every operating control. Don't push a
button, move a handle, or engage a clutch unless you are sure of the machine action
which will occur when you do so.
B. Be sure that everything is secure before turning on the power. Check the cutter,
the bolts holding a vise, or any attachment. Check the job in the vise or chuck for
tightness.
C. Check the safe clearance of job, cutter, arbor, overarm brackets, vise, or index
head before turning on the power.
D. Check setting of speed and feed before turning on the power.
E. Do not lean on the machine; stand upright.
F. Keep your head out of the direct line of the cutter.
G. Stay on the going-away side of the cutter.
H. Remove chips with a brush.
I. Keep cotton waste and rags away from any part. of a milling machine while it is in
operation.
J. Stop the machine before measuring the job, feeling the surface of the finished cut,
tightening a bolt, changing the speed, or reversing the feed (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

45
Lesson 8. Shaper Safety

What part of the shaper operator's body is most frequently injured?

Most accidents happen to the operator's hands Fingers are caught between the cutting
tool and the work. It is dangerous to attempt to remove chips by hand. Wait until the cutting
tool is on the re!urn stroke; then brush the chips awayparts of the tool slide are clear of the
column. In order to do this, the operator should stand at the front of the machine, observing
all possible danger spots (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why should the speed and length of the stroke be checked before starting the machine?
If the longest stroke is operated at the highest speed, the mechanism of the machine
can become damaged. Always check speed and stroke before engaging the clutch (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

What should be done directly after the depth of cut is set?

In order to prevent the tool slide from changing its position because of vibration, tighten
the clamping screw. Otherwise, the tool will dig into the work (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why should the operator of the shaping machine wear safety glasses?
The chips released by the shaper cutting tool seem to fly with extra force. That is why
no~ only the shaper operator, but all those near the shaper should protect their eyes with
safety glasses.

Many· accidents occur when shaping jobs require the tool slide to be set off from its vertical
position. How can an accident be prevented in this circumstance?
When the tool slide is set off at an angle, some part of the slide may strike the column
of the machine. Operate the ram through one complete cycle slowly by hand while closely
'observing if all parts of the tool slide are clear of the column. In order to do this, the operator
should stand at the front of the machine, observing all possible danger spots (Anderson &
Tatro, 1975).

46
Why should the speed and length of the stroke be checked before starting the machine?
If the longest stroke is operated at the highest speed, the mechanism of the machine
can become damaged. Always check speed and stroke before engaging the clutch (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

What should be done directly after the depth of cut is set?

In order to prevent the tool slide from changing its position because of vibration, tighten
the clamping screw. Otherwise, the tool will dig into the work(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 9. Safety on the Grinding Machine

Are grinding machines more dangerous than other machines?

No; all machines are dangerous if used improperly. If the grinding machine operator
follows certain rules, accidents will be avoided (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are the principal safety rules that the grinding machine operator must follow?
Follow these safe grinding practices:
A. Safety goggles must be worn at all times
B. Test the soundness of the grinding wheel and inspect it for cracks before
mounting it on the machine spindle.
C. Check the wheel bushing and the machine spindle for size identification. The
bushing must neither extend beyond the width of the wheel nor bind tightly on the
spindle.
D. Wheel blotters must be fitted between the wheel and the flanges. The blotters
must be the same diameter as the flanges, never less.
E. Check the operating speed of the machine and compare it with the wheel
manufacturer's recommendations.
F. See that all guards and protective hoods are in place and tightly secured before
starting the machine. Turn wheel over by hand to check clearance.
G. Check to make sure that the wheel is clear of the work and that the feed is
disengaged before starting the machine.
H. Make certain that small work is securely nested and the nest is blocked on two
sides.

47
 I. Do not start an unguarded machine. Using unguarded machines can lead to eye
injuries or other serious injuries.
J. Before starting any grinding wheel stand to one side; allow the wheel to run full
speed for one full minute to insure that it is sound.
K. Always feed the work gently and steadily into the revolving grinding wheel.
L. Keep your head out of the line of the sparks.
M. Never place your hands near the revolving wheel.
N. Never attempt to remove work, open vise, or shut off magnetic chuck· until the
wheel clears the job and has come to a complete stop (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Assessment Task 2 (Anderson & Tatro, 1975)

1. What are some of the things that contribute to a safe shop?

2. How should chips be removes from the table or bed of a machine?
3. What must be done before beginning repairs on a machine?
4. Why is it dangerous to run a machine from which the guards have been removed?
5. What other rules should be observed for the practice of safety when hacksawing?
6. What are the most important rules for safe operation of the drill press?
7. What rules, if followed, will assure the safe operation of a milling machine?
8. What are the principal safety rules that the grinding machine operator must follow?

Summary

The Safe Worker

 It takes time and experience to develop a skilled machinist. A skilled machinist is
seldom involved in accidents. He knows that he cannot take chances with the certainty

48
 of the machine's timing, nor with the power of its movement. There are basic rules for
the development of safe working habits (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The well-dressed worker.

 The skilled machinist dresses safely (Fig. 2-1). He wears nothing that could get caught
on the moving job or machine. He is aware of the danger of flying chips and minute
particles from abrasive wheels and of the horrible damage that flying particles from
drills and cutting tools can do to the human eye. He wears his safety glasses from the
time he enters the shop until he leaves it (Fig. 2-2). The skilled machinist handles
sharp cutting tools with care. He keeps the floor around his workplace free of oil and
short pieces of stock (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

General Shop Safety

Safe Dress for a Machinist
 He should remove his necktie, wristwatch, and jewelry such as identification bracelet
and rings .Sleeves are out of danger when they are rolled up. The machinist should
wear an apron, shop coat, or coveralls. Apron strings should be tied at the back, and
bulging pieces of cotton waste should not be carried in the pocket (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Dangerous for a machine operator to wear a woolen sweater

 The strands of the wool that go into the making of a sweater are long and unbroken.
One strand caught on a revolving dog or job can bring the machine operator much
closer to danger. Machine tool spindles, whether on a lathe or a drill press, turn many
revolutions in a second, and much damage can be done before the machine is brought
to a stop(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Objection to wearing canvas shoes in a machine shop?

 The soft material from which the upper part of the canvas shoe is made offers no
resistance to a hard object, whether it is falling or stumbled against The rubber soles
are easily penetrable by steel chips and sharp-edged machined surfaces Strongly
made safety shoes having steel toe caps offer good insurance against injuries
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

49
Gloves be worn in a machine shop?
 Gloves should be worn when the worker is moving sheet metal or large pieces of stock,
especially when stock edges are sharp or ragged. Gloves should also be worn when
the worker is pouring liquids that are injurious to human skin and whenever it is
necessary for him to handle metal chips of any size or shape (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Goggles or safety glasses be worn by everybody working in the machine shop?

 Injury to the eye can be caused by flying particles of metal that result when the
workpiece resists the cutting tool. These flying pieces of metal do not single out the
man behind the cutting tool. Chips can fly in any direction to hit anybody in the shop.
Everybody in the shop needs the protection of safety glasses (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

It safer to remove a necktie when working on or near machinery

 A tucked-in tie can slip out of a buttoned shirt. A loose tie can very quickly become
caught in a moving machine part; the results are painful (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Long apron tie-strings create safety hazards

 When the ends of long or short apron tie-strings become loose, they can be easily
caught on the moving parts of any machine.

