MODULE 4: SECOND LAW & GAS CYCLES

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor
STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW
1. Whenever energy is transferred, the level of energy cannot be conserved and some energy must be permanently
reduced to a lower level
2. Whenever energy is transferred, energy must be conserved, but the level of energy cannot be conserved and
some energy must be permanently reduced to a lower level

SECOND LAW FOR A CYCLE

 The first law gives techniques for energy analysis, but it does not describe how the energy will flow. The second
law of thermodynamics gives direction to the energy flow.

Kelvin-Planck Statement:
 “No cyclic process is possible whose sole result is the flow of heat from a single heat reservoir and the
performance of an equivalent amount of work.”

DEFINITIONS
 Thermal Reservoir is a body with large heat capacity such that when heat is removed or added to the reservoir,
the temperature of the reservoir does not change.
 Heat Engine is a device that operates in a cycle in which the main function is to convert heat input into positive
network output.
 Power Cycles are cycles used to produce work output.
 Refrigeration Cycles are cycles used to pump heat from low to high-temperature regions.
 Heat Pump and Refrigerator are devices that operate in a cycle and transfer heat from a low-temperature region
to a high-temperature region with work input to the system.

Heat Engine
 Engine Thermal Efficiency
o Engine thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work output to that of the heat added:
High Temperature
Heat Reservoir, TH
QH

Heat W
Where, from the first law of thermodynamics, QH = QL + W; W = QH - QL Engine

Therefore, QL
Low Temperature
Heat Reservoir, TL
o For maximum efficiency of heat engine, all processes in the cycle must be reversible.

CARNOT CYCLE/ENGINE
 Carnot Engine/cycle is the most efficient engine/cycle that operates between two temperature levels.

Schematic Diagram and Tv Diagram of Carnot Engine/Cycle

High Temperature T
1 2
Heat Reservoir, TH
QH

Heat W
Engine

QL 3
Low Temperature 4
Heat Reservoir, TL
v
 Carnot Cycle Processes
 Process 1 – 2: Working fluid receives heat, QH, from the high temperature reservoir at temperature, T H;
during this process, the temperature of the working fluid must remain at T H to allow for reversible heat
transfer.

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  Process 2 – 3: Temperature of working fluid is decreased to T L; during this process, heat transfer is not
allowed, since heat transfer through a finite temperature is irreversible.
 Process 3 – 4: Heat, QL, is rejected from the working fluid to the low temperature reservoir; during the
process, temperature, TL, of fluid is constant.
 Process 4 – 1: The working fluid temperature is raised to temperature T H in an adiabatic reversible process.

 Carnot Engine Thermal Efficiency

 Carnot Engine/Cycle thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work output to that of the heat added, or the ratio of
the difference of the temperatures of the heat reservoirs to that of the temperature of the high-temperature
heat reservoir.

CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
 It is impossible to construct a cyclic device that will cause heat to be transferred from a low-temperature reservoir
to a high-temperature reservoir without the input of work.

Reversed Carnot Engine

 Carnot Heat Pump or Refrigerator is the only ideal machine with a highest coefficient of performance, COP.

 Coefficient of Performance, COP, is a parameter that measures the performance of the reversed engine or
Carnot engine. For Carnot heat pump, Coefficient of Performance is the ratio of the heat rejected to the high-
temperature heat reservoir tot that of the work input. For Carnot Refrigerator, Coefficient of performance is the
ratio of the heat input from the low-temperature heat reservoir to that of the work input to the engine.

 Coefficient of Performance, Carnot Refrigerator

High-temperature
Heat reservoir, TH

QH
Reversed Carnot Engine or
Where, W = QH – QL and, from Carnot Heat pump W
or Refrigerator

QL
Low-temperature
Heat Reservoir, TL
 Coefficient of Performance, Carnot Heat Pump

DEFINITION
 Power cycle is a cycle that operates for the purpose of producing work or power.
 Gas cycles are power cycles in which the working substance is a gas.

