Brief Contents

1 Introduction to Safety, Health, and 16 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 272

Environment 1
17 Introduction to Hazard Controls 290
2 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 31
18 Engineering Controls: Alarms and
3 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 55 Indicator Systems 299

4 Recognizing Biological Hazards 73 19 Engineering Controls: Process

Containment and Process Upset
5 Equipment and Energy Hazards 95 Controls 313

6 Fire and Explosion Hazards 109 20 Administrative Controls: Programs

and Practices 326
7 Pressure, Temperature, and
Radiation Hazards 128 21 Permitting Systems 344

8 Hazardous Atmospheres and 22 Personal Protective Equipment and

Respiratory Hazards 144 First Aid 357

9 Working Area and Height Hazards 163 23 Monitoring Equipment 388

10 Hearing and Noise Hazards 177 24 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency

Response Equipment 402
11 Construction, Maintenance, and
Tool Hazards 189
Appendix A Answers to Checking Your
12 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 201 Knowledge Questions 416
Appendix B Government/Regulatory
13 Natural Disasters and Inclement
and Industry Resources 426
Weather 217
Glossary 429
14 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 237
Index 438
15 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 259
 Safety, Health,
and Environment
Second Edition

Technical Editor

Ray Player
Texas Learning Services
Eastman Chemical Company
Longview, TX
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: North American Process Technology Alliance.

Title: Safety, health, and environment / technical editor, Ray Player, Texas
Learning Services, Eastman Chemical Company, Longview, TX.
Description: Second edition. | New York : Pearson, [2020]
Identifiers: LCCN 2019019252 | ISBN 9780135572498 (print)
Subjects: LCSH: Manufacturing processes—Safety measures. | Manufacturing
processes—Health aspects. | Manufacturing processes—Environmental aspects.
Classification: LCC TS183 .S24 2019 | DDC 670--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019019252

ScoutAutomatedPrintCode

ISBN-10: 0-13-557249-5
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-557249-8
Preface
The Process Industries Challenge • New content on security hazards and cybersecurity
hazards, including site vulnerability to physical and
In the early 1990s, the process industries recognized that they cyberattack.
would face a major manpower shortage due to the large num-
• New information on safety management, safe ­practices
ber of employees retiring. Industry partnered with community
during an emergency response, and duties of fire watch
colleges, technical colleges, and universities to provide train-
attendants and confined space attendants.
ing for their process technicians, recognizing that substantial
savings on training and traditional hiring costs could be real- • Update on pollutants in the United States including
ized. In addition, the consistency of curriculum content and dioxins and furans.
exit competencies of process technology graduates could be • New coverage of hazardous atmospheres and
ensured if industry collaborated with education ­respiratory protection issues, including BLEVE, dust
To achieve this consistency of graduates’ exit competen- explosions, and nitrogen asphyxiation.
cies, the North American Process Technology Alliance identi- • New content on critical lifts, excavation, heavy
fied a core technical curriculum for the Associate Degree in equipment, scaffolding, load limitations, and alarm
Process Technology. This core, consisting of eight technical parameters.
courses, is taught in partner member institutions and other
• More information on Noise-related OSHA Recordable
institutions throughout the United States. This textbook pro-
Injury. Contact Rate; OSHA Recordable Injury Rate,
vides a common standard reference for the Safety, Health, and
CAPA—Corrective or Preventive Action, and House-
Environment course that serves as part of the core technical
keeping Inspection Form.
courses in the degree program.
Instructors who teach the process technology core • More information about Process Safety Management.
­curriculum, and who are recognized in the industry for their • Updated Review and New Answers Appendix! ­Checking
years of experience and their depth of subject-matter ­expertise, Your Knowledge questions have been updated to meet
requested that a textbook be developed to match the standard- new chapter objectives and now include an Appendix A
ized curriculum. Reviewers from a broad array of process indus- with answers.
tries and education institutions participated in the p
­ roduction • ALL NEW Instructor Resource Package including lesson
of these materials so that the widest audience possible would plans, test banks, PowerPoints, and a correlation guide to
be represented in the presentation of the content. NAPTA curriculum.
The textbook is intended for use in high schools, com-
munity colleges, technical colleges, universities, and corpo-
rate settings in which process technology is taught. However,
Organization of the Textbook
educators in many disciplines will find these materials useful This textbook has been organized into 24 chapters. Chapter 1
as a complete reference for both theory and practical applica- provides an overview of the safety, health, and e­ nvironmental
tion. Students will find this textbook to be a valuable resource issues and practices that may be found within the process
throughout their process technology career. industries. Chapters 2–17 detail the various types of hazards
a process technician might encounter. Chapters 18–24 discuss
What’s New! the various controls and equipment used to reduce the risks
associated with each of these hazards.
The second edition has been thoroughly updated and revised.
Each chapter is organized in the following way:
• New Learning Outcome alignment with NAPTA core
• Learning Objectives
objectives, with links from objective to text page provided.
• Key Terms
• All New Full Color Art Program with more than 300
revised artwork and photo images. • Introduction

• New Key term definitions on text pages where content • Key Topics
appears, as well as at beginning of each chapter. • Summary
• Thoroughly Updated Content: • Checking Your Knowledge
• Updated government regulations and data, including • Student Activities
OSHA ventilation policies and data on OSHA-record-
able injury
iii
iv Preface

The Learning Objectives provide the framework for content Jeffrey Laube, Kenai Peninsula College, Soldotna, AK
in a given chapter. They describe the core concepts students (Text revisions)
will learn and the NAPTA core objectives that are addressed Ray Player, Eastman Chemical Company, Longview, TX
within the chapter. ­Operations, TX (Art program, Text revisions)
The Key Terms are a listing of important terms and their
respective definitions that students should know and under-
stand before proceeding to the next chapter.
Reviewers
The Introduction gives information on concepts neces- The following organizations and their dedicated personnel
sary to the development of the content of the chapter itself. voluntarily participated in the production of this textbook.
Any of the Key Topics can have several subtopics. Their contributions to making this a successful project are
Numerical indicators link learning objectives to text within greatly appreciated. Perhaps our gratitude for their involve-
the chapter. ment can best be expressed by this sentiment:
The Summary briefly restates points about the learning The credit belongs to those people who are actually
objectives of the chapter. in the arena . . . who know the great enthusiasms, the
The Checking Your Knowledge questions are designed great devotions to a worthy cause; who at best, know
to help students self-test on potential learning points from the the triumph of high achievement; and who, at worst,
chapter. fail while daring greatly . . . so that their place shall
The Student Activities section contains activities that can never be with those cold and timid souls who know
be performed independently or with other students in small neither victory nor defeat.
groups, and activities that should be performed with instruc- —Theodore Roosevelt
tor involvement.
Appendix B: Government/Regulatory and Industry
Resources lists various government agencies and industry
Industry Content Developers
organizations that relate to safety, health, and environmental and Reviewers
issues in the process industries. Websites are listed, along with Ammar Alkhawaldeh, North America Process Safety,
contact information. BASF Corporation
Gary Allison, Valero Refining, Louisiana
Acknowledgements Christine Archer, TAP Safety Services, Texas
The second edition of this series would not have been pos- Randy Armstrong, Shell Oil Company, Texas
sible without the support of the entire NAPTA Board and, in
James Barnes, Boeing, California
particular, without the leadership and dedication of Executive
Ted Borel, TPC Group, Lyondell, Texas
Director Eric Newby. A particular and special thank you goes
to Ray Player for his role of Technical Editor for this title. His Mark Bowers, Compliance Assurance Associates, Inc.,
knowledge, expertise, and timeliness are greatly appreciated. Texas
Also, we want to express our continued gratitude to Martha Linda Brown, Pasadena Refining System, Inc., Texas
McKinley, interim co-chair of the NAPTA Curriculum Com- Candy Carrigan, ConocoPhillips, New Jersey
mittee, for her unfailing support of this series.
Regina Cooper, Marathon Petroleum, Texas City, Texas
F.D. (Bubba) Diaz, Mississippi Power, Mississippi
Contributors
Lisa Arnold Diederich, Independent Reviewer,
Sheri Bankston, Alliance Safety Council, Baton Rouge, Pennsylvania
LA (Text revisions, Instructor supplements) Paul Dietrich, ConocoPhillips, New Jersey
Charles Baukal, John Zink Company, Tulsa, OK Jim Duplantis, Valero Refining, Louisiana
(Text revisions)
John Engelman, S.C. Johnson & Sons, Inc., Wisconsin
Charles Ferris Callihan, Remington College (Emeritus),
Cleve Fontenot, Equipment Training Facility Developer,
Webster, TX (Text revisions)
BASF Corporation (retired), Louisiana
Vicki Fruge, Lamar Institute of Technology, Beaumont,
Michael P. Gerrity, ConocoPhillips, New Jersey
TX (Text revisions)
Larry Hensley, Innovene, Texas
Ron Gamble, Remington College, Webster, TX
Richard Honea, The Dow Chemical Company, Texas
(Text revisions)
William (Billy) Joiner, Equistar Chemical, Texas
Michael Kean, Los Medanos College, Pittsburg, CA
(Instructor supplements) Russell Karins, Chevron Phillips, Texas
 Preface v

Jeffrey Troy Key, Shell Chemical, Texas Jerry Duncan, College of the Mainland, Texas
Susanne Kolodzy, Troubleshooting Resources, Texas Barbara Foster, West Virginia University, West Virginia
Jon Leacroy, The Dow Chemical Company, Texas John Galiotos, Houston Community College-Northeast,
Pamelyn G. Lindsey, DuPont, New Jersey Texas
Diane McGinn, Innovene, Texas David Gilfillan, College of the Mainland, Texas
Roy J. Murdock, Shell Oil Products, Washington Michael Gunter, Independent Reviewer, Louisiana
Alisha Nash, The Dow Chemical Company, Louisiana Gary Hicks, Brazosport College, Texas
Don Parsley, Valero Refining, Texas Michael High, Baton Rouge Community College,
Louisiana
Ray Player, Eastman Chemical Company, Longview,
Texas Jerry Layne, Baton Rouge Community College,
Louisiana
Terry Richey, Chemturn Corporation, Louisiana
Martha McKinley, McKinley Consulting, Texas
Paul Summers, The Dow Chemical Company, Texas
Dorothy Ortego, Sasol, Lake Charles, Louisiana
Gerry Swieringa, ConocoPhillips, Washington
Lyndon Pousson, Louisiana Technical College, Louisiana
James Turlington, Lyondell-Citgo Refining, Texas
Anthony Pringle, Remington College, Texas
Robert Walls, Sherwin Alumina, Texas
Paul Rodriguez, Lamar Institute of Technology, Texas

Education Content Developers Vicki Rowlett, Lamar Institute of Technology, Texas

Pete Rygaard, College of the Mainland, Texas
and Reviewers
Dan Schmidt, Bismarck State College, North Dakota
Louis Babin, ITI Technical College, Louisiana
Keith James Tolleson, Louisiana Technical College-River
Barb Bessette-Henderson, Independent Reviewer,
Parishes, Louisiana
Texas
Diane Trainor, Middlesex County College, New Jersey
Tommie Ann Broome, Mississippi Gulf Coast
­Community College, Mississippi Walter Tucker, Lamar Institute of Technology, Texas

Kathy T. Brossette, Baton Rouge Community College, Bennett Willis, Brazosport College, Texas
Louisiana Robert (Bob) Weis, Delaware Technical and Community
Anita Brunsting, Victoria College, Texas College, Delaware

Ryan Caya, Bismarck State College, North Dakota This material is based upon work supported, in part,
by the National Science Foundation under Grant
David Corona, College of the Mainland, Texas
No. ­DUE-0532652. Any opinions, findings, and
Douglas Detman, Independent Reviewer, Texas ­conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
Ernest Duhon, Sowela Technical Community College, ­material are those of the author(s) and do not ­necessarily
Louisiana reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Prefaceiii Practicing Good Safety Habits 27
Following Safe Work Practices 27
1 Introduction to Safety, Health, Summary 28
and Environment 1 Checking Your Knowledge 29
Student Activities 30
Introduction 3
Safety, Health, and Environmental Hazards 2 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 31
in the Process Industries 6
Introduction 32
Incidents in the Process Industries 8
Hazards Overview 32
Regulatory Agencies and Their Responsibilities 9
Chemical Hazards 33
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) 10 Chemical Exposure 34
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 10 Physical Hazards 34
Department of Transportation (DOT) 11 Ergonomic Hazards 35
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 11 Biological Hazards 36
Other Government Agencies Related to the Process Security Hazards 37
Industries 11 Routes of Entry 38
Regulations Affecting the Process Industries 12 Inhalation 38
OSHA 1910.119—Process Safety Management (PSM) 12 Absorption 39
OSHA 1910.132—Personal Protection Equipment 14 Injection 40
OSHA 1910.1200—Hazard Communication (HAZCOM) 15 Ingestion 40
OSHA 1910.120—Hazardous Waste Operations Relation of Hazards to Health and Safety 40
and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) 15 Doses and Routes of Entry 40
OSHA 1910.1000 Air Contaminants 17 Dose–Response Relationship 41
OSHA Voluntary Protection Program (VPP) 17 Lethal Dose and Lethal Concentration 42
DOT CFR 49.173.1—Hazardous Materials—General Duration of Exposure 42
Requirements for Shipments and Packaging 17
Chemical Composition of Hazardous Substances 43
EPA CFR 264.16—Resource Conservation and Recovery
Health and Sensitivity to Hazards 43
Act (RCRA) 17
Exposure Limits 44
EPA Clean Air and Clean Water Acts 18
Chemical Interactions 45
Mine Safety and Health Act 18
Effects of Hazards on People 46
United Nations Standards 18
When Symptoms Appear 46
Consequences of Noncompliance with Regulations 18
Acute (Short-Term) Effects 46
Legal 18
Chronic (Long-Term) Effects 47
Moral and Ethical 19
Local and Systemic Effects 47
Safety, Health, and the Environment 19
Environmental Hazards 48
Industry Groups and Voluntary Standards for the
Air Pollution Hazards 48
Process Industries 19
Soil Pollution 50
The ISO 14000 Standard 19
Water Pollution 51
NFPA Hazardous Materials Storage Standards 20
Responsible Care® Guiding Principles 20 Effects of Hazards on the Environment 52
Additional Groups and Standards 21 Short-Term Effects 52
Long-Term Effects 52
Engineering Controls, Administrative Controls,
Summary 53
and Personal Protective Equipment 21
Checking Your Knowledge 53
The Process Technician’s Impact on Safety, Health,
Student Activities 54
and Environment 22
Attitudes and Behaviors That Help Prevent Accidents
Factors That Can Affect Safety
23
24
3 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 55
Impact of Shift Work 25 Introduction 56
Workplace Stress 26 Chemical Hazards Overview 57
vii
viii Contents

Hazardous Chemicals 59 Exposure 92

Flammable and Combustible Materials 59 Decontamination and Housekeeping 92
Water-Reactive, Pyrophoric, and Explosive Materials 59 Government Regulations 93
Organic Peroxides and Oxidizers 60 Summary 93
Carcinogens, Mutagens, Teratogens, and Reproductive Checking Your Knowledge 94
Toxins 60 Student Activities 94
Other Chemical Hazards 60
Hazardous Chemical Labeling and Documentation 61 5 Equipment and Energy Hazards 95
Detection 61 Introduction 96
OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (HAZCOM) 61 Moving or Rotating Equipment Hazards 97
EPA Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) 62
Pressurized Equipment, Extreme Temperatures,
EPA Emergency Planning and Community or Radiation 98
Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA) 63 Pressure Hazards 98
DOT Material Classification 64 Temperature Hazards 98
Other Hazard Labeling Systems 66 Radiation Hazards 99
Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS) 66 Energy Hazards 100
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 67 Electrical Hazards 101
Understanding How to Read an SDS 68 Causes of Electrical Hazards 102
Government Regulations Relating to Chemical Hazards 70 Sparks and Shocks 103
Summary 71 Static Electricity 104
Checking Your Knowledge 71 Electrical Safety 104
Student Activities 72 Grounding, Fuses, and Circuit Breakers 105

4 Recognizing Biological Hazards 73

Hazardous Environments
Lightning
106
106
Introduction 74 Government Regulations 107
Biological Hazards Overview 75 Summary 107
Microorganism Hazards 75 Checking Your Knowledge 108
Viruses 76 Student Activities 108

6
Bacteria 76
Algae 77
Fire and Explosion Hazards 109
Fungi 77 Introduction 110
Protozoa 77 Fire Hazards 111
Arthropods 77 Characteristics of Fires 112
Spiders 78 Fire Triangle and Fire Tetrahedron 112
Ticks 79 Fuel Sources 113
Scorpions 79 Heat Sources and Ignition 114
Insects 80 Oxygen 114
Mosquitoes 80 Flammable and Combustible Substances 114
Fire Ants 81 Flammable Atmospheres 116
Bees, Wasps, and Hornets 82 Stages of Fire 116
Poisonous Snakes 82 Heat Transfer 118
Animals 83 Classes of Fire 118
Allergens and Toxins 84 Vessels 118
Plant Allergens 84 National Fire Code Section 704 119
Plant Toxins 85 Dangerous Goods Classification and Labeling 120
Protein Allergens 86 Explosion Hazards 120
Bloodborne Pathogens 86 Explosives 121
Hepatitis B 87 Types of Chemical Explosions 122
Human Immunodeficiency Virus 87 Dust Explosions 122
Transmission of HIV and HBV 88 Detonation Hazards 123
Universal Precautions 89 Detonation Characteristics 123
Personal Protective Equipment 90 Controls and Mitigation Hazard Protection 124
 Contents ix

Government Regulations
Summary
125
125
9 Working Area and Height Hazards 163
Checking Your Knowledge 126 Introduction 164
Student Activities 127 Working Areas 164
Walking and Working Surfaces 165
7 Pressure, Temperature, and Ladders 167
Radiation Hazards 128 Exit Routes (Means of Egress) 168
Heights and Fall Protection 169
Introduction 129
Falling Objects 171
Pressure Hazards 129
Confined Spaces 171
Pressure in the Process Industries 130
Government Regulations and Industry Standards 175
Pressure and Our Bodies 132
Summary 175
Temperature Hazards 133
Checking Your Knowledge 176
Heat 133
Student Activities 176
Cold 136
Burns 137 10 Hearing and Noise Hazards 177
Radiation Hazards 139
Introduction 178
Ionizing Radiation 140
Noise and Hearing Hazards Overview 178
Nonionizing Radiation 142
Basics of Sound and Noise 179
Government Regulations 142
Summary 142
Noise Exposure and Duration 181
Checking Your Knowledge 143
Noise-Related Hazards 182
Student Activities 143 Hearing Conservation and Protection 184
Types of Hearing Protectors 186
8 Hazardous Atmospheres and Fit, Use, and Maintenance of Hearing Protectors 186

Respiratory Hazards 144 Government Regulations on Noise Hazards 187

Summary 187
Introduction 145 Checking Your Knowledge 187
Respiration 146 Student Activities 188
Hazardous Atmospheres 147
Oxygen-Deficient or Enriched Atmospheres
11 Construction, Maintenance,
and Asphyxiants 148 and Tool Hazards 189
Flammable Atmospheres 149 Introduction 190
Toxic Atmospheres 149 Hazards Associated with Construction and
Irritant or Corrosive Atmospheres 150 Maintenance 190
Depressant, Anesthetic, or Narcotic Construction 190
Atmospheres 150 Maintenance 191
Hazardous Atmosphere Controls 151 Hazards Associated with Tools 191
Ventilation 151 Hand Tool Use and Safety 193
Monitoring 152 Power Tool Use and Safety 194
Confined Space Permits 152 Welding 196
Medical Evaluation 152 Critical Lifts, Excavation, Heavy Equipment,
Other Controls 153 Scaffolding 198
Respirators 153 Government Regulations 199
Types of Respirators 154 Summary 199

Air-Purifying Respirators 155 Checking Your Knowledge 199

Air-Supplying Respirators 157 Student Activities 200

Emergency Respirators
Respirator Fit, Use, and Care
159
159
12 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 201
Government Regulations 160 Introduction 202
Summary 161 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 202
Checking Your Knowledge 162 Forklifts and Powered Industrial Trucks 202
Student Activities 162 Powered Platforms 204
x Contents

Cranes 206 Terrorist Attacks 242

Loading and Unloading Liquids 207 Biological Attack 242
Trucks 208 Chemical Attack 242
Trains 208 Nuclear or Radiological Attack 242
Watercraft 209 Explosions and Bombings 243
Pipelines 210 Kidnapping 244
Helicopters 211 Hijacking 244
Company Vehicle Safety 212 Cyber Attack 245
Personal Vehicle Safety 213 Assassination 245
Bicycles and Carts 213 Other Threats 245
Government Regulations 214 Workplace Violence 245
Summary 215 Industrial Espionage 246
Checking Your Knowledge 215 Extortion and Blackmail 246
Student Activities 216 Sabotage 246

13
Countering Threats 246
Natural Disasters and Inclement Signs of Potential Terrorist Activity 247
Weather 217 Physical Security 247
Introduction 218 Access and Perimeter Control 248
Emergency Plans 219 Operations and Procedures 249
Rain- and Wind-Related Disasters 220 Communications 249
Hurricanes 220 Personnel 249
Hurricane Hazards 221 Practicing Good Physical Security 250
Hurricane Preparedness 222 Cybersecurity 250
Tornadoes and High Winds 223 Information 251
Tornado Preparedness 224 Productivity and Capability 251
Flooding 225 Control 252
Flooding Hazards 226 Cybersecurity Practices 252
Flood Preparedness 226 The Internet 253
Lightning and Rainstorms 227 Passwords 253
Lightning and Rainstorm Hazards 228 Viruses, Worms, and Other Malware 254
Lightning and Rainstorm Preparedness 228 Practicing Good Cybersecurity 255
Extreme Temperature Events 230 Physical Security Aspects of Cybersecurity 255
Hot Weather 230 Government Regulations Affecting Physical Security
Hot Weather Preparedness 230 and Cybersecurity 256
Snowstorms and Cold Weather 231 Summary 256
Snowstorm and Cold Weather Hazards 232 Checking Your Knowledge 257
Snowstorm and Cold Weather Preparedness 232 Student Activities 258

Earthquake 233
Earthquake Hazards 234 15 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 259
Earthquake Preparedness 234 Introduction 260
Government Agencies and Aid Organizations 235 Ergonomic Hazards 261
Summary 235 Impact of Physical Stress 262
Checking Your Knowledge 235
Lifting and Material Handling 262
Student Activities 236
Preventing Ergonomic Stress When Lifting
14 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 237
or Handling Materials 263
Repetitive Motions 264
Introduction 238 Proper Ergonomics for Repetitive Motion 264
Physical Security and Cybersecurity Overview 238 Extended Workstation or Computer Use 266
DDDRRR 239 Working at Heights 267
Threats to Process Industries 241 Preventing Ergonomic Stress When Working
The Nature of Threats to Physical Security at Heights 268
and Cybersecurity 241 Working in Confined Spaces 268
 Contents xi

Vibrations 269 Fire Alarms and Detection Systems 304

Ergonomic Design 269 Toxic Gas Alarms and Detection Systems 304
Government Regulations and Industry Guidelines 269 Redundant Alarm Systems 305
Summary 270 Automatic Shutdown and Response Devices 305
Checking Your Knowledge 270 Interlocks 306
Student Activities 271 Administrative Controls 307
Rationale for Alarms 307
16 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 272 Alarm Frequency Investigations Results 308
Process Technician Requirements 309
Introduction 273
Alarm Handling 309
Pollutants 273
Summary 311
Hazardous Chemical Categories 274
Checking Your Knowledge 312
Chemical Composition and Classification 274
Student Activities 312
Leaks, Spills, and Releases 275
Factors Leading to Leaks, Spills, and Releases 276 19 Engineering Controls: Process
Potential Dangers to the Environment 279 Containment and Process
Environmental Controls 279 Upset Controls 313
Process Technician Responsibilities 279
Introduction 314
Environmental Regulations: Air 280
Process Containment and Control Systems 314
Clean Air Act 280
Closed Systems 315
Titles I, III, IV, and V 281
Closed Loop Sampling 315
Environmental Regulations: Water 282
Floating Roof Tanks 315
Clean Water Act 282
Ventilation 316
Environmental Regulations: General 283
Effluent Control 316
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 283
Wastewater Treatment 317
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) 284
Noise Abatement Devices 317
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know
Safeguards Against Electrical Shock 317
Act (EPCRA) 285
Flare Systems 319
Comprehensive Environmental Response and
Liability Act (CERCLA) and Superfund Pressure Relief Valves 319
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) 286 Deluge and Explosion Suppression and Detection
Summary 288 Systems 320
Checking Your Knowledge 288 Spill Containment 320
Student Activities 289 Instrumentation and Process Upsets 320
Process Fluids 321
17 Introduction to Hazard Controls 290 Air 322
Nitrogen 322
Introduction 291
Steam 322
Hazard Controls Overview 291
Condensate 323
Engineering Controls 292 Water 323
Administrative Controls 293 Summary 324
Incident Investigation 296 Checking Your Knowledge 324
Personal Protective Equipment 296 Student Activities 325
Summary 297
Checking Your Knowledge 297 20 Administrative Controls: Programs
Student Activities 298 and Practices 326

18 Introduction 327
Engineering Controls: Alarms
Common Administrative Programs 327
and Indicator Systems 299 Common Administrative Activities 328
Introduction 300 Inspections and Audits 330
Hazardous and Emergency Situations 300 Investigations 331
Alarms and Indicator Systems 301 HAZOP 331
Detection Devices and Alarms 301 Safe Work Observations 332
xii Contents

Housekeeping 333 Other Injuries 365

Community Awareness 335 Personal Protective Equipment 367
Safe Material Handling 335 Proper Use and Care of PPE 369
Government Regulations and Industry Organization Types of PPE 370
Guidelines 337 Special Types of PPE 380
Process Safety Management (PSM) 338 Safety Showers and Eyewashes 381
HAZWOPER 339 Levels of PPE Protection 382
Responsible Care® Guiding Principles 340 Government Regulations 383
ISO 14000 341 OSHA 1910 Subpart K: Medical and First Aid
DOT Hazardous Materials Handling: Loading and and Related Regulations 383
Unloading 341 Personal Protective Equipment Regulations 385
DOT Hazardous Materials Packaging and Marking 341 Summary 386
NFPA Hazardous Materials Storage Requirements 341 Checking Your Knowledge 386
Summary 342 Student Activities 387
Checking Your Knowledge 342
Student Activities 343 23 Monitoring Equipment 388

21 Permitting Systems 344 Introduction 389

Function and Purpose of Testing Equipment 389
Introduction 345 LEL Shutdown 389
Permit Procedures 346 O2 Meters 390
Types of Permits 346 Gas Detection Equipment 390
Confined Space Permits 346 Personal Monitoring Devices 392
Hot Work Permits 349 Gas Detector Tubes 392
Safe Work Permits 349 Alarm Systems and Indicators 393
Opening/Blinding Permits 349 Fire Alarms and Detection Systems 393
Radiation Permits 350 Toxic Gas Alarms and Detection Systems 394
Critical Lifting Permits 350 Redundant Alarm and Shutdown Systems 394
Scaffold Tags 351 Automatic Shutdown Devices 394
Lockout/Tagout Procedures 351 Interlocks 395
Placement of Lockout/Tagout Devices 352 Process Upset Controls 395
Removal of Lockout or Tagout Devices 352 Industrial Hygiene Monitoring 398
Job Safety Analyses 353 Fugitive Emissions Monitoring 398
Government Regulations and Industry Guidelines 353 Government Regulations and Industry
OSHA Standards 353 Guidelines 398
Training 354 Air Emissions 398
Summary 355 Water and Waste Emissions 399
Checking Your Knowledge 355 Summary 400
Student Activities 356 Checking Your Knowledge 400
Student Activities 401
22 Personal Protective Equipment
and First Aid 357 24 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency
Response Equipment 402
Introduction 358
Potential Injuries and Basic First Aid 358 Introduction 404
Eye Injuries 359 Fires 404
Injuries That Cause Bleeding 360 Leaks, Spills, and Releases 404
Impact Injuries 360 Fire and Rescue 405
Back Injuries 361 Fire Brigades 405
Burns 362 Fire Extinguishers 408
Head Injuries 363 Rescue Equipment 409
Electrical Shocks 363 Chemical and Gas Exposure 410
Breathing Problems 364 Eyewash Stations 410
Contact with Chemical or Biological Substances 365 Safety Showers 411
 Contents xiii

Decontamination 412 Appendix A: Answers to Checking Your

Chemical and Gas Protective Clothing (CPC) 412 Knowledge Questions416
Emergency Response 413
Government Regulations and Industry Guidelines 413 Appendix B: Government/Regulatory
Fire Protection Standard 413 and Industry Resources426
Hazmat Emergency Response 413
Industry Guidelines 414 Glossary429
Summary 414
Checking Your Knowledge 414
Index438
Student Activities 415
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
Introduction to
Safety, Health,
and Environment
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1.1 Explain the necessity of occupational safety regulations. (NAPTA Safety,
Overview 2*) p. 3
1.2 Discuss industrial accidents and other events in the process industries
that have affected safety, health, and the environment. (NAPTA Safety,
Overview 1) p. 8
1.3 Describe governmental agencies and regulations that address safety,
health, and environmental issues:
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Department of Transportation (DOT)
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
Maritime Security (MARSEC)
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). (NAPTA Safety,
Overview 3) p. 9
1.4 Discuss how individuals can have an impact on safety, health, and
­environmental issues. (NAPTA Safety, Overview 4) p. 22
1.5 Describe good safety habits and safe work practices:
Follow all procedures.
Attend training and use documentation.
Perform housekeeping and sanitation.
Handle materials properly. (NAPTA Safety, Overview 5 and 6) p. 27
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process ­Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process ­technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, ­Overview 1)” means that this chapter’s
objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content overviewing safety. 1
2 Chapter 1

Key Terms
Administrative controls—policies, procedures, programs, training, and supervision
to establish rules and guidelines for workers to follow in order to reduce the risk of
exposure to a hazard, p. 21.
Air pollution—the contamination of the atmosphere, especially by industrial
waste gases, fuel exhausts, smoke, or particulate matter (finely divided
solids), p. 7.
Attitude—a state of mind or feeling with regard to some issue or event, p. 24.
Behavior—an observable action or reaction of a person under certain circumstances,
p. 24.
Biological hazard—a living or once-living organism, such as a virus, insect, or
animal, that poses a threat to human health, p. 6.
Chemical hazard—any hazard that comes from a solid, liquid, or gas element,
compound, or mixture that could cause health problems or pollution, p. 6.
Cybersecurity—security measures intended to protect information and information
technology from unauthorized access or use, p. 7.
Department of Homeland Security (DHS)—a department of the U.S. federal
government with responsibilities to safeguard public security, especially from
terrorist threats, p. 11.
Department of Transportation (DOT)—a U.S. government agency with a mission
of developing and coordinating policies to provide an efficient and economical
national transportation system, taking into account the need, the environment, and
the national defense, p. 11.
Engineering controls—controls that use technological and engineering improvements
to isolate, diminish, or remove a hazard from the workplace, p. 21.
EPA—Environmental Protection Agency; a federal agency charged with the authority
to make and enforce national environmental policy, p. 10.
Ergonomic hazard—hazard that can create physical and psychological stresses
because of forceful or repetitive work, improper work techniques, or poorly
designed tools and workspaces, p. 6.
Facility—also called a plant. A building or place that is used for a particular industry,
p. 6.
FDA—Food and Drug Administration—a federal agency responsible for protecting
the public health by ensuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and
veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices; and by ensuring the
safety of our nation’s food supply, cosmetics, and products that emit radiation,
p. 11.
FEMA—Federal Emergency Management Agency; a U.S. government agency that
coordinates responses to disasters within the United States, p. 11.
Hazardous agent—a substance, method, or action by which damage or destruction
can happen to personnel, equipment, or the environment, p. 6.
Hazards—substances, methods, or actions by which damage or destruction can
happen to personnel, equipment, facilities, or the environment, p. 6.
Heat—the transfer of energy from one object to another as a result of a temperature
difference between the two objects, p. 20.
HSE—Health, safety, and the environment; also referred to as SHE or EHS, p. 12.
HSSE—Health, safety, security, and environment, p. 3.
ISO 14000—an international standard that addresses how to incorporate
environmental aspects into operations and product standards, p. 19.
Maritime Security (MARSEC)—a three-tiered system used by the U.S. Coast Guard
to communicate to USCG and maritime industry partners about, and respond to,
credible threats, p. 11.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 3

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)—a U.S. government agency that protects

public health and safety through regulation of nuclear power and the civilian use
of nuclear materials, p. 11.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)—a U.S. government
agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards,
conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and
investigate serious workplace incidents, p. 10.
Personal protective equipment (PPE)—specialized gear that provides a barrier
between hazards and the worker using the PPE, p. 22.
Physical hazard—any hazard that comes from environmental factors such as
excessive levels of noise, temperature, pressure, vibration, radiation, electricity,
and rotating equipment, p. 7.
Physical security—security measures intended to counter physical threats from a
person or group seeking to intentionally harm other people or vital assets, p. 7.
Process industries—a broad term for industries that convert raw materials, using a
series of actions or operations, into products for consumers, p. 3.
Process technician—a worker in a process facility who monitors and controls
mechanical, physical, and/or chemical changes, throughout many processes,
to produce either a final product or an intermediate product, made from raw
materials, p. 3.
Process technology—a controlled and monitored series of operations, steps, or tasks
that converts raw materials into a product, p. 3.
Safety data sheet (SDS)—a document that provides key safety, health, and
environmental information about a chemical, p. 15.
Security hazard—a hazard or threat from a person or group seeking to intentionally
harm people, computer resources, or other vital assets, p. 7.
Soil pollution—the accidental or intentional discharge of any harmful substance into
the soil, p. 7.
Unit—an integrated group of process equipment used to produce a specific product
or products. All equipment contained in a department, p. 6.
Voluntary Protection Program (VPP)—an OSHA program designed to recognize and
promote effective safety and health management, p. 17.
Water pollution—the introduction, into a body of water or the water table, of any
EPA-listed potential pollutant that affects the water’s chemical, physical, or
biological integrity, p. 7.

HSSE Health, safety, security, and

1.1 Introduction environment.

This chapter provides an overview of various hazards that process technicians might encoun- Process industries a broad
ter in the workplace. It discusses government agencies and regulations that address health, term for industries that convert raw
safety, security, and the environment (HSSE). It describes the cost of noncompliance. It materials, using a series of actions
or operations, into products for
explores voluntary programs and industry standards that promote workplace safety, and it
consumers.
describes how process technicians can practice good safety habits.
Throughout this text book, the term process industries is used. Process industries is a Process technology a controlled
broad term for industries that convert raw materials, using a series of actions or operations, and monitored series of operations,
into products for use by consumers. steps, or tasks that converts raw
materials into a product.
Generally speaking, the process industries involve process technology—processes that
take quantities of raw materials and transform them into other products. The result might
Process technician a worker in
be an end product for a consumer or an intermediate product that is used to make an end a process facility who monitors and
product. Each company in the process industries uses a system of people, methods, equip- controls mechanical, physical, and/or
ment, and structures to create products. A process technician monitors and controls mechan- chemical changes, throughout many
processes, to produce either a final
ical, physical, and/or chemical changes, throughout many processes, to produce either the product or an intermediate product,
final or intermediate product. made from raw materials.
4 Chapter 1

The process industries are some of the largest industries in the world, employing hun-
dreds of thousands of people in almost every country. These industries, either directly or
indirectly, create and distribute thousands of products that affect the daily lives of almost
everyone on the planet.
There are a variety of industries classified as process industries. These include:

• Fossil fuels. The fossil fuel industries include oil and gas and mining.
• The oil and gas industry (Figure 1.1A) is often described as three different segments
or sectors. The upstream segment locates oil and gas, then extracts them from the
ground using drilling equipment and production facilities. The midstream segment
transports petroleum from where it is found to the refineries and petrochemical facili-
ties, then takes finished products to markets. The downstream segment of the oil and
gas process industries takes quantities of hydrocarbons and transforms them into
finished products, such as gasoline and jet fuel, or into feedstock (a component used
to make something else, like plastics).
• Mining (Figure 1.1B) is a complex process which involves the extraction and process-
ing of rocks and minerals from the ground. Mining products are integral to a wide
range of industries, serving as base materials for utilities and power generation, con-
struction, transportation, agriculture, electronics, food production, pharmaceuticals,
personal hygiene, consumer products, and more.