It safer to roll up the sleeves or button them at the wrists

 Rolled-up sleeves present far less a hazard to safety than buttoned sleeves. A button
can unfasten because of a worn buttonhole, or a button may be lost. The sleeve can
then easily become caught in a moving job, with serious consequences to the machine
operator (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The safe way to lift a heavy object

 Don't attempt to lift a job or machine attachment by yourself if it is too heavy or too
awkward for one person to handle. Before lifting, be sure that you have a firm footing;
keep your feet about 8 to 12 inches apart, and get a good balance.
 Keep your feet close to the job being lifted. Bend the knees; squat down but keep
your back straight. When you are ready to lift, push your body up with the strength in

50
 your legs. Keep the job close to your body until you have it in the normal and
convenient carrying position. Walk with .firm steps; don't twist your body to change
your direction, but change the position of your feet. Breathe normally; don't hold your
breath. When lifting with another person's help, talk it over first, then move and lift
together (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Long steel bar stock be carried in the shop

Although it is often easier to carry long pieces stock on the shoulder it is not a safe
way. We tend to watch where we are going and forget what happens to the part we are not
watching Stock should be carried vertically so that all of can be watched at the same time
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why is it dangerous to /eave pieces of stock on the floor of the shop?

Men do not walk through a machine shop with their eyes looking at the floor; therefore
a work mark is apt to step on a small piece of stock left on the floor. A fall can cause serious
injury fall that carries the victim into a moving machining can be fatal (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Grease become a hazard to safety

When it drips or is dropped on the shop floor. An oil slick under a quick-moving foot
may result in a serious accident. Wipe up grease and oil that is dropped on the floor. Clean
off the excess grease that is left near bearings and grease cups (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Good housekeeping in machine shop?

The term indicates cleanliness and neatness, a place for everything with everything in
its place. The-result of good housekeeping: a safe shop (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Some of the things that contribute to a safe shop?

Floors, passageways-aisles and space around machines- kept clean and clear of
small pieces of metal and machine attachments and accessories. There should be plenty of
(disposal cans in designated places to receive waste, scrap materials, and floor and machine
sweepings. The aisles of passage between machines should be clearly outlined. There should
be a place for each tool and each must be replaced after it has been used (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

51
How should chips be removed from the table or bed of a machine?
Because metal chips have sharp edges, which cut and penetrate skin, chips should
never be handled. Machines can be kept clear of chips.by periodically sweeping (or
brushing) them away (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Safety on the Bench

Causes the greatest number of accidents to bench workers?

 Most accidents to bench workers are caused by thoughtless use of tools, which
includes using a tool incorrectly or carelessly. Many accidents result from using a
tool to do something for which it was not intended (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Many painful accidents are caused by pointed or sharp-edged tools. What can be done to
avoid this type of accident?
 Sharp-edged or pointed tools should not be carried in clothing pockets. Arrange the
tools on the bench with the sharp ends toward the back of the bench. Lay the tools
on a cloth to protect edges. Pick them up carefully. Use the right tool for the job
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Rules for the safe use of files

A. Be sure that the file has a handle. See that the handle fits securely. Never use a
file without a handle.
B. Remove burrs and abrasions from the file handle before using it. They cause
blisters.
C. Do not use a file as a hammer. Flying pieces of hardened steel can pierce human
skin.
D. Striking a file with a hammer will also cause steel splinters to fly.
E. Using a file as a pry bar is a sure way of breaking it
F. Keep files separated from each other and do not throw files against other files
when returning them to the tool drawer.
G. Keep file teeth clear of pins. Do not let oil and dirt collect in the gullets of the file.
A file that slips over the metal can cause skinned knuckles (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

52
Many workers are hurt because of the misuse of hammers. What rules, if followed, will remote
the cause of these accidents?
A. Always check the fit of the handle in the hammerhead. Make sure that the wedge
is in place, and tight.
B. Do not use a hammer with a broken or split handle.
C. Always remove oil, grease, and dirt from the face and the· handle of the hammer
D. Never use the face of the hammer to strike against another hardened tool.
E. Use the right sized hammer for the job; an 8-oz hammer will not do the work of 1
1/2 lb hammer (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Hacksaw Safety

Unsafe to use a dull hacksaw blade

 If a saw does not cut efficiently, it seems practical to apply more pressure. However,
this is wrong. More pressure, with poor cutting action, will cause the blade to
break(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Best procedure to follow if the hacksaw blade breaks before the cut is completed?
 Start the new blade on the opposite side of the job so that it will run into the first cut
only when the piece is sawed through. Starting a new blade in the first cut will result
in another broken blade (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Hacksaw blade be mounted in the saw frame

 The teeth of the hacksaw blade should be pointed away from the handle and toward
the front of the frame. Tension should be sufficient to prevent the blade from bending,
and the blade should be straight, not twisted (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Other rules should be observed for the practice of safety when hacksawing?
Observe these safe hacksawing practices:
A. Grip the work in the vise so that the saw cut will be near the jaws.
B. Apply pressure only on the forward stroke.
C. Start the saw cut with a light, even, forward stroke, holding the saw frame at an
angle. When the cut is established, hold the frame level and saw the full width of the
job.

53
 D. Take the longest stroke possible, but do not permit the blade-supporting pins to
touch them.
E. Use a blade having the proper number of teeth per inch to suit the job; fine pitch
or thin metal, coarse pitch for thick pieces (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Drill Press Safety

Most common cause of accidents· on it drill press?

 Most drilling accidents are called by the work not being securely fastened. The job
roost be securely held, clamped, or bolted down, whatever size hole is being drilled
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Dangerous to drill work held by hand?

 When the fast-moving drill bites into the work, it transfers some of its rotating force to
the workpiece. Hands cannot maintain a secure enough hold to prevent the rotating
force from whirling the work away from the operator. The force ·may be strong enough
to send the flying workpiece toward a distant area of the shop, causing injury to an
unsuspecting co-worker (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The drill press operator keep his air cut short, or wear a cap
 To prevent stray strands of hair from being caught in the fast-moving belts or the
revolving drill spindle(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Proper dress so important to the safety of the drill press operator?

 Many accidents have been caused by long sleeves, dangling neckties, and untied
aprons. It is safer toroll the sleeves above the elbow, remove the necktie, and keep
apron strings tightly tied at the back. Do not wear rings or a wristwatch (Anderson &
Tatro, 1975).

The most important rules for safe operation of the drill press?
Follow these safe drilling practices:
A. Think about what you are doing. Keep your mind on the job.
B. Dress safely. Remove rings, watches, identification bracelets, and neckties. Roll
up sleeves.