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE GAS CYCLE ANALYSIS

 The following items are important parameters in the analysis of power cycles:
a) The heat supplied to the cycle
b) The heat rejected
c) The net work
d) The efficiency
e) The mean effective pressure

CARNOT POWER CYCLE

 Carnot Cycle/engine is the most efficient cycle/engine that operates between two temperature levels.
 Carnot Cycle is called as the TsTs cycle

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pV and Ts Diagrams

p 1
pV = C

2
pVk = C T

pVk = C
W  pdV  1 TH 2

4
3
pV = C
TL
pm Wnet 4 3

v s
VD
cVD

Processes of the Cycle

Process 1-2: Isothermal heat addition process
Process 2-3: Adiabatic or isentropic turbine expansion process
Process 3-4: Isothermal heat rejection process
Process 4-1: Adiabatic or isentropic compression process

CARNOT CYCLE ANALYSIS

Heat added:

Heat Rejected:

Net Work of the cycle:

But, . Therefore,

Derivation of:

Consider process 2-3, eq. 1

Consider process 4-1, eq. 2

Equating 1 and 2 in terms of volume,

Therefore,

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 Cycle Thermal Efficiency:

Mean Effective Pressure of the Cycle:

Where, VD = displacement volume = Vmax - Vmin = V3 – V1

Then,

AIR-STANDARD STIRLING CYCLE

 Stirling Cycle is a regenerative thermodynamic power cycle using two isothermal and two constant volume
processes; it is also known as a constant-volume regenerative cycle. It is a TvTv cycle
 Stirling Engine is an engine in which work is performed by the expansion of a gas at high temperature; heat for
the expansion is supplied through the wall of the piston cylinder.
 The heat stored in the regenerator during one part of the cycle is reused in the other part of the cycle.
 The thermal efficiency of Stirling cycle is the same as the efficiency of a Carnot cycle.
 There are two major problems in the Stirling hot-air engine, namely: the regenerator design and the constant-
volume regeneration.
 Developing the Ericson constant-pressure regenerative cycle solved the problem of constant-volume
regeneration.
 Stirling cycle has been used in solar-power system in which solar energy acting as heat source.
 The reversed Stirling cycle is used for gas liquefaction and cryogenics work because advances in heat transfer
make better regenerator designs possible.

pV and Ts Diagrams of Stirling Cycle

p
1

T Heat Added
TH 1 2
V=C pV = C
Heat from
Regenerator Heat to
Regenerator
4 
Wnet  pdV 2

V=C TL 3
pV = C
3 4

V s
VD
Processes of the Cycle
o Process 1-2: Isothermal heat addition process, causing the volume to increase

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 o Process 2-3: A constant volume cooling of air at the regenerator. The energy transferred from the air is
stored in the regenerator.
o Process 3-4: Isothermal heat rejection process, causing the volume to decrease
o Process 4-1: A constant volume heating of air from the regenerator

CYCLE ANALYSIS

Heat Added, consider process 1-2,

Heat Rejected, consider process 3-4,

Net Heat Added:

Where,

Net Work of the Cycle:

Cycle Thermal Efficiency:

Cycle Mean Effective Pressure:

ERICSON CYCLE
 Ericson cycle is a power cycle that consists of two isothermal and two isobaric processes, with the regeneration
occurring during constant pressure.
 Ericson cycle is also known as a constant-pressure regenerative cycle. It is a TpTp cycle.

THREE-PROCESS CYCLE
 Three-process cycle is a power or reversed cycle composed of three processes. Three is the minimum number
of processes to construct a practical cycle.