Figure 1.1 A. Oil derricks. B. Surface mining site.

CREDIT: A. Huyangshu/Shutterstock. B. Vladimirnenezic/Fotolia.

A. B.

• Chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing

• Chemical manufacturing (Figure 1.2A) plays a vital role in our economy, resulting
in products such as plastic, fertilizers, dyes, detergent, explosives, film, paints, food
preservatives and flavors, and synthetic lubricants.
• Pharmaceuticals (Figure 1.2B) are another important process industry. According
to the International Trade Administration, in 2016 the pharmaceutical industry
accounted for more than 270,000 employees in the United States and millions world-
wide. Pharmaceuticals provide a range of products from everyday medications such
as aspirin to highly specialized drugs used for various types of cancer.
• Power generation (Figure 1.3) involves the production and distribution of electrical
energy in large quantities to industries, businesses, residences, and schools. The role
electricity plays in everyday life is enormous, supplying lighting, heating and cooling,
and power to everything from coffee pots to refineries. The three main segments within
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 5

Figure 1.2 A. Chemical manufacturing. B. Pharmaceuticals.

CREDIT: A. Dusan Petkovic/Shutterstock. B. Dmitry Kalinovsky/Shutterstock.

A. B.

the power generation industry are generation, transmission, and distribution. Power can
be generated in a variety of ways, including burning fuels, splitting atoms, and wind.
• Water and wastewater treatment (Figure 1.4) is a pivotal industry. Clean water is essen-
tial for life and many industrial processes. It is through water treatment facilities that
process technicians are able to process and treat water so it is safe to drink and safe to
return to the environment.

Figure 1.3 Power generation is a major industry involving Figure 1.4 Wastewater ­treatment is an essential component in
many types of fuel (e.g., oil, wind, and coal). process industries.
CREDIT: MEzairi/Shutterstock. CREDIT: Kekyalyaynen/Shutterstock.

• Food and beverage (Figure 1.5) industry links farmers to consumers through the manu-
facturing and production of finished food products. The products created by this indus-
try can vary dramatically and can range anywhere from fresh meats and vegetables to
processed foods that need only be heated in the microwave.
• Pulp and paper (Figure 1.6) play a huge role in everyday life. If, along with paper, you
include items made from natural wood chemicals, then the pulp and paper industry cre-
ates and distributes thousands of products used daily around the world. The products
include items such as packaging, documents, bandages, insulation, textbooks, playing
cards, and money.
6 Chapter 1

Figure 1.5 In 2018, the USDA

reported that food manufacturing
accounted for 14 percent of all
U.S. manufacturing employees.
CREDIT: OVKNHR/Shutterstock.

Figure 1.6 Paper continues to

be used in thousands of ­everyday
products throughout the world.
CREDIT: Westend61/Getty Images.

Hazards substances, methods,

or actions by which damage or
destruction can happen to personnel,
equipment, facilities, or the
environment.

Unit an integrated group of process

equipment used to produce a specific
product or products. All equipment
contained in a department.

Facility also called a plant.

This text book generally applies to all of these industry segments, but it focuses specifi-
A building or place that is used for a
particular industry. cally on the oil and gas and chemical process industries.
In the process industries, workers routinely encounter hazardous substances and face
Hazardous agent a substance,
method, or action by which potential hazards that can cause injury, illness, or death. Some of these hazards can also
damage or destruction can happen impact the environment in the short and long term.
to personnel, equipment, or the
environment.

Ergonomic hazard hazard

that can create physical and
psychological stresses because of
Safety, Health, and Environmental
forceful or repetitive work, improper
work techniques, or poorly designed
Hazards in the Process Industries
tools and workspaces. Hazards are substances, methods, or actions by which damage or destruction can happen
Biological hazard a living or to personnel, equipment (all the equipment contained in a department or an integrated
once-living organism, such as a virus, group of process equipment used to produce a specific product is called a unit), facilities
insect, or animal, that poses a threat (or plant), and/or the environment (Figure 1.7).
to human health.
Different government agencies, industry groups, and individuals have created various
Chemical hazard any hazard ways of classifying and describing hazardous agents. Many companies and their safety
that comes from a solid, liquid, or professionals use the following classification system to categorize hazardous agents, divid-
gas element, compound, or mixture
that could cause health problems or ing these agents into these major types: ergonomic, biological, chemical, physical, security,
pollution. and environmental.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 7

Figure 1.7 A. Ergonomic hazards affect the physical body through strain on muscles and repetitive
use injury. B. Biological hazards are such things as mosquitos, snakes, and poisonous plants. C. The
NFPA ­chemical hazard sign. D. Physical hazard sign used in a high noise area. E. Cybersecurity is a major
hazard for process industries.
CREDIT: A. Lemurik/Shutterstock; B. Somboon Bunproy/Shutterstock; C. TFoxFoto/Shutterstock; D. Stakes/Shutterstock;
E. Designer491/Fotolia.

Correct Incorrect
A. B.

C. D. E.
Physical hazard any hazard that
comes from environmental factors
such as excessive levels of noise,
temperature, pressure, vibration,
radiation, electricity, and rotating
equipment.

• Ergonomic hazard—(Figure 1.7A) any hazard that can create physical and psychologi- Security hazard a hazard or threat
cal stresses because of forceful or repetitive work, improper work techniques, or poorly from a person or group seeking to
intentionally harm people, computer
designed tools and workspaces. resources, or other vital assets.
• Biological hazard—(Figure 1.7B) any living or once-living organism, such as a virus,
Physical security security
insect, or animal, that poses a threat to human health. measures intended to counter
• Chemical hazard—(Figure 1.7C) any hazard that comes from a solid, liquid, or gas ele- physical threats from a person or
group seeking to intentionally harm
ment, compound, or mixture that could cause health problems or pollution. other people or vital assets.
• Physical hazard—(Figure 1.7D) any hazard that comes from environmental factors
Cybersecurity security measures
such as excessive levels of noise, temperature, pressure, vibration, radiation, electric- intended to protect information
ity, or mechanical hazards. (Note: This is not the OSHA definition of a physical and information technology from
hazard.) unauthorized access or use.

• Security hazard—(Figure 1.7E) a hazard or threat from a person or group seeking to Air pollution the contamination
intentionally harm people, computer resources, or other vital assets. of the atmosphere, especially by
industrial waste gases, fuel exhausts,
• Physical security—security measures intended to prevent physical threats from a smoke, or particulate matter (finely
person or group seeking to intentionally harm other people or vital assets. divided solids).

• Cybersecurity—security measures intended to protect electronic assets from illegal Water pollution the introduction,
access and sabotage. into a body of water or the water
table, of any EPA-listed potential
• Environmental hazard—any hazard that results in air pollution, water pollution, and/ pollutant that affects the water’s
or soil pollution (Figure 1.8). chemical, physical, or biological
integrity.
In the process industries, you might be exposed to any of these hazards. It is vital that
Soil pollution the accidental or
you understand the potential causes and their effects, along with how you can minimize or intentional discharge of any harmful
control these hazards. substance into the soil.
8 Chapter 1

Figure 1.8 A. Contamination of air can be extreme if waste products are released directly into the atmosphere. B. Water
pollution may not always be as obvious as it is in this image of an oil slick. For example, lead is not visible in drinking water.
C. Soil pollution must be identified and contained so that contaminants do not leech into the water table.
CREDIT: A. BlackCat Imaging/Shutterstock; B. Nightman1965/Shutterstock; C. Microgerv/Shutterstock.

A. B. C.

1.2 Incidents in the Process Industries

Companies in the process industries work diligently to provide safe work environments and
protect workers as well as the surrounding community. Millions of dollars and thousands of
hours are spent annually to minimize or control chemical, physical, ergonomic, biological,
security, and environmental hazards.
Accidents can still happen, though, just as in any workplace, home, or public set-
ting. Whenever any accident occurs, an investigation is launched to study the following
elements:

• The accident itself (e.g., the vessel leaked)

• The immediate causes (e.g., the alarm was faulty)
• The contributing causes (e.g., the worker did not understand the procedure)
• The root cause (e.g., procedure is unclear and poorly written)
• The results of the accident (e.g., a vapor cloud was released and a person died as a result)

In some cases, accidents result from not just one cause, but from multiple causes that
were not identified and corrected in time (cascading failures). By studying accidents, process
technicians can better understand the causes and use this knowledge to identify and correct
hazards before they become accidents.
Most often, accidents are minor. However, in rare situations major accidents occur with
catastrophic results. Following are some examples of industrial accidents and incidents that
caused the loss of life, extensive property damage, and damage to the environment:

• Texas City, Texas, 1947: The freighter Grandcamp, anchored at the docks near town,
caught fire and its cargo of ammonium nitrate exploded. Later a second ship, the High
Flyer, also exploded. More than 500 people lost their lives, and millions of dollars of
damage was done to the nearby process facilities and homes. It was one of the worst
industrial disasters in U.S. history.
• Bhopal, India, 1984: A large vapor cloud of methyl isocyanate (MIC, a component in pes-
ticides) was released from the Union Carbide India Limited plant. The cloud reached the
nearby town of Bhopal, killing 1,400 people. Long-term effects have killed or disabled
thousands of others.
• Exxon Valdez, Alaska, 1989: An oil tanker struck a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska.
The tanker spilled more than 11 million gallons of crude oil into the sensitive environ-
mental region that was home to thousands of species including migratory birds, shore
birds, bald eagles, otters, porpoises, sea lions, and whales. A commercial fishing indus-
try also worked the waters in the sound. The accident was one of the most devastating
environmental disasters ever to occur at sea.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 9

• Pasadena, Texas; Channelview, Texas; Sterlington, Louisiana: In a 20-month span

(October 1989–May 1991) three major accidents at process facilities in Texas and Louisiana
resulted in numerous fatalities and injuries, along with multimillions of dollars in
damages. In October 1989, an explosion at the Phillips Chemical Company plant in
Pasadena, Texas, resulted in 23 deaths, more than 100 injuries, and hundreds of millions
in damage as the facility was leveled. The explosion was caused by a chemical release of
ethylene, hexane, isobutane, and hydrogen; this flammable mix formed a vapor cloud
that ignited. Then in July 1990, a treatment tank filled with hundreds of thousands of
gallons of wastewater and chemicals exploded at the ARCO chemical plant in Channelview,
Texas. Seventeen people were killed. In May 1991, an explosion at the International
Minerals and Chemicals Fertilizer Group (IMC) facility in Sterlington, Louisiana caused
the deaths of eight people and more than 100 injuries. A fire in a tube array heated an
adjacent tube filled with nitromethane, which caused the explosion.
• Texas City, Texas; Refinery March 2005: One hundred eighty were injured and 15 died
from a fire/explosion at a BP refinery in Texas City. An overfilled raffinate splitter tower
caused a pressure relief device to open, producing a flammable liquid geyser. After the
incident, OSHA issued 301 egregious, willful violations. This accident is considered
the catalyst for OSHA’s National Emphasis Program which requires every refinery to
undergo PSM audits.

Did You Know?

Pripiyat, the ghost city of Chernobyl: In 1986 in what is now
the Ukraine, a chain reaction in one of the power plant’s
nuclear reactors went out of control, causing an explo-
sion and fireball that extensively damaged the facility and
released radiation into the environment. Thirty people died
immediately, and more than 135,000 people were evacu-
ated. (See Chernobyl plant on the horizon.) Pripiyat, the
factory city in the foreground, was abandoned. Long-term
effects have resulted in at least 2,500 deaths, and radiation CREDIT: Jiri Liebreich/Shutterstock.
effects were felt all over the northern hemisphere. Many
scientists believe that the Chernobyl nuclear disaster occurred because the plant was improperly
designed, and plant operators ignored important safety measures.

These accidents and other similar ones resulted in sweeping safety, health, and envi-
ronmental changes. Government agencies created new regulations to address the acci-
dent causes, industry organizations implemented voluntary standards and programs, and
companies spent time and money improving safety programs, equipment, training, and
documentation.

1.3 Regulatory Agencies and

Their Responsibilities
Several different U.S. government agencies enforce regulations that protect workers, the
public, and the environment from safety, health, and environmental hazards. Among these
agencies are the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Transportation (DOT), and the Nuclear Regula-
tory Commission (NRC).
Refer to Appendix B for contact information on these and many other agencies and
organizations.
10 Chapter 1

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

On December 29, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed the Occupational Safety and Health
(OSH) Act of 1970. The purpose of the OSH Act was, and continues to be, “to assure so far as
possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions
and to preserve our human resources.”
The OSH Act established several agencies to oversee the protection of workers. These
included the following:

Occupational Safety and Health • The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)—created to establish
Administration (OSHA) a U.S. and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections and
government agency created to
establish and enforce workplace propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents.
safety and health standards, conduct • The Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC)—formed to conduct
workplace inspections and propose
hearings with employers who were cited for violation of OSHA standards and contested
penalties for noncompliance, and
investigate serious workplace their penalties.
incidents. • The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)—established to
conduct research on workplace safety and health problems, specifically injuries and
illnesses that may be attributed to exposure to toxic substances.

Some important OSHA regulations are covered in other sections of this chapter, while
others are described in later chapters.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

On January 1, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA). NEPA was enacted to set national policy regarding the protection of the environ-
ment, to promote efforts to prevent or eliminate pollution of the environment, to advocate
knowledge of ecological systems and natural resources, and to establish a Council on Envi-
ronmental Quality (CEQ) to oversee NEPA policy.
President Nixon soon realized that the CEQ, as structured, did not have the resources
or the power to fulfill its mission. In Reorganization Order No. 3, issued on July 9, 1970, the
president stated: “It also has become increasingly clear that only by reorganizing our federal
efforts can we develop that knowledge, and effectively ensure the protection, development,
and enhancement of the total environment itself.”

Did You Know?

The Department of Transportation (DOT), the governmental institu-
tion responsible for regulating our highways, is also responsible for
regulating the transportation of natural gas, petroleum, and other
hazardous materials through pipelines.

CREDIT: AXpop/Shutterstock.

Environmental Protection Agency Through Reorganization Order No. 3, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
(EPA) a federal agency charged the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) were formed by transferring
with the authority to make and
enforce national environmental policy. control of many environmentally related functions from other governmental offices and
agencies to the EPA and NOAA.
The EPA’s mission is “to protect human health and the environment.” The EPA works
for a cleaner, healthier environment for Americans. The NOAA seeks to “observe, predict,
and protect our environment.”
Some important EPA regulations are covered in other sections of this chapter, while
others are described in later chapters.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 11

Department of Transportation (DOT)

On October 15, 1966, President Lyndon Johnson signed Public Law 89-670, which established
the Department of Transportation (DOT). DOT’s mission is “to develop and coordinate Department of Transportation
policies that will provide an efficient and economical national transportation system, with (DOT) a U.S. government agency
with a mission of developing and
due regard for need, the environment, and the national defense.” coordinating policies to provide an
On September 23, 1977, Secretary of Transportation Brock Adams established the efficient and economical national
Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA) within the Department of Transpor- transportation system, taking into
account the need, the environment,
tation, consolidating various diverse functions that dealt with intermodal activities.
and the national defense.
Eventually the RSPA came to oversee the Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) and the Office
of Hazardous Materials Safety (OHMS), two entities with considerable jurisdiction over the
petrochemical industry.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

Congress established the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in the Atomic Energy Act of
1946. The AEC’s mission was regulation of the nuclear industry. Eight years later, Congress
replaced that act with the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, which enabled the development of
commercial nuclear power. The AEC’s new mission became twofold: encouraging the use
of nuclear power and regulating its safety.
In the 1960s, critics charged that the AEC’s regulations were not rigorous enough in Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) a U.S. government agency
several important areas, including radiation protection standards, reactor safety, plant loca-
that protects public health and
tion, and environmental protection. The AEC was disbanded in 1974 under the Energy Reor- safety through regulation of nuclear
ganization Act. This act created the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), which started power and the civilian use of nuclear
operations in 1975. Today, the NRC’s regulatory activities focus on reactor safety oversight, materials.

materials safety oversight, materials licensing, and management of both high- and low-level
radioactive waste. FEMA Federal Emergency
Management Agency; a U.S.
The NRC also regulates instruments in the process industries that use radioactive mate- government agency that coordinates
rials, such as testing devices (e.g., gas chromatographs) and inspection equipment (e.g., responses to disasters within the
X-ray machines). United States.

Department of Homeland
Other Government Agencies Related to the Security (DHS) a department of
the U.S. federal government with
Process Industries responsibilities to safeguard public
Government agencies that are important to process industries and the country as a whole, security, especially from terrorist
threats.
especially in terms of security and national disaster, are the Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The U.S. Coast Guard
also plays a crucial role; its communication system (Maritime Security [MARSEC] levels) Maritime Security (MARSEC) a
defines minimum appropriate security measures to maintain for ports and vessels at all times three-tiered system used by the U.S.
(level 1) and increased measures for higher-risk situations (levels 2 and 3). Table 1.1 shows Coast Guard to communicate to
USCG and maritime industry partners
some other government agencies that can directly or indirectly affect safety, health, and about, and respond to, credible
environmental issues in the process industries. threats.

FDA Food and Drug Administration

Table 1.1 Government Agencies that Relate to the Process Industries —a federal agency responsible
for protecting the public health by
SHE Realted Issues Agencies ensuring the safety, efficacy, and
security of human and veterinary
General workplace safety ■■ Department of Energy
drugs, biological products, and
■■ Department of Labor (which includes OSHA)
■■ National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
medical devices; and by ensuring the
■■ Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) safety of our nation’s food supply,
cosmetics, and products that emit
Production of food, beverages, ■■ Food and Drug Administration (FDA) radiation.
and pharmaceuticals
Health, safety, and chemical and ■■ Department of Health and Human Services, including the Centers for
­biological hazards Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institutes of
Health (NIH)

(Continued )
12 Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Government Agencies that Relate to the Process Industries (Continued )
SHE Realted Issues Agencies
Transportation ■■ Coast Guard
■■ Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
■■ Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)
■■ National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
■■ Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHSMA)
Physical security and ■■ Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
cybersecurity ■■ Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
■■ Coast Guard (MARSEC)
■■ FAA
Weather ■■ National Weather Service
■■ National Oceanic & Atmospheric Association (NOAA)
■■ FEMA

While Table 1.1 covers many common government agencies, it is not a comprehensive
HSE Health, safety, and the list. State and local agencies also regulate certain HSE elements within their jurisdiction.
environment; also referred to as SHE Your company will inform you of the government regulations and agencies with which you
or EHS.
must comply.

Regulations Affecting the Process Industries

Please note that the terms and definitions used in this text book can vary from one govern-
ment agency to another. Also, note that government regulations and industry standards can
change. Refer to Appendix B for more information on government and industry websites
that can provide specific definitions to terms along with the most current regulations and
standards.
The U.S. government has enacted numerous regulations to minimize workplace haz-
ards. These regulations are administered through various federal agencies such as OSHA,
the EPA, and the DOT. Some regulations are generic in scope and affect a variety of indus-
tries. Other regulations were created specifically to oversee a certain industry and even the
handling of certain hazardous substances.
OSHA administers many of the government regulations that significantly impact the
day-to-day operations of the process industries. Four of the most important regulations
described in this section are Process Safety Management (PSM), Personal Protective Equip-
ment (PPE), Hazard Communication (HAZCOM), and Hazardous Waste Operations and
Emergency Response (HAZWOPER).
Two other major regulations administered by other agencies, the EPA and DOT, are also
described in this section. These regulations address hazardous materials and their shipment.

OSHA 1910.119—Process Safety Management (PSM)

The OSHA Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM)—29 CFR
1910.119 standard seeks to prevent or minimize the consequences of catastrophic releases of
toxic, reactive, flammable, or explosive chemicals.
This standard establishes 14 elements aimed at improving worker safety:

• Employee involvement—employees must be involved in the process hazard analysis

effort, including identification, information gathering, and information communication.
The employer must create a written program detailing employee involvement.
• Process safety information—the hazards posed by processes involving highly hazard-
ous chemicals must be identified and understood. Process safety information includes
the following:
• Hazards of the chemicals used or produced by the process (including toxicity, per-
missible exposure limits, physical data, reactivity data, corrosivity data, thermal and
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 13

chemical stability data, and the hazardous effects of accidentally mixing different
materials that could possibly occur).
• Technology of the process (drawings representing the process, such as a block flow
diagram (BFD) or a simplified process flow diagram (PFD); process chemistry; safe
upper and lower limits for variables such as temperature, pressure, and flow; and an
evaluation of the consequences of deviations).
• Equipment in the process (materials of construction; piping and instrumentation
diagrams (P&IDs); electrical classification; relief system design and basis; ventilation
system design; material and energy balances; and safety systems).
• Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)—a hazard evaluation is conducted on processes cov-
ered by the PSM standard. The PHA is used to identify, evaluate, and control hazards
in a process. PHA information includes the following:
• The hazard
• Identification of any previous incident that could have caused catastrophic results
in the workplace
• Engineering and administrative controls applicable to the hazard and their
relationships
• Consequences if engineering and administrative controls fail
• Location within the facility
• Human factors
• An evaluation of the range of possible safety and health effects on employees, if
controls fail
• Operating procedures—employers must provide clear instructions for safely conduct-
ing activities within the covered process area. The procedures must include steps for
each operating phase, the operating limits, safety and health considerations, and safety
systems and their functions. Written procedures, which may also be maintained elec-
tronically, must be accessible by all employees who work on or maintain a covered
process. The procedures must be reviewed as often as necessary to ensure they reflect
current operating practices. They must also include safe work practices, where needed,
to provide for special circumstances, such as lockout/tagout and confined-space entry.
• Training—employers must provide training on all covered processes to ensure employ-
ees are trained on an overview of the process, all required operating procedures, safety
and health hazards, emergency operations, and safe work practices. Employees receive
initial training and certification and then must receive refresher training periodically.
• Contractors—contract employees must meet the same PSM requirements as company
employees. Contract employers are also required to train their employees to safely per-
form their jobs around highly hazardous chemicals and to document that employees
received and understood training. In addition, they are responsible for ensuring that
contract employees know about potential process hazards and the work-site emergency
action plan.
• Pre-startup safety review—employers are required to perform a safety review of new
or modified equipment or facilities prior to starting up operations. This helps ensure
that equipment is constructed to meet design specifications, procedures are developed
and in place, training is completed, and all required PHAs are performed and changes
implemented.
• Mechanical integrity—employers are required to establish and implement written
procedures to ensure the ongoing integrity of process equipment that contains and/or
controls a process covered under the PSM standard. This section of the standard does
not apply to contract employers; however, contract employees are required to follow
the written procedures.
14 Chapter 1

• Hot work permit system—hot work permits must be issued for hot work operations
conducted on or near a process covered under the PSM standard. Hot work operations
include electric or gas cutting, welding, brazing, soldering, grinding, hot tar projects,
any portable gas procedures, and steam-generating work.
• Management of change—this process ensures that when changes are made to a pro-
cess, those changes are communicated. All employees who work with the process that
changed need to be trained on the changes. MOC also ensures updating documents that
cover the part of the process that has changed (i.e., procedures, training manuals, and
drawings). Employers are required to provide training to all on-site employees prior to
starting up the renovated process or equipment. Contract employers must train their
own contract personnel on the same procedures. Management of change also ensures
that process safety information and operating procedures are updated correctly as
needed. Typically, all changes to procedures are reviewed by supervisors, engineers, and
other key personnel to ensure accuracy. These changes are then documented and imple-
mented into the existing or new procedures and employees are trained on the changes.
• Incident investigations—the PSM standard requires employers to investigate as soon
as possible following an incident but no later than 48 hours after an incident. The inci-
dents that are covered include those that either resulted in or could have resulted in a
catastrophic release of covered chemicals. The standard requires that an investigation
team, which includes at least one person knowledgeable in the process and others with
knowledge and experience in investigations and analysis of incidents, work together to
develop a written incident report. The employer must keep these reports for five years.
• Emergency planning and response—employers must develop and implement an emer-
gency action plan. This plan must include procedures for handling small releases of
highly hazardous chemicals. Employees must be trained to follow these procedures and
the procedures must be accessible to all employees who may be affected.
• Compliance audits—internal audits are required every three years in facilities with
covered processes. These audits must certify that employers have evaluated their com-
pliance with process safety requirements. Employers are required to respond promptly
to audit findings and must document how deficiencies were corrected. Employers must
retain the most recent internal audits.
• Trade secrets—companies can protect their trade secrets from competitors by having
employees sign confidentiality agreements.

OSHA 1910.132—Personal Protection Equipment

OSHA’s Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)—29 CFR 1910.132 standard seeks to help
employers and employees to understand the types of PPE, select appropriate PPE for a vari-
ety of circumstances, know the basics of conducting a “hazard assessment” of the workplace,
and understand what kind of training is needed in the proper use and care of PPE.
Protective equipment includes PPE for eyes, face, head, and extremities, protective cloth-
ing, respiratory devices, and protective shields and barriers. By law, PPE shall be provided,
used, and maintained in good condition wherever it is needed. There are specific standards
for types of PPE, and OSHA describes the responsibilities of both employers and employees
in choosing, using, and maintaining all PPE.
Hazard assessment and choice of PPE is the responsibility of employers. In addition,
employers are responsible for communicating PPE requirements for specific situations.
Employers must provide written certification showing that workplace hazard assessment
has been performed.
Employers are required to provide training to each employee who must use PPE. Each
such employee is trained to know at least the following:

• When PPE is necessary.

• What PPE is necessary.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 15

• How to don, doff, adjust, and wear PPE properly.

• The limitations of the PPE.
• The proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of the PPE.

Employers must require each employee to demonstrate understanding and ability to use PPE
properly before performing the work. If there is reason to believe that an employee who has
been trained does not understand the required skills, the employer must retrain. Retraining
is also required when working conditions or changes in the PPE itself make previous train-
ing obsolete.
OSHA also lays out the expense of PPE, which largely falls on the employer. Safety-toe
protective footwear and prescription safety glasses were excepted from the employer pay-
ment requirement, in large part because these items were considered to be very personal in
nature and were often worn off the jobsite.

OSHA 1910.1200—Hazard Communication (HAZCOM)

The OSHA Hazard Communication (HAZCOM)—29 CFR 1910.1200, or “Right to Know,”
standard seeks to ensure that the hazards of all produced or imported chemicals are evalu-
ated and that information relating to the hazards is provided to employees.
This standard requires that chemical information is communicated through comprehen-
sive hazard communication programs. Information covered includes physical hazards (e.g.,
flammability) and health hazards (e.g., irritation, cancer). This information is communicated Safety data sheet (SDS) a
document that provides key safety,
using a written program, container labeling and other forms of warning, a safety data sheet health, and environmental information
(SDS), employee training, and other information (Figure 1.9). about a chemical.

Figure 1.9 Safety data

sheet (SDS).
CREDIT: Travis Klein/Shutterstock.

The SDS provides key safety, health, and environmental information about a chemical.
This information includes physical properties, proper storage and handling, toxicological
data, established exposure limits, firefighting information, and other useful data. This infor-
mation is provided in a standardized format. SDS information must be made available for
any material manufactured, used, stored, or repackaged by an organization.

OSHA 1910.120—Hazardous Waste Operations

and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)
The OSHA Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)—29 CFR
1910.120 standard outlines the establishment of safety and health programs and level of
16 Chapter 1

training for employees in hazardous waste operations and emergency response. This stan-
dard applies to any facility that has employees involved in the following:

• Cleanup operations involving hazardous substances

• Cleanup operations at sites covered by the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA)
• Voluntary cleanup operations at sites recognized by governmental agencies as uncon-
trolled hazardous waste sites
• Operations involving hazardous wastes that are conducted at treatment, storage, and
disposal facilities licensed under the RCRA
• Emergency response operations for release of, or substantial threats of release of hazard-
ous substances

Employers must take the following steps to identify, evaluate, and control safety and
health hazards in operations involving hazardous waste or emergency response:

Safety and health program—the program must be designed to identify, evaluate, and
control safety and health hazards. It must also provide a documented plan for emer-
gency response in the event of a release of the hazardous materials.
Site control program—this program must include a site map, site work zones, site com-
munications, safe work practices, and identification of the nearest medical assistance
facility. Employers are also required to implement a buddy system as a protective mea-
sure in particularly hazardous situations. This would allow one employee to keep watch
on another to ensure that quick aid could be provided if needed.
Employee training—there are two different levels of HAZWOPER training. For example,
employees involved in hazardous waste cleanup are required to have more intensive
training than an equipment operator with little potential for hazardous waste exposure.
Most sites require initial training and periodic refresher training on hazardous waste
operations or emergency responses.
Medical surveillance—this is required for all employees exposed to any hazardous sub-
stance at or above established exposure levels. It is also required for those who wear
approved respirators for more than 30 days on site in a year and for workers exposed
to unexpected or emergency releases. In addition to annual medical checks, the same
employees must have a medical check upon termination of their employment.
Reduction of exposure levels—engineering controls, work practices, personal protective
equipment, or a combination of all three must be implemented to reduce exposure below
established levels for any hazardous substances. In other words, employers must make all
possible efforts to reduce exposure levels to acceptable levels to protect their employees.
Air monitoring—on-site air monitoring is required to identify and quantify levels of
hazardous substances. This monitoring must be performed periodically to ensure that
the proper protective equipment is used on site.
Information program—employers must supply personnel with a program that provides
the names of key personnel responsible for site safety and health, names of alternate
personnel responsible for site safety and health, and a listing of the HAZWOPER stan-
dard requirements.
Decontaminating procedures—employees and equipment must be decontaminated
before leaving an area where they may have been exposed to hazardous materials.
These operating procedures must minimize exposure through contact with exposed
equipment, other employees, or used clothing. Showers and changing rooms must be
provided where needed.
Emergency response plans—plans are required to handle possible on-site emergencies as
well as off-site emergencies. These plans are often performed as drills and may involve
nonemployees, such as emergency response technicians, fire fighters, and m ­ edical
personnel.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 17

OSHA 1910.1000 Air Contaminants

The OSHA Air Contaminants standard (29 CFR 1910.1000) establishes the permissible expo-
sure limits (PELs) for a variety of toxic and hazardous substances. A PEL describes the
amount of an airborne toxic or hazardous substance to which an employee can be exposed
over a specified amount time. OSHA 1910.1000 through 1910.1500 list specific toxic or
­hazardous substances and the assigned PEL for each.

OSHA Voluntary Protection Program (VPP)

OSHA established the Voluntary Protection Program (VPP) to recognize and promote effec- Voluntary Protection Program
tive safety and health management. The following list outlines the cooperative relationship (VPP) an OSHA program designed
to recognize and promote effective
between management, employees, and OSHA to implement a VPP: safety and health management.
1. Management agrees to operate an effective program that meets an established set of
criteria.
2. Employees agree to participate in the program and work with management to ensure a
safe and healthful workplace.
3. OSHA initially verifies that a site’s program meets the VPP criteria.
4. OSHA publicly recognizes the site’s exemplary program and removes the site from
routine scheduled inspection lists. (Note: OSHA may still investigate major accidents,
valid formal employee complaints, and chemical spills.)

There are two OSHA VPP Ratings: Star and Merit.

• Star participants meet all VPP requirements.

• Merit participants have demonstrated the potential and willingness to achieve
Star program status and are implementing planned steps to fully meet all Star
requirements.

Periodically (every three years for the Star program and every year for the Merit pro-
gram), OSHA reassesses the site to confirm that it continues to meet VPP criteria.

DOT CFR 49.173.1—Hazardous Materials—General

Requirements for Shipments and Packaging
The DOT Hazardous Materials—General Requirements for Shipments and Packaging—49
CFR 173.1 standard establishes requirements for preparing hazardous materials to ship by
air, highway, rail, or water.
This standard establishes requirements for preparing hazardous materials to be shipped
by air, highway, rail, water, or any combination of these. It also covers the inspection, test-
ing, and retesting responsibilities for persons who retest, recondition, maintain, repair, and
rebuild containers used or intended for transporting hazardous materials.

EPA CFR 264.16—Resource Conservation and

Recovery Act (RCRA)
The EPA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)—40 CFR 264.16 standard pro-
motes “cradle-to-grave” management of hazardous wastes.
This standard classifies and defines requirements for hazardous waste generation, trans-
portation and treatment, storage, and disposal facilities. Additionally, it requires industries
to identify, quantify, and characterize their hazardous wastes prior to disposal. It holds the
generator of the hazardous waste responsible for management from the point of inception
to the final disposal of materials.
18 Chapter 1

EPA Clean Air and Clean Water Acts

The 1990 Clean Air Act “sets limits on how much of a pollutant can be in the air anywhere
in the United States.” The act ensures that all Americans are covered using the same basic
health and environmental protections. Each state must carry out its own implementation
plan to meet the standards of the act. For example, it would be up to a state air pollution
agency to grant permits to power plants or chemical facilities and fine companies for violat-
ing the air pollution limit.
In 1972, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments were enacted, reflecting
growing public concern for controlling water pollution. When amended in 1977, this law
became commonly known as the Clean Water Act. This act regulates the discharges of pol-
lutants into U.S. waters. The act gives the EPA the authority to implement pollution control
programs (e.g., setting wastewater standards for industry). The act also sets water quality
standards for all contaminants in surface waters, making it illegal to discharge any pollutant
from a source into navigable waters without a permit.

Mine Safety and Health Act

The Federal Mine Safety and Health Act (MSHA) of 1977, also referred to as the “Mine Act,”
shifted the oversight of coal and noncoal mining safety and health from the Department of
the Interior to the Department of Labor. This helped consolidate all safety and health regula-
tions governing the mining industry under one single piece of legislation. This legislation
strengthened and expanded the rights of miners, enhanced the protection of miners from
retaliation on the part of mine owners, and established the Federal Mine Safety and Health
Review Commission that provides independent review of enforcement actions.

United Nations Standards

The United Nations uses a globally recognized system of classifying and labeling dangerous
goods, which the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) recognizes. This system sets the
standard for the following procedures in relation to hazardous materials:

• Identification and classification

• Labeling, marking, and packing
• Documentation
• Emergency response

Consequences of Noncompliance with

Regulations
If a process technician fails to comply with regulations, this can cause many consequences:
legal, moral, and ethical; or consequence to safety, health, and the environment. These conse-
quences can be imposed as a result of a minor accident, a major accident, or from an on-site
inspection by a government agency representative.

Legal
Legal consequences fall into one of two major types:

• Fines and/or citations levied by federal, state, or local regulatory agencies (and possibly
even criminal charges)
• Lawsuits filed by affected parties, such as injured workers or local citizens.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 19

Moral and Ethical

Moral and ethical consequences can manifest as:

• Burden of contributing to injuries or deaths

• Responsibility for causing damaged equipment, lost production, and associated costs
• Guilt for not complying with regulations, policies, and procedures.

Safety, Health, and the Environment

Numerous safety, health, and environmental consequences can result from noncompliance.
These include:

• Exposed or injured workers

• Exposed or injured citizens
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil pollution.