54
 D. Remove tools, damps, wrenches, and so forth from the table before starting the
drill.
E. Remove drill drift from spindle or chuck key from the drill chuck immediately after
use.
F. When the drill becomes dull, resharpen it or replace it.
G. Grind the drill correctly for the metal it is required to cut.
H. As the drill breaks through the work. Relieve the down-feed pressure.
I. Stop the machine before measuring or adjusting the job.
J. Stop the machine before using a brush to remove chips and excess coolant
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The safe way of forcing the taper shank drill into the spindle?
 First clean the shank of the drill and the tapered hole in the spindle. Use a cloth, not
fingers. After making certain that the tang of the drill is correctly aligned, jam the drill
into the spindle. Never drive the drill with a hammer because both hammerhead and
drill are hardened; the cutting point will be dulled and hard steel splinters may fly
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Safety on the Lathe

Lathe be stopped before making adjustments to the too/holder

 When the tool-post screw is loosened, the wrench may swing into the revolving chuck
jaws. The sharp blow would break the tool-post screw, causing it to fly and thus
endangering the operator and nearby workers. There is also a danger of the operator's
hand being caught between the tool-post wrench and the revolving chuck jaws
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The chips from the lathe be prevented from winding around the job?
 A short piece of wood may be used to push the winding chip down into the lathe pan.
The chip will break and remain in the pan. Accumulated chips should be swept up into
a disposal can. Lathe chips should never be touched by hand (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

55
It considered dangerous to permit a large accumulation of chips in the lathe pan?
 A long chip may begin to wind around the evolving job. Such a chip will carry the chips
from the lathe pan with it. Even if the winding chips do not injure the machinist who is
operating the lathe, they can spoil the job(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Wearing jewelry create safety hazardsfor the lathe operator?

 Loose-fitting jewelry, such as an identification bracelet, or an article raised above the
skin surface, such as a ring, can easily be caught on a revolving machine part which
would drag a hand or arm into the moving machinery, causing serious injury (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

Can lifting a lathe chuck onto the spindle cause an accident?

 Yes. Lifting a weight at an unusual angle often causes painful back dislocations ways
at the correct height and formed to the shape of the chuck will make mounting the
chuck a safe operation (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The best means of supporting the chuck when mounting it onto the lathe spindle?
 A wooden board fashioned correctly to clear the ways at the correct height and
turned to the shape of the chuck will make mounting the chuck a safe
operation(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Procedure should be followed in clamping the too/holder in the tool post when working close
to the chuck
 The tool post should be positioned at the left side of the tool-post slide. If the tool
post is clamped at the right side of the slide, the jaws may strike the edge of the
compound rest, resulting in chips, soaks, and the possibility of a broken lathe. Most
engine lathes show the scars left by careless workers (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Parting-off a more dangerous operation than any of the other lathe procedures?
 No, there are no dangerous lathe operations provided care is used in the setup and
proper trade practices are utilized shows a poor setup, which could result in an
accident. Long, slender work will bend from the pressure of the parting tool and
spring out from between the centers (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

56
Milling Safety

Save time or is it safer to handle heavy milling machine attachments alone?

 To handle heavy equipment alone is not time saving. To do so increases the possibility
of accident to the workman and damage to the machine equipment .When two people
lift a piece of heavy equipment, there is less chance of damaging either the attachment
or the finished surfaces of the machine table(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Milling cutters be handled?

 Milling cutters have sharp cutting edges and should be handled carefully. They should
be held in a piece of doth to prevent injury to the Operator and to the cutting
edges(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Careful milling machine operators place their tools on a board or piece of cloth?
 Milling cutters have sharp edges that should not be chipped or dulled. Placing these
tools on a wooden board protects both the cutting edges of the cutter and the surface
of the milling machine table. It also helps the operator to keep his tools together and
prevents them from sliding around when the machine vibrates (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Common mistake is often made when tightening the milling cutter on the arbor?
 A common mistake is to attempt to tighten the arbor nut before placing the overarm
in position (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What will result if this common mistake is made?

The arbor will be bent and the operator may be injured as the wrench slides off the
arbor nut. Always place the overarm bracket in position and clamp it to the overarm before
tightening the arbor nut (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Rules, if followed, will assure the safe operation of a milling machine

Observe these safe milling practices:
A. Be sure that you are aware of the function of every operating control. Don't push a
button, move a handle, or engage a clutch unless you are sure of the machine action
which will occur when you do so.
B. Be sure that everything is secure before turning on the power. Check the cutter,

57
 the bolts holding a vise, or any attachment. Check the job in the vise or chuck for
tightness.
C. Check the safe clearance of job, cutter, arbor, overarm brackets, vise, or index
head before turning on the power.
D. Check setting of speed and feed before turning on the power.
E. Do not lean on the machine; stand upright.
F. Keep your head out of the direct line of the cutter.
G. Stay on the going-away side of the cutter.
H. Remove chips with a brush.
I. Keep cotton waste and rags away from any part of a milling machine while it is in
operation.
J. Stop the machine before measuring the job, feeling the surface of the finished cut,
tightening a bolt, changing the speed, or reversing the feed(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Shaper Safety

Part of the shaper operator's body is most frequently injured?

Most accidents happen to the operator's hands Fingers are caught between the
cutting tool and the work. It is dangerous to attempt to remove chips by hand. Wait until the
cutting tool is on the re!urn stroke; then brush the chips away parts of the tool slide are clear
of the column. In order to do this, the operator should stand at the front of the machine,
observing all possible danger spots (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The speed and length of the stroke be checked before starting the machine
If the longest stroke is operated at the highest speed, the mechanism of the machine
can become damaged. Always check speed and stroke before engaging the clutch (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

The operator of the shaping machine wear safety glasses

` The chips released by the shaper cutting tool seem to fly with extra force. That is why
no~ only the shaper operator, but all those near the shaper should protect their eyes with
safety (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

58
Safety on the Grinding Machine

Grinding machines more dangerous than other machines

No; all machines are dangerous if used improperly. If the grinding machine operator
follows certain rules, accidents will be avoided (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The principal safety rules that the grinding machine operator must follow
Follow these safe grinding practices:
A. Safety goggles must be worn at all times
B. Test the soundness of the grinding wheel and inspect it for cracks before
mounting it on the machine spindle.
C. Check the wheel bushing and the machine spindle for size identification. The
bushing must neither extend beyond the width of the wheel nor bind tightly on the
spindle.
D. Wheel blotters must be fitted between the wheel and the flanges. The blotters
must be the same diameter as the flanges, never less
E. Check the operating speed of the machine and compare it with the wheel
manufacturer's recommendations.
F. See that all guards and protective hoods are in place and tightly secured before
starting the machine. Turn wheel over by hand to check clearance.
G. Check to make sure that the wheel is clear of the work and that the feed is
disengaged before starting the machine.
H. Make certain that small work is securely nested and the nest is blocked on two
sides.
I. Do not start an unguarded machine. Using unguarded machines can lead to eye
injuries or other serious injuries.
J. Before starting any grinding wheel stand to one side; allow the wheel to run full
speed for one full minute to insure that it is sound.
K. Always feed the work gently and steadily into the revolving grinding wheel.
L. Keep your head out of the line of the sparks.
M. Never place your hands near the revolving wheel.
N. Never attempt to remove work, open vise, or shut off magnetic chuck· until the
wheel clears the job and has come to a complete stop (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

59
 Reference

Anderson, J. & Tatro E. (1975). Shop Theory (6 th Ed.) 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,

60
 Module 3
Basic Hand Tools for Bench Work

A machinist must be skilled in the use of the numerous hand tools, which have been
designed to make his work easier. In addition to knowing how to use hand tools properly, the
machinist must also know the various types of tools available to do a particular job, how to
select the best type and size for a given job, and how to care for and store tools when not in
use. A skilled craftsman takes great pride in his ability to use tools correctly. Because most of
these tools are finely made and expensive the ownership of a good tool kit is a never-ending
source of satisfaction and pleasure. This chapter describes and explains many common hand
tools used by machinists and tool- and diemakers (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Name and describe the basic hand tools for bench.