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AIR-STANDARD OTTO CYCLE
 Air-standard Otto cycle is a theoretical prototype of a spark-ignition engine and was developed by Nicholas A.
Otto (1832-1891).
 Otto cycle is an ideal cycle, which is the basis of an actual gasoline engine.
 The cycle is composed two constant volume and two isentropic processes. It is called as the sVsV cycle

Schematic, pV, and Ts Diagrams of Otto Cycle

p 3
Spark Plug pVk = C
Intake Valve Exhaust Valve

VC
2
Wnet  pdV 
TDC
4

VT VD Stroke
pVk = C
1
BDC V
cVD VD
Connecting Rod
T T3 3
TDC
Crank pin

Crank 4
2

Crankshaft
Qnet  dQ 
BDC T1
1
Processes of Otto Cycle s
a. Starting with the piston dead center, compression proceeds isentropically from 1 to 2.
b. Heat is added at constant volume from 2 to 3
c. Expansion occurs isentropically from 3 to 4
d. Heat is rejected to constant volume from 4 to 1.

Otto Cycle Analysis

Heat Added, process 2-3:

Heat Rejected, process 4-1:

Net work of the Cycle:

Cycle Thermal Efficiency:

Consider Process 1-2 (s = C),

Then, Where, rk = compression ratio,

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 Consider Process 3-4 (s = C),

Then,

Substituting T1 and T4 to the equation of e:

Percent Clearance,

Mean Effective Pressure:

STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE

 Developed by Rudolf Diesel
 Characterized by constant-pressure heat addition, constant-volume heat rejection, and isentropic
compression and expansion
 Engine is a compression-ignition type
 Air is compressed to a high temperature
 Fuel is injected to compressed air
 Ignition is due to the high air temperature
 Combustion occurs at constant pressure
 Piston expands isentropically to bottom dead center, where heat is rejected at constant volume.

AIR-STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE

 The theoretical prototype of an actual Diesel engine cycle
 The TpTv cycle
T 3
Schematic, pV and Ts Diagrams

Fuel Injector p=C

Intake Valve Exhaust Valve 4
2
VC
TDC
1 V=C

VT VD Stroke
s
p
BDC p=C
3
Connecting Rod 2
pVk = C
TDC
Crank pin
4
pVk = C V=C
Crank
1

Crankshaft V
cVD VD
BDC
 Processes
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 a) Starting with the piston at bottom dead center, compression occurs isentropically from state 1 to state 2.
b) Heat is added at constant pressure from state 2 to state 3.
c) Expansion occurs isentropically from state 3 to state 4.
d) Heat reaction occurs at constant volume at constant volume from state 4 to state 1.

CYCLE ANALYSIS
Heat Added (Heat addition process occurs from state 2 to state 3 at constant pressure:

Unit Mass:

Heat Rejected (Heat rejection process occurs from state 4 to state 1 at constant volume:

Unit Mass:

Net Work of the cycle:

Unit Mass:

Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle:

Derivation of e in terms of rk and rc:

Let,

Consider process 1 to 2 (s = C):

Consider process 2 to 3 (p = C):

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 Consider process 3 to 4 (s = C):

Substituting the values of T2, T3, & T4 to the equation of e:

For rk in terms of rc and re:

Mean Effective Pressure,

Other Equations:

Cycle Work or Power Output:

Volume, VD, in terms of rk:

Mean Effective Pressure, Mep, in terms of rk and rc:

AIR-STANDARD DUAL CYCLE OR LIMITED-PRESSURE CYCLE

 Actual indicator cards from both Otto and Diesel engines show a rounded top, with a shape that suggests that
some combustion at constant volume and some at constant pressure would give an ideal cycle more closely
resembling the actual events.
 Heat addition occurs during constant pressure and constant volume processes

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  Dual cycle is a constant volume and constant pressure combustion (heat addition) cycle
 This cycle is also called as limited-pressure cycle
 It is a sVpsV cycle
 This cycle has no particular standard application.

pV and Ts Diagrams
p
3 4
T
4
pVk = C QA34
=
2
3 =
QA23 5

5 2 = 
Q  dQ

W  p dV
pVk = C QR
= 1
1
V = s

Processes
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression Process 2 – 3: Isometric Heat Addition process
Process 3 – 4: Isobaric heat Addition Processes Process 4 – 5: Isentropic Expansion Process
Process 5 – 1: Isometric Heat rejection Process