Industry Groups and Voluntary Standards

for the Process Industries
The following are some groups and voluntary standards that can affect HSE.

The ISO 14000 Standard

The International Organization of Standardization (ISO), headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland, consists of a network of national standards institutes from more than
140 countries.
ISO has published more than 13,700 International Standards. ISO standards are volun-
tary, since the organization is nongovernmental and has no legal authority to enforce the
standards.
ISO 14000 addresses how organizations can voluntarily incorporate environmental ISO 14000 an international
aspects into operations and product standards. It requires a site to implement an Environ- standard that addresses how to
incorporate environmental aspects
mental Management System (EMS) using defined, internationally recognized standards as into operations and product
described in the ISO 14000 specification. standards.
ISO 14000 specifies requirements for the following:

• Establishing an environmental policy

• Determining environmental aspects and impacts of products, activities, and services
• Planning environmental objectives and measurable targets
• Implementing and operating programs to meet objectives and targets
• Checking against the standard and making corrective actions
• Performing management review

ISO 14001, one of the sub-classifications of ISO 14000, addresses the following:

• Sites must document and make available to the public their environmental policy.
• Procedures must be established for ongoing review of environmental aspects and
impacts of products, activities, and services.
• Environmental goals and objectives must be established that are consistent with the envi-
ronmental policy, and programs must be set in place to implement goals and objectives.
20 Chapter 1

• Internal audits of the EMS must be conducted routinely to ensure that nonconformances
to the system are identified and addressed.
• Management review must ensure top management involvement in the assessment of
the EMS and, as necessary, address the need for change.

The Environmental Management System (EMS) document is the central document that
describes the interaction of the core elements of the system.
The Environmental Policy and Environmental Aspects and Impacts provide the
following:

• Analysis, including legal and other requirements

• Direction for the environmental program by influencing the selection of specific, mea-
surable environmental goals, objectives, and targets
• Recommendations for specific programs and/or projects that must be developed to
achieve environmental goals, objectives, and targets
• Ongoing management review of the EMS and its elements to help ensure continuing
suitability, adequacy, and effectiveness of the program

NFPA Hazardous Materials Storage Standards

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) publishes voluntary standards about how
hazardous materials can be stored, including the following:
• Ensuring the compatibility of materials stored in the same area
• Ensuring proper ventilation within the storage container as well as in the immediate area
• Allowing adequate traffic routes and escape routes
Heat the transfer of energy from • Ensuring heat and ignition sources are not in the area. Heat is added energy that can
one object to another as a result of a cause an increase in the temperature of a material (sensible heat) or a phase change
temperature difference between the
two objects.
(latent heat—e.g., when fuel generates enough vapors to ignite)
• Ensuring proper labeling of hazardous materials
• Maintaining SDS for all chemicals at the facility
Other NFPA voluntary standards are described in later chapters of this book.

Responsible Care® Guiding Principles

The American Chemical Council (ACC) provides Responsible Care® Guiding Principles to
respond to public concerns about the manufacture and use of chemicals. Through Respon-
sible Care®, member chemical companies are committed to support a continuing effort to
improve the industry’s responsible management of chemicals.
Following are some guiding principles of Responsible Care®:
• Recognize and respond to community concerns about chemicals and operations.
• Develop and produce chemicals that can be manufactured, transported, used, and dis-
posed of safely.
• Make health, safety, and environmental considerations a priority in planning for all
existing and new products and processes.
• Promptly report information on chemical-related health or environmental hazards and
recommended protective measures to officials, employees, customers, and the public.
• Counsel customers on the safe use, transportation, and disposal of chemical products.
• Operate plants and facilities in a manner that protects the environment and the health
and safety of employees and the public.
Other American Chemical Council voluntary standards are described in later chapters
of this book.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 21

Additional Groups and Standards

• American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH®)—an orga-
nization that addresses worker health and safety through education and the develop-
ment and distribution of scientific and technical knowledge. Each year, the organization
publishes guidelines which can be used to evaluate and control workplace exposure to
chemical and physical substances. Threshold limit values (TLVs), exposure limits for
employees, are provided for more than 700 chemical and physical substances. More
details are provided in Chapter 3, Recognizing Chemical Hazards.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)—an organization that develops vol-
untary technical, industrial, and manufacturing standards in the United States, includ-
ing personal protective equipment. ANSI is the U.S. representative of the International
Standards Organization.
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)—an organization that focuses on
technical, educational, and research issues relating to engineering and technology com-
munities, setting voluntary standards for industrial and manufacturing codes.
• American Society for Testing & Materials (ASTM)—an organization that establishes
and publishes voluntary test standards, methods, and practices for materials, products,
systems, and services for various industries.
• Chemical Safety Board (CSB)—a federal organization that is charged with investigating
industrial chemical accidents.
• National Safety Council (NSC)—an organization originally chartered by the U.S. gov-
ernment that is dedicated to helping to protect the safety of Americans at home, on the
roads, and at work.

Engineering Controls, Administrative

Controls, and Personal Protective
Equipment
The process industries use three methods to minimize or eliminate worker exposure to
­hazards. These methods are listed below, beginning with the highest priority:

• Engineering controls—controls that use technological and engineering improvements Engineering controls controls that
to isolate, diminish, or remove a hazard from the workplace. Following are examples of use technological and engineering
improvements to isolate, diminish, or
some engineering controls: remove a hazard from the workplace.
• Using a nonhazardous material in a process that will work just as well as a hazard-
ous material
• Placing a sound reducing housing around a pump to muffle the noise it makes
• Adding guards to rotating equipment
• Administrative controls—if an engineering control cannot be used to address a hazard, Administrative controls policies,
an administrative control is used. Administrative controls involve implementing pro- procedures, programs, training, and
supervision to establish rules and
grams and activities to address a hazard. guidelines for workers to follow in
Programs consist of written documentation such as policies and procedures. Activi- order to reduce the risk of exposure
ties involve putting a program into action. Administrative control is also called a work to a hazard.
practice control or a managerial control. Following are examples of administrative
controls:
• Writing a procedure to describe the safe handling of a hazardous material
• Limiting the amount of time a worker is exposed to loud noises
22 Chapter 1

• Training a worker on how to safely perform a potentially dangerous activity

• Documenting how workers should select and properly wear personal protective
equipment suited to a specific task
Administrative programs can use a variety of methods to promote safety and
employee participation: training, teams and safety committees, incentives, suggestion
and feedback, competition, and notices and reminders (signs, mugs, and pens).
Personal protective equipment • Personal protective equipment (PPE)—when engineering and administrative controls
(PPE) specialized gear that are not adequate to protect workers, PPE is used. Following are examples of PPE:
provides a barrier between hazards
and the worker using the PPE. • Hearing protection
• Hard hats
• Flame-retardant clothing (FRC)
• Gloves and shoes

1.4 The Process Technician’s Impact on

Safety, Health, and Environment
Along with regulations, engineering controls, administrative controls, and PPE, process tech-
nicians must share in the responsibility to avoid safety, health, and environmental hazards.
The duties of a process technician include maintaining a safe work environment. Pro-
cess technicians must be trained and able to recognize hazards and security threats, and
understand the impact they have on the plant or facility where they work. They must do
the following:

• Keep safety, health, environmental, and security regulations as a priority and keep them
in mind at all times.
• Follow all safe operating policies and procedures.
• Wear the appropriate personal protective equipment for the tasks being performed.
• Practice good safety habits.
• Look for unsafe acts.
• Watch for signs of potentially hazardous situations.

A major expectation of companies in the process industries is that employees have a

proactive attitude regarding safety. Two crucial safety points that process technicians should
remember are that accidents are preventable and that they must be proactive (thinking
ahead) before a problem occurs. To achieve this, process technicians must first understand
unsafe conditions and unsafe acts:

• An unsafe condition is a situation within a work environment that increases a worker’s

chances of having an accident or experiencing an injury.
• An unsafe act is any behavior that will increase the likelihood of a worker experiencing
an accident or injury.

Unsafe conditions and unsafe acts are the root cause of accidents, injuries, and illnesses.
Although many people think that these three terms are synonymous, each has its own dis-
tinct definition.

• Accident—an unplanned, uncontrolled situation that results in injury to a worker or

damage to equipment or facilities.
• Injury—a wound or other condition of the body caused by external force, including
stress or strain. The injury is identifiable as to time and place of occurrence and member
or function of the body affected, and is caused by a specific event or incident or series
of events or incidents within a single day or work shift. The back is the most frequently
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 23

injured body part, followed by the legs and fingers. Injuries at work are commonly
caused by the following:
• Vehicle accidents
• Falls
• Electricity
• Fire, smoke, and explosions
• Exposure to chemical and biological hazards
• Impacts with objects
• Compression
• Temperature extremes
• Overexertion
• Illness—a physiological harm or loss of capacity produced by systematic infection;
continued or repeated stress or strain; exposure to toxins, poisons, and fumes; or other
continued and repeated exposures to conditions of the work environment over a period
of time.

Attitudes and Behaviors that Help Prevent Accidents

Since OSHA and PSM accidents in the process industries have become fewer. Most facilities
discuss safety daily at the start of the shift or job. The safety record of a process facility is
based on the safety culture of that facility. The safety culture of a facility reflects the serious-
ness that all employees embrace working in a safe manner. Some facilities talk about safety
but do not put it in practice. Other facilities not only talk about safety but practice what they
preach and are much safer places to work. Historically, human errors play a significant role
in most accidents at a plant.
The U.S. Department of Labor—Bureau of Labor Statistics (2003–2015) provides data
showing fatal injuries in the oil and gas industries (Figure 1.10). It shows the most frequent
causes of fatal injury in the oil and gas extraction industries as the following (with 1 being
the most frequent):

1. Transportation incidents
2. Contact with objects and equipment

Violence and other injuries by persons or animals Transportation incidents

Fire or explosion Fall, slip, trip Figure 1.10 Fatal occupa-
Exposure to harmful substances or environments Contact with objects and equipment
tional injuries in the private oil and
gas extraction industries by event
150 or exposure, 2003–2015.
CREDIT: U.S. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of
Labor and ­Statistics. Injuries, Illnesses, and
Fatalities. Fact Sheet | Mining, Quarrying,
and Oil and Gas Extraction | July 2017.
Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/iif/
oshwc/cfoi/mining-fact-sheet.htm
100

50

0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
24 Chapter 1

3. Fire or explosion
4. Exposure to harmful substances or environments
5. Fall, slip, and trip

In 2007–2011, the oil and gas industry fatal occupational injury by state (Table 1.2) found
the following fatal injuries compared to the number of employees:

Table 1.2 Causes of Accidents in the Petrochemical and Refining Industry

Oil and Gas Industry Fatal Occupational Injuries by State, 2007–2011*

State Number of Fatal Injuries 2007–2011 Employment in 2011

Texas 199 225,496
Oklahoma 64 49,207
Louisiana 62 48,947
New Mexico 27 16,310
Wyoming 27 16,967
Colorado 19 22,063
North Dakota 19 9,742*
Pennsylvania 19 17,755
Kansas 16 7,787
West Virginia 14 5,945*
*Employment data for these states do not include drilling for oil and gas wells (NAICS 213111), because data did not meet BLS or state
agency disclosure standards for 2011.

CREDIT: U.S. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor and Statistics. Fact Sheet | Oil and Gas Industry | April 2014 Fatal and
­ onfatal Occupational Injuries and Illnesses in the Oil and Gas Industry Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/cfoi/
N
osar0018.htm Last Modified Date: April 15, 2014

Although human error did not account for all of these accidents and incidents, it did
account for many of them. Personal attitudes and behaviors toward safety can play a sig-
nificant part in preventing accidents or incidents.
Attitude a state of mind or feeling An attitude is defined as a state of mind or feeling with regard to some issue or event.
with regard to some issue or event. Process technicians who maintain a safety mindset, always thinking about safety, experience
fewer (if any) accidents than process technicians who are not safety-oriented.
Behavior an observable action or A behavior can be defined as an action or reaction of a person under certain circum-
reaction of a person under certain stances. Process technicians must respond immediately and appropriately to potential haz-
circumstances.
ards, do a job right the first time, and perform housekeeping duties in a timely manner.
Process technicians must understand and follow not only governmental regulations on
safety, health, and the environment, but also plant policies and procedures, general safety
principles, and common sense. The technician must obey safety, health, and environment
rules and report unsafe conditions or unsafe behaviors of coworkers and anyone working
on site. Many employers try to determine during a job interview if a candidate will exhibit
a safe attitude and behave safely on the job.

Factors that Can Affect Safety

Process technicians might face the following factors, which can potentially affect safety:

• Encountering a variety of hazards and combinations of hazards, including chemical,

physical, biological, and/or ergonomic
• Working in all types of weather, including extreme conditions
• Participating in a team environment, where everyone is responsible for safety
• Using tools and lifting some heavy objects
• Working shift work in a facility that operates 24 hours a day, 7 days per week
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 25

Impact of Shift Work

Since most process facilities operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a year, process
technicians are typically shift workers. Each plant or process facility is unique in the way
shifts and workdays are arranged. One example is shown in Figure 1.11.

August Figure 1.11 Sample shift work

Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat schedule.
AM AM AM AM
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PM PM PM PM
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
AM AM AM AM PM
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
PM SI PM AM AM
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
AM AM 31 PM PM PM
29 30 31 1 2 3 4
PM AM AM AM AM
5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Most shift work involves 8- or 12-hour rotations, with numerous variations on the way
nonworking days are arranged. Following are some examples of work day arrangements:

• Four days on, four days off—the process technician works four consecutive days and
then is off four consecutive days.
• EOWO (every other weekend off)—the process technician works one weekend and is
off the next weekend.

Process technicians must be able to adjust to the work schedules within a plant or
process facility. Because of this, it is vital that process technicians understand the impact of
shift work.
A person operates on a natural time clock that is different from work hours. Two mental
low points can occur every 24 hours, typically between 2–6 a.m. and 2–6 p.m. The “sunup
effect” may also occur, where a person wakes up when the sun rises, no matter how sleep
deprived the person is.
Shift work has been compared to having permanent jetlag. People who work long or
irregular hours tend to experience the following:

• Fatigue
• Reduced attention span
• Slowed reaction time
• Conflicting body clock and work schedule
• Less attentive
• Difficulty thinking and remembering clearly
• Accident prone

Shift work can affect several areas, including the following:

• Physical health—resulting in high rates of alcohol, drug, and tobacco use, overeating,
lack of exercise, and long-term sleep disturbances
26 Chapter 1

• Emotional health—resulting in increased irritability and a tendency toward depression

and a lack of social life or healthy leisure activities
• Family life—resulting in higher divorce rates; little time with children and spouse, few
shared family activities, and missing out on social outings

Process technicians can reduce the impact of shift work by taking care of themselves. To
maintain physical and mental health, a process technician should take the following steps:

• Establish as regular a schedule as possible.

• Create a day-sleeping environment.
• Take naps when possible.
• Avoid stimulants, alcohol, and caffeine.
• Eat only light snacks in the 2–6 a.m./p.m. period.
• Compensate for lower awareness.

Workplace Stress
Stress is a reaction to various situations, perceived by a person as threatening, which can be
caused by the following:

• Psychological factors
• Social interactions (e.g., friends, coworkers, family)
• Work (see the list below)
• Environment (e.g., temperature, pollution)

Stress can produce health problems (e.g., fatigue, increased blood pressure, and illness),
absenteeism, tardiness, and emotional states such as anger, fear, aggression, guilt, and anxi-
ety. It can lead to poor decision making, confusion, lack of concentration, and sluggishness.
It can also make people prone to accidents and lead to unsafe attitudes and behaviors. On
the job, a number of factors can result in work-related stress:

• Job security
• Repetitive tasks
• Boredom
• New responsibilities
• Technology
• Task complexity
• Deadlines
• Quality demands
• Workload
• Supervisor and/or coworker negativity
• Perceived danger
• Workplace safety

Although this list is not definitive and is not intended to be, there are various ways to
handle stress:

• Meet with a professional counselor (many companies offer this service through
Employee Assistance Programs provided by a third party).
• Recognize the source of the stress and its symptoms.
• Analyze stressful situations clearly and decide what is worth worrying about.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 27

• Take stress reduction training.

• Speak with a supervisor.
• Talk with an impartial third party (e.g., clergy, friend).
• Listen to music.
• Exercise.
• Spend time with family.
• Enjoy a hobby.
• Take a vacation.
• Change job duties or the work situation.

Companies can provide resources to help employees to handle stress better. Check with
your company for what resources are available.

1.5 Practicing Good Safety Habits

The following are some good personal safety habits that process technicians can develop:

• Take care of yourself. Get plenty of sleep. Eat properly. Exercise regularly.
• Get regular medical, eye, hearing, and other health checkups. Stay current on immuni-
zations and other shots.
• Avoid caffeine, tobacco products, alcohol, and drugs (process facilities are drug and
alcohol-free work environments).
• Learn how to relax and handle stress. Participate in family time and activities and hob-
bies that you enjoy.
• Wear appropriate clothing to work. Some types of clothing and jewelry are prohibited
in process facilities (e.g., loose clothing, open-toe footwear, rings).
• Practice good hygiene. Shower after your shift. Wash your hands thoroughly before
eating or drinking.
• Do not eat in areas where hazardous substances might be present. Drink water only from
potable sources (approved drinking water).
• Beards are not permitted in facilities where respirator use might be necessary, as facial
hair interferes with the respirator’s effectiveness.
• Properly secure long hair.
• Be on time and ready to work at the start of your shift.

Following Safe Work Practices

The following are some work-specific safety habits:

• Have a safe attitude and exhibit safe behavior.

• Stay focused and alert.
• Be prepared and keep a clear head in emergency situations.
• Ensure good communications at all times with all members of your team, supervision
and management, and all people working in your area or responsibility.
• Familiarize yourself with applicable government regulations.
• Follow all plant policies and procedures, which are written to ensure compliance with
regulations.
• Actively participate in all company safety programs.
• Attend training to stay current with applicable regulations, and pay attention.
28 Chapter 1

• Read all relevant documentation, including policies, standard operating procedures

(SOPs), emergency plans, SDSs, and other important information. Know where to find
the most current information.
• Learn to recognize hazards and report and handle them appropriately.
• Know how to use safety equipment and protective gear.
• Perform all job tasks in a timely and accurate way while following safe work practices.
• Maintain a safe work environment by performing good housekeeping tasks and sanita-
tion, as required by your job.
• Recognize all alarms and know the corresponding response procedures. Practice
responses in advance through rehearsal or “gun” drills.
• Understand and properly use the equipment with which you work.
• Handle and store materials properly.
• Watch for suspended loads (e.g., forklifts, cranes).
• Stay clear of accident scenes, unless you are part of an emergency response team.
• Report injuries and incidents immediately to appropriate personnel.
• Stay in your assigned area. If you must go to another area, make sure to tell appropriate
personnel.
• Obey traffic regulations in the plant and never park in fire lanes.
• Use the proper tool for the job.
• Follow your facility’s polices on the use of cameras, cell phones, and electronic devices.
Also, facilities do not permit workers to bring firearms on the premises.
• Smoke only in designated areas per facility policy.

Summary
The process industries involve processes that take quanti- noncompliance. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
ties of raw materials and transform them into other prod- protects human health and the environment. The Department
ucts. Process industries include these segments: oil and gas, of Transportation (DOT) develops and coordinates policies for
chemical, mining, power generation, water and waste water an efficient and economical national transportation system.
treatment, food and beverage, pharmaceutical, and pulp and The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) protects public
paper. The process industries pose various safety, health, health and safety through regulation of nuclear power and
and environmental hazards. These hazards can be chemical, nuclear materials.
physical, ergonomic, biological, security, and environmental In an attempt to protect workers and the environment,
in nature. OSHA, DOT, and the EPA have created many regulations.
Previous accidents in the workplace, such as those in Texas These regulations help minimize the consequences of cata-
City, Bhopal, on the Exxon Valdez, and at Chernobyl resulted strophic releases of toxic, reactive, flammable, or explosive
in sweeping safety, health, and environmental changes. These chemicals; prevent worker exposure to potentially hazard-
changes included government regulations, voluntary industry ous substances; ensure that the hazards of all produced or
standards, and company safety changes. imported chemicals are evaluated, and that information relat-
To minimize these hazards, U.S. government agencies ing to the hazards is provided to employers and employees;
enforce regulations that protect workers, the public, and the establish emergency response operations for the releases of
environment from safety, health, and environmental hazards. hazardous substances; and set requirements for handling
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration hazardous materials. Failure to comply with regulations can
(OSHA) establishes workplace safety and health standards, have legal, moral, ethical, safety, health, and environmental
conducts workplace inspections, and proposes penalties for consequences.
 Introduction to Safety, Health, and Environment 29

Various industry groups have developed voluntary stan- Process technicians play a vital role when it comes to
dards, including ISO 14000, the NFPA Hazardous Materials safety and health. They must always maintain a safety-
Storage standards, Responsible Care ® Guiding Principles, and conscious attitude and behave in a safe, responsible, and
other HSE-related guidelines. appropriate manner. They must be familiar with government
To minimize or control hazards, process industries often regulations, follow plant policies and procedures, attend train-
employ engineering controls (technology and engineering ing, practice good safety habits, actively engage in company
improvements), administrative controls (programs, proce- safety programs, communicate effectively, and follow safe
dures, and activities) and personal protective equipment, or work practices.
PPE (specialized gear used to protect the body), to make a
safer workplace.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 6. Name the three agencies established by the OSH Act.
a. Administrative controls 7. Which agency is the parent agency to the Office of
b. Air pollution ­Pipeline Safety (OPS) and the Office of Hazardous
c. Attitude ­Materials Safety (OHMS)?
d. Engineering controls a. EPA
e. Ergonomic hazard b. NRC
f. Facility c. DOT
g. Hazardous agent d. OSHA
h. Safety data sheet (SDS) 8. Which OSHA standard seeks to prevent or minimize the
i. Security hazard consequences of catastrophic releases of toxic, reactive,
flammable, or explosive chemicals?
j. Unit
a. Process Safety Management (PSM)
2. Provide three major types of pollution.
b. HAZCOM
3. Which type of hazard comes from living, or once-living, c. HAZWOPER
organisms such as viruses, mosquitoes, or snakes?
d. HAZOP
a. Ergonomic
9. Name at least four types of information included in a
b. Physical
PHA.
c. Environmental
10. Which of the following are requirements of OSHA’s
d. Biological
PSM Management of Change process? (Select all that
4. Name the five elements that are investigated after every apply.)
accident. a. When changes are made, they are communicated.
5. Which government agency was created to “establish and b. Documents are updated when changes are made.
enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct c. OSHA inspection occurs with each change.
workplace inspections, propose penalties for noncompli-
d. Process safety information is updated.
ance, and investigate serious workplace incidents”?
e. Operating procedures are updated.
a. OSHA
b. NIOSH 11. (True or False) An SDS is used to communicate
­HAZWOPER information.
c. EPA
d. DOT
30 Chapter 1

12. The intent of OSHA’s Voluntary Protection Program is 15. ________controls, also called work practice controls,
to: involve implementing programs and activities to
a. Regulate all environmental activities of the process address a hazard.
industries. 16. List four things process technicians must do to maintain
b. Recognize and promote effective safety and health a safe work environment.
management.
17. According to the U.S. Department of Labor—Bureau of
c. Gauge the impact that the process industries have on Labor Statistics, what is the most frequent cause of fatal
the safety and health of process technicians. accidents in oil and gas extraction industries?
d. Help companies implement operation programs that a. Fire or explosion
are within EPA guidelines.
b. Exposure to harmful substances or environments
13. What act sets limits on breathable particulates? c. Transportation incidents
a. Clean Water Act d. Fall, slip, and trip
b. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
18. Accidents can be prevented by two aspects of human
c. Clean Air Act beings: their ______ and _______.
d. Mine Safety and Health Act
19. Name at least four ways to reduce the effects of shift
14. Which ISO standard addresses environmental work.
management?
20. List five personal safety habits that a process technician
a. 12000 should develop.
b. 9001
c. 1910.119
d. 14000

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Select a process industry (e.g., oil and gas, food and label the type of hazard it is. Did you find any situations
beverage, etc.) and research potential hazards to which where multiple hazards occur? If so, describe them.
workers could be exposed. Categorize the hazard as Then, take steps to correct the hazards.
either chemical, physical, ergonomic, biological, physi-
cal security, cybersecurity, or environmental. Then, write 3. Keep a journal for a week, describing how you use a
a three-page paper relating your findings. safe attitude and behaviors on a daily basis (e.g., check-
ing the blind spot before changing lanes, or being alert
2. Walk around your home and make a list of potential to your surroundings).
hazards that you encounter. Describe the hazard, then
Chapter 2
Types of Hazards
and Their Effects
Objectives
This chapter provides you with an overview of hazards in the process industries,
which can affect people and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
2.1 Identify the main types of hazards to health, environment, and safety.
(NAPTA Safety, Hazards 1, 4*) p. 32
2.2 Explain the various routes of entry that chemical and biological hazards
use to enter the human body. (NAPTA Safety, Hazards 2) p. 38
2.3 Describe the short and long-term effects that hazards can have on an
individual’s health and safety. (NAPTA Safety, Hazards 3, 5) p. 40
2.4 Describe the short- and long-term effects that hazards can have on the
environment. (NAPTA Safety, Hazards 5) p. 48
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Hazards 1, 4)” means that this chapter’s
objective relates to objectives 1 and 4 of NAPTA’s course content on types of hazards.

Key Terms
Action level (AL)—is a hazard threshold that, if exceeded, puts additional control
measures (e.g., respirator) into action, p. 45.
Acute—short-term health effects, p. 46.
Ceiling—a concentration that should not be exceeded by workers during an exposure
period; also called the maximum acceptable ceiling, p. 45.
Chronic—long-term health effects, p. 46.
Dose–response relationship—the connection between the amount (dose) and the
effect (response) that a substance can have on the body, p. 41.
Permissible exposure limit (PEL)—an OSHA limit representing the maximum
acceptable exposure of workers to a hazard over a specific period of time, p. 44.

31
32 Chapter 2

Route of entry—the way in which a hazardous substance can enter the body, such
as inhalation through the nose, absorption through the skin or eyes, accidental
ingestion, or through injection, p. 36.
Short-term exposure limit (STEL)—a concentration to which workers can be exposed
for a short term (e.g., 15 minutes) before suffering any harm, p. 45.
Threshold limit value (TLV)—a limit set by the American Conference of Government
Industrial Hygienists, representing the maximum acceptable exposure of workers
to a hazard over a specific period of time, p. 41.
Time weighted average (TWA)—an average concentration of a chemical or a noise level to
which an employee can be exposed over an eight-hour period, or 40 hours a week, p. 44.

2.1 Introduction
In the process industries, there are hazardous substances and environmental factors that can
cause injury, illness, or death if these substances are not handled properly, or if the facili-
ties are not operated properly. In addition, some of these hazardous substances can have
short- or long-term effects on the environment. Because of this, process technicians must be
able to recognize and understand the hazardous substances associated with their operating
facilities and how these substances can impact local communities. Technicians also share the
responsibility to protect themselves, their coworkers, and the community from such hazards.
In order to reduce or prevent exposure to hazardous substances, the federal government
has created a wide range of rules and regulations that the process industries must follow. In
addition to these rules and regulations, the process industries also employ other preventive
measures such as engineering and administrative controls, and the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE) to protect or limit personnel exposure to hazardous substances.

Hazards Overview
This chapter provides an overview of various workplace hazards that process technicians
might encounter. Each hazardous substance is briefly described, along with potential short-
and long-term effects. Other chapters in this text discuss these hazards in more detail.
A hazard is a substance (e.g., a chemical or a disease) or action (e.g., lifting a heavy object
or hearing a loud noise) that can cause a harmful effect. There are many ways to classify
hazards. However, following are the most common classifications:

• Ergonomic hazards—hazards that can create physical and psychological stresses because
of forceful or repetitive work, improper work techniques, or poorly designed tools and
workspaces.
• Biological hazard—a living or once-living organism, such as a virus, a mosquito, or a
snake, that poses a threat to human health.
• Chemical hazard—any hazard that comes from a solid, liquid, or gas element, com-
pound, or mixture that could cause health problems or pollution.
• Physical hazard—any hazard that comes from environmental factors such as excessive
levels of noise, temperature, pressure, vibration, radiation, electricity, or mechanical
hazards. (Note: This is not the OSHA definition of a physical hazard.)
• Security hazards:
• Physical security hazards—hazards intended to damage specific physical assets such
as pipelines, control centers, tank farms, and other vital areas.
• Cybersecurity hazards—hazards intended to attack information and information
technology (e.g., computers) through unauthorized access or use.
These security hazards are discussed in more depth in Chapter 14 of this textbook on
physical and cybersecurity.
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 33

Chemical Hazards
A chemical is a substance with a distinct composition that is used in, or produced by, a
chemical process (Figure 2.1). A chemical is a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance that consists
of matter. Chemicals may be a pure substance or a mixture and can occur naturally or be
produced by a process.

Figure 2.1 Chemicals can be

both helpful and hazardous.
CREDIT: Marcin Balcerzak/Shutterstock.

The physical form of a chemical (solid, liquid, or gas), in addition to its chemical compo-
sition, can determine how hazardous or nonhazardous a substance is. For example, a small
quantity of water (a liquid) at room temperature would most likely have no impact on a
process technician’s clean, dry skin. However, if that water were heated into steam (a gas),
serious burns or other injuries could occur.

SOLIDS Solids are substances with a definite volume and a fixed shape that are neither
liquid nor gas, and that maintain their shape independent of the shape of the container.
Solids can be broken down into smaller particles that can enter the body. These very small
particles of matter are known as particulate, dust, fibers, and fumes. Particulates are fine
solid particles (e.g., dust, smoke, mist, fumes, or smog) that are suspended in air or liquid.
Particulates can vary in size, shape, density, and electrical charge.

• Dust—small, airborne particles that are typically created when a material is reduced by
mechanical methods such as grinding or pulverizing (e.g., grain dust).
• Fibers—strandlike particles with a length at least three times their width (e.g., asbestos
fibers).
• Fumes—very fine airborne particles that are created when solid chemicals are heated,
changed to vapor, and then condensed to solid form again (e.g., welding fumes).

LIQUIDS Liquids are substances that have a definite volume but no fixed shape, demon-
strate a readiness to flow with little or no tendency to disperse, and are limited in the amount
in which they can be compressed. Liquids can be broken down (atomized) into a mist.

• Mist—liquid droplets of various sizes that are created when liquids are agitated or
sprayed (e.g., mist or spray produced as water falls through a cooling tower).

GASES Gases are substances with a definite mass but no definite shape, whose molecules
move freely in any direction and completely fill any container they occupy, and which can
be compressed to fit into a smaller container. Gases can take the form of a vapor.
34 Chapter 2

• Vapor—the gaseous form of a material that is normally solid or liquid at room tempera-
ture and pressure (e.g., water vapor or dry ice “fog”).

Evaporation is the process by which a liquid (e.g., water) is changed into a vapor, and
sublimation is the process by which a solid (e.g., dry ice) is changed directly into the vapor
state (carbon dioxide).

Chemical Exposure
Process technicians can be exposed to chemical hazards in a variety of ways.

• Using chemicals to degrease equipment

• Working with a leaking pump, valve, or other piece of equipment
• Wearing clothing or personal protective equipment (PPE) that is inappropriate for the
hazard (e.g., wearing cloth gloves instead of chemical resistant gloves to clean up a toxic
liquid spill) or wearing PPE that has already been exposed to contamination
• Taking samples
• Breaking piping or hose connections
• Reusing contaminated PPE

Exposure to chemicals can have harmful effects if appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE) is not worn and if proper procedures are not followed.

Physical Hazards
As mentioned, a physical hazard is any hazard that comes from environmental factors
such as excessive levels of noise, temperature, pressure, vibration, radiation, electricity, or
mechanical hazards (Figure 2.2). (Note: This is not the OSHA definition of a physical hazard;
OSHA’s definition refers to physical hazards of chemicals.)

Figure 2.2 Physical hazards

include excessive levels of noise,
temperature, pressure, vibration,
radiation, electricity, and mechan-
ical hazards.
CREDIT: Stakes/Shutterstock.

In the process industries, workers face numerous physical hazards. For example, pro-
cess technicians often work around equipment that is operating at extreme temperatures or
pressures. This equipment often contains swiftly moving parts (e.g., gears or shafts), and is
powered by electricity, high-pressure air (pneumatics), or high-pressure fluid (hydraulics).
Additionally, some types of equipment can also produce varying levels of radiation.
Following are the most common physical hazards a process technician might encounter:

• Noise
• Temperature (materials and/or environment)
• Radiation
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 35

• Pressure
• Energized equipment
• Hazardous atmospheres
• Heights

Physical hazards can occur when process technicians work near or around the following:

• Equipment that produces high levels of noise

• Exposed steam pipes with high temperatures, or cryogenic equipment with extremely
low temperatures (both can cause burns)
• Pressurized tanks, vessels, or equipment
• Energized equipment (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic)
• Unshielded radiation or radioactive sources from processes, instrumentation, and testing

Ergonomic Hazards
Ergonomic hazards are hazards that can create physical and psychological stresses because
of forceful or repetitive work, improper work techniques, or poorly designed tools and work-
spaces (Figure 2.3). Ergonomic hazards occur when equipment, tools, or workstations are
not designed to match the needs of the workers or are used improperly. Ergonomic hazards
can produce or aggravate musculoskeletal (muscle, joint, and bone) injuries or conditions.

Figure 2.3 Ergonomic hazards

can create physical and psycho-
logical stresses due to forceful
or repetitive work, improper work
techniques, or poorly designed
tools and workspaces.
CREDIT: Lemurik/Shutterstock.

Correct Incorrect

Most ergonomic hazards involve physical stresses placed on the body, either through a
one-time task (e.g., lifting a heavy box), repetition of the same task (e.g., typing), or a com-
bination of tasks.
Ergonomic hazards in the process industries fall into one of four main types:

• Manual material handling—moving heavy or bulky objects without using appropriate

equipment or tools
• Poor posture—placing the body in awkward positions or moving incorrectly
• Improper use of tools—using the wrong tool for a particular task, or incorrectly using
the right tool for a task
• Repetitive motions—using tools, adding manual quantities of chemical to a vessel, or
frequently climbing stairs or ladders

Process technicians regularly face situations that can involve ergonomic hazards, such
as the following:

• Working in tight spaces or in awkward positions

• Moving bulky or heavy equipment
• Working for prolonged periods on a computer
• Using tools repeatedly or incorrectly
36 Chapter 2

Biological Hazards
A biological hazard is a living or once-living organism, such as a virus, a mosquito, or a
snake, that poses a threat to human health. Workers in most of the process industries face
less potential exposure to biological hazards than chemical, physical, or ergonomic hazards.
However, the effects of biological hazards can be just as harmful and life threatening as those
posed by other types of hazards.
Following are some of the most common biological hazards that a process technician
can be exposed to:

• Microorganisms—such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi

• Arthropods (Figure 2.4)—such as crustaceans (e.g., crabs), arachnids (e.g., spiders), and
insects (e.g., mosquitoes)
• Animals—such as alligators, bears, and poisonous snakes
• Plant allergens and toxins—such as pollen and poison ivy
• Protein allergens—such as food, urine, feces, blood, hair, or dander (dandruff or tiny
particles of skin) from vertebrate animals

Figure 2.4 Biological hazards

include arachnids, like this brown
recluse spider.
CREDIT: Miles Boyer/Shutterstock.