2. Apply correct tool based on application.
3. Illustrated and Identify tools based on Application (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

61
Lesson 1. HAMMERS

Hammers were one of man's earliest tools. The types of hammers used by machinists
are limited, but they are available in many sizes. Machinist's hammers are classified as hard
or soft hammers (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are hard and soft hammers?

A hard hammer is one that is made of carbon steel and forged to shape and size. It is
heat-treated to make the striking faces hard. A soft hammer (Fig.3-1) may have the entire
head made of a soft metal such as lead, babbitt, copper, or brass. Soft-faced hammers have
only their striking surfaces made of plastic, rubber, or rawhide. The faces are either clamped
or press fitted on the metal hammerhead (Fig. 3-2) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975)..

Figure 3-1. Soft hammer with brass head. (GoodellPratt Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 3-2. Plastic-faced soft hammer. (Stanley Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are some uses of a hard hammer?

A hard hammer is used for striking punches, cold chisels, steel letters, and figures. It
is also used for forging hot metal, riveting, bending, straightening, peening, stretching, and
swaging (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

62
What are some uses of soft hammers?
Soft hammers are used when striking finished or semifinished. workpieces to prevent
marring the finished surfaces. For example, soft hammers are commonly used for seating a
workpiece in a machine vise or tapping finished work being set up for a machining or layout
operation (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Describe the hard hammers most commonly used by machinists and identify their parts.
Indicate an important use of each hammer.
The hammers most commonly used by machinists are the ball-peen (Fig. 3-3), the
straight-peen (Fig.3-4), and the cross-peen (Fig. 3-5). The flat face of the ball-peen is used
for general work such as striking punches; the rounded (ball) end is used for riveting and
peening. The straight-peen, which has a peen-end parallel to the axis of the handle, is used

Figure 3-3. Parts of a ball-peen hammer. (Stanley Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 3-4. Straight-peen hammer. (Stanley Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

63
 Fig. 3-5. Parts of a cross-peen hammer (Stanley Tools)

for stretching and drawing out metal when forging. The cross-peen, which has a peen-end at
right angles to the hammer handle, is used for riveting, stretching, and drawing metal (Fig.
3-6) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-6. Stretching a piece of stock in the direction of its width, using a cross-peen hammer. (Stanley
Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 2. PUNCHES

What is a hand punch?

A hand punch is a tool held by hand against a workpiece. The end · in contact with the
workpiece is shaped to do a particular job, whereas the other end is flat so that it could be
struck easily by a hammer. Punches come in many sizes and shapes to do a variety of jobs.
Although most punches are made of hardened and tempered tool steel for greater strength
and longer wear, it is sometimes necessary to use punches made of a soft metal such as

64
brass to prevent damage to parts being assembled or disassembled (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Name the different types of punches commonly used by the machinist.

The punches used most often by the machinist are the· drift punch, pin punch, prick
punch, center punch, and automatic center punch (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a drift punch?

A drift punch (Fig 3-7) is a long, tapered punch used for loosening straight pins, taper
pins, rivets, and other small parts being disassembled. The gradual, uniform taper end
provides strength needed to withstand the powerful impact of the punch against the pins or
parts being loosened (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 3-7. Drift punch. (Stanley Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should a drift punch be used?

The diameter at the small end should be slightly smaller than the diameter of the part
to be knocked loose. The punch end should be located squarely on the part and held firmly
against the part. The head of the punch should then be struck squarely, using a quick sharp
blow with a hard hammer. Once the part has been loosened, the drift punch should not be
used because the tapered end will become wedged in the hole. A drive-pin punch should be
used to drive the pin through the hole (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are drive-pin punches and how should they be used?

Drive-pin punches {Fig. 3-8) are used to set in place or remove straight and taper pins
and some types of small parts requiring a drive fit. The diameters of the punch ends are made
slightly smaller than the nominal size so that the punch will not bind in the hole. For use on
precision parts, the punch ends should be smooth, flat, and square, to avoid damaging the
parts. Smaller diameter punches require greater care to prevent bending or breaking. When
assembling or removing pins, the work must be correctly supported as in a V block. To install
a taper pin, a punch slightly larger in diameter than the large diameter of the pin is used (Fig.
3-9). To remove a pin, it is better to hit the punch with a quick sharp blow of the hammer than

65
to hit it a number of light taps because this will mushroom the pin, making it difficult to remove
(Fig. 3-10) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a prick punch?

A prick punch (Fig. 3-11) is made of hardened tool steel and ground to a slender
point having a 30° to 60° included angle (Fig. 3-12). It is used to mark lightly or indent the
intersections of layout lines, to locate hole centers, and to provide a small center mark for
divider points when laying out circles or spacing dimensions. A lightly made prick-punch
mark can be moved to correct an error by tilting the punch and striking it with the hammer.
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a center punch?

A center punch (Fig. 3-13) is similar to a prick punch in appearance except for the
point, which is ground to a 90° included angle (Fig. 3-14). The center punch is used to enlarge
a prick-punch mark so a drill can be started in the exact location. A center-punch mark is
deeper and larger than a prick-punch mark. When used correctly, the point of the center punch
is placed in the prick-punch mark.

Fig. 3-8. A set of drive-pin punches. (Lufkin Rule Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

66
 Figure. 3-9. Setting a taper pin, using a drive-pin punch (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-10. Too much hammering can mushroom the end of a pin. (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

67
 Figure. 3-11. A prick punch. (L S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 3-12. Prick-punch point (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

The punch, hand held in a vertical position, is struck squarely once with a hammer (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).
.
What is an automatic center punch?
The automatic center punch (Fig. 3-15) makes punch marks of a uniform size without
the use of a hammer. The knurled cap may be turned to control the depth of the punch mark.
To make a punch mark it is only necessary to locate the punch point and push down. When
used with a spacing attachment, this tool can lay out uniformly spaced dimensions rapidly
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-13. A center punch. (Lufkin Rule Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-14. Center-punch point (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

68
 Fig. 3-15. Automatic center punch. (L. S. StarrettCo.)( Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 3. SCREWDRIVERS

What is a screwdriver?
A screwdriver (Fig. 3-16) is a hand tool that is designed to turn screws. The shank is
made of steel set into a wooden or plastic handle. The blade is shaped or flattened to fit
recesses in the heads of screws or bolts. Screwdrivers are made in many sizes. Figure 3-17
shows a set of jewelers' screwdrivers. Figure 3-18 shows the correct way to hold this
screwdriver. A stubby screwdriver (Fig. 3-19) helps to start screws where space is limited
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a heavy-duty screwdriver?

A heavy-duty screwdriver (Fig. 3-20). is of average length but is made with a heavy
blade and a square shank. The shape of the shank permits the use of a wrench to assist in
tightening a screw. Heavy (thick) material is used so that the blade and shank will resist being
twisted when a wrench is used (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-16. A plain screwdriver. (Stanley Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

69
 Fig. 3-17. A set of jeweler' screwdrivers. (L. S.Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

from other screwdrivers in that the end of the blade is fluted instead of flattened. It is made in
several sizes. Each size is numbered and relates the diameter of the blade with the point
number. For example, a No. 2 point has a 1/4-in.-diameter shank( Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is the purpose of a double-ended offset screwdriver?

A double-ended offset screwdriver (Fig. 3-21) is used for turning screws in awkward
places (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How should the blade of a worn screwdriver be ground?