Cycle Analysis

Heat added (Processes 23 and 34),

Heat Rejected (Process 5 – 1),

Net Work of the Cycle,

Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle,

Where:

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Carnot Cycle
1. A Carnot cycle heat engine operates between 840 oC and 5 oC and rejects 580 kJ/kg of heat to the low
temperature reservoir or heat sink. Determine the work produced by the cycle.
a) 1742 kJ/kg b) 1724 kJ/kg c) 1472 kJ/kg d) 1427 kJ/kg
2. A Carnot engine receives 130 Btu of heat from a hot reservoir at 700 oF and rejects 49 Btu of heat. Determine
the temperature of the cold reservoir, in oF. (4/97)

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 a) – 27.72 b) – 27.27 c) – 22.77 d) – 22.27

3. A Carnot engine produces 50 MW of power while operating between temperature limits of 727 oC and 27 oC.
Determine the heat rejected.
a) 21.43 MW b) 24.31 MW c) 23.41 MW d) 24.13 MW
4. A reversed Carnot cycle requires 3 Hp and extracts energy from a lake to heat a house. If the house is kept at 70
o
F and requires 2000 Btu/min, what is the temperature of the lake?
a) 33.6 oF b) 36.3 oF c) 63.3 oF d) 39.3 oF
o
5. A 2.5-kW refrigeration or heat pump operates between – 18 C and 38 C. Determine the maximum heat that can
be transferred from the cold reservoir.
a) 11.38 kW b) 13.18 kW c) 18.31 kW d) 13.81 kW

6. A reversed Carnot engine receives 316 kJ of heat. The reversible adiabatic compression process increases by
50 % the absolute temperature of heat addition. Determine the COP.
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 3.5
7. What is the maximum thermal efficiency possible for a power cycle operating between 1200 oF and 225 oF?
a) 57.83 % b) 58.73 % c) 53.78 % d) 58.37 %

8. A Carnot engine requires 35 kW from the hot source. The engine produces 15 kW of power and the temperature
of the sink is 26 oC. What is the temperature of the hot source in oC. (4/97)
a) 250.25 oC b) 255.02 oC c) 252.05 oC d) 255.50 oC
9. A 6-cylinder engine with a 10 x 10 cm bore and stroke operates on the Carnot cycle. It receives 54 kJ/cycle of
heat at 833 oK and rejects heat at 555 oK while running at 300 rpm. Determine the mean effective pressure in
MPaa, and the power of the engine, in kW.
a) 3.82 MPaa, 90.1 kW b) 2.83 MPaa, 91.0 kW c) 8.32 MPaa, 80.1 kW d) 3.82 MPaa, 100.1 kW

10. A Carnot engine operates between temperature limits of 1200 oK and 400 oK using 0.4 kg of air running at 500
rpm. The pressure at the beginning of heat addition is 1500 kPaa and at the end of the heat addition is 750 kPaa.
Find: a) the heat added, in kJ/cycle [95.488]; b) the heat rejected, in kJ/cycle.[- 31.829]; c) the power produced,
in kW [530.49]; c) the volume at the end of heat addition process [0.18368 m 3/cycle; d) the mean effective
pressure. [22.97 kPa]; e) the thermal efficiency. [66.67 %]
11. Helium is used in a Carnot engine where the volumes beginning with the constant temperature heat addition are
V1 = 0.3565 m3, V2 = 0.5130 m3, V3 = 8.0 m3, and V4 = 5.57 m3. Determine the thermal efficiency if k = 1.666.
a) 83.95 % b) 89.35 % c) 85.93 % d) 85.39 %

12. A Carnot engine is operating between temperature limits of 1200 oK and 300 oK while producing 30-kW power.
Determine a) the heat supplied; and b) the heat rejected. [Ans. a) 40 kW, b) 10 kW]