Unless working in a process industry that handles animals or plants, the most likely
places a process technician would encounter biological hazards would be situations like the
following examples:

• Coming into contact with bacteria (e.g., Legionella, which causes Legionnaires’ disease)
through improperly treated cooling towers
• Encountering a brown recluse or black widow spider in a warehouse
• Being bitten by a poisonous snake, bees, or wasps
• Being bitten by an infected mosquito (e.g., mosquitoes can transmit St. Louis encepha-
litis and West Nile virus to people)
• Encountering infected rodent droppings (e.g., Hanta virus) or urine (e.g., Leptospirosis)
in a warehouse
• Handling bodily fluids and used first aid materials that could contain a bloodborne
pathogen such as hepatitis or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

FACTORS FOR DETERMINING CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS Chemical

Route of entry the way in which a and biological substances are considered hazardous based on the likelihood that the sub-
hazardous substance can enter the
stance will cause harm. The following factors determine whether a substance is hazardous:
body, such as inhalation through the
nose, absorption through the skin or • Toxicity—how much of the substance is required to cause harm
eyes, accidental ingestion, or through
injection. • Route of entry—how the substance enters the body
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 37

• Dose—how much enters the body

• Duration—the length of time the body is exposed
• Interaction—other substances to which the body is exposed
• Response—how the body reacts to the substance
• Sensitivity—how one person reacts to the substance compared to the reactions of other
people
• Frequency—how often a person is exposed to the substance

Toxicology is the study of substances and the harm they cause to living things. A sub-
stance’s toxicity is the potential of that substance to cause harmful effects. Toxicity is only
one factor in determining whether a hazard exists (e.g., some chemicals are designated as
hazardous because of a risk of fire and/or explosion).
The effects of toxicity can strike a single cell in the body, or the entire body. Some
toxic effects can cause visible damage or symptoms, while others strike silently, causing
longer-term effects in the body’s performance or function (e.g., cancer or cirrhosis of the
liver).
Toxicity depends on three factors:

1. A substance’s chemical structure

2. The extent of the body’s absorption of the substance
3. The body’s ability to change the substance into less toxic substances (detoxification) so
it can be eliminated from the body

The amount of the chemical required to cause harm determines the toxicity. When large
amounts of a chemical are necessary to inflict harm, the chemical is considered to be
relatively nontoxic. However, if only a small amount can be harmful, the chemical is con-
sidered toxic.
All substances, whether classified as hazardous or not, can harm a person when they
enter the body in toxic amounts. For example, many substances that are beneficial to the
body in small quantities (e.g., water) are toxic in larger quantities.
Substances become toxic to humans when an undesirable physiological condition devel-
ops in the body as a result of overexposure to the chemical or biological agent.
The following variables are essential for determining toxicity:

• What route of entry to the body did the substance take?

• How large a dose (concentration) of a substance entered the body?
• What was the duration (how long) for which the body was exposed to this substance?
• What is the chemical composition of the substance?
• What is the general health of the exposed person?

Security Hazards
Security hazards come in both physical security hazards and cybersecurity hazards. Many
of the process industries are crucial to national security.
Physical security—includes security measures intended to protect specific physical assets
such as pipelines, control centers, tank farms, and other vital areas.
Physical security is seen in the following ways, among others:

• Facilities are fenced and have 24-hour security guards.

• Many pipelines are buried.
• Public access to process facilities is controlled.
• Employees have access cards to enter the facility.

Since the operation of a facility is primarily controlled by a computer, ensuring that the
control computers are not hackable is necessary.
38 Chapter 2

Cybersecurity—security measures intended to protect information and information tech-

nology (e.g., computers) from unauthorized access or use.
Some forms of cybersecurity include:

• Computer systems that control the process are not connected to the internet.
• Firewalls are used.
• Password protection of all computer work.

2.2 Routes of Entry

Hazardous substances do not present a threat to a person until they come in contact with the
body. There are four ways through which hazardous substances can enter the human body:

• Inhalation
• Absorption
• Injection
• Ingestion.

Knowing what these routes of entry are can help minimize the chances of exposure to haz-
ardous substances.

Inhalation
Inhalation occurs when substances enter the body through the mouth or nose and are then
transported into the lungs (Figure 2.5). Inhalation is the most common route of entry for
hazardous substances. Hazardous chemical or biological agents, in forms such as dust, mist,
or vapors, can be inhaled and cause problems in the nose, throat, or lungs (or be absorbed
into the body through the lungs).
Nitrogen asphyxiation is a common inhalation hazard. Nitrogen is often used to purge
hydrocarbons from process equipment and piping. Nitrogen has no smell. The air we
breathe consists of 78 percent nitrogen and 20.9 percent oxygen. A person shows oxygen-
deficiency effects if the oxygen concentration drops below 19 percent. Death can occur in
nitrogen-rich atmospheres where the oxygen concentration has dropped below 10 percent.
Between 1992 and 2002, 80 deaths and 50 injuries were the result of nitrogen asphyxiation
in the United States.

Figure 2.5 Inhalation is the

most common route of entry for
hazardous substances.
CREDIT: MDGRPHCS/Shutterstock.
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 39

Some hazardous substances, when inhaled, cause symptoms such as nose or throat
irritation, coughing, chest pains, or general discomfort. Other hazards (e.g., asbestos and
coal dust) can be inhaled without any immediate symptoms but are still dangerous. In some
cases, the presence of hazardous substances can be determined only by a physician.
The inhalation of hazardous substances can result in damage to the respiratory tract
from direct exposure. Particles in the lungs might be coughed out, but enough could remain
in the lungs to cause damage. Some hazardous substances are small enough to be absorbed
into the bloodstream through the alveoli, tiny air sacs in the lungs. These substances could
cause harmful effects to other parts of the body.
The lungs also have natural defense mechanisms such as nose hairs, mucus, and cilia.
The nose hairs serve as filters. Mucous is a sticky substance that can trap some particulates
and vapors and then be expectorated (coughed up). Cilia sweep trapped particles from the
windpipe upward toward the throat so it can be cleared.
Process technicians must be familiar with the chemicals and hazardous materials they
are working with and always use proper protection when handling these chemicals.
The proper use of respiratory protection, such as cartridge respirators or supplied air,
will reduce the risk of exposure through inhalation, while engineering controls, such as
ventilation, can also be used to minimize inhalation hazards.

Absorption
Absorption is the process by which substances or particles are drawn into another structure.
Absorption occurs when substances are brought into the body (absorbed), typically through
the skin (Figure 2.6), although hazardous substances can also be absorbed through the eyes.
When hazardous substances enter the body, they can potentially get into the bloodstream.

Figure 2.6 Absorption occurs

when substances are brought
into the body (absorbed), typically
through the skin.
CREDIT: Arcady/Shutterstock.

The skin forms a protective barrier around the body, generally keeping hazardous sub-
stances out. However, some chemical and biological hazards can easily pass through the skin.
Other hazards require a break in the skin to pass through (e.g., scratches, cracks, or cuts).
Temperature can also affect skin absorption. For example, higher environmental tem-
peratures can cause blood vessels to widen (called vasodilation). This increases the surface
area for absorption and allows more of the substance to enter the bloodstream.
Some hazardous substances will only cause redness or irritation of the skin and eyes,
while caustic substances (e.g., strong acids and alkalis) can burn skin. Other substances
(e.g., organic solvents) dissolve the skin’s natural oils, making it dry, sensitive, or cracked.
Process technicians use many types of personal protective equipment (e.g., chemical
protective gloves, protective clothing, and chemical goggles) to limit the risk of absorption
exposure. Engineering controls such as enclosed sampling systems or automated chemical
40 Chapter 2

handling systems are also used to minimize exposure. If a hazardous substance is spilled on
a person, a safety shower and or eyewash station should be used to rinse off the substance
thoroughly and as quickly as possible.

Injection
Injection occurs when substances are brought into the body through a puncture in the skin
or an open wound. When the skin is punctured hazardous substances can enter the skin or
the bloodstream.
Injection is fairly uncommon in the process industries. However, injection can occur if
the skin is punctured by a syringe, a piece of broken glass, or some other sharp object in the
production area.
Hands and feet are the most common body parts to sustain a puncture wound, so pro-
cess technicians should always wear proper PPE (e.g., gloves and footwear).

Ingestion
Ingestion occurs when substances enter the body through the mouth and are transported to
the stomach and gastric system (Figure 2.7). Swallowing a hazardous substance can result
in damage or irritation of the digestive system, or the absorption of the substance into the
gastrointestinal tract.

Figure 2.7 Ingestion occurs

when substances enter the body
through the mouth and are trans-
ported to the stomach and gastric
system.
CREDIT: (sign) Technicsorn Stocker/Shutter-
stock; (man) Pop Paul-Catalin/Shutterstock.

While this is the least common route of entry for hazardous substances in the process indus-
tries, process technicians could be exposed if they eat, drink, or smoke in a contaminated area
(e.g., an area filled with hazardous dust particles). They can also be exposed by a chemical splash
to the face that can enter the mouth, or through the eyes if they handle their contact lenses with
contaminated hands or in a contaminated environment. Clothing can also become contaminated
with hazardous materials, which can then easily be transferred to the hands and mouth.
Process technicians can prevent accidental ingestion of hazardous substances by eat-
ing or smoking only in designated areas, by wearing gloves, and by washing their hands
thoroughly before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using smokeless tobacco, smoking, or
handling contact lenses.

2.3 Relation of Hazards to Health

and Safety
Doses and Routes of Entry
A dose refers to the amount of substance taken into or absorbed by the body. Generally
speaking, the greater the dose, the greater a substance’s effect on the body. The connection
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 41

Figure 2.8 Dose–response

relationship.

Increasing Response
Increasing Dose

between amount and effect is called the dose–response relationship. The dose–response Dose–response relationship the
relationship is illustrated in Figure 2.8. connection between the amount
(dose) and the effect (response) that
Some chemicals are more toxic than others, making it necessary to limit the exposure. a substance can have on the body.
The threshold limit value (TLV) of a substance is a limit set by the American Conference of
Government Industrial Hygienists representing the maximum acceptable exposure of work- Threshold limit value (TLV) a limit
ers to a hazard over a specific period of time. This is discussed further in the section on set by the American Conference of
Government Industrial Hygienists,
Exposure Limits.
representing the maximum
The threshold limit varies by hazardous substance, and even from person to person acceptable exposure of workers to a
(e.g., some people might have a higher sensitivity to inhaling a substance such as the solvent hazard over a specific period of time.
toluene and may pass out quickly upon exposure).
A dose of a hazardous substance is expressed in terms of the route of entry it may take
into the body:

• Inhalation—the dose is expressed in terms of the amount of the material inhaled per
unit of volume breathed, such as parts per million (ppm).
• Absorption or injection—the dose is expressed as the amount of material absorbed or
injected per unit of body surface area, such as milligrams per square centimeter of skin
or tissue (mg/cm2).
• Ingestion—the dose is expressed as the amount of material ingested per unit of body
weight, such as milligrams per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg).

Dose–Response Relationship
Recall that all toxicological considerations of a hazardous substance are based on a predeter-
mined dose–response relationship. Response refers to the physiological effect experienced
by a person as a result of exposure to the given amount of substance.
The relationship between dose and response is expressed mathematically with the fol-
lowing formula:

(C) * (T) = K

In this equation,
C represents the concentration (or dose)
T represents the duration of exposure
K represents the constant
In this equation, concentration (C) and duration (T) determine the severity of expo-
sure. Calculating these variables using the dose–response equation [(C) * (T) = K] can help
industrial hygiene and safety professionals predict safe limits for hazardous substances in
the workplace (Figure 2.9).
Although certain doses of hazardous substances can produce no harmful effects, at some
point all substances can produce a lethal effect.
42 Chapter 2

Figure 2.9 Calculating vari-

ables using the dose–response
equation can help industrial
hygiene and safety professionals
CxT=K
predict safe limits for hazardous
substances in the workplace.
CREDIT: (left) Wu hsiung/Shutterstock; (right)
Corepics VOF/Shutterstock.

Lethal Dose and Lethal Concentration

A lethal dose (LD) is the amount of a hazardous substance that will cause death when
ingested or absorbed. Lethal concentration (LC) is the amount of a hazardous substance
that will cause death when inhaled. Both lethal dose and lethal concentration are expressed
in terms of the percentage of organisms in an experimental population that die as a result
of exposure. Typically, this percentage is expressed as either LD50 or LC50, depending on
the route of entry in the test population. LD50 means that exposure to a particular amount
of a hazardous substance through ingestion or absorption would result in the death of 50
percent of the test population. LC50 means that exposure to a particular amount of a hazard-
ous substance through inhalation results in the death of 50 percent of the test population.
Some substances require greater concentrations to cause a lethal dose, while others
require far lower concentration (e.g., a substance with an LD50 of 500 grams is less hazardous
than an LD50 of 0.02 grams). The dose threshold is the minimum dose required to produce
a measurable response in the body. Table 2.1 compares LD50 values for several substances
process technicians might encounter.

Table 2.1 Comparison of LD50 Values in Order from Least Lethal to Most Lethal
Chemical LD50 (mg/kg)
Ethyl alcohol (grain alcohol) 10,000
Sodium chloride (table salt) 4,000
Ferrous sulfate (iron used in vitamins, paints, and other products) 1,500
Morphine sulfate (medication used for pain) 900
Strychnine sulfate (used in rodent poisons and some medications) 150
Nicotine (alkaloid poison found in tobacco, medicines, and insecticides) 1
Black widow venom (the most venomous spider in North America) 0.55
Curare (alkaloid-containing plant product used as skeletal muscle relaxant) 0.50
Rattlesnake venom (venomous snake found in North America) 0.24
Dioxin (extremely toxic chemical formed during the manufacturing of other chemicals 0.001
and during incineration)
Botulinum toxin (bacterial neurotoxin which causes botulism) 0.0001

Duration of Exposure
The length of time that the body is exposed to a hazardous substance can determine the
likelihood the body will be affected. Lower doses may not affect the body in the short term,
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 43

but long-term exposure might cause harm, since some hazardous substances accumulate in
the body, or the body does not have a chance to repair itself before the next exposure. The
dose and duration factors combined are called the rate of exposure.
Some systems in the body, such as the lungs, liver, and kidneys, can detoxify chemi-
cals and eliminate them from the body. However, if the rate of exposure exceeds the rate
at which these systems can eliminate the hazardous substances, the concentration of that
substance will begin to be stored in the body. In these cases, hazardous substances become
toxic chemicals (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2 Exposure Duration

Exposure Type Exposure Duration Exposure Amount
Acute Less than 24 hours Usually one exposure
Subacute 1 month Repeated doses
Subchronic 1–3 months Repeated doses
Chronic More than 3 months Repeated doses

Chemical Composition of Hazardous Substances

The primary factor in the toxicity of a hazardous substance is its chemical structure. Sub-
stances that have similar structures often cause similar health effects. However, one slight
change in a chemical structure can create striking differences in terms of health effects.
For example, amorphous silica can be present in the workplace at high levels because it
has little effect on human health. However, once amorphous silica is heated, it changes into
crystalline silica that can cause lung damage. Thus, the permissible level of crystalline silica
in the workplace is 200 times less than that for amorphous silica.
Workers in the process industries are routinely exposed to more than one type of chemi-
cal. Thus, process technicians must be aware of possible reactions and interactions between
various chemicals. A reaction occurs when chemicals combine to create a new substance
or substances that can have properties very different from the original. For example, when
household bleach and drain cleaner (lye) are mixed together, they create dangerous chlorine
gas and hydrochloric acid.
The safety data sheet (SDS) for a chemical will often list its potential hazardous reactions and
the incompatible substances that should not be mixed or stored with it. Companies are required
by law to make an SDS available for each potentially hazardous substance in the workplace.

Health and Sensitivity to Hazards

The impact a hazardous substance can have on an individual varies from person to person.
The following are some of the main factors that affect sensitivity:

• Age
• Gender
• Genes (inherited traits)
• Diet
• Fitness
• Allergies
• Use of drugs, alcohol, or tobacco
• Pregnancy

Based on these factors and others, some people will experience the toxic effects of a haz-
ardous substance at higher doses than others, while other individuals will have an allergic
reaction to a certain hazardous substance at a lower-than-normal dose.
44 Chapter 2

If a person has an illness (e.g., hepatitis) that affects the body’s ability to detoxify sub-
stances, the effect of a hazardous substance may be amplified because of the body’s inability
to eliminate the substance.

Exposure Limits
An exposure limit is a specific threshold that determines the concentration of a chemical to
which a process technician can be safely exposed. Exposures exceeding the set threshold can
cause significant harm to the worker.
Exposure limits vary, based on the substance and the potential concentration levels
required for harm to occur. Some chemicals require extensive exposure, while others require
little exposure. Exposure limits are set to protect the average worker. Some will exhibit signs
of sensitivity to a hazardous substance at lower levels than others. Also, workers performing
strenuous tasks or experiencing stress may breathe in more air and potentially inhale more
of the hazardous substance.
Exposure limits are based on the best available data (such as laboratory testing and
workplace exposure histories). This information may be incomplete for some substances,
especially regarding long-term health effects. Long-term effects are often discovered only
after workers have been exposed to a substance for many years.
The exposure limit usually represents the maximum concentration of a substance in the
air before it is considered to be a health hazard. Exposure limits usually address inhalation of
hazards. This may not limit the exposure through skin contact or ingestion (of dusts, mists,
vapors, etc.). Workers exposed to such substances must be provided with, and must use,
appropriate personal protective equipment.
Process technicians must understand these exposure limits and how they impact their
work when dealing with chemicals. The two main sources of exposure limit values are the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
The ACGIH publishes a book listing threshold limit values (TLVs) for a wide range of
chemicals. TLVs are revised as new information is discovered about chemicals, and the TLV
book is updated annually.
Permissible exposure limit OSHA has also established its own set of exposure limits, called permissible exposure
(PEL) an OSHA limit representing limits (PELs). The difference between a PEL and TLV is that the ACGIH can change TLVs
the maximum acceptable exposure
of workers to a hazard over a specific every year, while PELs have remained fairly static. Being a government agency, OSHA does
period of time. not have the same ability as the ACGIH to dynamically update the exposure limit values.
Also, TLVs were the original basis for the OSHA PELs. Not every chemical will have a PEL
or TLV, but there are more chemicals listed with TLVs than PELs.
Occupational exposure limit (OEL) is another term that process technicians might hear.
This is a more generic term, used to refer to exposure limits set by other organizations or
government agencies around the world. The term occupational exposure standards is also used.
To further complicate the issue, individual states can either adopt the OSHA PELs or
use lower published values (such as the TLVs). Manufacturers can also provide their own
exposure limits for their products.
Efforts to develop one all-encompassing set of exposure limits have been attempted, but
no single solution has been created. So, for exposure limits, there are three major concepts
to understand:

• Time weighted average (TWA)

• Short-term exposure limit (STEL)
• Exposure ceiling (C)
Time weighted average (TWA) an Exposure is most often measured using a time weighted average (TWA). The TWA is
average concentration of a chemical the average airborne concentration of a chemical to which an employee can be exposed over
or a noise level to which an employee
can be exposed over an eight-hour an 8-hour period or a 40-hour workweek. Exposure is determined by air monitoring, often
period, or 40 hours a week. conducted by an industrial hygienist technician using special monitoring devices.
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 45

The measured level can exceed the TWA value at times, as long as the 8-hour average stays
below the exposure limit value. To give an example, OSHA sets the TWA for carbon monox-
ide at 35 ppm and sulfur dioxide at 2 ppm. Both are toxic. However, the difference in TWA
numbers demonstrates that sulfur dioxide is much more toxic than carbon monoxide.
For some substances, a short-term exposure limit (STEL) is set. The STEL is a concentra- Short-term exposure limit
tion to which workers can be exposed for a short term (e.g., 15 minutes) before suffering any (STEL) a concentration to which
workers can be exposed for a
harm (Figure 2.10). STELs are typically set for chemicals that produce acute exposures. STELs short term (e.g., 15 minutes) before
can be difficult to measure, even with current technology. suffering any harm.

Figure 2.10 Exposure limit of

technician is being checked.
CREDIT: Krysja/Shutterstock.

Other substances require a maximum exposure limit that should never be exceeded. The
ceiling (C) is a concentration that should never be exceeded by workers during an exposure Ceiling a concentration that should
period. This is sometimes also called the maximum acceptable ceiling. not be exceeded by workers during
an exposure period; also called the
Process technicians must pay attention to the type of unit used with the exposure limit. maximum acceptable ceiling.
Often values are listed in pairs, with different units of measure being used to specify the same
exposure limit. For example, a chemical’s exposure limit can list one unit that specifies the
amount of the substance in gas form (e.g., ppm, or parts per million), while a second unit
specifies the amount in solid or liquid form (e.g., mg/m3, or milligrams per cubic meter).
One last important term to understand is action level (AL). Generally, an action level is Action level (AL) is a hazard
a hazard threshold that, if exceeded, puts additional control measures into action. Action threshold that, if exceeded, puts
additional control measures
levels can be set by a variety of government agencies, such as OSHA or the Environmental (e.g., respirator) into action.
Protection Agency (EPA).
Action levels often are set to prevent problems before an exposure limit level (e.g., PEL)
is reached. In OSHA’s case, action levels may be set at half as much as a PEL. The difference
between an action level and a PEL is a margin of error that takes into account statistical
variations in measurements. This margin ensures that a worker’s exposure does not exceed
the PEL by putting controls in place before the hazard level reaches the PEL.

Chemical Interactions
In certain situations, workers are exposed to two or more chemicals at the same time. Sometimes,
the effect of the exposure is as simple as taking into account the combined sum of the effects of
the chemicals. Most often, however, the effects of two or more chemicals are greater than the sum
of each individual chemical’s effects. The chemicals act together to increase the risk.
There are even some cases where two substances can counteract each other’s effects.
This is how antidotes for poisons work. The antidote negates the poison’s effects, reducing
46 Chapter 2

or eliminating the hazard entirely. In another example, some harmful caustics can combine
with certain harmful acids to create salts, which are not harmful.
Another scenario is when a chemical does not cause harm on its own, but can make
the effect of another chemical worse. For example, the solvent isopropanol poses no hazard
to the liver by itself, but it can increase the potential for carbon tetrachloride to cause liver
damage if a worker is exposed to a combination of the two chemicals.

Effects of Hazards on People

A response is the physiological effect experienced by a person after exposure to a hazardous
substance. Physiological responses are determined based on when the response is experi-
enced and the effect the substance has on the body.

When Symptoms Appear

The effects of exposure to hazardous substances develop either immediately (acute) or
slowly (chronic) and may appear at the point of contact (local) or affect another area of the
body (remote). The delay between the start of exposure and the appearance of a harmful
effect from the exposure is called the latency period. The effects of hazardous substances
may appear immediately or soon after exposure, or could take months or years to appear.
Sometimes after repeated exposures to a substance, the body develops increased tolerance.
Acute effects short-term health Acute effects are short-term health effects characterized by exposure to high concentra-
effects. tions of a hazardous substance over a short period of time, perhaps even a single exposure.
For example, a person whose hand is exposed to hydrochloric acid will immediately experi-
ence a burn to the skin.
Chronic effects long-term health Chronic effects are long-term effects characterized by continued exposure to a hazard-
effects. ous substance over an extended period of time, anywhere from months to years. For exam-
ple, a person exposed to low levels of carbon tetrachloride over a period of time without
wearing proper respiratory protection might eventually develop liver cancer.
Some hazardous substances can cause both acute and chronic effects. For example, expo-
sure to solvents on the job could cause acute effects such as headaches or dizziness, while
long-term exposure could cause chronic effects such as liver or kidney damage.
Table 2.3 shows the differences between acute and chronic effects.

Table 2.3 Difference Between Acute and Chronic Effects

Acute Effects Chronic Effects
Occur immediately or shortly after exposure Occurs over a length of time
High dose exposure over a short period Low dose exposure over a long period
Effects may be reversible Difficult to reverse effects
Cause-and-effect relationship relatively easy to establish Cause-and-effect relationship difficult to establish
Knowledge based on effect on humans Knowledge based on animal testing

Some chronic effects such as cancer can have extremely long latency periods, possibly as
long as 40 years. This can make the relationship between exposure and harmful effects dif-
ficult to determine. Thus, it is vital that process technicians understand what chronic effects
could be caused by the substances they encounter on the job.

Acute (Short-Term) Effects

Acute or chronic refers to the time it takes an effect to appear and local or remote refers
to the location where the effect occurs. When toxic substances cause damage to the body
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 47

immediately or shortly after exposure, that damage is called an acute effect. The skin, eyes,
nose, throat, and lungs are the most common areas for local effects to occur.
Short-term effects can include the following:

• Irritation—inflammation of body tissue

• Asphyxiation—interference in breathing or oxygenating the body
• Central nervous system depression—interference in the functioning of the central ner-
vous system, such as dizziness or lack of coordination

Chronic (Long-Term) Effects

Once in the body, toxic substances can travel through the bloodstream to internal organs and
cause harmful effects (called systemic effects) to those organs.
Following are the organs most commonly impacted by systemic effects:

• Liver
• Kidneys
• Heart
• Nervous system/brain
• Reproductive system
• Blood

Cancer (carcinogenesis) results from the growth and spread of abnormal tissue in the
body. Substances that cause cancer are called carcinogens. Cancer can have a long latency
period (from 10 to 40 years). Determining if a substance is a carcinogen is difficult because of
the latency period and the variety of substances that people are exposed to during that time.
Some chemicals can alter or damage the genes or chromosomes in the body. This altera-
tion of genetic materials is called a mutation, and it can lead to cancer or birth defects in
future generations. A mutagen is a substance that can cause a mutation. Some mutations
can result in cancer. Most chemicals that are carcinogens are also mutagens. However, not
all chemicals that are mutagens are carcinogenic.
Every cell in a body contains genetic material that instructs the cell how to function and
reproduce, or make new cells. Hazardous substances can damage or mutate cells by altering
the genetic material. If this occurs in the eggs or sperm these mutations can be passed on to
the child as a birth defect.
Exposure to hazardous substances can have toxic reproductive effects, including the
inability to have children (infertility or sterility), lowered sex drive, menstrual imbalances,
spontaneous abortions (miscarriages), stillbirths, and birth defects in children. Substances
that can affect the fetus in utero (within the womb) are called teratogens. Because of the
risks teratogens pose, pregnant women need to be cautious, and often may be reassigned to
a nonhazardous environment during their pregnancy.
Most chemicals have not been tested for reproductive effects in animals, so there is little
information on the reproductive toxicity of chemicals. Currently, only a select few chemicals
are known to cause birth defects or other reproductive effects in humans.

Local and Systemic Effects

Hazardous substances exert their influence on a body in one of two ways: as either a local
effect or a systemic effect. Local effects occur on the area of the body exposed to the hazard.
For example, acid can burn the skin it touches, while fumes can scar the lungs. Systemic
effects occur when the hazardous substance enters the body through one of the routes of
entry (e.g., ingestion or absorption) and is distributed to other parts of the body, typically
organs. Some substances can produce both local and systemic effects (e.g., lead, mercury,
manganese, and cadmium). Chlorinated hydrocarbons and carbon disulfide are also sys-
temic poisons.
48 Chapter 2

Toxic effects differ by organ, and some organs are more susceptible to toxic effects than
others. The organ that is affected most by a hazardous substance is called the target organ.
Target organs may include any of the following:

• Central nervous system—the most frequent target for hazardous substances; sensitive
to organic solvents and metals such as lead, mercury, and manganese.
• Lungs—the major route for hazardous substances to enter the body; affected by fumes,
dust, and other airborne contaminants.
• Skin—the body’s largest organ; provides a protective layer to the body, but can absorb
hazardous substances; can also be affected by irritants and corrosive substances.
• Circulatory system (blood and heart)—affected by substances such as benzene, carbon
monoxide, arsenic, and toluene.
• Liver—the largest internal organ; responsible for purifying unwanted substances from
blood; can be affected by solvents (e.g., carbon tetrachloride, toluene, chloroform, vinyl
chloride).
• Kidneys—excrete waste; are susceptible to substances such as carbon tetrachloride, tur-
pentine, lead, mercury, and cadmium.
• Reproductive organs—vulnerable to many hazardous substances.
• Muscles and bones—rarely the target of hazardous substances.

2.4 Environmental Hazards

Hazardous substances also impact the environment when they are released by polluting the
air, soil, water, or any combination of these.

Air Pollution Hazards

Air pollution occurs when the concentration of natural and/or man-made substances in
the atmosphere becomes excessive and the air turns toxic. Nature can produce pollutants in
the form of forest fires, pollen, and volcanic eruptions. Man-made sources of air pollution
include emissions from transportation, industry, and agriculture.

• Primary pollutants—gases, liquids, and particulates dispersed into the atmosphere

through either man-made or natural processes. In the United States, the primary pol-
lutants are the following:
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
• Nitrogen oxide (NOX)
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Particulate matter (PM, or miscellaneous matter)
• Secondary pollutants—are pollutants that form in the air when primary pollutants
undergo a chemical reaction that transforms the pollutants into a different type of toxic
material. In the United States, secondary pollutants are the following:
• Ozone
• Photochemical smog
• Acid deposition (or acid rain)

Nationally, concentrations of the criteria and hazardous air pollutants have dropped sig-
nificantly during 1990–2015 (Figure 2.11). Government regulations and industry improved
efficiencies have helped lower air pollution in the United States. During the same period, the
U.S. economy continued to grow, Americans drove more miles and population and energy
use increased.
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 49

Percent Decline in U.S. Air Pollutants from 1990 to 2015

Figure 2.11 Decline in national
Carbon monoxide (CO) 8-hour 77%
air pollutant concentration aver-
ages in the United States from
Lead (Pb) 3-month average 99% 1990 to 2015.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) annual 56%
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 1-hour 50%
Ozone (O3) 8-hour 22%
Particulate matter 10 microns (PM10) 24-hour 39%
Particulate matter 2.5 microns (PM2.5) annual 42%
Particulate matter 2.5 microns (PM2.5) 24-hour 44%
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 1-hour 85%

0 20 40 60 80 100

PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS IN THE UNITED STATES Carbon monoxide (CO), a color-
less, odorless, and poisonous gas, is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon fuels.
Because most modes of transportation (e.g., cars, buses, and boats) require the combustion
of fuels, the transportation industry is the largest contributor to carbon monoxide in the
atmosphere.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) gases, which are colorless and corrosive, are produced during the
combustion of fuels containing sulfur (e.g., coal and oil). Power plants, pulp and paper mills,
smelters, and petroleum refineries generate most of the SO2 emissions. Volcanic eruptions
can also add a significant amount of sulfur to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen oxide (NOX) gases form during the high-temperature combustion of fuel when
nitrogen in the fuel or the air reacts with oxygen. Motor vehicles and power plants produce
most of the NOX that pollutes the air.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), also referred to as hydrocarbons, include a variety
of solid, liquid, and gaseous compounds that are composed exclusively of hydrogen and
carbon. The incomplete combustion of fossil fuels contributes to VOCs in the atmosphere,
with industrial and other processes as the primary source of VOCs.
Particulate matter (PM) consists of solid particles and liquid droplets emitted into the
atmosphere. Fine particulate matter (less than 1 micron in size) is created by condensation
processes following combustion events (e.g., an internal combustion engine, a coal-fired
power plant, or a forest fire). Mechanical processes (e.g., machining), create larger particulate
matter that is greater than 1 micron in size. Construction, agriculture, and dust from unpaved
roads also produce much of the particulate matter in the environment.
Generally, emissions of air pollution come from stationary fuel combustion sources
(such as electric utilities and industrial boilers), industrial, and other processes (such as
metal smelters, petroleum refineries, and cement kilns). They may also come from highway
vehicles, and nonroad mobile sources (such as recreational and construction equipment,
marine vessels, aircraft, and locomotives).
Figure 2.12 gives one view of emissions by source category. Sources may emit different
combinations of pollutants. For example, electric utilities release SO2, NOx, and particulate
matter.

SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS IN THE UNITED STATES Ozone, an atmospheric layer

at the very top of the stratosphere, shields Earth’s inhabitants from lethal (harmful) levels
of ultraviolet radiation. The ozone high up in the atmosphere can be destroyed by chlo-
rofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful substances which were banned in the United States and
most other industrialized countries but are still used in many other countries, by creating
the much-reported hole in this good ozone layer.
Ozone in high concentrations closer to earth can cause health effects (e.g., respiratory
and eye irritation) in people and can harm plants, thereby reducing crop yields. This type
50 Chapter 2

Figure 2.12 Emissions by Sulfur

dioxide
type. Nitrogen
(SO2) 8%
Carbon oxides
monoxide (NOx) 9%
(CO) 38%
Volatile
organic
compounds
(VOCs) 9%

Particulate
matter
(PM) 36%

of ozone occurs when sunlight breaks down nitrogen dioxide in the presence of VOCs and
creates free atomic oxygen (O) that then combines with the abundant oxygen molecules (O2)
in the atmosphere to create ozone (O3). Ozone can also speed up the degradation of synthetic
materials such as paints and plastics.
NOX, VOCs, O3, and peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs) mix to create photochemical smog.
Peroxyacetyl nitrates are produced when NOX and VOCs interact while influenced by solar
radiation. PANs can cause eye and lung irritation in humans and can harm plants.
Acid deposition can result from several processes. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxides
can either fall to the ground through dry deposition, or these oxides can be converted to
nitric acid (HNO3) or sulfuric acid (H2SO4) through oxidation, changing to acid when it
dissolves in water vapor—clouds—in the atmosphere. Nitric acid and sulfuric acid then
combine with normal precipitation to create acid rain. Acid deposition, whether dry or wet,
changes the pH balance in bodies of water and soil, which is harmful to plants and animals
that are very sensitive to pH change. It also destroys buildings, monuments, and other struc-
tures through corrosion (Figure 2.13).

Figure 2.13 A statue

­damaged by acid rain.
CREDIT: Vandathai/Shutterstock.

Soil Pollution
Soil is the layer of earth that can support plant growth. Soil is composed of decaying organic
materials and minerals (including microbes that help the organic materials decay). Soil pol-
lution results when the fertile layer of soil used to produce the world’s food is destroyed.
For example, destruction can occur when the beneficial microbes in soil are damaged or
destroyed by certain chemicals. Processes such as chemical contamination and salinization
can also change the composition of the soil or add unwanted and usually harmful materials
to the soil.
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 51

Mineral extraction resulting in tailing piles can cause soil pollution. Also, extensive irriga-
tion can result in salinization, while overuse of pesticides and fertilizers creates chemical con-
tamination (Figure 2.14). These can all be toxic to plants or damage or inhibit plant growth.

Figure 2.14 Extensive irriga-

tion and overuse of pesticides
and fertilizer can lead to chemical
contamination.
CREDIT: Iliuta goean/Shutterstock.

Spills can also cause contamination. Improper handling and illegal disposal of industrial
and household chemicals or waste can introduce a diverse range of hazardous materials
into soil.
Acid rain, which begins as air pollution, can fall to the earth and deposit acid com-
pounds in the soil. Leaking gas tanks and waste dumps can also leach hydrocarbons and
other chemical pollutants into the soil. These contaminants can then infiltrate the ground-
water and cause water pollution.
Other processes, such as erosion and exhaustion, “take away” from soil, removing or
altering the fertile layer that is so crucial to life. Erosion occurs when large quantities of soil
are moved or removed and the land is laid bare. Erosion happens naturally, but deforesta-
tion, strip mining, and some farming methods accelerate the process.
Mining can also bring extremely toxic heavy metals (e.g., arsenic) to the surface. Once
on the surface, these metals can enter the food or water supply.
Exhaustion of the soil refers to the process of removing vital nutrients from the land, ren-
dering it unfit for agricultural purposes. Agricultural activities, performed without proper
planning, can degrade the soil (e.g., failure to rotate crops can deplete the soil of its natural
nutrients).

Water Pollution
Water pollution occurs when a body of water such as surface water, groundwater, or an
aquifer is adversely impacted by the addition of large amounts of suspended or dissolved
materials.
Sources of water pollution vary. Water quality can be degraded biologically, chemically,
or physically.