A screwdriver blade should be ground so that the faces will be almost parallel with the
sides of the screw slot as in Fig. 3-25. The end of the blade should be made as thick as the
slot in the screw will permit. A blade ground to a cnisel point has a tendency to slip out of the
screw slot and, also, to leave a ragged edge on the slot. Excessive heat at the time of grinding,
indicated by a blue color appearing on the blade, will draw the temper of the steel and cause
the blade to become soft. This will result in the end of the blade being bent out of shape when
a heavy pressure is applied to tighten a screw. When reconditioning a screwdriver blade, grind
the end of the tip first to square it with the shank. Next, grind the blade to the thickness required
by holding it on the grinding wheel, as shown in Fig.3-22. Usually, the radius of the grinding
wheel will produce a satisfactory end on the blade (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

70
Figure. 3-18. Correct way to use a jewelers' screwdriver. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Figure. 3-19. A stubby screwdriver. (Stanley Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-20. Heavy-duty square-shank screwdriver. (Stanley Tools) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

71
 Figure. 3-21. Double-ended (Stanley Tools.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 4. PLIERS

What are pliers?

The word pliers is a plural name for a single tool. Pliers are made in many styles and
are used to perform as many different operations. Figure 3-23 shows the common slip-joint
(or combination) pliers. They are used for holding and gripping small articles in situations
where it may be inconvenient or unsafe to use hands. It is not good practice to use pliers in
place of a wrench (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are long-nose pliers?

Long-nose pliers (Fig. 3-24) are made, as the name implies, with a long tapering nose,
or jaws. This tool can be used for placing and removing smail items in narrow spaces. It is
also preferred for electrical and radio repair work( Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are diagonals?

Diagonals (Fig. 3-25) are a special type of pliers used exclusively for cutting and
stripping electrical wire. When cutting wire, hold the diagonals as shown in Fig.3-25A. An
operator using diagonals as shown in Fig. 3-29B may be injured. Diagonals should never be
used to cut steel wire or rods or in place of snips to cut or notch sheet metal. Such use will
destroy the cutting edge and damage the tool's joint (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

72
Figure. 3-22. Method of grinding a screwdriver blade to fit a screw slo(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 3-23. Combination Pliers J.H. Williams & Co,) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 3-24. Long-nose pliers. (J. H. Williams & Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 3-25. Diagonals. (J. H. Williams & Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

73
 Fig. 3-25. (A) Right and (8) wrong way to use diagonals (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 5. CLAMPING AND HOLDING DEVICES

Many devices have been designed to hold work securely while it is being measured
or machined. Some of them are for one specific piece of work; others are of a more general
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a C clamp?
A C clamp (Fig. 3-26) is an all-purpose clamp, made in the shape of the letter C. In
general use for all kinds of work, it is made in many sizes (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a toolmakers' clamp? ·

A toolmakers' clamp (Fig. 3-27) consists of two flat steel jaws, which may be adjusted
to fit a piece of work by means of a screw passing through the center of each jaw. Another
screw in the end of one jaw is used to exert pressure on the other jaw. This pressure tightens
the opposite ends of the jaws. It is used by toolmakers for holding small parts both at the
bench and at machines. This tool is also known as a parallel (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

74
 Figure. 3-26. C clamp. (Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 3-27. Toolmakers' parallel clamps. (Lufkin Rule Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

clamp. Care must be taken to keep the jaws in a parallel position. Otherwise the clamp screws
may seem to be tight but will not be holding the work tightly because they are just being
tightened one against the other. (Fig. 3-28) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

75
 Figure. 3-28. Right and wrong way to use toolmakers' parallel clamps(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.

What is a toolmakers' hand vise?

A toolmakers' hand vise (Fig. 3-29) is a small steel vise with two interchangeable
blocks. The choice of block to be used depends on the size of the article to be held by the
vise. It is used by toolmakers at the bench for small machining operations such as drilling
or tapping. Another type of hand vise is shown in Fig. 3-30 (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a bench vise?

A bench vise, usually swivel-based as in Fig. 3-31, is the kind most favored for general
shop work. It is securely fastened to the bench with bolts. The faces of the jaws are usually
lightly serrated and hardened to ensure a firm grip on the work.
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-29. Toolmakers' hand vise (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

76
 Fig. 3-30. Combination vise. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-31. Protective jaw caps for vise. (Columbian Vise & Mfg. Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

When it is necessary to hammer a piece of work held in a vise, it is best to support the work
by placing a block of wood or metal under it to prevent the work from being driven down
through the jaws of the vise (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Lesson 6. WRENCHES

What is a wrench?
A wrench is a tool for turning nuts or bolts. It is usually made of steel. There are many
kinds of wrenches. They may consist of a slot, socket, pins,

77
or movable jaws for grasping the nut, with the rest of the tool serving as a handle for applying
pressure( Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a single-ended wrench?

A single-ended wrench (Fig. 3-32) is one that is made to fit one size of nut or bolt. This
is the most inexpensive type of wrench and is quite efficient in ordinary situations (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

What is a double-ended wrench?

A double-ended wrench (Fig. 3-33) has two openings, one at each end of the handle,
to fit two different sizes of nuts or bolt heads (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a closed-end wrench?

A closed-end wrench (Fig. 3-34) is similar .to a single-ended wrench, but, because it entirely
encloses a nut, there is little danger of the wrench slipping off the nut or of the jaws spreading
apart.For these reasons, it is preferred for some jobs. It is also known as a box wrench
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is an adjustable wrench?

An adjustable wrench (Fig. 3-35) has a movable jaw, which makes it adjustable to
various sizes of nuts. A heavy type of adjustable wrench is the monkey wrench shown in Fig.
3-36. When using this type of tool, point the jaws in the direction of the force applied. This will
prevent the jaws.from springing apart, and the wrench will be less likely to slip off a nut. The
movable jaw should be adjusted so that it is tight against a flat surface of the part to be turned.It
is not good practice to use a wrench as·a hammer.Figure 3-37 shows the right and wrong way
to use adjustable wrenches(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-32. Single-ended wrench. (J. H. Williams & Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

78
 Fig. 3-33. Double-ended wrench. (J. H. Williams & Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-34. Closed-end, or box, wrench. (Billings & Spencer Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-35. Adjustable wrench. (Billings & Spencer Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 36. Monkey wrench. (Billings & Spencer Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

79
 Figure 3-37. Right and wrong way to use an adjustable wrench (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a lever-jaw wrench?

A lever-jaw wrench (Fig. 3-38) is a combination -gripping tool with adjustable jaws,
which may be locked in place. It may be used as a wrench, clamp, pliers, or vise (Anderson
& Tatro, 1975).

What is a combination wrench?.

A combination wrench (Fig. 3-39) has two types of openings of the same size. One
end has a box type opening with the opposite end designed as an open end. It is a very
practical wrench because it can be used in places where the space for movement is limited;
if one end will not work conveniently, the other end will (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 3-38. Lever-jaw wrench. (Peterson Mfg. Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

80
 Figure. 3-39. Combination wrench. (J. H. Williams & Co. )(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Assessment Task 3 (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

1. Why should a hammer handle be gripped near the end?

2. What is meant by peening, or swaging? What is a drift punch?
3. How is the size of hammers specified?
4. What are V-blocks with clamps used for?
5. What is a check-nut wrench?
6. What is a tool-post wrench?
7. What is a square box wrench?
8. What is a T-handle tap wrench?
9. What is an adjustable tap wrench?
10. What is a 12-point box wrench?
11. What is a T-socket wrench?
12. What is an offset socket wrench?
13. What is a pinhook spanner wrench?
14. What is an adjustable-hook spanner wrench used for?
15. What is an adjustable pin-face wrench?
16. What is a strap wrench?
17. What is a pipe wrench?
18. What is a hex key wrench?
19. What is a socket wrench and how is it used with a ratchet?
20. What is a torque wrench?