13. A reversed Carnot engine is receiving 350 kJ of heat. The reversible adiabatic compression process increases
by 60 % the absolute temperature of heat addition. Determine a) the COP of Carnot refrigerator and Carnot heat
pump; and b) the work. [Ans. a) 1.67, 2.67; b) 210 kW]
14. A heat pump is used to heat a house in the winter months. When the average outside temperature is 2 oC and
the indoor temperature is 24 oC, the heat loss from the house is 25 kW. What is the minimum power required to
operate the heat pump. [Ans. 1.85 kW]

15. A Carnot Refrigerator is operating between temperature limits of – 6 oC and 30 oC. The heat absorbed is 29 kJ/kg
and the power used is 3.5 kW. Find a) the COP; and b) mass flow rate of the refrigerant. [Ans. a) 7.42, b) 53.71
kg/min]
16. A Carnot heat pump is being used for house heating in Baguio City where the temperature is 10 oC. The
expected COP for the heat pump is 2. Determine the temperature that the heat pump could provide heat. [Ans.
586 oK]

17. A Carnot cycle heat engine operates between 840 oC and 5 oC and rejects 580 kJ/kg of heat to the low
temperature reservoir or heat sink. Determine the maximum entropy change, in kJ/kg- oK, of the working fluid for
any process in the cycle. [Ans. 2.08]
18. A reversed Carnot cycle requires 3 Hp and extracts energy from a lake to heat a house. If the house is kept at 70
o
F and requires 2000 Btu/min, what is the temperature of the lake? [Ans. 36 oF]

Otto Cycle
19. An engine operates on the air-standard Otto cycle. The conditions at the start of compression are 27 oC and 100
kPaa. The heat added is 1840 kJ/kg. The compression ratio is 8. Determine the thermal efficiency.
a) 54.67 % b) 56.47 % c) 54.76 % d) 57.46 %
20. An Otto engine has a clearance volume of 7 %. It produces 300 kW of power. What is the amount of heat
rejected, in kW? (10/97)
a) 151.8 kW b) 171.8 kW c) 160.8 kW d) 151.8 kW

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21. In an air standard Otto cycle, the clearance volume is 18 % of the displacement volume. Find the thermal
efficiency. (10/93)
a) 52 % b) 53 % c) 55 % d) 60 %

22. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an Otto engine operating on hot-air standard with k = 1.35 are
101.325 kPaa, 0.05 m3 and 32 oC. The clearance is 8 % and 15 kJ are added per cycle. Determine the mean
effective pressure. [323.97 kPa]
23. An engine operates on the air-standard Otto cycle. The cycle work is 1000 kJ/kg. What is the compression ratio
of the engine if the maximum cycle temperature is 3173 oK and the temperature at the end of isentropic
compression is 773 oK. [8.85]
24. The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 9. If the initial pressure is 150 kPaa, determine the final pressure.
[3251.10 kPaa
25. The compression ratio of an ideal Otto cycle is 6:1. Initial conditions are 101.k kPaa and 20 oC. Find the pressure
and temperature at the end of adiabatic compression. [Ans. 1244.5 kPaa, 599.6 oK]

Diesel Cycle
26. ME Board April 1998. An air-standard engine has a compression ratio of 20 and a cut-off ratio of 5. If the intake
air pressure and temperature are 100 kPaa and 27 oC, find the work in kJ/kg. [2165]
27. ME Board April 1991. Determine the air-standard efficiency of an engine operating on the Diesel cycle when the
suction pressure is 99.97 kPaa and the fuel is injected to 6 % of the stroke, the clearance volume is 8 % of the
stroke. Assume k = 1.4. [60.07 %]