BIOLOGICAL The presence of pathogens in water sources can be attributed to sewage

entering the water supply from city waste and septic systems, animal waste from farms and
ranches, and storm water runoff. These pathogens can cause disease if they enter drinking
water or if people swim in contaminated water.
Animal and plant material left to decay in water create oxygen-demanding wastes that
deplete the water of valuable oxygen. Fish and plants are then affected by this removal of
oxygen from the water.
52 Chapter 2

CHEMICAL Water-soluble inorganic and organic chemicals enter the water supply from
landfills, underground storage tanks, acid rain, agricultural activities, illegal dumping, and
accidental spills. People, animals, or plants that come in contact with these chemicals can
suffer acute and/or toxic effects depending on the toxicity of the chemical.

Did You Know?

Arsenic is an element that is naturally found in geological
formations, especially granites. As long as the arsenic
remains bound to the granite, it causes no harm.
However, when the granite is disturbed, either
through mining or natural erosion, the arsenic may be
released into the soil, thereby contaminating groundwa-
ter. Thus, mining companies must monitor water quality
during and after mining operations.
CREDIT: Khorkins/Shutterstock.

PHYSICAL Suspended solids are usually generated through erosion and runoff; they can
also result from large amounts of organic product decay. When solid particles are present
in the water source, the penetration of light in the water is affected and photosynthesis is
reduced. If these particles are organic based, these can also put a demand on the oxygen
supply as microbes break them down.
Industrial facilities and power plants generate hot water emissions, leading to thermal
water pollution. Heat changes the nature of the aquatic system by altering its ability to retain
dissolved oxygen and by adversely affecting both animal and plant life. Certain plants and
animals are sensitive to temperature changes.

Effects of Hazards on the Environment

Air, soil, and water pollution can have significant short- and long-term effects on the deli-
cate balance of the environment. The interdependent nature of natural resources causes the
entire ecosystem to become imbalanced when one variable, such as air quality, is negatively
impacted by pollution.

Short-Term Effects
The following are just some of the short-term effects that pollution can have on the
environment:

• Poor air quality (affecting respiration of living organisms)

• Contaminated water supply
• Sudden death of animal populations
• Affected plant growth and reduced crop yields
• Unusable, infertile soil
• Erosion
• Habitat destruction

Long-Term Effects
The following are longer-term effects that pollution can have on the environment:

• Imbalanced ecosystems that cannot replenish resources

• Cancers in animal populations
• Mutations of living organisms
 Types of Hazards and Their Effects 53

• Inability of living organisms to reproduce

• Large-scale death of animal populations
• Loss of habitat for living organisms
• Widespread destruction of earth’s ecosystems (e.g., rain forests, forests, wetlands,
oceans, rivers and lakes, and coral reefs)

Summary
In the process industries, hazardous substances and environ- rules and regulations that the process industries must fol-
mental factors can cause injury, illness, or death if not handled low. In addition to these rules and regulations, the process
properly. Some of these hazardous substances can have short- industries also employ other preventive measures such as
or long-term effects on public health and the environment. In engineering and administrative controls and the use of per-
order to prevent injury or death, process technicians must be sonal protective equipment (PPE) to protect or limit person-
able to recognize and understand the hazardous substances and nel exposure to hazardous substances. Technicians must use
activities associated with their operating facilities and how these proper personal protective equipment and follow proper
can affect individuals, the environment, and local communities. procedures in order to protect themselves, their coworkers,
In order to reduce or prevent exposure to hazardous sub- and the community.
stances, the federal government has created a wide range of

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 7. On what three factors is toxicity based?
a. Acute
8. What is the most common route of entry by which a
b. Ceiling hazardous substance can get into the body?
c. Chronic a. Absorption
d. Dose–response relationship b. Inhalation
e. Permissible exposure limit c. Ingestion
f. Short-term exposure limit d. Injection
g. Threshold limit value
9. A person will show effects of oxygen deficiency if the
h. Time weighted average oxygen concentration drops below ____ percent.
2. List the five common classifications for hazards. 10. Which is the most common body part to sustain a
3. What is used to determine if a chemical is hazardous? ­puncture wound?
a. Temperature a. Face
b. Physical composition b. Shoulders
c. Physical form c. Arms
d. Viscosity d. Feet

4. List at least four of the most common physical hazards 11. What measurement is used to describe a dose of a haz-
discussed in the chapter. ardous substance that is inhaled?
5. List four main types of ergonomic hazards in the process a. ppm
industry. b. mg/cm2
6. (True or False) Workers in most of the process industries face c. mg/kg
more exposure to biological hazards than any other hazard. d. mL/kg
54 Chapter 2

12. What is the mathematical equation for the relationship c. Acid deposition
between dose and response? d. Particulate matter
13. Which is more lethal, a substance with an LD50 of 100 17. Which of the following is a cause of soil pollution?
grams, or a substance with an LD50 of 12 grams? (Select all that apply.)
14. Describe the three major concepts to understand regard- a. Mineral extraction
ing exposure limits. b. Ozone
15. A chemical burn on the skin is an example of a: c. Mining
a. Local effect d. Erosion
b. Systemic effect 18. List three short-term effects that pollution can have on
16. Which of the following is NOT a primary air pollutant the environment.
in the United States? 19. List three long-term effects that pollution can have on
a. Nitrogen oxide the environment.
b. Carbon monoxide

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Have teams of students watch videos of one of the ­following Hazard Description Hazard Type(s)
instances in which hazardous substances were released i. Adding bucket quantities of materials to a
from a controlled situation. Have them present information reactor
to the class on the cause of the problem and the short- and j. Moving a 55-gallon drum without proper
long-term effects on humans and the environment. equipment
k. A small acetone spill in the laboratory
• Love Canal l. Working in an area where large mosquito
• Chernobyl populations are present
m. Entering and remaining in a rail car for
• BP Gulf oil spill cleaning over a long period of time
n. Leaking flange on a methanol pipeline
2. For each of the hazards listed below, fill in the type of
o. Poor ventilation in a raw-material storage
hazard (chemical, physical, ergonomic, or ­biological) shed
that the process technician faces (if more than one p. Hauling long lengths of hose
­hazard type is present, list all relevant answers and q. Isolating a valve prior to maintenance
explain why). r. Pouring hazardous materials without
chemical splash goggles, a face shield, or
respiratory protection
Hazard Description Hazard Type(s)
a. Heat stress 3. Assign students to assess hazards and safeguards for
b. Prolonged work at a computer common household tasks, for example, changing a light
c. Soiled bandages left over from a first aid bulb, mowing the lawn, washing dishes, cooking, etc. as
incident
well as driving.
d. Cleaning tools with a chemical degreaser
e. Climbing to the top of a storage tank to
check a relief valve
f. Vapor release
g. Resin dust
h. Lack of potable water at a work site
Chapter 3
Recognizing Chemical
Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of chemical hazards in the process industries,
which can affect people and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
3.1 Identify the various chemical hazards (gases, liquids, and particulates)
found in the process industries and discuss the potential effects such
chemicals have on safety, health, and the environment. (NAPTA Safety,
Chemical Hazards 1*) p. 56
3.2 Identify specific categories of hazardous chemicals used in the process
industries and describe the potential health and environmental hazards
posed by each. (NAPTA Safety, Chemical Hazards 2) p. 59
3.3 Explain the purpose and function of labeling systems found in local
process industries. (NAPTA Safety, Chemical Hazards 3) p. 61
3.4 Explain the purpose and components of an SDS. (NAPTA Safety, Chem-
ical Hazards 4) p. 68
3.5 Discuss the primary government regulations relating to chemical
­hazards. (NAPTA Safety, Chemical Hazards 5) p. 70
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Chemical Hazards 1)” means that this
chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of the NAPTA curriculum on recognizing chemical
hazards.

Key Terms
Acid—a substance with a pH less than 7.0 that releases hydrogen (H+) ions when
mixed with water, p. 58.
Base—a substance with a pH greater than 7.0 that releases hydroxyl (OH-) ions
when dissolved in water, p. 58.
55
56 Chapter 3

Carcinogen—a cancer-causing substance, p. 60.

Combustible liquid—any liquid that has a flashpoint at or above 100 degrees
Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees Celsius), but below 200 degrees Fahrenheit (93.3 degrees
Celsius), p. 59.
Explosive—a substance that causes a sudden, almost instantaneous release of
pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to sudden shock, pressure, or high
temperature, p. 60.
Flammable gas—any gas that, at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure,
forms a flammable mixture with air at a concentration of 10 percent by volume or
less, p. 59.
Flammable liquid—any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100 degrees Fahrenheit
(37.8 degrees Celsius), p. 59.
Flammable solid—any solid, other than a blasting agent or explosive, that is liable to
cause fire through friction, absorption of moisture, spontaneous chemical change,
or retained heat from manufacturing or processing, or which can be ignited readily
and when ignited burns so vigorously and persistently that it creates a serious
hazard, p. 59.
Flashpoint—the minimum temperature at which a liquid gives off a vapor in
sufficient concentration to ignite, p. 59.
HAZCOM—OSHA 29 C.F.R. 1910.1200 Hazard Communication/Employee Right-
to-Know, a standard to ensure that employees are aware of the chemicals they are
exposed to in the workplace and the measures to take to protect themselves from
such hazards, p. 61.
Highly toxic—requiring only a small amount of exposure to be lethal, p. 60.
Inorganic compound—a chemical compound that does not contain carbon chains,
p. 58.
Mutagen—a chemical suspected to have properties that change or alter a living cell’s
genetic structure; mutagens can lead to cancer or birth defects if the egg or sperm is
affected, p. 60.
Neurotoxin—a poison that affects the nervous system, p. 60.
Organic compound—a chemical compound that contains carbon chains, p. 57.
Organic peroxide—an organic compound that contains the bivalent ¬ O ¬ O ¬
structure and which can be considered to be a structural derivative of hydrogen
peroxide, where one or both of the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by an
organic radical, p. 60.
Oxidizer—a chemical that can initiate or promote combustion in other materials, p. 60.
pH—a measure of the amount of hydrogen ions in a solution that can react and
indicate if the substance is an acid or a base, p. 58.
Pyrophoric—a chemical that will ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature of
130 degrees Fahrenheit (54.4 degrees Celsius) or below, p. 59.
Sensitizer—an agent that can cause an allergic reaction, p. 60.
Teratogen—a substance believed to have an adverse effect on human fetus
development, p. 60.
Toxic material—a substance determined to have an adverse health impact, p. 60.
Water-reactive—any chemical that reacts with water to release a gas that is either
flammable or that presents a health hazard, p. 59.

3.1 Introduction
In the process industries, workers may be exposed to chemical hazards that can cause injury,
illness, or death. Some hazards also pose a danger to the environment, causing potential
short- and long-term impacts. Process technicians must understand these hazards, including
those posed by chemicals, and apply rules and proactive behaviors to ensure their safety.
 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 57

This chapter covers chemicals and the hazards they present, along with labeling/iden-
tification, documentation (safety data sheets), and government regulations.

Chemical Hazards Overview

Process technicians come into contact with chemicals on a regular basis, even if they do not
directly work for a chemical manufacturer. Many workers, regardless of the industry, come
into contact with chemicals.
Chemical hazards may have the potential to produce adverse health effects on people,
including illness, injury, and even death. Chemical hazards can also impact the environment.
The effects of chemicals vary as widely as the chemicals themselves. The goal of this chapter
is not to explain all potential hazards associated with every chemical. Rather, it is to provide
enough information, so process technicians can better understand the specific chemical haz-
ard information they will be provided with on the job.
To understand chemical hazards, process technicians should understand chemical
properties (Figure 3.1). (Note: The fundamentals of chemistry are covered in other
textbooks, including the North American Process Technology Alliance’s Introduction to Process
Technology. This textbook presumes that the reader has some basic understanding of
chemistry concepts.)
Chemicals can exist in different physical states: solid, liquid, or gas. Any chemical is
most active in its gaseous state, and molecules readily move about in all directions. In the
liquid state, the chemical’s molecules still move around but not as actively as in the gas-
eous state. In a solid state, the chemical is in its most stable form, with its molecules barely
moving.
Chemicals can enter the body in different ways depending on their physical state. For
example, if a chemical is in a gaseous state, it is more likely to be inhaled into the respira-
tory system. If a chemical is in a liquid state, the likelihood is greater that it will be absorbed
through the skin. Ingestion through the mouth can occur in either solid or liquid forms. Solid
miniscule dust-sized forms can stay suspended in the air. These are called particulates and
can also be inhaled.
Chemical composition (the chemical structure of the substance) is one of the factors
that determine the toxicity of a substance. In order to prevent injury, technicians must fully
comprehend the concepts of chemical structure and toxicity.
Chemical compounds can be categorized as either organic or inorganic. Organic com- Organic compound a chemical
pounds are chemical compounds that contain carbon chains. Following are some examples compound that contains carbon
chains.
of organic compounds:

• Aliphatics (e.g., methane)

• Aromatics (e.g., benzene)
• Halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., methyl chloride)
• Ketones (e.g., methyl ethyl ketone—MEK)
• Esters (e.g., butyl acetate)
• Alcohols (e.g., methyl alcohol)
• Ethers (e.g., diethyl ether)

Hydrocarbons are one of the most common types of organic compounds. Following are
the major classes of hydrocarbons:

• Aliphatic hydrocarbons
• Aromatic hydrocarbons
• Cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons

Generally, organic compounds are flammable. Many are also toxic.

58 Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 To understand

chemical hazards, process techni-
cians should understand chemical
properties.
CREDIT: Mewaji/Shutterstock.

Did You Know?

Sodium hydroxide (also known as lye, caustic soda, or sodium hydrate)
is one of the strongest bases commonly used in industry.
It is used in petroleum refining and in the manufacturing of soaps,
rayon, and paper. It is also used as a drain cleaner and oven cleaner
in homes.

CREDIT: MITstudio/Shutterstock.

Inorganic compound a chemical Inorganic compounds are chemical compounds that do not contain carbon chains.
compound that does not contain Examples of inorganic compounds include the following:
carbon chains.
• Acids (e.g., acetic acid)
• Bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide)
• Salts (e.g., sodium chloride)
• Metals (e.g., iron)

Acid a substance with a pH less Acids and bases are ionic compounds that exhibit the toxic characteristic of corrosiveness.
than 7.0 that releases hydrogen (H +) The strength of the compound’s corrosiveness is based on its pH level. The pH level is a
ions when mixed with water.
reference to the amount of hydrogen ions in a solution. It is measured with a scale ranging
from 0 to 14. Acidic (caustic) substances have a pH less than 7 on the pH scale, while basic
Base a substance with a pH
greater than 7.0 that releases (alkaline) substances have a pH greater than 7 on the scale. A neutral substance (e.g., pure
hydroxyl (OH -) ions when dissolved water), which is neither acid nor base, has a pH of 7.
in water. The closer to zero on the pH scale that a substance reaches, the more acidic it is (e.g.,
battery acid). The closer to 14 on the scale that a substance reaches, the more basic it is (e.g.,
pH a measure of the amount of
hydrogen ions in a solution that can
drain cleaner). Figure 3.2 lists some common items and their pH levels.
react and indicate if the substance is Hazardous chemicals are often identified and grouped into categories on the basis of
an acid or a base. their hazardous characteristics (e.g., flammable, corrosive, toxic, or unstable when exposed
to outside forces such as pressure or temperature changes).
Some chemicals present physical hazards (e.g., flammability or combustibility) while
others present health hazards (e.g., cancer or toxicity). It is important for process techni-
cians to understand this concept of categorization, since it provides a foundation of how
materials should be labeled, what materials are incompatible with others, what materials
can be safely stored alongside others, and how workers should protect themselves from the
chemical hazards.
The three main government agencies that address chemical hazards are the Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Department of Transportation (DOT),
 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 59

Figure 3.2 pH scale.

CREDIT: Inna Bigun/Shutterstock.

and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These three agencies use similar termi- Flammable liquid any liquid that
nology when discussing chemical hazards, but the terms are not always interchangeable. has a flashpoint below 100 degrees
Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees Celsius).
For example, OSHA’s terminology relates to employee health and safety, DOT’s terminol-
ogy relates to the safe transportation of materials or wastes, and the EPA’s terminology
Flashpoint the minimum
relates to the protection of the environment. Thus, this chapter will first cover general temperature at which a liquid gives
chemical hazard categories, with later sections exploring OSHA, DOT, and EPA categories. off a vapor in sufficient concentration
to ignite.

Flammable gas any gas that,

3.2 Hazardous Chemicals at ambient temperature and
atmospheric pressure, forms a
flammable mixture with air at a
Flammable and Combustible Materials concentration of 10 percent by
volume or less.
Flammable and combustible materials (gases, liquids, and solids) pose physical hazards in
the form of fire or explosion. These materials are classified as follows: Flammable solid any solid, other
than a blasting agent or explosive,
• Flammable liquid—any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100 degrees Fahrenheit that is liable to cause fire through
(37.8 degrees Celsius). When heated, flammable liquids can give off a vapor in sufficient friction, absorption of moisture,
concentrations to ignite. The minimum temperature at which this happens is called the spontaneous chemical change, or
retained heat from manufacturing or
flashpoint.
processing, or which can be ignited
• Flammable gas—any gas that, at ambient temperature and pressure, forms a flammable readily and when ignited burns so
mixture with air at a concentration of 10 percent by volume or less vigorously and persistently that it
creates a serious hazard.
• Flammable solid—any solid, other than a blasting agent or explosive, that is liable to
cause fire through friction, absorption of moisture, spontaneous chemical change, or Combustible liquid any liquid
retained heat from manufacturing or processing, or which can be ignited readily and that has a flashpoint at or above 100
degrees Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees
when ignited burns so vigorously and persistently as to create a serious hazard
Celsius), but below 200 degrees
• Combustible liquid—any liquid that has a flashpoint at or above 100 degrees Fahrenheit (93.3 degrees Celsius).
Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees Celsius), but below 200 degrees Fahrenheit (93.3 degrees
Celsius) Water-reactive any chemical
that reacts with water to release a
(Note: Chapter 6, Fire and Explosion Hazards, covers flammable and combustible hazards gas that is either flammable or that
presents a health hazard.
in more detail.)

Pyrophoric a chemical that

Water-Reactive, Pyrophoric, and Explosive Materials will ignite spontaneously in air at
a temperature of 130 degrees
Water-reactive materials are chemicals that react with water to release a gas that is either Fahrenheit (54.4 degrees Celsius) or
flammable or presents a health hazard (Figure 3.3). A pyrophoric material is a chemical that below.
60 Chapter 3

will ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit (54.4 degrees
Explosive a substance that causes Celsius) or below. An explosive is defined as a chemical that causes a sudden, almost instan-
a sudden, almost instantaneous taneous release of pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to sudden shock, pressure, or high
release of pressure, gas, and heat
when subjected to sudden shock, temperature. These materials primarily pose physical hazards in the form of fire or
pressure, or high temperature. explosion.

Figure 3.3 Water-reactive

materials release a flammable or
hazardous gas when they come
into contact with water.
CREDIT: Sergey Merkulov/Shutterstock.

Organic Peroxides and Oxidizers

Organic peroxide an organic An organic peroxide is an organic compound that contains the bivalent −O−O− structure
compound that contains the bivalent and which can be considered to be a structural derivative of hydrogen peroxide, where one
¬ O ¬ O ¬ structure and which
can be considered to be a structural or both of the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by an organic radical. Peroxides can
derivative of hydrogen peroxide, explode if the temperature reaches a certain level.
where one or both of the hydrogen An oxidizer is a chemical that can rapidly release oxygen, thereby initiating or promot-
atoms has been replaced by an
ing combustion in other materials. This can result in a fire or explosion. These materials
organic radical.
primarily pose physical hazards in the form of fire or explosion.
Oxidizer a chemical that can
initiate or promote combustion in
other materials.
Carcinogens, Mutagens, Teratogens,
and Reproductive Toxins
Carcinogen a cancer-causing
Carcinogens are cancer-causing substances. Mutagens are chemicals suspected to have
substance.
properties that change or alter a living cell’s genetic structure. Teratogens are substances
Mutagen a chemical suspected believed to have an adverse effect on human fetal development. Reproductive toxins are
to have properties that change or chemicals that affect a person’s ability to have children. These materials primarily pose
alter a living cell’s genetic structure; health hazards.
mutagens can lead to cancer or
A toxic material is a substance that has been determined to have an adverse health
birth defects if the egg or sperm is
affected. impact. A highly toxic material requires only a small amount of exposure to be lethal.
Many toxic and highly toxic materials target specific organs in the body. Once ingested,
Teratogen a substance believed inhaled or absorbed, they travel through the bloodstream to another area of the body where
to have an adverse effect on human they cause damage. For example, neurotoxins are poisons that affect the nervous system.
fetus development.
Like carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens, toxic materials create hazards to health.
Toxic material a substance
determined to have an adverse health Other Chemical Hazards
impact.
The following are other types of chemical hazards:
Highly toxic requiring only a small • Asphyxiants—substances that disrupt breathing and can result in suffocation
amount of exposure to be lethal.
• Irritants—substances that cause irritations to skin, eyes, upper respiratory tract, nose,
Neurotoxin a poison that affects mouth, and throat
the nervous system.
• Depressants, anesthetics, or narcotics—substances that can affect the body’s nervous
system
• Allergens—substances that cause an allergic reaction or unhealthy response by the
immune system
Sensitizer an agent that can cause • Sensitizers—agents that can cause an allergic reaction
an allergic reaction.
(Note: These hazards are discussed in more detail in other chapters of this textbook.)
 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 61

3.3 Hazardous Chemical Labeling

and Documentation
Detection
Process technicians must be constantly aware of their environment, using their senses to
detect potential chemical hazards in case engineering or administrative controls have failed
or are missing. For example, you can see some vapors as they are being released. You can
smell strange odors. You can hear out-of-the-ordinary sounds. You can feel vibrations. You
can sense odd tastes with your tongue, and sensitive body parts (e.g., nose, mouth, eyes,
and skin) can feel irritants.
However, process technicians should not rely on their senses alone. Sometimes, by the
time process technicians can sense a chemical hazard (e.g., purging a vessel with nitrogen
[oxygen-deficient atmosphere]), it is too late. Best practice for detection of hazardous envi-
ronments includes monitoring equipment. Portable or permanent, continuously running
monitoring devices can sample environments and detect specific chemical hazards and then
alert process technicians to potential chemical hazards in time to take action.
Hazardous chemicals must be properly labeled and documented so that workers can
identify chemicals they encounter, understand the hazards they present, and know how to
protect themselves.
OSHA has set forth some very specific guidelines that apply to most chemical prod-
ucts. However, some substances are governed by other regulatory agency rules, so they are
excluded from the labeling requirements (e.g., pesticides, foods, alcohol, drugs, cosmetics,
tobacco products, and wood products). Appropriate documentation, called a Safety Data
Sheet (SDS) must be provided for hazardous chemicals as a ready reference for individuals
working with a particular chemical, or who might be exposed to a particular chemical dur-
ing an emergency situation.

OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (HAZCOM)

OSHA established the Hazard Communication standard (HAZCOM—also known as the HAZCOM OSHA 29 C.F.R.
“Worker Right to Know” law) to make sure that employees are aware of the chemicals they 1910.1200 Hazard Communication/
Employee Right-to-Know, a standard
are exposed to in the workplace. OSHA states that this standard “covers both physical hazards to ensure that employees are aware
(such as flammability) and health hazards (such as irritation, lung damage, and cancer).” of the chemicals they are exposed to
HAZCOM can help process technicians understand the chemicals they encounter, their haz- in the workplace and the measures to
take to protect themselves from such
ards, and why certain precautions must be taken on the job. The intent is that informed process
hazards.
technicians are more likely to remain safe than those who are not informed about hazards.
All employers are responsible for notifying their employees about chemicals they could
be exposed to during normal work situations or emergency situations. Employers are clas-
sified as chemical users, chemical manufacturers, distributors, or importers. This classifica-
tion determines the specific requirements the employer must follow when communicating
chemical information to employees.
OSHA defines chemical users as “employers that ‘use’ hazardous chemicals.” “Use”
in this case means to package, handle, react, or transfer the chemicals. The employer must
identify “any situation where a chemical is present in such a way that employees may be
exposed under normal conditions or used in a foreseeable emergency.”
Work operations, such as laboratories and warehouses in which chemicals are handled
only in sealed containers, are required to keep labels on containers as they are received and
maintain SDSs. In addition, employees must be given access to the SDSs and be provided
with information and training.
62 Chapter 3

Chemical manufacturers and importers are required to notify employees of all chemicals
to which they might be exposed and their subsequent hazards. Also, these employers must
evaluate the hazards associated with their chemicals, and then notify customers of these
hazards using labels and SDSs.
There are four requirements identified by the HAZCOM standard regarding the com-
munication of chemical hazards:

1. Written hazard communication programs

2. Labels and other warning forms
3. Safety data sheets (SDSs)
4. Employee information and training

Written hazard communication programs are plans that identify how the employer will
ensure that employees are notified of hazardous chemicals to which they could be exposed.
The plan outlines how the OSHA standard will be implemented within that particular facil-
ity or company. The plan should describe how every level of an organization will inform
employees about chemical hazards. Employees can be involved in writing the plan. OSHA
can ask for the written plan if it conducts an audit of the organization.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has developed guidance for labeling
chemicals. Manufacturers follow the ANSI standards to ensure compliance with the OSHA
labeling standard. All hazardous chemicals must be labeled, tagged, or marked with the
identity of the chemical and all appropriate hazard warnings. Chemical manufacturers are
responsible for affixing a label or tag to the container. This label or tag identifies the chemical,
hazard warnings (e.g., eye irritant), and the manufacturer’s name and address. Employers
who use a chemical are responsible for making sure that labels on hazardous chemical con-
tainers are not removed or defaced.
An SDS must be maintained for each hazardous chemical in a facility. Employees
are responsible for familiarizing themselves with the SDS for each chemical they might
encounter.
Employee training is essential to the success of the HAZCOM standard. The writ-
ten plan, labels, and SDS are all components that employees must be trained to use. New
employees typically are trained on initial assignment. Employees moving to new areas can
be updated on the different chemical hazards posed by the new assignment.
During training, employees are provided with the information to help them do the
following:

• Identify the chemical hazard.

• Locate resources, such as the SDS.
• Determine how to protect themselves against the hazard.
• Determine how to detect the presence of a release.
• Respond to accidental exposure or emergencies.

Process technicians must understand the procedures for working with hazardous chemicals
and emergency operations (e.g., spills and releases), as outlined in the company HAZCOM
program and related plans (Figure 3.4). They must understand how to handle, use, store,
and transport chemicals, as necessary. Also, personal protective equipment (PPE) selection,
use, and maintenance are key issues relating to chemical hazard protection. (Note: personal
protective equipment is covered in more detail later in this textbook.)

EPA Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

The Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) permits the
agency to review existing and new chemicals to identify potentially dangerous products or
uses which should be subject to federal control. The EPA has the authority to require the
manufacturers and processors of chemicals to conduct research to determine the effects of
 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 63

Figure 3.4 Process techni-

cians must understand the
procedures for working with haz-
ardous chemicals and emergency
operations.
CREDIT: Rob Byron/Shutterstock.

potentially dangerous chemicals on living creatures and report the results. If the EPA deter-
mines that using these dangerous chemicals does present an unreasonable risk to human
health or the environment, the agency can regulate the chemical usage. EPA regulations can
range from requiring proper product labeling to the potential ban of the substance.
The TSCA requires manufacturers and processors to conduct tests for existing chemicals
under the following conditions:

• Their manufacture, distribution, processing, use, or disposal may present an unreason-

able risk of injury to health or the environment; or they are being produced in substantial
quantities and the potential for environmental release or human exposure is substantial
or significant.
• No data exists or existing data are insufficient to predict the effects of human exposure
and environmental releases.

Manufacturers must prevent future risks through premarket screening and regulatory track-
ing of new chemical products. They must also control unreasonable risks (already known,
or as they are discovered) for existing chemicals. Additionally, manufacturers must gather
and disseminate information about chemical product use, and possible adverse effects to
human health and the environment.

EPA Emergency Planning and Community

Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA)
The EPA’s Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA) authorizes
state and local entities to prepare communities to respond in the event of a hazardous chemi-
cal release. Each state has a State Emergency Response Commission (SERC), which oversees
Emergency Planning Districts. Within these districts are Local Emergency Planning Com-
mittees (LEPCs). Local first responders, health officials, government representatives, and
industry members serve on these local committees.
Facilities must notify local authorities about any accidents at their location that could
pose a threat to community and industrial neighbors. Facilities that use or manufacture
hazardous substances must report releases and spills every year to the government.
LEPCs must plan in advance for possible chemical releases caused by a spill, explo-
sion, or fire. Plants must use the EPA’s list of “extremely hazardous substances” to deter-
mine which chemicals on the list are in their facility. The EPA list also establishes Threshold
64 Chapter 3

Planning Quantities (TPQs) for these chemicals. Facilities must share information with
LEPCs about all chemicals that exceed the published TPQ. LEPCs and facilities that handle
extremely hazardous substances must develop emergency response plans and employee
training programs for everyone who will be called on to respond in a related emergency.
EPCRA mandates that any sudden releases of hazardous or extremely hazardous sub-
stances, which exceed the established Reportable Quantity (RQ), must be immediately
reported to local, state, and federal officials. Releases of this type must also be reported to
a National Response Center, as specified by CERCLA. A company can be subject to heavy
fines if such releases are not immediately reported to authorities.
EPCRA also requires facilities to submit SDSs for each hazardous chemical in their
inventory to the local fire department, LEPC, and SERC. A hazardous chemical inventory
must also be submitted to these same agencies. The inventories must provide the following
information:

• Estimates of the maximum amount of each inventoried chemical present at any time
throughout the year
• Estimates of the average daily amount of each inventoried chemical
• The location of each inventoried chemical

The EPA’s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) describes solid and haz-
ardous waste management. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
and Liability Act (CERCLA) created a superfund hazardous substances cleanup program.
CERCLA was enlarged and reauthorized by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthori-
zation Act (SARA). RCRA, CERCLA, SARA, and EPCRA are described in more detail in
Chapter 16, Recognizing Environmental Hazards.

DOT Material Classification

The United States and many other countries throughout the world have developed a Glob-
ally Harmonized System (GHS) for the classification and labeling of chemicals. For example,
the Department of Transportation regulates the shipment of hazardous materials within
the United States. The United Nations uses a globally recognized system of classifying and
labeling dangerous goods, which the DOT also recognizes.
The GHS system describes the following procedures for hazardous materials:

• Identification and classification

• Labeling, marking, and packing
• Documentation
• Emergency response

The system does not indicate the severity of the hazard, only its classification. The following
are the recognized classifications:

CLASS 1: EXPLOSIVES Class 1 contains explosives that fall into six subclasses.

• 1.1 Explosives with a mass explosion hazard (e.g., trinitrotoluene and nitroglycerine)
• 1.2 Explosives with a severe projection hazard
• 1.3 Explosives with a fire, blast, or projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard
• 1.4 Explosives with a minor fire or projection hazard (e.g., ammunition and most con-
sumer fireworks)
• 1.5 Blasting agents
• 1.6 Articles containing extremely insensitive substances

Figure 3.5A is an example of a Class 1 label.

 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 65

CLASS 2: GASES Class 2 contains gases that are compressed, liquefied, or dissolved under
pressure, including gases with subsidiary risks (e.g., poisonous, corrosive).

• 2.1 Flammable gas (e.g., acetylene, hydrogen)

• 2.2 Nonflammable gases that are not poisonous (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen)
• 2.3 Poisonous gases (e.g., chlorine, hydrogen cyanide)

Figures 3.5B through 3.5D are examples of Class 2 labels.

CLASS 3: FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS Class 3 contains flammable liquids that fall into three
subclasses:

• 3.1 Highly flammable liquids with a boiling point below 95 degrees Fahrenheit
(35 degrees Celsius), for example, carbon disulfide, diethyl ether
• 3.2 Flammable liquids with a flashpoint of less than 73.4 degrees Fahrenheit (23 degrees
Celsius) and a boiling point above 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35 degrees Celsius), such as
acetone
• 3.3 Liquids with a flashpoint above 73.4 Fahrenheit (23 degrees Celsius) but not exceed-
ing 141.8 degrees Fahrenheit (61 degrees Celsius) and a boiling point greater than
95 degrees Fahrenheit (35 degrees Celsius), e.g., kerosene

Figure 3.5E is an example of a Class 3 label.

CLASS 4: FLAMMABLE SOLIDS Class 4 contains flammable solids.

• 4.1 Flammable solids that can be easily ignited and are readily combustible (e.g., mag-
nesium, strike-anywhere matches)
• 4.2 Spontaneously combustible substances (e.g., aluminum alkyls, white phosphorous)
• 4.3 Substances that emit a flammable gas when wet, or react violently with water (e.g.,
sodium, calcium, potassium)

Figures 3.5F through 3.5H are examples of Class 4 labels.

CLASS 5: OXIDIZING AGENTS AND ORGANIC PEROXIDES Class 5 contains oxidizing

agents.

• 5.1 Oxidizing agents other than organic peroxides (e.g., ammonium nitrate, hydrogen
peroxide)
• 5.2 Organic peroxides, in either liquid or solid form (e.g., benzoyl peroxide, cumene
hydroperoxide)

Figures 3.5I and 3.5J are examples of Class 5 labels.

CLASS 8: CORROSIVE SUBSTANCES Class 8 contains corrosive substances.

• 8.1 Acids (e.g., sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid)

• 8.2 Alkalies (e.g., potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide)

Figures 3.5K is an example of a Class 8 label.

CLASS 9: MISCELLANEOUS DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES Class 9 substances are hazard-

ous substances that do not fall into other categories (e.g., asbestos and dry ice).
Figure 3.5L is an example of a Class 9 label.
A variety of regulations apply to shipping dangerous goods. For example, some mate-
rials cannot be packaged together, such as flammable materials and oxidizers. Radioactive
materials require special handling—as well as materials being packaged as air cargo. Most
companies will train workers on these regulations, as required.
The DOT classification diamonds are used on labels, placards (for trucks or rail
cars), and other materials relating to the hazard. Guidelines must be followed for use
66 Chapter 3

Figure 3.5 A. Explosives clas-

sification label (1.1). B. Flammable
gas classification label (2.1). C.
Nonflammable gas classification
label (2.2). D. Poisonous gas clas-
sification label (2.3). E. Flammable
liquids classification label (3.1). A. B. C. D. E.
F. Flammable solids classifica-
tion label (4.1). G. Spontaneously
combustible solids classification
label (4.2). H. Dangerous or reac-
tive flammable solids classifica-
tion label (4.3). I. Oxidizing agent
classification label (5.1). J. Organic
peroxide classification label (5.2). F. G. H. I. J.
K. Class 8 classification label
(corrosive substances). L. Class 9
classification label (miscellaneous
dangerous substances).
CREDIT: Ody_Stocker/Shutterstock.

K. L.

and placement of labels, placards, and documentation. Labels must be made of a dura-
ble material and be prominently placed in plain sight, along with package orientation
markings. Hazardous materials must be labeled with primary and subsidiary packing
labels.
Accompanying documentation and shipping papers, including SDSs, must be placed
in locations for easy access when the material is being transported. Various information is
included in the documentation and shipping papers, such as material description; name
and address of the shipper; hazard classification; UN classification number; quantity;
volume; precautions; directions for how to handle fires, spills, and leaks; and first aid
procedures.
Incorrectly classified materials and improper documentation or shipping papers
can cause shipping delays. Criminal penalties may be imposed for intentional
misclassification.