81
 Summary

HAMMERS
 Hammers were one of man's earliest tools. The types of hammers used by machinists
are limited, but they are available in many sizes (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
 Hard and Soft hammers
 A hard hammer is one that is made of carbon steel and forged to shape and
size. It is heat-treated to make the striking faces hard.
 A soft hammer (Fig.3-1) may have the entire head made of a soft metal such
as lead, babbitt, copper, or brass. Soft-faced hammers have only their striking
surfaces made of plastic, rubber, or rawhide (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

 Some uses of a hard hammer

 A hard hammer is used for striking punches, cold chisels, steel letters, and
figures. It is also used for forging hot metal, riveting, bending, straightening,
peening, stretching, and swaging (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

 Some uses of soft hammers

 Soft hammers are used when striking finished or semifinished. workpieces to
prevent marring the finished surfaces. For example, soft hammers are
commonly used for seating a workpiece in a machine vise or tapping finished
work being set up for a machining or layout operation (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

PUNCHES
 Hand punch
 A hand punch is a tool held by hand against a workpiece. The end · in contact
with the workpiece is shaped to do a particular job, whereas the other end is
flat so that it could be struck easily by a hammer.
 Punches come in many sizes and shapes to do a variety of jobs

82
  Name the different types of punches commonly used by the machinist.
 The punches used most often by the machinist are the· drift punch, pin punch,
prick punch, center punch, and automatic center punch (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Drift punch?
 A drift punch (Fig 3-9) is a long, tapered punch used for loosening straight pins, taper
pins, rivets, and other small parts being disassembled. The gradual, uniform taper end
provides strength needed to withstand the powerful impact of the punch against the
pins or parts being loosened (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Prick punch
 A prick punch (Fig. 3-13) is made of hardened tool steel and ground to a slender point
having a 30° to 60° included angle (Fig. 3-14).
 It is used to mark lightly or indent the intersections of layout lines, to locate hole
centers, and to provide a small center mark for divider points when laying out circles
or spacing dimensions (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Center punch
 A center punch (Fig. 3-15) is similar to a prick punch in appearance except for the
point, which is ground to a 90° included angle (Fig. 3-16).
 The center punch is used to enlarge a prick-punch mark so a drill can be started in the
exact location (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

SCREW DRIVER

Screwdriver
 A screwdriver (Fig. 3-1 8) is a hand tool that is designed to turn screws.
 The shank is made of steel set into a wooden or plastic handle. The blade is shaped
or flattened to fit recesses in the heads of screws or bolts (Anderson & Tatro, 1975). .

Heavy-duty screwdriver
 A heavy-duty screwdriver (Fig. 3-22). is of average length but is made with a heavy
blade and a square shank.

83
  The shape of the shank permits the use of a wrench to assist in tightening a screw.
 Heavy (thick) material is used so that the blade and shank will resist being twisted
when a wrench is used (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

PLIERS

Pliers
 The word pliers is a plural name for a single tool.
 Pliers are made in many styles and are used to perform as many different operations.
Figure 3-26 shows the common slip-joint (or combination) pliers.
 They are used for holding and gripping small articles in situations where it may be
inconvenient or unsafe to use hands (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Long-nose pliers
 Long-nose pliers (Fig. 3-27) are made, as the name implies, with a long tapering nose,
or jaws. This tool can be used for placing and removing smail items in narrow spaces
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Diagonals
 Diagonals (Fig. 3-28) are a special type of pliers used exclusively for cutting and
stripping electrical wire.
 When cutting wire, hold the diagonals as shown in Fig.3-28A. An operator using
diagonals as shown in Fig. 3-29B may be injured (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

CLAMPING AND HOLDING DEVICE

 Many devices have been designed to hold work securely while it is being measured or
machined. Some of them are for one specific piece of work; others are of a more
general (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

C clamp
 A C clamp (Fig. 3-30) is an all-purpose clamp, made in the shape of the letter C. In
general use for all kinds of work, it is made in many sizes (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

84
Toolmakers' clamp
 A toolmakers' clamp (Fig. 3-31) consists of two flat steel jaws, which may be adjusted
to fit a piece of work by means of a screw passing through the center of each jaw.
 Another screw in the end of one jaw is used to exert pressure on the other jaw. This
pressure tightens the opposite ends of the jaws (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Toolmakers' hand vise

 A toolmakers' hand vise (Fig. 3-33) is a small steel vise with two interchangeable
blocks.
 The choice of block to be used depends on the size of the article to be held by the
vise. It is used by toolmakers at the bench for small machining operations such as
drilling or tapping. Another type of hand vise is shown in Fig. 3-34 (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

Bench vise
 A bench vise, usually swivel-based as in Fig. 3-35, is the kind most favored for
general shop work.
 It is securely fastened to the bench with bolts. The faces of the jaws are usually
lightly serrated and hardened to ensure a firm grip on the work(Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

WRENCHES

Wrench
 A wrench is a tool for turning nuts or bolts. It is usually made of steel. There are many
kinds of wrenches.
 They may consist of a slot, socket, pins, or movable jaws for grasping the nut, with the
rest of the tool serving as a handle for applying pressure (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Single-ended wrench
 A single-ended wrench (Fig. 3-39) is one that is made to fit one size of nut or bolt. This
is the most inexpensive type of wrench and is quite efficient in ordinary situations
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

85
Double-ended wrench
 A double-ended wrench (Fig. 3-40) has two openings, one at each end of the handle,
to fit two different sizes of nuts or bolt heads (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Closed-end wrench
 A closed-end wrench (Fig. 3-41) is similar .to a single-ended wrench, but, because it
entirely encloses a nut, there is little danger of the wrench slipping off the nut or of the
jaws spreading apart.For these reasons, it is preferred for some jobs. It is also known
as a box wrench. (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Adjustable wrench
 An adjustable wrench (Fig. 3-42) has a movable jaw, which makes it adjustable to
various sizes of nuts.
 A heavy type of adjustable wrench is the monkey wrench shown in Fig. 3-43. When
using this type of tool, point the jaws in the direction of the force applied (Anderson &
Tatro, 1975).