28. ME Board October 1995. In an air-standard Diesel cycle, compression starts at 100 kPaa and 300 oK. The
compression ratio is 16 to 1. The maximum cycle temperature is 2031 oK. Determine the thermal efficiency.
[60.27 %]
29. An engine operates on the air-standard Diesel cycle. The conditions at the start of compression are 27 oC and
100 kPaa. The heat supplied is 1840 kJ/kg. The compression ratio is 16. Determine a) the thermal efficiency of
the cycle; and b) the mean effective pressure. [a) 56.89 %, b) 1296.46 kPa]

30. The mep of an ideal Diesel cycle is 758.4 kPaa. If p 1 = 93 kPaa, rk = 12.5, and the overall value of k is 1.32. Find
the cutoff ratio, rc. [2.77]
31. An ideal Diesel cycle with the overall value of k = 1.33, r k =15, rc = 2.1, p1 = 97.9 kPaa. Find p2 and pm. [601.72
kPa]

32. The charge in a Diesel engine consists of 0.01834 kg of fuel, with a lower heating value of 42571 kJ/kg, and
0.409 kg of air and products of combustion. At the beginning of compression, t 1 = 60 oC. Let rk = 14. For constant
cp = 1.110 kJ/kg-oK, what should be the cut-off ratio in the corresponding ideal cycle? [2.8]
33. There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel engine operating on 227 grams air; p 1 = 97.91 kPaa, t1 = 48.9
o
C. At the end of compression, p 2 = 3930 kPaa. Assume that the air and the products within the cycle have air
properties. Determine a) the compression ratio, r k; b) the percent clearance; c) the cut-off ratio, r c; d) the work; e)
the thermal efficiency; and f) the mean effective pressure, Mep. [Ans.: a) 14, b) 7.69 %, c) 2.5, d) 180.1 kJ/cycle,
e) 56.81 %, f) 905.25 kPa]

34. In an air-standard Diesel cycle, compression starts at 100 kPaa and 300 oK. The compression ratio is 16:1. The
maximum cycle temperature is 2031 oK. Determine the thermal efficiency. [Ans. 60.3 %]

Dual Combustion Cycle

35. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.45 kg of air. At the beginning of compression, the air is 97 kPaa,
43 oC. Let rp = 1.5, rc = 1.6, and rk = 11. Determine a) the percent clearance; b) the pressure, volume, and
temperature of each corner of the cycle; c) the QA, QR, and W; d) the thermal efficiency; and e) the mean
effective pressure. [Ans.: a) 10 %, c) 469.26 kJ, - 193.91 kJ, d) 58.68 %, e) 718.68 kPa]
36. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.60 kg of air. Find the cycle efficiency if the compression ratio is 12,
pressure ratio is 1.6, cut-off ratio is 1.5, and k = 1.3. [50.71 %]

37. What is the pressure ratio in an ideal dual combustion cycle if the pressure at the beginning and end of the
constant volume portion of combustion are 2500 kPaa and 4000 kPaa, respectively? [1.6]
38. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.65 kg of air. At the beginning of compression, the air is at 100
kPaa, 45 oC. Determine the volume at the end of compression if net work is 300 kJ and the mean effective
pressure is 700 kPa. [0.16 m3]

39. At the beginning of compression in an ideal dual combustion cycle, the working fluid is 2 lb of air at 14.7 psia and
85 oF. The compression ratio is 8.5, the pressure at the end of the constant volume addition of heat is 450 psia,
and there are added 105 Btu during the constant pressure expansion. Find the pressure ratio and the percent
clearance? [1.53, 13.33 %]

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THREE-PROCESS CYCLE
40. 1 kg of air at pressure and temperature of 101.325 kPaa and 15 oC initially, undergoes the following process in a
cycle: 1 – 2: isothermal compression to 202.65 kPaa; 2 – 3: polytropic compression from 202.65 kPaa to 405.30
kPaa; and 3 – 1: isentropic expansion from 405.30 kPaa to the initial condition. Calculate the heat transfer for
process 1 to 2. Use R = 0.287 kJ/kg-oK and k = 1.4 for air. [- 57.29 kJ]

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