Other Hazard Labeling Systems

Two other materials labeling systems are the Hazardous Materials Identification Sys-
tem (HMIS) and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) National Fire Code
Section 704.

Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS)

HMIS is a labeling system developed by the National Paint and Coating Association that
lists five essential sections: chemical name, health hazard, flammability hazard, reactivity
hazard, and PPE (Figure 3.6 and Table 3.1). Each section is color coded: blue (health), red
(flammability), orange (physical hazard), and white (PPE). Each section except for the PPE
section has an associated severity ranking from 0 to 4 (0 is the lowest rank and 4 is the high-
est, or most hazardous). The health section can have an asterisk (*) next to materials known
to be carcinogens or to produce adverse effects after long-term exposure. The PPE block
displays a letter, which corresponds to an index listing the appropriate PPE required. Icons
are also used to provide a quick visual identification of specific PPE required, target organs,
and physical hazards.
 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 67

Figure 3.6 Hazardous

Materials Identification System
(HMIS) label.

HMIS

HEALTH
FLAMMABILITY
PHYSICAL HAZARD
PERSONAL PROTECTION

Table 3.1 Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS) Notations for Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE)

Index Letter PPE Required

A Safety glasses
B Safety glasses and gloves
C Safety glasses, gloves, and an apron
D Face shield, gloves, and an apron
E Safety glasses, gloves, and a dust respirator
F Safety glasses, gloves, apron, and a dust respirator
G Safety glasses and a vapor respirator
H Splash goggles, gloves, apron, and a vapor respirator
I Safety glasses, gloves, and a dust/vapor respirator
J Splash goggles, gloves, apron, and a dust/vapor respirator
K Airline hood or mask, gloves, full suit, and boots
L–Z Custom PPE, as specified

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) created a National Fire Code. Section 704
of the code provides a system for identifying the hazards of materials. Section 704 allows
people to easily visually identify the hazards associated with a substance. NFPA 704 uses
a color-coded diamond along with a numbering system. The colors are red (flammabil-
ity), blue (health), yellow (reactivity), and white (special information). Each color has an
associated severity ranking from 0 to 4 (0 is the lowest rank and 4 is the highest, or most
hazardous). Products and packaging must be clearly marked with labels using this diamond.
Figure 3.7 shows an example of an NFPA diamond.

Figure 3.7 NFPA diamond.

2
1 0
68 Chapter 3

3.4 Understanding How to Read an SDS

At a facility, workers are notified about chemical hazards in a variety of ways: safety signs
and warnings in areas where the chemicals are stored or used (e.g., warehouse or vessel),
labels on containers, placards on trucks and rail cars, and documentation. Two important
forms of documentation are a hazardous chemical inventory and safety data sheets (SDSs).
Recall that an SDS is a vital document that provides key safety, health, and environmen-
tal information about a chemical (Figure 3.8). Chemical manufacturers are responsible for
creating SDSs for their products and providing them with all chemicals they ship to users.

Figure 3.8 Safety data sheets

(SDSs) provide key safety, health,
and environmental information
about a chemical.
CREDIT: Travis Klein/Shutterstock.

When a process technician starts work at a new facility or work area, one of the first
and most important tasks is to review the hazardous chemicals inventory and the SDSs.
The process technician must also know where to locate an SDS later. All SDSs must be eas-
ily accessible at all times and must be kept up-to-date since outdated SDSs can cause great
harm during an emergency situation.
It is critical that process technicians understand how to read an SDS. Although the look
and format of SDSs can vary, the OSHA HAZCOM standard lists standard sections of infor-
mation that must be documented (Table 3.2).
The following are the sections contained within an SDS:

Table 3.2 Safety Data Sheet (SDS) Sections

Section Number Contents
1 Identification
Manufacturer information
–Address
–24-hour emergency telephone number
–Telephone number
Product identifier
Trade names
Chemical family
Product use
Restrictions on use
2 Hazards Identification
GHS classification
GHS label elements
Other hazards
3 Composition/Information on Ingredients
Ingredients are listed according to 29CFR 1910.1200 Appendix D
4 First Aid Measures
First aid measures for different exposure routes
–Eye contact
–Skin contact
–Ingestion
–Inhalation
Most important symptoms/effects, acute and delayed
 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 69

Section Number Contents

Indication of immediate medical attention and special treatment needed, if necessary
Notes to physician
5 Fire Fighting Measures
Suitable extinguishing
Unsuitable extinguishing media
Special hazard
Special protective equipment for firefighters
Specific hazards arising from the chemical
6 Accidental Release Measures
Personal precautions, protective equipment, and emergency procedures
Advice for emergency responders
Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up
7 Handling and Storage
Precautions for safe handling
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
8 Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
Control parameters
Exposure guidelines
–TWA (time weighted averages) exposure level
–STEL (short-term exposure limit) exposure level
–C (ceiling) exposure level
–IDLH (immediate danger to life and health) exposure level
Engineering measures
Personal protective equipment
–Respiratory protection (specify type)
–Protective gloves
–Eye protection
–Other protective clothing or equipment
9 Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical State
Appearance
Odor scented
Odor threshold
pH value
Melting/freezing point
Boiling point
Flash point
Flammability
10 Stability and Reactivity
Reactivity
Stability
Hazardous polymerization
Hazardous reactions
Conditions to avoid
Materials to avoid
Hazardous decomposition products
11 Toxicological Information
Product information
–Information on likely routes of exposure
Delayed and immediate effects as well as chronic effects from short- and long-term
exposure
12 Ecological Information
Ecotoxicity
Persistence and degradability
Bioaccumulative potential
Mobility in soil
Other adverse effects
13 Disposal Considerations
Waste treatment methods
General information
Disposal methods
14 Transport Information
15 Regulatory Information
Safety, health, and environmental regulations
National regulations
16 Other Information
Revised information
Training information
Other information
70 Chapter 3

If the process technician ever has any questions or does not understand the information
on an SDS, it is crucial to contact a supervisor and resolve the issue immediately.
One potential issue with SDSs is trade secrets. Companies can have proprietary chemical
identities which, if listed on an SDS, would reveal their trade secret for all to view. OSHA
handles this issue by allowing companies to withhold these chemical identities, but only
if they meet certain criteria established in the HAZCOM standard. Even then, they must
disclose chemical identities and hazards to health care professionals, as governed by rules
in the standard.

Did You Know?

Employees are often required to sign nondisclosure
agreements when starting a new job, since they may
come into contact with sensitive information (e.g., trade
secrets and chemical identities).

CREDIT: Rcarner/Shutterstock.

3.5 Government Regulations Relating

to Chemical Hazards
There are a variety of government regulations and private organization guidelines relating
either directly or indirectly to chemical hazards:

• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200 Hazard Communication/Employee Right-to-Know (HAZCOM)

• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.119 Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM)
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response
(HAZWOPER)
• OSHA General Industry Standards
• 1910 Subpart G: Health and Environmental Controls
• 1910 Subpart H: Hazardous Materials
• 1910 Subpart I: Personal Protective Equipment
• 1910 Subpart J: General Environment Controls
• 1910 Subpart L: Fire Protection
• 1910 Subpart M: Compressed Gas/Air
• 1910 Subpart N: Materials Handling and Storage
• 1910 Subpart Z: Toxic and Hazardous Substances
• EPA Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA)
• EPA Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA)
• EPA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
• EPA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA)
• EPA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
• DOT Hazardous Materials Classification System
• DOT Hazardous Materials Handling: Loading and Unloading
• DOT Hazardous Materials Packaging and Marking
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Hazardous Materials Storage Requirements
 Recognizing Chemical Hazards 71

• American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit

Value (TLV) booklet

Many of these regulations and guidelines are discussed in more detail later in
this textbook.

Summary
In the process industries, workers are routinely exposed to Flammable, combustible, water reactive, pyrophoric,
chemical hazards that can cause injury, illness, or death. Some explosive, and oxidizing materials primarily pose physical
hazards also pose a danger to the environment, causing poten- hazards in the form of fire or explosion. Carcinogens, muta-
tial short- and long-term impacts. gens, teratogens, and reproductive toxins primarily pose
Hazardous substances are often identified and grouped health hazards in the form of cell alteration or destruction.
into categories based on their hazardous characteristics. The Process technicians must be familiar with the different
most common categories include flammable and combustible types of chemical hazards, know how to identify and detect
materials; water-reactive, pyrophoric, and explosive materials; them, and know how to protect themselves from exposure.
organic peroxides and oxidizers; and carcinogens, mutagens, Technicians must also be familiar with governmental regula-
teratogens, and reproductive toxins. tions that govern hazardous chemicals.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 5. What temperature is required for a pyrophoric to ignite
a. Carcinogen spontaneously?
b. Combustible liquid a. 130 degrees F or higher
c. Explosive b. 200 degrees F
d. Flammable solid c. 130 degrees F or lower
e. Flashpoint d. Pyrophoric substances will never ignite
spontaneously
f. Inorganic compound
g. Neurotoxin 6. What is a chemical that can initiate or promote combus-
tion in other materials?
h. Oxidizer
a. Oxidizer
i. Sensitizer
b. Pyrophoric
2. List the three classes of hydrocarbons.
c. Explosive
3. A substance with a pH of 9 is considered: d. Organic peroxide
a. An acid
7. Which are cancer-causing substances?
b. A base
a. Carcinogens
c. Neutral
b. Mutagens
4. Which of the following is a government agency c. Teratogens
that addresses chemical hazards? (Select all that
d. Reproductive toxins
apply.)
a. DOT 8. Which of the following can disrupt breathing?
b. DPA a. Irritants
c. EPA b. Asphyxiants
d. OSHA c. Sensitizers
d. Neurotoxins
72 Chapter 3

9. According to OSHA’s HAZCOM standard, which c. Organic peroxides

of the following is/are responsible for informing d. Carbon disulfide
customers of chemical hazards and providing that
information? 13. According to HMIS, if an index letter of E was used,
what PPE is required?
a. Chemical users
a. Safety glasses and a vapor respirator
b. Laboratories and warehouses
b. Face shield, gloves, and an apron
c. Chemical manufacturers and importers
c. Safety glasses, gloves, and a dust respirator
d. All of the above
d. Airline hood or mask, gloves, full suit, and boots
10. Chemical manufacturers are responsible for affixing a
label or a tag to a container that identifies the _________: 14. Which of the following information is included on an
(Select all that apply.) SDS? (Select all that apply.)
a. Chemical a. Manufacturer information
b. Hazard warnings b. Health and hazard data
c. Manufacturer’s name c. Chemical inventory at facility
d. Severity of reaction d. Fire and explosion data

11. List the three items that need to be included on a 15. What should process technicians do if they have ques-
­hazardous chemical inventory. tions regarding an SDS?
12. Which of the following is an example of a Class 8 a. Ask their coworkers
­corrosive substance? b. Ask their supervisors
a. Sodium c. Ask HR since an SDS contains trade secrets
b. Alkalies d. Google the question to show they are self-motivated

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Look around your house for products that contain c. Tomato juice
chemicals and review the product warning labels. d. Black coffee
Make a list of the products and the potential hazards,
e. Corn
and specify if you took any action based on what you
learned (e.g., changing how or where chemicals in your f. Pure or distillated water
house were stored)? g. Seawater
h. Baking soda
2. Locate an SDS for a chemical, and then review it with i. Milk of magnesia
your fellow students.
j. Ammonia
a. Discuss topics such as “Does the information sufficiently k. Soapy water
inform readers of the hazards?” and “What should be l. Bleach
done in case of an emergency, such as a spill?”
m. Carbonated beverage
b. Draw the hazard diamond for this SDS.
n. Drain cleaner
c. Determine what PPE is needed to handle this mate-
rial safely. 5. Locate NFPA diamonds in places like gas stations, pro-
pane filling stations, and areas with air conditioning
3. Use the internet to research OSHA’s HAZCOM stan- systems. Use what you know about the NFPA diamond
dard. Write a two-page summary of your findings to determine the hazards associated with each. Report
including what the standard covers, how companies can your findings.
implement it, and what potential penalties exist.

4. Use pH test strips to determine the pH of common items

such as those listed below:

a. Lemon juice
b. Apple juice
Chapter 4
Recognizing Biological
Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of biological hazards in the process industries,
which can affect people and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
4.1 Identify the following potential biological hazards found in the process
industries and discuss their potential effects on safety, health, and the
environment:
Microorganisms (such as viruses and bacteria)
Arthropods (arachnids and insects)
Poisonous snakes
Plant allergens and toxins
Protein allergens from vertebrate animals. (NAPTA Safety, Biological
Hazards 1*) p. 74
4.2 Describe how bloodborne pathogens can affect the human body.
(NAPTA Safety, Biological Hazards 2) p. 86
4.3 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
biological hazards. (NAPTA Safety, Biological Hazards 3) p. 93
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Biological Hazards 1)” means that this
chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of the NAPTA curriculum on safety and recognizing
biological hazards.

Key Terms
Algae—simple, plantlike organisms which grow in water, contain chlorophyll, and
obtain their energy from the sun and their carbon from carbon dioxide (through
photosynthesis), p. 77.

73
74 Chapter 4

Allergen—a substance that causes an allergic reaction or unhealthy response by the

body’s immune system, p. 84.
Anaphylaxis—a rare, life-threatening, allergic reaction that can result in shock,
respiratory failure, cardiac failure, or death if left untreated, p. 84.
Arachnid—a class of arthropod that has four pairs of segmented legs (i.e., the legs are
made up of sections) and includes scorpions, spiders, and ticks, p. 77.
Arthropod—a type of animal that has jointed limbs and a body made up of
segments, such as crustaceans (crabs), arachnids (spiders), and insects
(mosquitoes), p. 77.
Bacteria—single-celled, microscopic organisms that lack chlorophyll and are the most
diverse group of all living organisms, p. 76.
Bloodborne pathogens—pathogenic microorganisms that are present in human blood
and can cause disease in humans. These pathogens include, but are not limited to,
hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), p. 86.
Exposure incident—an incident involving the contact of blood (or other potentially
infectious materials) with an eye, mouth, other mucous membrane, or nonintact
skin, which results from the performance of an employee’s duties, p. 92.
Fungi—plantlike organisms that obtain nutrients by breaking down decaying matter
and absorbing the substances into their cells. They are similar to algae but do not
contain chlorophyll, p. 77.
Host—an organism whose body provides nourishment and shelter for another,
smaller organism, p. 76.
Infectious—capable of infecting or spreading disease, p. 76.
Microorganism—a very small form of life, often viewable only through a microscope,
that includes viruses, bacteria, algae, and fungi, p. 75.
Pathogen—an infectious microorganism, such as bacteria or a virus, that can cause
disease, p. 76.
Protein allergen—an allergen caused by substances produced by vertebrate animals,
including blood, feces, hair, and dead skin, p. 86.
Toxin—a poisonous substance that can harm living organisms, p. 85.
Universal precautions—an approach to infection control. According to the concept of
universal precautions, all human blood and certain human body fluids are treated
as if known to be infectious for HIV, HBV, and other bloodborne pathogens, p. 89.
Venom—a poisonous substance produced by some animals (such as snakes and
spiders) and transmitted to prey or an enemy by biting or stinging, p. 78.

4.1 Introduction
The practice of biological safety began as a result of biological warfare research conducted
during the 1950s and 1960s at Fort Detrick in Maryland. Concern for worker and commu-
nity safety led to the implementation of exhaustive precautions to prevent the exposure and
release of biological hazards. These precautions provided the foundation of today’s biologi-
cal safety programs.
Biological hazards are hazards caused by living organisms or parts or products of organ-
isms that can generate an adverse response when they come into contact with the body.
Following are the most common biological hazards a process technician might face:

• Microorganisms (e.g., viruses, bacteria, and fungi) (Figure 4.1)

• Arthropods (e.g., spiders and insects)
• Poisonous snakes (e.g., rattlesnakes, cottonmouths, copperheads, and coral snakes)
• Plant allergens and toxins (e.g., pollen, poison ivy, and poison oak)
• Protein allergens (e.g., urine, feces, blood, hair, or dander from vertebrate animals)
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 75

Figure 4.1 Microorganisms

are one of the biological haz-
ards a process technician may
encounter.
CREDIT: A. Kateryna Kon/Shutterstock. B.
Dmitry Kalinovsky/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Biological Hazards Overview

The potential for most process technicians to become exposed to biological hazards is minor
when compared to the potential for exposure to physical or chemical hazards in the pro-
cess industries (with the exception of technicians working in the food processing industry,
who could face biological hazards on a regular basis). However, many biological agents
(e.g., anthrax, smallpox) can be used as bioweapons, delivered through various methods
such as the mail or air dispersal, as part of a terrorist attack or other similar acts (discussed
in more detail in Chapter 14, Physical Security and Cybersecurity).
The effects of exposure to biological agents can be just as toxic and life threatening as the
effects of exposure to many physical and chemical agents. This chapter addresses the more
common biological hazards to which a process technician may be exposed, and some of the
precautions a worker can take to prevent exposure.
The goal of biological safety is to minimize worker exposure to biological hazards
through anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of these hazards.
Process technicians may encounter biological hazards through many routine tasks or
emergency situations. Some examples include the following:

• Encountering a black widow spider while inspecting equipment

• Being bitten by mosquitoes, wasps, or bees while working outside
• Stumbling across a snake or other animals while servicing equipment in a remote area
of the plant
• Being exposed to infectious body fluids while attending to an injured coworker
• Coming into contact with harmful bacteria in the cooling water while performing main-
tenance on a cooling tower
• Coming into contact with mouse or bird droppings/urine while cleaning a
warehouse.

Microorganism Hazards
Microorganisms (also called microbes) are very small forms of life that can be seen only with Microorganism a very small form
the aid of a microscope. Examples of microorganisms include viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, of life, often viewable only through a
microscope, that includes viruses,
and protozoans. bacteria, algae, and fungi.
Process technicians are typically not exposed to microorganisms any more than work-
ers in most other occupations, but they should still be aware of what microorganisms are
and how they can be hazardous. Because it is beyond the scope of this text to discuss every
microorganism and its hazards, this chapter is intended to provide only a general overview.
However, workers at a facility are urged to observe contractors, visitors, and other workers
for signs of symptoms, infections, contaminations, or skin irritations and report these to
supervisors or medical personnel.
76 Chapter 4

Did You Know?

Legionnaires’ disease is a form of pneumonia. It is called
Legionnaires’ disease because the first known outbreak
occurred in a hotel that was hosting an American Legion
convention. In that outbreak, more than 200 people con-
tracted this previously unknown type of bacterial pneumonia,
and 34 people died. The source of the bacterium was found
to be contaminated water used to cool the air in the hotel’s
air-conditioning system.

CREDIT: ND700/Shutterstock.

Did You Know?

Viruses are between living and nonliving. If they are float-
ing around in the air or sitting on a doorknob, they are
inert and are as alive as a rock. But if they come into
contact with a suitable plant, animal, or bacterial cell
(called a host), they spring into action and infect the cell,
much like a pirate hijacking a ship.

CREDIT: Dreamerb/Shutterstock.

Viruses
Host an organism whose body Viruses, the simplest of all organisms, cannot live and reproduce outside of a host (an organ-
provides nourishment and shelter for ism whose body provides nourishment and shelter for another). Viruses are parasites because
another, smaller organism.
they are organisms that live in or on the living tissue of a host organism at the expense of
that host. They are also infectious, meaning they are capable of infecting a host or spreading
Infectious capable of infecting or
spreading disease. disease. Viruses can be found anywhere there are host cells to infect. Viruses live to repro-
duce and are a common pathogen.
Pathogen an infectious Most viruses harm specific types of organisms but cause no reaction in others. For exam-
microorganism, such as bacteria or a
ple, some viruses target plants but do not affect humans. However, some diseases such as
virus, that can cause disease.
bird flu, hantavirus, and Ebola have crossed over from one species to another.
Viruses are unaffected by antibiotics, the drugs used to kill bacteria. Instead these infec-
tions are best controlled by preventing transmission, administering vaccines (substances that
help the immune system respond to and resist disease), and in some cases administering
antiviral drugs.
In the workplace, government regulations address two types of viruses: the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which can lead to acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS), and the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which can cause liver problems. HIV and HBV are
categorized as bloodborne pathogens under OSHA regulations. Bloodborne pathogens are
described in a separate section later in this chapter.

Bacteria
Bacteria single-celled, microscopic Bacteria (single-celled, microscopic organisms that lack chlorophyll) are the most diverse
organisms that lack chlorophyll and group of living organisms, and are more complex than viruses. Bacteria are found all over
are the most diverse group of all living
organisms. the world, from dirt to water to air. They can live in temperatures above the boiling point or
below freezing. Bacteria can multiply rapidly. A majority of them have no effect or are even
beneficial to humans, animals, and plants. However, some can cause harm.
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 77

Did You Know?

We are all exposed to mold on a daily basis without
evident harm. However, when present in large quanti-
ties, mold can cause allergic reactions and respiratory
ailments. Proper personal protective equipment (e.g.,
gloves, a respirator, and eye protection) should always
be used when working in areas where large quantities
of mold are present.
CREDIT: Riopatuca/Shutterstock.

Although it is unlikely, a process technician could come into contact with harmful bac-
teria (like Legionella, which causes a pneumonialike disorder called Legionnaires’ disease)
during tasks involving equipment that uses hot or cold water systems, such as heat exchang-
ers or cooling towers. As long as equipment is properly designed, operated, and maintained,
it is not likely that a process technician will be exposed to harmful bacteria.

Algae
Algae (simple plantlike organisms that grow in water) contain chlorophyll and obtain their Algae simple, plantlike organisms
energy from the sun and their carbon from carbon dioxide (through the process of photo- which grow in water, contain
chlorophyll, and obtain their energy
synthesis). Algae produce a considerable amount of oxygen during photosynthesis. Algae from the sun and their carbon
are found in fresh and salt water around the world. Some forms of algae (e.g., blue-green from carbon dioxide (through
algae) can be harmful to people, causing symptoms such as rashes, headaches, nausea, and photosynthesis).
vomiting. The likelihood of encountering harmful algae while working as a process techni-
cian, however, is very small.

Fungi
Fungi (plantlike organisms that obtain nutrients by breaking down decaying matter and Fungi plantlike organisms that
absorbing the substances into their cells) are similar to algae, although they do not contain obtain nutrients by breaking down
decaying matter and absorbing the
chlorophyll. Fungi grow best in moist, dark areas. Examples of fungi include yeasts and substances into their cells. They are
molds. similar to algae but do not contain
Fungi can be helpful or harmful, depending on the type. For example, the antibiotic chlorophyll.
penicillin comes from a fungus (Penicillium notatum). The yeast we use to make bread and
brew beer is also a fungus. Both of these are helpful fungi.
A few types of fungi, however, can harm humans by causing respiratory problems and
other ailments (e.g., sick building syndrome and athlete’s foot). However, most process
technicians will not encounter these harmful types of fungi during normal operations.

Protozoa
Protozoa (one-celled animals that are larger and more complex than bacteria) hunt other
microorganisms, such as bacteria. Protozoa produce nitrogen as they eat. Amoebas are a
type of protozoa. The vast majority of protozoa are not harmful, but a few can cause disease
Arthropod a type of animal that
(e.g., malaria, which is transmitted by mosquitoes). Protozoa can cause a wide range of has jointed limbs and a body made
problems, from ulcers to diarrhea and more serious symptoms. The likelihood that a process up of segments, such as crustaceans
technician will encounter harmful protozoans during normal operations is remote. (crabs), arachnids (spiders), and
insects (mosquitoes).

Arthropods Arachnid a class of arthropod that

Arthropods are a group of animals that have jointed limbs, a segmented body, and a hard has four pairs of segmented legs (i.e.,
the legs are made up of sections)
exoskeleton. Examples of arthropods include crustaceans (e.g., crabs), arachnids (e.g., spi- and includes scorpions, spiders, and
ders and scorpions), and insects (e.g., mosquitoes and ants). ticks.
78 Chapter 4

Process facilities provide good habitats for arachnids and insects because the vari-
ous warehouses, tanks, and equipment provide an ideal environment in which to thrive.
Process technicians may come across arachnids in dark recesses or insects when perform-
ing routine tasks around the facility. Because of this, individuals with known allergies to
stings may wish to carry an epinephrine injecting device such as an EpiPen® in the event
they are bitten or stung. Individuals who carry an EpiPen ® should notify coworkers,
so they can assist you if you are bitten and unable to get to your epinephrine injecting
device.

Spiders
All spiders are venomous, but most species cause only a mild reaction (slight pain and
swelling) if they bite a person. In North America, the black widow spider and brown recluse
spider are the only two highly venomous spiders. Spiders are rarely aggressive, biting people
only when threatened or hurt.
Characteristics of black widow spiders include a shiny black appearance with long legs
and a distinctive reddish-orange hourglass marking underneath the body. Typically, black
widows grow to about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in length. Black widows prefer to nest in dark areas,
especially in corners (Figure 4.2A).

Figure 4.2 A. Black widow

spider. B. Brown recluse spider.
CREDIT: A. Maria Jeffs/Shutterstock.
B. Miles Boyer/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Black widow bites cause immediate swelling and pain. The bite victim can also experi-
ence muscle cramps for 6 to 24 hours. Victims rarely die from a bite, but immediate medical
attention must be sought.
The brown recluse spider features a golden brown appearance, long legs, and a dark,
fiddle-shaped mark on its head. Typically, brown recluse spiders grow to about 1/2 inch
(1.3 cm) in length. Brown recluses, which are primarily found in the Midwestern United
States, prefer living in dark areas and underneath objects (Figure 4.2B).
Brown recluse spider bites often do not hurt immediately. Pain can occur later and a
blister can form anywhere from four to eight hours after the bite. Victims rarely die from a
bite, but immediate medical attention must be sought. If possible, the spider should be killed
and brought with the victim for identification, since the tissue around a brown recluse bite
can be severely damaged by the toxin and could require a skin graft.
As mentioned, the risk of a spider bite can be reduced by visually inspecting any dark,
confined areas with a flashlight before reaching your hand into the area and by making sure
to wear tough work gloves and long sleeves. If you spot a black widow or brown recluse
Venom a poisonous substance
produced by some animals (such as spider, spray it with insecticide if the work environment permits. If not, use a long-handled
snakes and spiders) and transmitted tool to remove or kill the spider.
to prey or an enemy by biting or If you are bitten by a spider, place ice on the bite to slow the spread of the venom, and
stinging.
then report the bite to your supervisor and seek medical attention.
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 79

Ticks
Ticks, which are relatives of spiders and scorpions, have oval bodies with eight legs and
live throughout North America. They feed on the blood of animals. Ticks can carry diseases
(e.g., Lyme disease) that can be transferred to humans as the ticks feed (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3 Deer ticks can

spread Lyme disease.
CREDIT: Steven Ellingson/Shutterstock.

Ticks cannot move quickly, jump, or fly, so they cling to tall grass, brush and shrubs,
or low-hanging trees and wait for an animal to come by and come into contact with them.
Individuals working in areas with this type of vegetation should avoid brushing up against
it if possible and should check clothing and skin for ticks on a regular basis. You may also
choose to wear insect repellent with DEET as an ingredient. DEET is effective but should be
used with caution directly on the skin.
If you locate a tick on your body, you should have an onsite medical staff member
remove it for you. If you do not have access to medical staff, remove the tick using small-
tipped tweezers. Grasp the tick with the tweezers or one of the commercially available tick
removal tools as close as possible to the skin, and then slowly but firmly pull the tick off the
skin. If you do not have tweezers, you can cover the tick with petroleum jelly or some other
similar substance (just make sure it will not harm your skin) to suffocate it. However, the
tick will take a while to die this way. It is best to use tweezers. Do not try to burn the tick off
or kill it while it is still attached to the skin.

Scorpions
Scorpions tend to live in desertlike climates and other areas around the southwestern United
States, but they can also be found in forests, prairies, grasslands, mountains, or along sea-
shores. There are 20 different types of scorpions in the United States (Figure 4.4).
Scorpions range in color from tan to dark brown. They have eight legs and a flat body
with two crab claw-like pinchers. The curved tail has a stinger on the end that the scorpion
uses to kill prey and defend itself. Scorpions are typically nocturnal, meaning they are active
mostly at night. During the day, they hide underneath rocks or in dark crevices.
Scorpion stings cause symptoms similar to black widow bites (e.g., pain and swelling).
Victims rarely die from a sting, but immediate medical attention must be sought.
To reduce the risk of a scorpion sting, visually inspect any dark, confined areas with
a flashlight before reaching your hand into the area. Make sure you wear tough work
gloves and long sleeves. If you spot a scorpion, spray it with insecticide if the work
environment permits it. If not, use a long-handled tool to remove or kill the scorpion.
When changing clothes or putting on shoes or boots, inspect for scorpions prior to put-
ting them on.
80 Chapter 4

Figure 4.4 Scorpion.

CREDIT: Audrey Snider-Bell/Shutterstock.

Insects
Process technicians may come into contact with a variety of insects during their normal job
duties. Some of the most common insects include mosquitoes, fire ants, and bees.

Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes can carry many diseases including Zika virus, St. Louis encephalitis, and West
Nile virus (WNV) (Figure 4.5). Infected mosquitoes can transmit these diseases to humans
through a bite. Zika virus is a virus that can cause severe defects in fetuses. St. Louis Enceph-
alitis is an illness that causes the brain to become swollen and inflamed. West Nile virus is an
illness that causes a range of symptoms, from mild ones similar to the flu to life-threatening
ones that can have neurologic effects.

Figure 4.5 Mosquitos are a

vector that can carry numerous
diseases. They breed in areas
with standing water.
CREDIT: KPL/Shutterstock. B. David Gilder/
Shutterstock.

A. B.

In temperate regions of North America, mosquito-borne viruses are believed to be sea-

sonal, occurring most often in summer and continuing until fall when cold weather comes
and mosquitoes die off. In southern states, mosquito populations can remain high year-
round, so the threat of infected mosquitoes remains high.
Zika virus may cause symptoms of mild fever, rash, headache, joint or muscle pain,
or conjunctivitis, or may cause no symptoms. Very few people become sick enough from
Zika virus to go to the hospital, and deaths from the virus are rare. However, Zika virus in
a pregnant woman or in either partner within 3 months of conception can cause a serious
birth defect in which the fetal brain does not develop (microcephaly).
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 81

With St. Louis encephalitis, symptoms can occur anywhere from 5 to 15 days after the
bite. Mild cases can result in symptoms such as fever and headache. Severe cases can result
in high fever, neck stiffness, disorientation, coma, tremors, convulsions, and spastic paralysis.
Some cases can lead to death, especially in older people.
With WNV, approximately four out of five people infected with it will not show any
symptoms. Only 1 in 1,000 dies from the disease. If you are bitten by a mosquito carry-
ing WNV, any symptoms that develop will occur from three days to two weeks after the
bite. Symptoms can include flulike symptoms such as fever, aches, nausea, headaches, and
possibly a rash or swollen lymph glands. These symptoms can last between a few days to
several weeks. In extreme cases of WNV, symptoms can include high fevers, neck stiffness,
severe headaches, confusion, disorientation, vision loss, tremors, paralysis, and coma. These
symptoms can last several weeks, while neurological effects may be permanent. Symptoms
should be reported and medical attention should be sought for suspected infection.
If you suspect you have a mosquito-borne virus, seek medical attention immediately.
Treatments will vary based on symptoms and complications (if any). Risk of exposure to
these viruses is low, but technicians should still take steps to protect themselves. For exam-
ple, mosquitoes feed most often during daybreak or dusk, so technicians should work inside
during those times, if possible. Technicians who must go outside during these times should
wear thick, long-sleeve clothing. For extra protection, a technician can use an insect repellent,
particularly one containing at least 20 percent DEET.
NOTE: Check with a supervisor prior to application, since insect repellent can be detri-
mental to certain types of clothing and personal protective equipment.
Apply insect repellent only to exposed, intact skin and avoid overuse of the product.
Follow product directions and reapplication instructions. Do not apply repellent to cuts,
wounds, or irritated skin or spray it on the face. Spray repellent onto the hands and then
rub it on the face, avoiding the mouth and eyes.
Stagnant water, which can collect at various areas around the plant, is the perfect breed-
ing ground for mosquitoes. Technicians who must work in areas with standing water should
protect themselves as much as possible.

Fire Ants
Fire ants are approximately 1.5 mm long, red and black in color, extremely aggressive, and
inflict a painful sting. Fire ant stings cause small, itchy blisters to form. Nests are shaped like
a dome, and if disturbed, the ants send signals to swarm and attack (Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6 Fire ants are part of

the family that also contains bees
and wasps.
CREDIT: SweetCrisis/Shutterstock.

If you encounter fire ants, do not disturb the mound. If ants come in contact with the
skin, do not move rapidly; this causes more ants to attack. Calmly brush or rinse them off.
Apply a cold compress to the affected areas. Wash the area gently with soap and water, leav-
ing the blisters intact. Avoid scratching. If you are allergic, seek medical attention.
82 Chapter 4

Bees, Wasps, and Hornets

Much media coverage has been given to Africanized bees (also called “killer bees”), which
are much more aggressive than other honeybees and have killed people and animals. Most
deaths occur when the person is unable to get away from the bees quickly.
Bees swarm in the spring and fall, looking for a new location to make a hive. They like
to build hives in crevices and holes. If you encounter bees, do not swat at them. If they start
stinging you, run away and get indoors as quickly as possible. Honeybees might chase
for up to 50 yards (about 45 meters), while Africanized bees might continue to chase for
150–200 yards or more (about 135–180 meters). Like honeybees, wasps (Figure 4.7) and
hornets attack when their hives are disturbed; they may become more aggressive at certain
times of the year. Whenever stinging insects attack, the best first response is to get away
quickly.

Figure 4.7 Wasp.

CREDIT: Ruth Swan/Shutterstock.

If you are stung, gently brush off any stingers with your fingernail or the edge of a
driver’s license or credit card. Do not try to pinch or pull the stinger out; this can squeeze
more venom into the wound. Apply a cold compress to the affected area. If you are allergic
or are stung repeatedly, seek medical attention immediately.

Poisonous Snakes
Four types of poisonous snakes reside in North America: rattlesnakes, cottonmouths (also
referred to as water moccasins), copperheads, and coral snakes.
Rattlesnakes range across North America and reach lengths anywhere from 15 inches
to 100 inches (0.4 to 2.5 meters). Rattlesnakes vary in color and markings but are generally
gray, green, or tan with dark markings and a distinctive rattle on the tail.
Cottonmouth snakes (water moccasins) are considered very aggressive and danger-
ous. They reside in the southern/central United States in lowland areas near water. Cotton-
mouths can reach lengths up to 75 inches (almost 2 meters). They are mostly dark in color.
Copperhead snakes (Figure 4.8) reside in many southern, central, and lower eastern
states. Their copper coloring features reddish-brown crossbands on their backs. Copper-
heads can reach lengths of 20 to 54 inches (0.5 to 1.4 meters).
Coral snakes live in many southern and central states. They grow from 13 to 48 inches
long (0.3 to 1.2 meters), and have distinctive red, yellow, and black bands (the red and yel-
low bands touch, prompting the familiar saying “red and yellow kill a fellow”). They are
extremely venomous.
Snakes like to make their home under cover or in cramped, covered spaces. Most poi-
sonous snakes are not aggressive and will not strike if left alone. If you encounter a snake
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 83

Figure 4.8 The copperhead.

CREDIT: Makasana photo/Shutterstock.

while working, freeze in place immediately, then slowly back away. A general rule is to keep
at least six feet between you and a snake, since it can typically strike at a distance equal to
only half of its body length.
According to the American Red Cross, you should take the following steps if bitten:

• Wash the bite with soap and water.

• Immobilize the area with the bite (typically an arm or leg) and keep it lower than the
heart.
• Get immediate medical attention. Note: It will help the medical staff if the type of snake
can be identified. Phone ahead so the proper antivenin (antitoxin) can be obtained before
the snakebite victim arrives.