Reference

Anderson, J. & Tatro E. (1975). Shop Theory (6th Ed.) 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,

86
 Module 4
Basic Measuring and Basic Layout

INTRODUCTION

One of the most important steps in the manufacture of any product is accurate
measurement. The progress of mankind through the ages has been directly connected with
the development of better ways to measure. A wide range of measuring tools and devices
have been designed, which makes it possible for the skilled craftsman to measure and lay out
workpieces to extremely high accuracy. In the aerospace industries, for example, certain
instrument parts may be dimensioned with tolerances specified in millionths of an inch. Other
industries may allow lower accuracy, requiring measurements in thousandths, tent
thousandths, or even sixty-fourths of an inch. The degree of accuracy usually depends upon
the type of product being manufactured and the manner in which it· must function. It would be
costly and inefficient to require extremely fine measurements when a part could function
satisfactorily at a lesser degree of accuracy (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

1. Read a rule or any of the precision measuring tools efficiently, he must be thoroughly
familiar with common fractions and decimal fractions.
2. Know and use many tools for measuring and laying out work between them.
3. Describe and draw about basic measuring and layout (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

87
Lesson 1. Measuring and Layouts

Machinists and toolmakers use many tools for measuring and laying out work. Some
are quite simple and inexpensive, others are more intricate and expensive (Fig. 4-1 ). Most
are used for linear, or straight-line, measurement. This chapter discusses the basic tools for
measuring and layout (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-1. A toolmaker's work bench for measuring, laying out, and inspecting workpieces
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Why is a knowledge of fractions and decimals necessary when using measuring tools?
Before a student can read a rule or any of the precision measuring tools efficiently, he
must be thoroughly familiar with common fractions and decimal fractions. Toolmakers and
other skilled workers are often called upon to change decimal numbers to common fractions
and common fractions to decimals in making measurements and in reading and checking
blueprints and sketches. To change a fraction to a decimal, it is convenient to use a decimal-
equivalent chart, but if a chart is not available, the method is to divide the numerator of the
fraction by the denominator. For example, in changing 3h6 to a decimal, divide 3 by 16, which
equals 0.1875 (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are steel rules?

Steel rules are measuring tools that depend largely on the user's ability to read and
line up the subdivisions. marked on the rule. They are not intended for accuracy in terms of
thousandths of an inch. With practice over a period of time, an able machinist can measure
within three to five thousandths of an inch. Steel rules are one of the most widely used

88
measuring tools for such work as laying out, checking stock sizes, and setting dividers and
calipers. Lines, called graduations, which are inscribed on the face of the rule, subdivide the
inches into fractional or decimal parts of an inch (Fig. 4-2). Several types of steel rules are
generally available to suit the preferences of individual machinists(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-2. Graduated lines on a steel rule subdividethe inch into its· common fractional. Parts
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Describe a standard steel rule.

The most common steel rule used in a toolroom (Fig. 4-3) is made of tempered steel
about 3164 in. thick, % in. wide, and 6 in. long, with No. 4 graduations. The same style may
be obtained in lengths from 1 to 144 in. and in a choice of graduations. The graduations
sometimes inscribed on the end of the rule are handy for measuring a narrow space. (See
Fig. 4-2.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-3 Standard rigid tempered-steel rule shown actual size. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a flexible steel rule?

A flexible steel rule (Fig. 4-4) is made of tempered spring steel about 1/64 in. thick,
V:z in. wide, and 6 in. long. It is available in many graduations, Nos. 3 and 4 being most

89
popular. It is also available in other lengths. This type of rule is for general use and for
measuring curved work( Anderson & Tatro, 1975)..

Figure 4-4. Thin flexible steel rule (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a narrow rule?

A narrow rule (Fig. 4-5) is made of tempered steel about 3/64 in. thick, 3/16 in. wide,
and 4 to 12 in. long. It has graduation combinations Nos. 10 or 11 and is useful for measuring
in small openings and spaces (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-5. Narrow steel rule. (L S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a hook rule?

A hook rule, as shown in Fig. 4-6, has a hook attached to one end, which makes it
easy to take measurements from an inside edge when it is not convenient to see the end of
the rule. Hook rules are made in many sizes. A narrow hook rule is made for measuring in
holes as small as % in. in diameter (Fig. 4-7). A hook rule may also be used for measuring
outside dimensions (Fig. 4-8) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-6. Hook rule. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-7. Narrow hook rule. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

90
What is a shrink rule?
A shrink rule (Fig. 4-11) is a tempered-steel rule similar in size and appearance to a
standard rule. It has No. 4 graduations. It differs from other rules in that the inch markings on
the face are slightly longer than actual inches. It is used by patternmakers. Patterns for
castings are deliberately made larger than the required castings to allow for the shrinkage of
the molten metal as it cools to a solid. If .the shrink rule is used, the pattern will automatically
be together with a holder. The rule may be held at any angle. It is secured by turning the
knurled nut at the end of the holder. (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 4-8. Measuring with a hook rule( Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a slide caliper rule?

A slide caliper rule (Fig. 4-9) is made with a narrow rule that slides inside a groove in
the side of a wider rule. It may be used to make internal and external measurements. It is
provided with a screw that will lock the slide in place as required. The narrow nibs at the end
of the jaws will enter a hole as small as 1/8-in. diameter (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-9. Slide caliper rule. (L S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

91
What is a rule depth gage?
A rule depth gage (Fig. 4-10) consists of a steel head that has a slot to receive a
narrow rule. The rule is held in position by a knurled nut. It is designed to measure the depth
of small holes and slots (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).
.

Figure 4-10. Rule depth gage. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a short rule?

A short rule is usually one of a set of small rules made for measuring in small spaces
where it is inconvenient to use any other rule {Fig. 4-13). The set of rules consists of a 1/4, %,
112, o/.i, and 1 in. rule, together with a holder. The rule may be held at any angle. It is secured
by turning the knurled nut at the end of the holder (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-11. Set of short rules with holder. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

92
What is a combination set?
A combination set (Fig. 4-12) consists of a rule, a square, a center head, and a
protractor. The rule is made of tempered steel with a groove cut the length of one side along
which the other parts may slide. Each part is provided with a knurled nut for locking it into
position. The rule has No. 4 or 7 graduations and is available in lengths of from 9 to 24 in.
This tool may be used as a rule, a square, a depth gage, or a protractor. It is also used for
marking miters and for locating the center on circular stock (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-12 Combination set showing square, protractor, and center heads. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is a bevel protractor?

A bevel protractor (Fig. 4-13) is a tool for measuring angles within one degree. It
consists ·of a steel rule, a blade, and a protractor head. The protractor head has a revolving
turret graduated to read from 0° to 180° in opposite directions. The head may be a reversible
type with shoulders on both sides of the blade or a nonreversible type with a single shoulder.
Most bevel protractors contain a spirit level, which is useful when measuring angles in relation
to a horizontal or vertical plane. A plain steel protractor (Fig. 4-13) may be more convenient
to use for laying out and checking angles on some types of work (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-13. Bevel protractor. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

93
 Figure 4-14. Plain steel protractor. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are universal and combination bevels?

Universal and combination bevels (Fig. 4-15 A and B ) are useful tools for checking
and transferring angles that would be difficult to measure with an ordinary protractor, The
bevel may be set to the desired angle using a protractor, or it may be set to the workpiece,
then checked against the protractor setting to determine accuracy. A combination bevel
serves the same purpose as the universal bevel but has a wider range of applications (Fig. 4-
16) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-15. (A) Universal and (8) combination bevels. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

94
 Figure 4-16. Applications of bevels. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What are some of the uses of outside calipers?

· Outside calipers (Fig. 4-17) are used to measure outside diameters. A rule may be
used to measure the diameter of the end of a bar, but it is not practical to measure diameters
in between the ends, as in the case of the detail (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 4-17. Outside calipers. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg.Co.)

What is thickness gages?

A thickness gage (Fig. 4-18) is actually a set of gages consisting of thin strips of metal
of various thicknesses from 0.0015 in. up to 0.200 in. thick. Combinations of thickness sizes
or leaves may be mounted in a steel case or holder. The individual leaves are marked with
the thickness size. Such a gage is widely used for measuring and checking bearing
clearances; adjusting tappets, spark plug gaps, jig and fixture parts; and for many other

95
purposes where a specified clearance must be maintained. Accuracy in using these gages
requires a sense of feel (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Fig. 4-18. Thickness gage. (Lufkin Rule Co.)