If immediate medical care cannot be reached within about 30 minutes, two other options
may be tried. A bandage can be lightly wrapped about 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) above the
bite, if feasible. This can help slow the spread of venom. However, the person administer-
ing first aid should make sure the bandage is not wrapped so tightly that blood flow is cut
off. The bandage should be loose enough to slip a finger under it. Also, some snakebite kits
come with a suction device to help draw venom from the wound. Follow the instructions
with the kit, but do not make any incisions. Tourniquets, ice, incisions, or any other treat-
ments are discouraged.
To avoid snakebites, visually inspect any dark, confined areas with a flashlight before
reaching your hand into the area. Make sure you wear tough work gloves and long sleeves.
If you are walking through tall grass, watch where you step and wear thick boots. In general,
stay alert.

Animals
Animals you might encounter on the job can also present a hazard. For example, bites from
animals such as mice, raccoons, dogs, and cats can be painful and dangerous. Animals can
carry rabies, and they can infect you through a bite.
Alligators are also considered dangerous. They can move very quickly over a short
distance and on rare occasions have been known to attack people.
In remote work areas, you could encounter predators such as mountain lions and bears.
Even animals like elk and caribou can be dangerous and attack if you come too close or
provoke them.
The best recommendation is to leave plenty of distance between yourself and any ani-
mals, whether wild or domesticated. In most cases, if you leave them alone they will leave
you alone. If you have to reach into dark spaces, make sure you wear thick gloves and use
a flashlight to illuminate the area first.
84 Chapter 4

Did You Know?

Process technicians working in remote regions of Alaska
must watch out for polar bears and caribou as they
make their rounds!

CREDIT: Dennis W Donohue/Shutterstock.

Allergens and Toxins

The human immune system protects the body against harmful substances like viruses and
bacteria. However, some people have overly sensitive immune systems that react to gener-
ally harmless substances, such as pollen and dust. This is called an allergic reaction and
Allergen a substance that causes results in a misdirected response by the immune system to the allergen (the substance, such
an allergic reaction or unhealthy as smoke, that is causing the reaction). Types of immune reactions can vary from rash or
response by the body’s immune
system. hives to life-threatening anaphylaxis (a life-threatening allergic reaction that can result in
shock, respiratory failure, cardiac failure, or death if left untreated).
Anaphylaxis a rare, life- An allergic reaction triggers the immune system to produce antibodies to fight the aller-
threatening, allergic reaction that gen. Antibodies initiate the release of histamine and other chemicals that cause the symp-
can result in shock, respiratory toms of the allergic response. Allergens can include pollen, mold, dust, animal dander (tiny
failure, cardiac failure, or death if left
untreated. cells of dead skin), certain foods (e.g., peanuts and strawberries), cockroach droppings, and
more. The types of substances that cause allergic reactions, and the amount of immune
system response, vary from person to person. It is important to know this because some
materials and additives used in processes can potentially cause reactions (e.g., itching, rash,
shortness of breath, or anaphylaxis) in some individuals.

Plant Allergens
In this section, we will briefly address plant allergens. Later sections will address protein
allergens (reactions to animal-based substances such as skin and hair) and plant toxins
(e.g., poison ivy).
Allergic reactions to plants can produce the following symptoms:

• Itching (e.g., eyes, nose, mouth, skin)

• Coughing
• Sneezing
• Difficulty breathing
• Nasal congestion or runny nose
• Watering eyes
• Headache
• Impaired sense of smell

Symptoms can appear anywhere from a few minutes to an hour after exposure. The
severity of symptoms varies by person. Some highly sensitive individuals may experience
hives, rashes, rapid heart rate, a drop in blood pressure, and even anaphylaxis.
Allergies are common, and can be influenced by heredity and environmental conditions.
Pollens from trees, grass, and flowers are the most common plant allergens. Conditions that
promote the distribution of allergens are hot, dry, and windy weather. Wet weather washes
the pollens to the ground. Trees tend to produce pollen in spring, grasses and flowers pro-
duce pollen during summer, and ragweed and other late-blooming plants produce pollen
during late summer to early fall.
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 85

Treatment for allergic symptoms varies, but the best approach is to avoid exposure as
much as possible. Check with your doctor to determine your specific allergens.
During days with high allergen counts (usually reported in the local news), stay in an
air-conditioned environment as much as possible. If you must work outside, consider wear-
ing protective goggles and a mask or filter over your mouth and nose.
Make sure your employer is aware of any allergies you have. Also, know what the
potential side effects of your allergy medication are, such as drowsiness and slower reaction
times. Such effects can impact safety.

Plant Toxins
Certain plants, such as poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac have toxins that can cause Toxin a poisonous substance that
allergic reactions, with symptoms such as redness, swelling, and an itchy, blistery rash. can harm living organisms.
These fragile plants create a natural defense: an oily substance that causes extreme irrita-
tion to people and animals that come into contact with it. Almost 75 percent of people who
come into contact with the oil are allergic to it.
Poison ivy grows as a low vine or shrub. Its three green, shining leaflets with notched
edges make it easy to identify. In fall, the leaflets turn bright red, then yellow. Poison ivy
grows throughout the United States (Figure 4.9A).

Figure 4.9 A. Poison ivy.

B. Poison oak.
CREDIT: A. Tim Mainiero/Shutterstock.
B. ShutterstockProfessional/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Poison oak is a shrub with three- to seven-lobed leaflets, with a hairy appearance under-
neath each leaflet. It grows mainly in the northwestern and western states (Figure 4.9B).
Poison sumac is a shrub with smooth leaflets and white, drooping berries. It grows
primarily in the eastern and central United States in damp environments.
The following are some common symptoms of plant toxins:

• Redness
• Swelling
• Rash
• Blisters
• Itchiness

Rashes caused by plant toxins typically disappear in one to two weeks. If you are
exposed, avoid scratching the rash and keep your hands away from your eyes, mouth, or
other sensitive areas. A variety of treatments are available from drugstores. If you experience
severe redness, rash on your mouth, eyes, genitals, or over a large area of your body, seek
medical attention. These are indications of a strong allergic reaction.
If you experience any of the following symptoms after exposure, seek immediate medi-
cal attention:

• Swollen lips, throat, or tongue

• Bluish lips or mouth
86 Chapter 4

• Difficulty breathing
• Difficulty swallowing
• Weakness or dizziness

Toxic plants are often hard to control. Even if they are sprayed or uprooted, new plants
can grow nearby. Toxic plants should never be burned, since the oil can be carried by the
smoke and can cause a serious reaction to anyone inhaling it.
It is best to avoid contact with these plants, if possible. However, the oil can get on shoes
or clothing that brushes against the plant. Then, when you touch or remove the clothing,
your skin comes into contact with the oil. Also, if you have the oil on your skin and touch
another person within 15 minutes of exposure, you can transfer the oil.
If you suspect that you have come into contact with a poisonous plant, you should take
the following steps.

• Remove all affected clothing and shoes (using gloves if possible) and wash them in hot
water and a strong detergent.
• Thoroughly wash affected skin with soap and water immediately, at least several times.
It takes approximately 15 minutes for the oil to penetrate the skin and cause damage.

Protein Allergens
Protein allergen an allergen Protein allergens cause similar reactions to those listed in the Plant Allergen section. Animal
caused by substances produced by urine, feces, blood, hair, and dander (dead skin) can all cause allergic reactions in people.
vertebrate animals, including blood,
feces, hair, and dead skin. Foods can also cause allergic reactions. For example, peanuts, milk, shellfish, and strawber-
ries are just some of the foods that can cause an allergic reaction.
If you work around food products or come into contact with other potential protein
allergens (such as mouse droppings in a warehouse) watch carefully for signs of an allergic
reaction. In some people, latex gloves can also cause an allergic reaction. If you have a latex
allergy and must wear protective gloves for your job, ask your employer about latex-free
gloves. There are also certain chemicals (such as those in the amine family) to which a person
can become allergic; these are referred to as sensitizers.

Did You Know?

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is a deadly dis-
ease transmitted by infected rodents (specifically deer
mice) through urine, droppings, or saliva. Humans can
contract the disease when they breathe in the aerosol-
ized virus.
Rodent control in and around the home and work
environments remains the primary strategy for prevent-
ing hantavirus infection.
CREDIT: EcoPrint/Shutterstock.

4.2 Bloodborne Pathogens

Bloodborne pathogens Bloodborne pathogens refer to microorganisms (such as viruses or bacteria) present in
pathogenic microorganisms that are human blood that can cause disease in people. Examples of such pathogens include hepatitis
present in human blood and can
cause disease in humans. These B virus (HBV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), malaria, and syphilis.
pathogens include, but are not limited HIV and hepatitis B, along with other bloodborne pathogens, can be transmitted through
to, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human contact with blood and other potentially infected body fluids (e.g., semen, vaginal secretions,
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
saliva, mucus or any body fluid visibly contaminated with blood).
The most common way a process technician can be exposed to bloodborne pathogens
on the job is through first aid. Some plants require process technicians to become certified
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 87

in first aid and to agree to provide first aid to any coworker who may be in need. Although
no hard evidence exists that HIV can be transmitted through saliva, giving CPR to a victim
is considered another potential way to be exposed.

Hepatitis B
There are several different types of hepatitis. The OSHA standard addresses the hepatitis
B virus (HBV). Hepatitis B, transmitted most often through “blood to blood” contact, infects
the liver and causes inflammation or more serious conditions such as cirrhosis or liver can-
cer. There is a vaccine for HBV (Figure 4.10). Many health workers and first responders are
required to get this vaccine.

Figure 4.10 Vaccines can help

prevent the transmission of hepa-
titis B. The hepatitis B vaccine
protects against serious disease
that causes inflammation and
damage to the liver.
CREDIT: Sherry Yates Young/Shutterstock.

Each year, around 300,000 Americans become infected with HBV. Only a small percent-
age of those cases result in a fatality. Hepatitis B has no specific treatment or cure. A person
who is infected can develop antibodies that fight the infection and protect the person from
getting HBV again.
Since there are different types of hepatitis (e.g., hepatitis A and C), having contracted
HBV does not protect someone from those other types. The hepatitis B virus can survive
for up to seven days in dried blood. This puts anyone who comes into contact with fresh
or dried blood at risk. HBV symptoms can take anywhere from one to nine months
to occur.
Early symptoms of HBV resemble a mild flu and can include the following:
• Fatigue
• Stomach pain
• Appetite loss
• Nausea

As the HBV infection progresses, symptoms can include the following:

• Jaundice (yellow appearance of eyes and skin)

• Darkened urine

If you think you have been exposed to hepatitis B, check with a doctor immediately,
especially if you are experiencing any symptoms.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a disease that attacks and weakens a person’s
immune system, preventing it from fighting other deadly diseases. The infection is transmit-
ted only through specific body fluids: blood, genital fluids, and breast milk. Currently, there
is no vaccine to prevent HIV, and there is no cure, but today's treatments allow most people
88 Chapter 4

to live long and healthy lives and help prevent transmission of HIV to others. From the time
a person contracts HIV, it can be many years before AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
syndrome) develops. Initially, the person may be unaware of having the infection and not
show any symptoms. AIDS is the end stage of HIV.
Although the chances of contracting HIV in a work environment are slim, proper pre-
cautions should be taken to avoid exposure. HIV does not survive long outside a human
body, so fresh blood or other potentially infectious materials pose the greatest HIV risk to
first responders (fire fighters, EMTs, police) and medical personnel. However, anyone pro-
viding immediate first aid to a victim is also at risk.
If you think you have been exposed to HIV or are experiencing any symptoms (flulike
symptoms, fatigue), see a health care specialist immediately.

Transmission of HIV and HBV

HIV and hepatitis B are most commonly transmitted in the following ways:

• Sexual contact
• Sharing of hypodermic needles
• From mothers to babies before or during birth
• A puncture from a contaminated needle, broken glass, or other sharp object
• Contact between damaged or broken skin and infected bodily fluids and materials
• Contact between mucous membranes and infected bodily fluids and materials

Anytime there is blood-to-blood contact or contact with other bodily fluids, there is a
chance for infection. Skin can provide an impervious barrier to bloodborne pathogens. That
is why it is critical to protect yourself against punctures from contaminated needles, broken
glass, and other sharp objects. Skin can be damaged in various ways, (e.g., cuts, wounds,
open sores, acne, sunburn, blisters, and abrasions). If bloodborne pathogens come into con-
tact with broken or damaged skin, there is a chance of infection. Bloodborne pathogens can
also be transmitted by contact with mucous membranes, the internal, mucous-secreting lin-
ing of the mouth, nasal sinuses, eyes, stomach, intestines, and many other parts of the body.
For example, if blood or other bodily fluids were to splash your face, bloodborne patho-
gens could enter through your eyes, nose, or mouth. Eyes are considered a vulnerable body
part for the transmission of bloodborne pathogens. Thus, many medical personnel wear face
shields (Figure 4.11) or protective glasses when working in situations where blood or body
fluids could be splashed or atomized.

Figure 4.11 Face shields help

prevent the transmission of blood-
borne pathogens.
CREDIT: Eremin Sergey/Shutterstock.
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 89

Universal Precautions
Universal precautions are a strategy to prevent exposure to bloodborne pathogens, such as Universal precautions an
HIV and hepatitis B. The basic premise of universal precaution is as follows: approach to infection control.
According to the concept of universal
precautions, all human blood and
Always treat blood and other bodily fluids or materials as if they are infectious, certain human body fluids are
treated as if known to be infectious
and avoid any direct contact with them. for HIV, HBV, and other bloodborne
pathogens.

Use this approach with every individual and for every source of blood or other potentially
infectious materials, and in every situation use proper procedures for minimizing exposure.
Common universal precaution methods include using personal protective equipment
(e.g., disposable clothing, gloves, face shield), disinfecting contaminated surfaces, disposing
of contaminated materials properly in a biohazard container (Figure 4.12), and removing
any contaminated clothing and isolating it so it can be disposed of or properly laundered.

Figure 4.12 Sharps and

biohazardous materials should
always be placed in appropriate
containers.
CREDIT: Sto/Shutterstock.

Along with the universal precaution strategy, there are some basic procedures to follow.
These include hand washing, not eating or drinking in work areas where bloodborne patho-
gens might be present, and practicing proper decontamination or sterilization procedures.
Hand washing is a critical practice to prevent transmission of bloodborne pathogens.
Always wash your hands immediately after removing any gloves or other personal protec-
tive equipment (such as face shields or aprons). If you are ever exposed to a bloodborne
pathogen, thoroughly wash your hands and other exposed skin immediately, using a soft,
antibacterial soap (Figure 4.13). Avoid using a harsh, abrasive soap since it could damage
your skin or open existing sores or wounds, thereby increasing the risk of infection.

Figure 4.13 Wash with a non-

abrasive antibacterial soap to help
prevent the transmission of blood-
borne pathogens.
CREDIT: Komsan Loonprom/Shutterstock.
90 Chapter 4

Your facility should provide hand washing equipment and supplies. Familiarize your-
self with hand washing stations close to your work area. If you do not have access to such
a station, you can use an antiseptic cleanser along with clean cloth or paper towels. You can
also use antiseptic towelettes. Just make sure that you also wash your hands with soap and
running water as soon as possible.
If your work area has any reasonable chance of exposure to bloodborne pathogens, you
should never do any of the following while in that area:

• Eat
• Drink
• Apply cosmetics or lip balm
• Handle contact lenses
• Smoke

Universal Precautions were developed by the Center for Disease Control (CDC). OSHA
1910.1030(d)(1) provides for enforcement of Universal Precautions, stating that they “shall
be observed to prevent contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials. Under
circumstances in which differentiation between body fluid types is difficult or impossible,
all body fluids shall be considered potentially infectious materials.”

Personal Protective Equipment

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) relating to medical procedures is special clothing and
other equipment that is worn as a barrier of protection between an individual and any blood-
borne pathogens in the workplace. Wearing appropriate medical-related PPE (and wearing it
properly) should be your primary consideration when there is the possibility of exposure to
bloodborne pathogens (Figure 4.14). For example, wearing medical grade gloves is a simple
precaution for preventing blood or potentially infectious materials from contacting the skin.

Figure 4.14 Proper PPE

should always be worn when
working with blood or other body
fluids.
CREDIT: Dragon Images/Shutterstock.

Here are some guidelines to follow with PPE:

• Inspect your PPE thoroughly for wear and tear before putting it on.
• Make sure you know how to wear the PPE properly.
• Always remember to wear the appropriate PPE when there is a chance of exposure to
bloodborne pathogens.
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 91

• Remove and replace any PPE that no longer forms an effective barrier between you and
bloodborne pathogens.
• Remove your PPE before leaving your work area, and place it in appropriate bags or
containers for decontamination or disposal (make sure you know where these bags or
containers are before putting on the PPE).

Gloves are a vital form of PPE. Workers must wear gloves when their hands could come
into contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials. Also, gloves must be worn
when handling contaminated items (such as bloody bandages).
Gloves should be made of latex, nitrile, rubber, or any other material impervious to
water. Latex or vinyl gloves are not completely impermeable to bloodborne pathogens, so it
is acceptable to wear two sets of gloves if the material is thin or flimsy. This will provide an
added layer of protection. If you have any cuts, sores, or damaged skin on your hands, be
sure to bandage them before putting on any gloves.
Always inspect gloves for damage before use. You should remove contaminated gloves
as soon as feasibly possible. When removing gloves, take care to avoid touching the out-
side of the glove with exposed skin. Immediately after removing your gloves, wash your
hands thoroughly with soft, antibacterial soap. Dispose of contaminated gloves in a proper
container.
Anytime there is a risk of blood or bodily fluids splashing, you should wear appropri-
ate eye and face protection. Eye protection includes goggles and eyeglasses with solid side
shields. Face protection includes face shields and masks. Many facilities provide prescrip-
tion safety glasses (if not, you must provide your own), and also provide goggles or side
shields. Goggles can prevent bloodborne pathogens from contacting your eyes and mucous
membranes. Make sure the goggles fit securely against your face with no gaps. Eyeglasses
with side shields do not provide the same protection as goggles.
A surgical mask can protect the nose and mouth, while a chin-length face shield protects
the entire face. Make sure your mask or face shield is adjusted properly so it will not slide
down or fall off. Eye protection such as glasses or goggles can be worn under a face shield
for added protection.
Lab coats and aprons may be available to cover your clothing. If clothing becomes con-
taminated, remove it as soon as possible because fluids can seep through and come into
contact with your skin. Contaminated laundry should be handled as little as possible, and
it should be placed in an appropriately labeled bag or container until it is decontaminated,
disposed of, or laundered.
Other PPE can include mouthpieces, resuscitation bags, pocket masks, or other venti-
lation devices. If you are required to perform CPR, make sure to use a disposable mouth-
piece or similar device (Figure 4.15). Most of this PPE is included in first aid kits at a
facility.

Figure 4.15 CPR face shields

help prevent the transmission of
bloodborne pathogens through
saliva.
CREDIT: Quayside/Shutterstock.
92 Chapter 4

Your facility should provide instructions on what PPE is required for first aid, how to
properly wear it, where to place PPE when you leave the work area, and more.
If you ever experience a situation where you do not have appropriate PPE but must
react quickly, you can improvise by using plastic, a towel, or other materials to add a barrier
between you and the blood or bodily fluids.
Before entering a work environment that requires PPE you have never worn before,
make sure you know how to wear it properly. Also, locate the bags or containers where you
will place the PPE after its use. Placing PPE in bags or containers allows the plant to wash,
decontaminate, dispose of, or store the gear properly.

Exposure
Employers who can reasonably anticipate that employees may come into contact with blood
are required under the OSHA Bloodborne Pathogen standard to create a written Exposure
Control Plan. The plan is designed to eliminate or minimize employee exposure to blood-
borne pathogens.
The Exposure Control Plan contains sections on the following:

• Exposure determination
• Methods of compliance
• Hepatitis B vaccination and post-exposure evaluation and follow-up
• Communication of hazards to employees
• Record keeping

You should be able to obtain a copy of a facility’s Exposure Control Plan from the facil-
ity’s designated Compliance Officer.
If you are exposed to blood or other potentially infectious materials, you should act as
quickly as feasibly possible. Remove any PPE or garments that are soaked with fluids as soon
as possible. If you get any bodily fluids on your skin, thoroughly wash the affected area with
running water and soft, antibacterial soap. If you get blood or other fluids splashed in your
eyes, flush your eyes with running water for at least 15 minutes. Flush splashes to the nose
or mouth with running water as well.
After you have been exposed to blood or other potentially infectious materials, report
the incident to your supervisor. This is called an exposure incident. According to the
Exposure incident an incident OSHA standard, an exposure incident is “a specific eye, mouth, other mucous mem-
involving the contact of blood (or brane, non-intact skin, or parenteral (piercing mucous membranes or the skin barrier
other potentially infectious materials)
with an eye, mouth, other mucous through such events as needle sticks, human bites, cuts, and abrasions) contact with
membrane, or nonintact skin, which blood or other potentially infectious materials that results from the performance of an
results from the performance of an worker’s duties.”
employee’s duties.
After reporting the incident, contact a health care professional. Your employer will ask
you and the source individual to consent to blood testing as soon as possible after the expo-
sure incident. You can also seek risk counseling.

Decontamination and Housekeeping

All surfaces, tools, equipment, and other objects that come in contact with blood or poten-
tially infectious materials must be decontaminated and sterilized. Also, any PPE that is
soiled with blood and other infectious materials must be handled and cleaned or disposed
of properly.
Some process technician jobs require basic housekeeping tasks such as cleanup.
If you must perform these tasks as part of your job, make sure you familiarize your-
self with the Bloodborne Pathogens standard sections that cover decontamination and
housekeeping.
 Recognizing Biological Hazards 93

4.3 Government Regulations

OSHA created a standard covering occupational exposure to blood and other infectious
materials, 29 CFR 1910.1030 (the Bloodborne Pathogens Standard). The standard’s purpose
is to limit exposure to blood and other infectious materials, as a precaution against the trans-
mission of bloodborne pathogens from one person to another.
The standard applies in situations where it can be reasonably anticipated that an
employee’s job duties might cause exposure to blood or other infectious materials. OSHA
created three categories of work-related tasks to clarify this:

• Category I—job tasks routinely expose the employee to blood and other infectious
materials.
• Category II—job tasks do not involve routine exposure of the employee to blood and
other infectious materials, but some parts of the job may involve performing Category
I tasks.
• Category III—job tasks do not normally involve exposing the employee to blood or
other infectious materials.

Many process industry jobs fall under Category III. However, depending on the plant, some
job tasks might fall into Category II.
No matter the job task, it is still possible to be exposed to blood or other infectious mate-
rials if a coworker is injured. Always assume that all body fluids are contaminated and act
accordingly. Other aspects of bloodborne pathogens, such as legal implications, company
policies and procedures, AIDS education, employee rights, and related topics are outside
the scope of this textbook.

Summary
Biological hazards are hazards caused by living organisms, or To prevent the transmission of bloodborne pathogens,
parts or products of organisms that can generate an adverse technicians should always use universal precautions, the
response when they come into contact with the body. premise of which is to always treat blood or other bodily flu-
The most common biological hazards a process techni- ids or materials as if they are infectious, and avoid any direct
cian might face are microorganisms (e.g., viruses, bacteria, contact with them.
and fungi), arthropods (e.g., spiders and insects), poisonous In addition to avoiding contact with infectious materi-
snakes (e.g., rattlesnakes, cottonmouths, copperheads, and als, technicians should also wear proper personal protective
coral snakes), plant allergens and toxins (e.g., pollen, poison equipment, wash their hands thoroughly, practice proper
ivy, and poison oak), and protein allergens (e.g., urine, feces, decontamination and sterilization procedures and avoid eat-
blood, hair, or dander from vertebrate animals). ing, drinking, or smoking in areas where bloodborne patho-
Another hazard process technicians may face is blood- gens might be present.
borne pathogens. The most common way for a process techni- In the event of exposure, employees should always notify
cian to be exposed to these types of pathogens is through the their supervisor and obtain immediate medical attention.
administration of first aid.
94 Chapter 4

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 6. Mosquitoes can carry which of the following diseases?
a. Allergen (Select all that apply)
b. Arachnid a. St. Louis encephalitis
c. Arthropod b. Cryptosporidium
d. Bloodborne pathogen c. Anaphylaxis
e. Exposure incident d. West Nile virus
f. Microorganism 7. Name the four types of poisonous snakes in the
g. Pathogen United States.
h. Protein allergen 8. What is the best weather for avoiding plant allergens?
i. Toxin a. Dry weather
j. Universal precautions b. Hot weather
k. Venom c. Wet weather
2. What type of biological hazards are viruses and bacteria? d. Windy weather
a. Arthropods 9. List five types of protein allergens.
b. Microorganisms 10. HBV affects which major organ in the body?
c. Animal allergens
11. List three ways that HIV can be transmitted.
d. Plant allergens
12. Define the phrase universal precaution.
3. What is the best method for treating viruses? (Select all
that apply) 13. Which government agency created a set of universal
precaution guidelines?
a. Antibiotics
b. Vaccines 14. What is a simple, but critical, practice you can perform
to prevent transmission of bloodborne pathogens?
c. Preventing transmission
d. Antiviral drugs 15. Which of the following is a section in the Exposure
­Control Plan? (Select all that apply)
4. Penicillin, a product of a microorganism, is made by a/an: a. Exposure determination
a. Virus b. Length of exposure
b. Bacteria c. Methods of compliance
c. Algae d. Training provided on the Exposure Control Plan
d. Fungus
16. Which OSHA category contains job tasks that do not
5. Which of the following describes a brown recluse normally involve exposing the employee to blood or
spider? other infectious materials?
a. Shiny black appearance a. Category I
b. Reddish-orange hourglass mark on its body b. Category II
c. Fiddle-shaped mark on its head c. Category III
d. About 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) in length d. Category IV

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Using library or internet resources, research dangerous 3. Locate a copy of the OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens stan-
arachnids, insects, and snakes common to your region. dard (such as from the OSHA website, www.osha.gov)
In a two-page report, describe the organisms, their habi- and familiarize yourself with it. Pay close attention to
tats, behaviors, and how they are dangerous to people. the sections on methodology, labels and signs, and train-
ing. Write a one-page summary of the standard.
2. List the causes, symptoms, and preventive measures of
HIV and HBV.
Chapter 5
Equipment and Energy
Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of equipment and energy hazards in the process
industries that can affect people and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
5.1 Discuss the equipment and energy hazards posed by certain activities
performed in the process industries:
Working with moving or rotating equipment
Working with equipment that is pressurized, has extreme temperatures,
or emits radiation
Working with energized equipment (powered by electricity or other
power source). (NAPTA Safety, Hazards 1*) p. 96
5.2 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
equipment and energy hazards. (NAPTA Safety, Hazards 2) p. 107

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here
in abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Hazards 1)” means that this chapter’s
objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on equipment and energy hazards.

Key Terms
Ampere (amp)—a unit of measure of the electrical current flow in a wire; similar to
“gallons of water” flow in a pipe, p. 101.
Arc—a spark that occurs when current flows between two points (contacts) that are
not intentionally connected. See spark, p. 103.
Conductor—a material that has electrons that can break free and flow more easily
than other materials, p. 101.
Electricity—a flow of electrons from one point to another along a pathway, called a
conductor, p. 100.
Energy—the ability to do work, p. 100.

95
96 Chapter 5

Hydraulic—the use of liquid (hydraulic fluid) as the power source, p. 100.

Insulator—a device made from a material that will not conduct electricity; the
device is normally used to give mechanical support or to shield electrical wire or
electronic components, p. 101.
Ionizing radiation—radiation that contains enough energy to cause atoms to lose
electrons and become ions, p. 99.
Kinetic energy—energy associated with mass in motion, p. 100.
Lockout/tagout—OSHA-mandated procedures for controlling hazardous energy,
p. 107.
Machine guard—a barrier that prevents a machine operator’s hands or fingers from
entering into the point of operation, p. 98.
Nip point—a dangerous area where contact is made between two points on the
equipment (e.g., a belt meeting a pulley or two gears intermeshing); also called a
pinch point, p. 97.
Nonionizing radiation—low-frequency radiation that does not have enough energy
to convert atoms to ions, p. 99.
Ohm—a measurement of resistance in electrical circuits, p. 101.
Pneumatic—using air pressure or a gas as the power source, p. 100.
Point of operation—the area where the equipment actually performs its intended
task (e.g., cutting, rotating, stamping), p. 97.
Potential energy—the energy of a body as a result of its position or condition, p. 100.
Pressure—the amount of force a substance or object exerts over a particular area,
p. 96.
Radiation—the transfer of heat energy through electromagnetic waves, p. 99.
Short circuit—an event that occurs when electrons in a current flow find an
additional path outside of the intended circuit or conductor, and flow to it, p. 102.
Spark—a single burst of electrical energy. See arc, p. 103.
Static electricity—electricity “at rest”; an electrical charge caused by friction between
two dissimilar materials, p. 101.
Temperature—the measure of the thermal energy of a substance, p. 96.
Volt—the derived unit for electrical potential, electrical potential difference (voltage),
and electromotive force; the electromotive force that will establish a current of
1 amp through a resistance of 1 ohm, p. 101.
Voltage—the driving force needed to keep electrons flowing in a circuit, p. 101.

5.1 Introduction
Process technicians work with many different types of equipment on a daily basis. Each type
of equipment presents its own set of potential hazards. Not all hazards will apply to each
type of equipment.
This chapter addresses some of the general hazards posed by different types of equip-
ment. Electricity and the nature of electricity are also described so that process technicians
can better understand it and its potential hazards. Later chapters address the various types
of controls (e.g., engineering, administrative, and personal protective equipment) that can
be used to reduce or eliminate these hazards.
Equipment can pose a variety of hazards. These hazards can be physical, chemical,
ergonomic, or biological. Physical hazards may include rotating parts, cutting or punching
Pressure the amount of force a motions, electricity, excessive noise, excessive vibrations, extreme pressures, extreme
substance or object exerts over a ­temperatures, or excessive radiation. Chemical hazards come from toxic, harmful, or cor-
particular area.
rosive substances such as cleaning solvents, lubricants, or process fumes. Ergonomic hazards
are the result of repetitive or awkward motions during operations or maintenance. Biological
Temperature the measure of the
thermal energy of a substance. hazards come from exposure to bacteria, fungi, and viruses on working surfaces, or in
improperly treated cooling water.
 Equipment and Energy Hazards 97

Hazards presented by these types of equipment can be the result of any of the following:

• Incorrect design or construction of equipment

• Insufficient or missing guarding on moving or rotating parts
• Poor or improper maintenance or modifications
• Incorrect or unsafe operation due to incompetence, incorrect operating procedure, or
not following operating procedure
• Using the equipment for purposes or under conditions other than intended

Other potential equipment hazards include fire and explosion, work area and height
hazards, and noise and hearing, although this is by no means a complete list. Other chapters
in this textbook cover these types of potential hazards.

Moving or Rotating Equipment Hazards

Many types of equipment in the process industries have moving or rotating parts. This
equipment presents hazards that can cause injuries ranging from minor to life threatening.
These injuries include the following:

• Pinches
• Strains and sprains
• Cuts, punctures, or tears of skin, from minor to severe
• Sheared or severed appendages (e.g. fingers, hands, arms, toes, legs, and feet)
• Crushed or broken appendages or body parts
• Blindness
• Strangulation

Hazardous equipment motions can include rotating, reciprocating, and cutting. Some
equipment is in continuous motion, while other equipment operates intermittently. Also,
some equipment may move accidentally.
The point of operation (Figure 5.1) on a piece of equipment is the area where the equip- Point of operation the area where
the equipment actually performs its
ment actually performs its intended task (e.g., cutting, rotating, and stamping). This area is intended task (e.g., cutting, rotating,
extremely hazardous. stamping).

Figure 5.1 Point of operation.

CREDIT: Milos Stojanovic/Shutterstock.

Power transmission is another potentially hazardous area, since it involves moving parts
such as pulleys, gears, chains, and cranks. Nip point a dangerous area where
Nip points (Figure 5.2) (pinch points) are areas where contact is made between two contact is made between two points
on the equipment (e.g., a belt meeting
points on the equipment, such as a belt meeting a pulley or two gears intermeshing. Nip a pulley or two gears intermeshing);
points can crush fingers or other appendages, or potentially grab any loose articles of also called a pinch point.
98 Chapter 5

clothing or hair and pull the worker into the equipment. Other types of hazards can come
from flying chips, sparks, or broken equipment parts.

Nip Point
Figure 5.2 Nip points.

Nip Point

Various safeguards are used to protect process technicians from the hazards of moving
Machine guard a barrier that or rotating equipment parts. One safeguard is called machine guarding (OSHA C.F.R. 1910
prevents a machine operator’s hands
or fingers from entering into the point Subpart O). A machine guard (Figure 5.3) is a barrier that prevents a machine operator’s
of operation. hands or fingers from entering into the point of operation.

Figure 5.3 Machine guard.

CREDIT: WITSALUN/Shutterstock.

Fan

Machine guard

OSHA requires that any machine part, function, or process that can cause injury must
be safeguarded. If normal operations or accidental contact can cause injury to the equipment
operator or others nearby, the hazard must be controlled or eliminated.

Pressurized Equipment, Extreme

Temperatures, or Radiation
Pressure Hazards
Pressurized equipment presents potential hazards such as leaks, vibration, rupture, or explo-
sion. Process technicians can be exposed to hazardous materials during a pressure-related
accident. Vacuum, high pressure, compressed gases, runaway reactions, and so on can cause
pressure hazards.
More detail about pressure and pressurized equipment hazards is provided in
Chapter 7, Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards.

Temperature Hazards
Equipment can operate at extremely hot or cold temperatures. The human body reacts in
a variety of ways to such extreme temperatures. For example, if the equipment generates
a considerable amount of heat in an enclosed area, a process technician may develop heat
 Equipment and Energy Hazards 99

stress after working around the equipment for too long. If the equipment operates under
extreme cold, a process technician’s skin can be severely damaged if it comes into contact
with the surface of the equipment. Exposed skin can be burned by hot or cold surfaces.
Additional details on temperature and temperature-related equipment hazards are pro-
vided in Chapter 7, Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards.

Radiation Hazards
Radiation is the process by which elements emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves Radiation the transfer of heat
or small atomic particles. Government guidelines classify radiation into one of two catego- energy through electromagnetic
waves.
ries: ionizing and nonionizing.
Ionizing radiation is radiation that contains enough energy to cause atoms to lose elec- Ionizing radiation radiation that
trons and become ions. As the ions are formed, the normal electrical balance in the atom contains enough energy to cause
atoms to lose electrons and become
changes and causes damage to living cells. Figure 5.4 illustrates results of an x-ray, which is ions.
a form of ionizing radiation.

Figure 5.4 X-rays are a form of

ionizing radiation.
CREDIT: Itsmejust/Shutterstock.

Ionizing radiation takes different forms. Gamma rays are a highly penetrating form of
ionizing radiation that can cause damage to body tissue. Alpha and beta particles, another
form of ionizing radiation, can also cause damage to body tissues but do not travel as far as
gamma rays. X-rays are another dangerous form of ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation
can cause headaches, increased risk of infection, fatigue, nausea/vomiting, sterility, muta-
tions, cancer, and death.
Nonionizing radiation is low-frequency radiation that does not have enough energy to Nonionizing radiation low-
convert atoms to ions. Nonionizing radiation can take many forms, such as visible light, frequency radiation that does not
have enough energy to convert
ultraviolet light, infrared light, microwaves, radio, and AC power. Although the effects of atoms to ions.
nonionizing radiation are under debate, links between this type of radiation and cancer are
being studied. However, nonionizing radiation (depending on its form) can cause blisters,
blindness, burns, heat stress, cataracts, skin cancer, and dry skin. The major potential hazards
from nonionizing radiation include electrical shock, fire, and explosion.