What is a screw-pitch gage?

A screw-pitch gage (Fig. 4-19) is a gage for quickly determining the pitch, or number
of threads per inch, on a threaded part or in a tapped hole. Such a gage consists of a number
of leaves mounted in a case or holder. Each leaf has a specified number of teeth, which
corresponds to a definite pitch and form of thread. The number of threads per inch and the
double-depth of the thread is usually marked on each leaf. To check the pitch, it is only
necessary to match the teeth in the gage with the threaded part (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What is meant by laying out work?

Laying out work means accurately inscribing clean, sharp lines on the blank workpiece
to show center lines, shape, or form of the finished workpiece, locations of centers for holes,
circles for hole sizes, angles, arcs or curves, and slots. Dimensions for the lines to be inscribed
on the metal are taken from the blueprint or sketch of the part to be made (Anderson & Tatro,
1975).

What are some of the tools used for laying out work?
Several tools are designed especially for marking lines, and many general-purpose
tools are used for both layout and inspection of work. Some of the more commonly used tools
for marking lines are scribers, dividers, trammels, surface gages, and height gages. Other
general-purpose tools used in the layout process are surface plates, angle plates, squares,

96
protractors, steel rules, clamps, prick punches, small hammers, V blocks, and straightedges
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

What judgment is necessary to determine which layout· tools should be used?

The type of workpiece to be laid out and the degree of accuracy required will largely
determine which tools should be used. When dimensions and tolerances are specified in
fractional parts of an inch, tools such as a steel rule, surface gage, scriber, and dividers may
be used (Fig. 4-38). When dimensions are specified in decimals, with tolerances of a few
thousandths of an inch, precision tools such as a vernier height gage, gage blocks, and vernier
protractor are required (Fig. 4-17) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

How are small, flat or square metal pieces prepared for layout?
First, the metal piece is squared to correct length and width. Burrs are removed and
sharp edges broken with a smooth file. The surface is cleaned with abrasive cloth to remove
oil or grease. Parts for jigs, fixtures, and dies are often surface-ground to give a smooth, flat
surface. The metal is. Colored with a layout dye (Fig. 4-21). Parts for tools and dies are
sometimes heated to a steel-blue color, which is more permanent and does not rub off as
easily as layout dye. Coloring the work makes tile layout lines stand out sharp and clear
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975)..

To what extent are castings laid out?

Castings may require laying out before machining takes place or after a surface or two
has been machined (Fig. 4.22). When small castings are to be machined in quantities, it is
often necessary to lay out one of the castings to make certain enough material has been
provided for machining. Holes that are cast are sometimes off-center due to the core moving
during the pouring of the molten metal. Because more metal may have to be removed from
one side than the other, the true center of the hole must be located. A piece oi soft wood on
which the center will be laid out is used to bridge the cast hole. A check is then made to see
that there is enough metal to permit the boring of a true, clean hole (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

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 Figure. 4-19. A nonprecision type of layout (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure 4-20. A precision layout job (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

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Figure 4-21. Coloring the workpiece before layout. (L. S. Starrett Co.) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Figure. 4-22. Laying out a casting ((nderson & Tatro, 1975).

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 Assessment Task 4 (Anderson & Tatro, 1975)

1. Describe the transferring of a measurement from outside to inside calipers.

2. What is a surface plate?
3. What is a scriber?
4. How should a scriber be used?
5. What is a divider?
6. For what purposes are dividers used?
7. Describe the procedure for scribing a circle with dividers.
8. What is a\ hermaphrodite caliper?
9. What is a trammel?
10. What is a universal precision gage?
11. What is a surface gage?
12. What are some of the uses of a surface gage?
13. What is a steel straightedge?
14. What is meant by squaring a workpiece?
15. Name the types of squares commonly used for
16. Describe a combination square.
17. What is a double square?
18. What is a diemaker's square?
19. What is a hardened steel square?
20. What is a try square?

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 Summary

Measuring and Layouts

 Machinists and toolmakers use many tools for measuring and laying out work.
 Some are quite simple and inexpensive, others are more intricate and expensive (Fig.
4-1). Most are used for linear, or straight-line, measurement (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Knowledge of fractions and decimals necessary when using measuring tools

 Before a student can read a rule or any of the precision measuring tools efficiently, he
must be thoroughly familiar with common fractions and decimal fractions.
 Toolmakers and other skilled workers are often called upon to change decimal
numbers to common fractions and common fractions to decimals in making
measurements and in reading and checking blueprints and sketches (Anderson &
Tatro, 1975).

Steel rule
 Steel rules are measuring tools that depend largely on the user's ability to read and
line up the subdivisions. marked on the rule.
 They are not intended for accuracy in terms of thousandths of an inch. With practice
over a period of time, an able machinist can measure within three to five thousandths
of an inch.
 Steel rules are one of the most widely used measuring tools for such work as laying
out, checking stock sizes, and setting dividers and calipers. Lines, called graduations,
which are inscribed on the face of the rule, subdivide the inches into fractional or
decimal parts of an inch (Fig. 4-2) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Flexible steel rule

 A flexible steel rule (Fig. 4-4) is made of tempered spring steel about 1/64 in. thick,
V:z in. wide, and 6 in. long. \
 It is available in many graduations, Nos. 3 and 4 being most popular. It is also available
in other lengths. This type of rule is for general use and for measuring curved work.

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Narrow rule
 A narrow rule (Fig. 4-5) is made of tempered steel about 3/64 in. thick, 3/16 in. wide,
and 4 to 12 in. long.
 It has graduation combinations Nos. 10 or 11 and is useful for measuring in small
openings and spaces (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Hook rule
 A hook rule, as shown in Fig. 4-6, has a hook attached to one end, which makes it
easy to take measurements from an inside edge when it is not convenient to see the
end of the rule. Hook rules are made in many sizes. A narrow hook rule is made for
measuring in holes as small as % in. in diameter (Fig. 4-7) (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Shrink rule
 A shrink rule (Fig. 4-11) is a tempered-steel rule similar in size and appearance to a
standard rule. It has No. 4 graduations.
 It differs from other rules in that the inch markings on the face are slightly longer than
actual inches. It is used by patternmakers. Patterns for castings are deliberately made
larger than the required castings to allow for the shrinkage of the molten metal as it
cools to a solid (Anderson & Tatro, 1975)..

Slide caliper rule

 A slide caliper rule (Fig. 4-9) is made with a narrow rule that slides inside a groove in
the side of a wider rule.
 It may be used to make internal and external measurements. It is provided with a screw
that will lock the slide in place as required.
 The narrow nibs at the end of the jaws will enter a hole as small as 1/8-in. diameter
(Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Rule depth gage

 A rule depth gage (Fig. 4-10) consists of a steel head that has a slot to receive a
narrow rule.
 The rule is held in position by a knurled nut. It is designed to measure the depth of
small holes and slots (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

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.
Short rule
 A short rule is usually one of a set of small rules made for measuring in small spaces
where it is inconvenient to use any other rule {Fig. 4-13).
 The set of rules consists of a 1/4, %, 112, o/.i, and 1 in. rule, together with a holder.
The rule may be held at any angle. It is secured by turning the knurled nut at the end
of the holder (Anderson & Tatro, 1975).

Reference

Anderson, J. & Tatro E. (1975). Shop Theory (6th Ed.) 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,

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