Did You Know?

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a form of nonion-
izing radiation.

CREDIT: Garnet Photo/Shuttterstock.

100 Chapter 5

Some equipment that the process technician can encounter will emit radiation, either
ionizing (e.g., radioactive sources used in instrumentation, x-ray devices, reactors) or non-
ionizing (e.g. furnaces, flares, lasers, computer monitors). Exposure to radiation is regulated
by government guidelines, including length of exposure, precautions, monitoring, warning
signs/labels, and so on. Further details on radiation and radiation-related equipment haz-
Energy the ability to do work. ards are provided in Chapter 7, Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards.

Kinetic energy energy associated Energy Hazards

with mass in motion.
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Energy can take one of two major forms: kinetic
and potential.
Potential energy the energy of
a body as a result of its position or Kinetic energy is the term for energy in motion. Potential energy is the term for stored
condition. energy (i.e., energy that has the potential to become kinetic). See Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5 Potential energy is

energy at rest. Kinetic energy is
energy in motion.

Potential
energy

Kinetic
energy

Process technicians can face hazards from both kinetic and potential energy, especially
when dealing with energy sources used to power equipment. Equipment can be powered
in a variety of ways, using any of the following sources:
Electricity a flow of electrons • Electricity (powered or operated by the flow of electrons)
from one point to another along a
• Hydraulic (powered or operated by fluid pressure)
pathway, called a conductor.
• Pneumatic (powered or operated by air pressure)
Hydraulic the use of liquid • Steam (operated by steam pressure, such as a rotating steam turbine)
(hydraulic fluid) as the power source.
• Tension (powered or operated by a force, such as a spring, that pulls or stretches)
Pneumatic using air pressure or a • Gravity (powered or operated by the force of attraction)
gas as the power source. • Process (as in backflow through a valve into a rotating piece of equipment)
Energy sources can become hazardous if they are not controlled or maintained properly.
Equipment hazards from energy sources are due to the force that the energy supplies. In
other words, the energy puts the equipment’s moving parts into motion. Energy sources can
become hazardous if electrical shorts occur or if there are leaks or ruptures of hydraulics or
pneumatics. Also, maintenance or repair work can become hazardous if the energy source
is not isolated from the equipment prior to the start of work (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6 Lockout/

tagout protects workers from
­uncontrolled energy.
CREDIT: Digitalreflect/Fotolia.
 Equipment and Energy Hazards 101

Electrical Hazards
Electricity is a flow of electrons from one point to another along a pathway, called a
conductor. Conductors are substances or materials that allow a current of electricity to Conductor a material that has
pass continuously along them. The conducting path is called a circuit. Current is mea- electrons that can break free and flow
more easily than other materials.
sured in units called amperes (amps), which are a measure of the flow of electrons
(similar to how you would measure liquid flow in gallons per minute). Electrical poten-
Ampere (amp) a unit of measure
tial is the driving force needed to keep the electrons flowing in the circuit. This potential of the electrical current flow in a wire;
is called voltage and is similar to how you would describe the pressure of liquids flow- similar to “gallons of water” flow in a
ing through pipes. A volt is the unit of electromotive force that will establish a current pipe.

of 1 amp through a resistance of 1 ohm. An ohm is a measurement of resistance in

Voltage the driving force needed to
electrical circuits. Within conductors, electrons can break free and flow more easily than keep electrons flowing in a circuit.
other materials. Metals, as well as some types of hot gases (plasmas), and certain liquids
(such as aqueous solutions), are good conductors. Materials that do not give up their Volt the derived unit for electrical
electrons as easily are called insulators. Insulators are poor conductors, so they can be potential, electrical potential
used to maintain current flow in conductors. Air, rubber, and glass are examples of difference (voltage), and electromotive
force; the electromotive force that will
insulators. establish a current of 1 amp through
Electrical circuits are designated by voltages and current capacity. Many circuits around a resistance of 1 ohm.
the home or office environment are 120 V, with some 240 V circuits for heavier-duty electri-
cal equipment. At process facilities, electrical systems can use voltages of 120 V, 240 V, and Ohm a measurement of resistance
in electrical circuits.
480 V. A 120-V system can have a current capacity around 15–20 amps, while a 480-V circuit
can have a current capacity of 20 amps or higher (up to hundreds of amps).
Insulator a device made from
Only a small amount of current is required to cause serious injury or even death a material that will not conduct
(Figure 5.7). The number of amps received during a shock determines the effects. As little electricity; the device is normally
as 3 amps can cause pain. Between 3 and 10 amps causes pain, and the person may not used to give mechanical support or
to shield electrical wire or electronic
be able to move. Twenty amps can cause a loss of muscle control and difficulty breath- components.
ing. Over 50 amps can cause heart problems, nerve damage, muscular contractions, and
death. Static electricity electricity “at
Another type of electricity is static electricity. Static electricity occurs when a number rest”; an electrical charge caused
of electrons build up on the surface of a material but have no positive charge nearby to attract by friction between two dissimilar
materials.
them and cause them to flow. When the negatively charged surface comes into contact with
(or comes near) a positively charged surface, current flows until the charges on each surface
become equalized, sometimes creating a spark. Lightning and the shock that occurs from
touching a doorknob after shuffling across the carpet are both good examples of static elec-
tricity. Static electricity is a hazard in the plant from the flow of nonconductive fluids and
solids. Static electricity can result from equipment operation, forklift use, and other such
sources.
Certain personal electronic devices are often banned in plants, such as cell phones,
electronically charged music players, and so on. This is due to the potential spark or static
electric discharge they might cause.
Electricity has the potential to be hazardous to people, causing injury or death. It can
also damage equipment or upset processes and can cause fires or explosions.

Figure 5.7 Frayed electrical

wires can short circuit. Electrical
shock can occur when burnt wires
are exposed.
CREDIT: (left) Bacho/Shutterstock; (right)
BankBaht/Shutterstock.

A. B.
102 Chapter 5

Did You Know?

Getting in and out of your car can produce enough static
electricity to ignite gasoline vapors.
If you must reenter your vehicle while refueling, be
sure to discharge any static electricity buildup by touch-
ing the metal on your car door (or some other metal
component away from the filling point) before touching
and removing the gas nozzle.

CREDIT: Kumpol Chuansakul/Shutterstock.

Causes of Electrical Hazards

Electrical hazards can be created by a variety of factors, including the following:

• Improper wiring or grounding

• Cracked or degraded insulation
• Improper operation of equipment
• Stored energy in capacitors or batteries
• Failure to follow lockout/tagout procedures
• Improper breaker operations
• Wet insulation
• Equipment failure
• Surges and overloads
• Downed power lines
• Static electricity buildup
• Lightning strikes
Short circuit an event that occurs Short circuits are a common cause of electrical hazards. A short circuit occurs when
when electrons in a current flow find electrons in a current flow find additional unwanted paths for current flow, outside of the
an additional path outside of the
intended circuit or conductor, and intended circuit or conductor, and flow to them. For example, if the insulation is cracked
flow to it. on two wires in close proximity to each other, the electrons jump between the wires and
create a “short” circuit (a shortcut outside the intended circuit). Sunlight, age, water, extreme
heat or cold, and even animals (insects, birds) can cause cracks or splits in insulation
materials.
Stray currents can develop when electrical lines “leak” or when batteries interact with
conductive materials. Stray currents can corrode and destroy any conductive materials
through which they flow. They can also cause arcs or shocks (Figure 5.8).

Arc
Arc
Figure 5.8 Arc.
CREDIT: Trifonenkolvan/Shutterstock.
 Equipment and Energy Hazards 103

Water, because it is a good conductor, must also be considered when dealing with
electricity. Water decreases the resistivity of materials to electricity. For example, dry skin
has a resistance of up to 100,000 ohms. Wet skin, however, reduces resistance to as low as
450 ohms. Even sweat on the skin can decrease resistance.

Sparks and Shocks

Electricity presents two main types of hazards:

• Sparks that can lead to fire or an explosion

• Shock

A spark is a single burst of electrical energy. An arc is a spark that occurs when current Spark a single burst of electrical
flows between two points (contacts) that are not intentionally connected. The amount of current energy. See arc.
flowing and the distance traveled factor into the strength of the arc. Sparks and arcs can both
Arc a spark that occurs when
cause flammable materials (such as fuel vapors) to ignite, resulting in a fire or explosion.
current flows between two points
In hazardous environments, special wiring and equipment is required to prevent fires (contacts) that are not intentionally
and explosions, since switches, lights, motors, and even telephones produce a tiny arc as part connected. See spark.
of their normal operation. Wiring can also become overheated and cause an electrical fire.
An electrical shock occurs when a person comes into contact with electrical current.
Electrical shock and other electrical hazards occur when a person contacts a conductor car-
rying electricity while also touching the ground or an object that has a conductive path to
the ground. The person completes the circuit as current passes through the body.
Electrical shocks can occur when a person does any of the following:

• Comes in contact with a bare wire (either intentionally bare or as a result of cracked,
worn, or damaged insulation)
• Uses improperly grounded electrical equipment
• Works with electrical equipment in a wet or damp environment, or while sweating
heavily
• Works on electrical equipment without checking that the power source has been turned
off and that all conductors have been tested to ensure they are de-energized
• Uses long metal equipment, such as cranes or ladders, that can come into contact with
a power source

Electrical shock can cause burns (Figure 5.9), cardiac arrest, ventricular fibrillation
(rapid, irregular contractions of the heart), muscle damage, cessation of breathing, or death.

Figure 5.9 Electrical shock

can result in mild to serious injury
or even death.
CREDIT: (left) Bacho/Shutterstock; (right)
Srisakorn wonglakorn/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Three factors determine the seriousness of the shock and the extent of injury:

• Amount of the current (measured in amps) affected by voltage and body resistance (wet
versus dry skin)
• Path of the current, where the current enters and exits the body (the chest cavity and
head are most sensitive)
• Length (duration) of time that the current flows.
104 Chapter 5

Other factors such as moisture (e.g., a damp environment or perspiration) and wounds
or open cuts can increase the effects of electrical shock.

Static Electricity
A common example of static electricity is walking on carpet and touching someone, creating
a spark upon contact. Another example is inserting a key into the lock on a door and seeing
a spark jump between the key and the door lock.
Static electricity can cause minor shocks. It can also damage sensitive electronics. Low
humidity (dry conditions), the types of materials involved, and friction can increase the
likelihood of static electricity buildup. If enough of a charge builds up, it can present a seri-
ous hazard by creating a spark. Sparks in a hazardous environment could cause a fire or
explosion.
Even though static electricity buildup is best known from when solid materials interact,
liquids (such as those used or created as part of a process) can also accumulate static electric-
ity as they flow down a pipeline or hose, or are discharged from a nozzle into a container.
As nonconductive fluids are poured, pumped, flowed, or allowed to free fall (like from the
top of a tank or drum), these actions can charge the liquid with static electricity. Many fluids
in the process industries are flammable, and a spark from static electricity can ignite a fire.
Methods such as grounding, bonding, dip lines, and reduced turbulence can be used to
prevent static electricity in these situations.
Dust and powders can also become charged with static electricity as they come into
contact with each other and there is friction between the particles. Differences in particle
makeup and size affect the buildup of the charge. Gases do not charge, but static electricity
can build up around gases that are used in connection with the transport of liquids or solids.
This can create a fire hazard if the materials are flammable.
Also, static shock hazards can occur when a person reacts to the shock, causing invol-
untary movement such as falling or jumping into the path of a moving device.
Static electricity can build up during different processing methods, such as the following:

• Blending
• Mixing
• Agitation
• Spraying
• Coating
• Filling/Flowing
• Power transmission
• Sand blasting
• Water blasting

Electrical Safety
Following are some general guidelines for ensuring electrical safety:

• Follow all lockout/tagout procedures thoroughly.

• Treat dead circuits as if they are live.
• Wear proper clothing and protective equipment including safety glasses or goggles
and shoes with nonconductive (e.g., rubber) soles. See Chapter 24, Personal Protective
­Equipment, for more information.
• Verify there is no water near electrical equipment.
• Do not wear metal jewelry or rings around electrical equipment.
 Equipment and Energy Hazards 105

• Do not use metal ladders around electricity.

• Use insulated metal tools when working with electricity. In hazardous (e.g., flammable)
locations, use intrinsically safe or explosion-proof tools and lights.
• Keep electrical equipment clean and free of dust, dirt, and oil; inspect electrical equip-
ment regularly for wear.
• Make sure doors to electrical equipment are securely closed and locked.
• Never remove or tamper with grounding prongs on electrical equipment.
• Inspect power tools for wear or damage before use, and operate them properly (See
Chapter 11, Construction, Maintenance, and Tool Hazards).

An understanding of fire and explosion hazards, types of fires, and fire extinguishers is
also important. See Chapter 6, Fire and Explosion Hazards, for details.

Grounding, Fuses, and Circuit Breakers

Proper grounding, or establishing a connection between an electrical circuit and the ground
(earth), is one of the most important ways to prevent electrical hazards (Figure 5.10). Some-
times, electrical equipment can become grounded unintentionally; this is called a ground
fault. This can occur if insulation becomes damaged. A Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
(GFCI) provides protection against ground faults. Ground faults can either be built into the
circuit, or plugged in. Electrical equipment is then plugged into the GFCI.

Figure 5.10 Electrical

­equipment with grounding wire.
CREDIT: Leonid Eremeychuk/Fotolia.

Motor
ground
wires

If a current exceeds the design amount of an electrical circuit, or an electrical circuit

becomes damaged, the circuit can overload. When this occurs, fuses and circuit breakers
(Figure 5.11) break the circuit (open it) and cut off the flow of electricity. This reduces the
risk of fire and explosion.
When a fuse blows or a circuit trips, this indicates that something is wrong, such as an
overloaded circuit or short circuit. Do not start current flow again by replacing the fuse or
resetting the circuit breaker until the problem is diagnosed and solved.
If a fuse needs to be replaced or a circuit breaker needs to be reset, follow these general
tips:

• Make sure all power supplies to the equipment are turned off.
• When replacing a fuse, make sure to use the type and size recommended by the
manufacturer.
• Examine circuit breakers carefully for damage before attempting to reset them.
106 Chapter 5

Figure 5.11 Electrical breaker

box.
CREDIT: ETAJOE/Shutterstock.

• When opening or closing a circuit, stand to one side of the switch and operate it in one
swift motion.
• Visually inspect terminals and conductors for signs of damage (e.g., melting,
discoloration).

Hazardous Environments
Some environments, such as those that contain flammable materials or hazardous gases,
require special electrical safety measures. Electrical systems in such areas must be intrinsi-
cally safe or explosion proof, meaning that they generate only low levels of electrical energy.
Some structures use explosion-proof enclosures to prevent the hazardous materials or atmo-
spheres outside it from becoming ignited (sparks are restricted, heat sources are reduced,
and explosions are contained). Intrinsically safe and explosion-proof tools and light sources
(e.g., flashlights) must always be used in these hazardous environments.

Lightning
Lightning is an extremely destructive, naturally occurring electric current created when atmo-
spheric electricity is discharged (Figure 5.12). Lightning, with its very high voltage and cur-
rent, can result in damage to equipment (especially electrical equipment), and facilities. It can
cause fires, or even explosions. If a person is struck by lightning, it can cause severe injuries or
death. Chapter 13, Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather, discusses lightning in more detail.

Figure 5.12 Lightning.

CREDIT: DR-images/Shutterstock.
 Equipment and Energy Hazards 107

5.2 Government Regulations

OSHA established procedures for controlling hazardous energy, 29 CFR 1910.147 (also
known as lockout/tagout) (see Figure 5.6). The lockout/tagout procedure protects workers Lockout/tagout OSHA-mandated
from the potential release of uncontrolled energy by isolating equipment from its energy procedures for controlling hazardous
energy.
source using locks, chains, and tags. This prevents the accidental startup of the equipment
and allows it to be maintained, cleaned, or repaired when needed. Along with isolating the
equipment from its energy source, any residual (remaining) energy must be released and
documented before beginning work on the equipment.
All personnel working with electrical equipment must be properly trained and autho-
rized for the particular type and level of work being performed. OSHA procedure 29 CFR
1910.332 covers electrical training for unqualified persons. Only qualified personnel can
work on electrical systems. In most cases, process technicians are not required to perform
work on high-voltage systems.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), an international nonprofit organiza-
tion, publishes the National Electrical Code, a set of guidelines covering electrical instal-
lation, wiring requirements, and safety. In the process industries, the codes relating to
electricity in flammable environments are extremely important. Electrical wires use stan-
dard color-coding to indicate hot (red or black), neutral (white or gray), and ground (green)
(see Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13 Electrical wires

use a standard color code to dif-
ferentiate hot, neutral, and ground
wires.
CREDIT: AdamXery/Shutterstock.

Summary
Process technicians work with many different types of equip- temperatures. Technicians may be exposed to a variety of haz-
ment on a daily basis. When working with this equipment, ards associated with energized equipment (electrical or other).
technicians may be exposed to a variety of physical hazards, Technicians must be aware of these hazards so they can pre-
such as rotating parts, cutting or punching motions, excessive vent or eliminate exposure to them whenever possible through
noise, or excessive vibrations. They might also be exposed to the use of engineering and administrative controls and per-
equipment that operates under extreme pressure or at extreme sonal protective equipment.
108 Chapter 5

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 4. List three methods used to prevent static electricity
a. Arc charges.
b. Conductor 5. A rubber band stretched between two fingers is an
c. Insulator example of:
d. Ionizing radiation a. Kinetic energy
e. Kinetic energy b. Potential energy
f. Lockout/tagout c. Mechanical energy
g. Machine guard d. Forced energy
h. Nip point 6. List three factors that determine the severity of an
i. Nonionizing radiation ­electric shock and the extent of the injuries that shock
might cause.
j. Point of operation
k. Potential energy 7. List five processing methods that can produce static
electricity.
l. Spark
m. Static electricity 8. Explain the purpose of lockout/tagout.

2. List five hazards associated with rotating 9. What organization publishes the National Electrical
equipment. Code?

3. A machine guard is used to: a. OSHA

a. Prevent technicians from damaging the blades on a b. EPA

machine. c. NFPA
b. Prevent a machine from being powered up during d. DOT
lockout/tagout.
10. What color are ground wires?
c. Prevent a machine operator’s hands or fingers from
a. Red
entering the point of operation.
b. Gray
d. Prevent the blades on the machine from becoming
dull. c. Green
d. White

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. All new cell phones come with an owner’s manual and (b) several scenarios (can be done with a drawing, a
a warning label. Obtain a copy of one of these manuals model, and other setups of increasing complexity).
and review the warning. Write a paragraph explaining
what you learned. 3. Use the internet to research industrial accidents that
have occurred due to energy hazards. Discuss the find-
2. Research the lockout/tagout process. Explain or ings with your fellow students.
­demonstrate lockout/tagout in (a) a household chore;
Chapter 6
Fire and Explosion
Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of fire, explosion, and detonation hazards in the
process industries, which can affect people and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
6.1 Point out specific physical hazards present in the process industries
and explain the following potential safety, health, and environmental
hazards:
Fire
Upper explosive limit (UEL)
Lower explosive limit (LEL)
Explosions
Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE)
Detonation. (NAPTA Safety, Fire and Explosion 1*) p. 110
6.2 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
fire and explosion hazards. (NAPTA Safety, Fire and Explosion 2) p. 125

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Fire and Explosion 1)” means that this
chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety in regard to
fire and explosions.

Key Terms
Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE)—explosion resulting from
excessive compression of vapor in the container head space and vapor flashing
from its release to the atmosphere above its normal boiling point, p. 122.
Chain reaction—a series of occurrences or responses in which each reaction is
initiated by the energy produced in the preceding reaction, p. 113.

109
110 Chapter 6

Combustion—the process by which substances (fuel) combine with oxygen to release

heat energy, through the act of burning (oxidation), p. 110.
Combustion point—the ignition temperature at which a fuel can catch on fire, p. 113.
Conduction—the transfer of heat through matter via vibrational motion, p. 118.
Convection—the transfer of heat through the circulation or movement of a liquid or a
gas, p. 118.
Deflagration—a process of subsonic combustion that usually propagates through
thermal conductivity (i.e., hot burning material heats the next layer of colder
material and ignites it), p. 111.
Detonation—a violent explosion that generates a supersonic shock wave and
propagates through shock compression, p. 111.
Explosion—a sudden increase in heat energy, released in a violent burst, p. 110.
Fire—a type of combustion, resulting from a self-sustaining chemical reaction, p. 110.
Fire point—the temperature at which burning is self-sustaining after removal of an
ignition source, p. 114.
Fire tetrahedron—the elements of a fire triangle (fuel, oxygen, and heat) combined
with a fourth element, a chain reaction that keeps the fire burning, p. 113.
Fire triangle—the three elements (fuel, oxygen, and heat) that must be present for a
fire to start, p. 112.
Flammable (inflammable)—the ability of a material to ignite and burn readily, p. 112.
Fuel—any material that burns; can be a solid, liquid, or gas, p. 112.
Lower explosive limit (LEL)—the point below which a spark will not lead to
combustion because there is too much oxygen present, p. 116.
Radiation—the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, p. 118.
Upper explosive limit (UEL)—the point above which a spark will not lead to
combustion because there is too little oxygen present, p. 116.
Volatility—the ability of a material to evaporate, p. 115.

6.1 Introduction
Although fire, explosions, and detonations rarely occur in the process industries, the results
can be devastating when they do happen. It is vital for process technicians to understand
the characteristics, hazards, and prevention of fire, explosions, and detonations, along with
the government regulations that address them.
This chapter provides an overview of fire, explosion, and detonation hazards that pro-
cess technicians could encounter in the workplace. Later chapters describe related topics
such as flame-resistant clothing and firefighting systems and equipment.
Fires and explosions are some of the most dangerous hazards process technicians can
potentially face. The process industries deal with many hazardous materials that pose fire
and explosion hazards. Although efforts are made to prevent fires and explosions at process
facilities, process technicians must understand these potential hazards and the terminology
used to describe them.
Combustion the process by Combustion (or incineration) is the process by which substances (fuel) combine with
which substances (fuel) combine oxygen to release heat energy through the act of burning. During combustion, fuel is con-
with oxygen to release heat energy,
through the act of burning (oxidation). sumed to give off heat, light (flame), gases, and smoke. Controlled combustion is a key
component in many processes. It is used to do such things as power engines, fire heaters and
furnaces, generate steam, and cook food.
Fire a type of combustion, resulting Fire is a type of combustion that results from a self-sustaining chemical reaction. During
from a self-sustaining chemical a fire, a fuel in the presence of oxygen (air) is subjected to heat or some other energy source
reaction.
(ignition point) that results in combustion. Heat energy continues to release until all of the
combustible fuel is consumed.
Explosion a sudden increase in
heat energy, released in a violent An explosion is a sudden increase in heat energy, released in a violent burst. Explosions
burst. are usually associated with high temperatures and the release of gases. Explosions cause
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 111

pressure waves that travel outward. In technical terms, explosions are categorized as defla- Deflagration a process of
grations if the pressure waves are subsonic (i.e., do not travel faster than sound) or detona- subsonic combustion that usually
propagates through thermal
tions if they are supersonic (i.e., travel faster than the speed of sound). conductivity (i.e., hot burning material
Deflagration is a process of subsonic combustion that usually propagates through ther- heats the next layer of colder material
mal conductivity (i.e., hot burning material heats the next layer of colder material and ignites and ignites it).
it). Deflagrations burn with great heat and intense light.
Detonations are violent explosions that generate a supersonic shock wave and propa- Detonation a violent explosion
gate through shock compression. Detonations are extremely destructive and produce high- that generates a supersonic shock
wave and propagates through shock
velocity (fast) pressure waves, called shockwaves. Detonations are characterized by their compression.
rapid reaction and the high pressure they produce. Figure 6.1 shows a graph comparing
detonation and deflagration pressure levels.

250
Detonation of solid explosives in air
Figure 6.1 Comparison of
200 ­ etonation and deflagration
d
­pressure levels.
Over pressure, kPa

Conflagration of black powder in air

150

100

50

–50
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Time, milliseconds

Fire Hazards
Fires pose many health hazards, including burns, suffocation, and exposure to smoke and
toxic fumes. Most fire-related deaths are caused by suffocation or breathing smoke and toxic
fumes. During combustion, materials are broken down into their basic elements that then
form new compounds. Carbon is released when organic compounds are burned. The carbon
produced during the fire then combines with oxygen to form carbon monoxide or carbon
dioxide. If inhaled, these can deprive a body of oxygen. Carbon monoxide is the primary
killer, causing suffocation. During a fire, lethal levels of carbon monoxide can be generated in
a short amount of time, replacing the oxygen needed for respiration. Most fires produce more
carbon monoxide than carbon dioxide. Fires also generate smoke, composed of gases, air,
and suspended particles (due to incomplete combustion). All of these gases and toxic fumes
present breathing hazards and create dangerous atmospheres that can cause injury or death.
Depending on the type of fuel burned by the fire, other dangerous by-products can be
formed. Table 6.1 provides some examples of some dangerous by-products and the sub-
stances that produce them. In other words, by-products presented in Table 6.1 are produced

Table 6.1 Dangerous Fuel By-Products and Their Sources

By-Product Sources by Combustion or Natural Evolution
Hydrogen sulfide Compounds containing sulfur, such as rubber and crude oil
Hydrogen chloride Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Hydrogen cyanide Polyurethane
Sulfur dioxide Sulfur containing compounds
Ammonia Refrigerants, hydrogen–nitrogen compounds, and nylon
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide Combusted carbon and oxygen
112 Chapter 6

during the combustion process in some instances and by natural evolution in other instances.
For example, hydrogen sulfide evolves spontaneously in crude oil that has a sulfur content
of about 0.5 percent. Crude oil is called “sour” if it contains more than 0.5 percent sulfur. The
released gases can also present an explosion hazard if they come into contact with an ignition
source. Burns from acids are also a potential hazard during a fire. For example, sulfur dioxide
or nitrogen oxides can combine with water to create sulfuric acid or nitric acid, respectively.
Process technicians must understand the elements required for a fire to start, how to
Flammable (inflammable) the prevent fires and control them, and the combustible and flammable (inflammable) proper-
ability of a material to ignite and burn ties of the materials they encounter in the workplace.
readily.
Flames and heat from fire pose hazards such as burns or death. Burns prevent the nor-
mal functioning of skin, hindering its ability to protect vital internal organs and disrupting
the other functions. The severity to which a burn injures or damages the skin ranges from
first degree (less severe) to third degree (most severe). These are discussed in greater detail
elsewhere in the book.

Characteristics of Fires
Fire is an exothermic oxidation process. Exothermic means that heat is generated, and oxi-
dation is a process that occurs when oxygen is combined with another substance (usually
carbon in a fire).
Along with heat, fires produce light (flames), smoke, toxic fumes, and other substances
(such as ash and soot). Plumes of flame and smoke rise above the fire; the fire can spread
based on wind direction, type and amount of fuel, temperatures, conditions (dry, wet), and
other factors.

Fire Triangle and Fire Tetrahedron

Fuel any material that burns; can As described previously, a fire starts when a substance (fuel), in the presence of air (oxygen),
be a solid, liquid, or gas. is heated to an ignition point (heat), resulting in combustion. Fire must have all of these ele-
ments (fuel, oxygen, heat) present to start.

Did You Know?

Many common devices (e.g., cars, gas appliances,
wood stoves, and cigarettes) produce carbon monoxide
as a by-product of combustion. If these devices are used
improperly they can pose serious health risks, including
death by suffocation. Suffocation occurs because car-
bon monoxide (CO) binds with hemoglobin in the blood,
which prevents oxygen from being transported to the
cells. Symptoms of low-level carbon monoxide poison-
ing are similar to those of the common flu.
CREDIT: Phonlamai Photo/Shutterstock.

Fire triangle the three elements The following three elements are referred to as a fire triangle (Figure 6.2A):
(fuel, oxygen, and heat) that must be
present for a fire to start. • Fuel—Fuel is any material that burns; it can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
• Oxygen—Air is composed of 21 percent oxygen; generally, fire needs only 16 percent
oxygen to ignite.
• Heat—A fuel requires energy or heat to produce ignition.

Fire must have all three elements (fuel, oxygen, heat) present to start. Removing one or
more of these elements will extinguish a fire.
The fire triangle represents the elements necessary to create a fire. Once a fire has started,
the fire tetrahedron represents the elements necessary to sustain combustion.
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 113

Figure 6.2 A. Fire triangle.

B. Fire tetrahedron.
CREDIT: A. L. Cosmo/Fotolia; B.
BALRedaan/Shutterstock.

A. B.

The fire tetrahedron (Figure 6.2B) consists of the components of the fire triangle and Fire tetrahedron the elements of
another component—the chain reaction. a fire triangle (fuel, oxygen, and heat)
combined with a fourth element, a
A chain reaction is a series of reactions in which each reaction is initiated by the energy chain reaction that keeps the fire
produced in the preceding reaction (e.g., when the first domino is knocked over it causes the burning.
second domino in the series to topple. This, in turn, makes the third domino topple, and so
on). This type of reaction occurs when fuel, oxygen, and heat come together in proper Chain reaction a series of
occurrences or responses in which
amounts under certain conditions. Chain reactions are what cause fires to build on them-
each reaction is initiated by the
selves and spread. For a fire to continue there must be a constant fuel, oxygen, and heat energy produced in the preceding
source. reaction.
To stop a fire, one of the four components of the fire tetrahedron must be removed. If
fuel is removed, the fire will have nothing to sustain itself. If the atmosphere is rendered
inert by removing the source of oxygen, the fire will cease. If the fire is cooled, the elevated
temperatures will reduce and the chain reaction will stop. Some extinguishing agents stop
a fire not by removing fuel, heat, or oxygen, but by preventing the chain reaction from
occurring.

Fuel Sources
Fires need fuel in order to burn. Given a high enough temperature, almost any substance
can become fuel for a fire. The combustion point is the ignition temperature at which a fuel Combustion point the ignition
can catch on fire. Fuels for fires can be solids, liquids, or gases. temperature at which a fuel can catch
on fire.
Many materials used in the process industries are extremely flammable or combustible.
Following are some examples of solid fuels:

• Wood
• Office furniture
• Cardboard, paper, and packing materials
• Fabric, such as cotton and nylon
• Rubber
• Plastic

Following are some examples of liquid fuels:

• Gasoline
• Kerosene
• Benzene
• Isopropyl alcohol
114 Chapter 6

Did You Know?

Static electricity and sparks can ignite hydrocarbon vapor.

■■ Filling a portable gas can in the bed of a pickup truck can

produce static electricity that can cause the container
to ignite.
■■ Talking on a cell phone around gasoline can cause sparks
which cause the gasoline vapor to ignite.
■■ Getting in and out of the car during fill-up can produce
static electricity that can ignite gasoline vapor.
CREDIT: Carolyn Franks/
■■ Smoking a cigarette while working around a car can lead
Shutterstock.
to fire and explosion.

The fuel for fire that comes from liquids and solids is actually the vapor above the
materials, since liquids cannot burn. When the temperature of a flammable liquid rises,
more vapor increases on its surface. Thus, it is critical for process technicians working with
flammable liquids to understand the properties of the liquid and the temperatures at which
the liquids are handled or stored.
Following are some examples of gas fuels:

• Propane
• Butane
• Methane

Heat Sources and Ignition

A wide range of heat sources can produce the necessary ignition spark to start a fire. These
include the following:

• Open flames (e.g., furnace, pilot light, or lit cigarette)

• Hot surfaces (e.g., catalytic converter)
• Electrical (e.g., frayed wiring, arcing, lightbulbs, and heating elements)
• Sparks (e.g., from welding or grinding)
• Friction (e.g., from brake pads)
• Static electricity (e.g., lightning)
• Chemical reactions (e.g., combining hydrochloric acid and caustic soda)

Oxygen
Oxygen (O2) is naturally present in most environments; air is composed of 21 percent oxy-
gen. A fire needs only 16 percent oxygen to ignite. Since oxygen is usually readily available
as a fire triangle component, the mishandling of fuel or a heat source typically starts fires.
Other gases, such as chlorine or nitric oxide, can also substitute for oxygen as part of the fire
triangle and fire tetrahedron.

Flammable and Combustible Substances

A number of flammable substances exist as either a liquid or a gas, depending on tempera-
ture and pressure. According to OSHA, a flashpoint is the “lowest temperature at which a
flammable liquid will give off enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture with the air above
Fire point the temperature at
which burning is self-sustaining after the surface of the liquid or within its container.” The flashpoint typically indicates the liq-
removal of an ignition source. uid’s susceptibility to ignition. The fire point is the temperature at which burning is
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 115

self-sustaining after removal of an ignition source. Normally, the fire point is a higher tem-
perature than the flashpoint.
Volatility is how easily a liquid will evaporate, and liquids are said to have light (or Volatility the ability of a material to
high) volatility or heavy (or low) volatility. A liquid’s boiling point can change due to pres- evaporate.
sure, so a 10 percent point is used to indicate the temperature at which 10 percent of the
liquid has changed into a gas. These factors are used to understand the properties of liquids
and classify them according to a scale.
Flashpoint, along with boiling point, is used to classify liquids. Liquids can be consid-
ered flammable or combustible. OSHA states:
Flashpoint was selected as the basis for classification of flammable and combustible
liquids because it is directly related to a liquid’s ability to generate vapor, i.e., its
volatility. Since it is the vapor of the liquid, not the liquid itself that burns, vapor
generation becomes the primary factor in determining the fire hazard. The expression
“low flash–high hazard” applies. Liquids having flashpoints below ambient storage
temperatures generally display a rapid rate of flame spread over the surface of the
liquid, since it is not necessary for the heat of the fire to expend its energy in heating
the liquid to generate more vapor.

Flammable liquids are liquids with a flashpoint less than 100 degrees Fahrenheit
(37.8 degrees Celsius). Combustible liquids are liquids with a flashpoint over 100 degrees
Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees Celsius). Table 6.2 compares the differences between flammable
and combustible liquids.

Table 6.2 Comparison of Flammable vs. Combustible Liquids

Substance Classification Description
Flammable Liquids with a flashpoint of less than 100°F (37.8°C); designated as Class I liquids
that fall into one of three subdivisions (IA, IB, and IC)
Class IA Flashpoint less than 73°F (22.8°C); boiling point less than 100°F (37.8°C)
Class IB Flashpoint less than 73°F (22.8°C); boiling point greater than or equal to
100°F (37.8°C)
Class IC Flashpoint between 73°F and 99°F (22.8°C and 37.2°C)
Combustible Liquids with a flashpoint over 100°F (37.8°C); designated as Class II or Class III,
with Class III being divided into two subdivisions (IIIA or IIIB)
Class II Liquids with a flashpoint between 100°F and 139°F (37.8°C and 59.4°C)
Class III Liquids with a flashpoint over 140°F (60°C)
Class IIIA Flashpoint between 140°F and 199°F (60°C and 92.8°C)
Class IIIB Flashpoint greater than or equal to 200°F (93.3°C)

Since many flammable liquids are lighter than water, water cannot be used to put out
such fires. A flammable liquid will float on the water and spread. Figure 6.3 illustrates the
different classes of flammable and combustible liquids and provides examples of substances
from each category in Fahrenheit only.
The process of filling tanks or containers with flammable liquids can cause static elec-
tricity buildup, due to a phenomenon related to the flow of fluids. Precautions must be
taken to prevent a static electricity discharge, which could ignite the liquid’s vapor (e.g.,
hydrocarbons are good insulators and readily accumulate a static charge). When dispensing
Class I liquids, an electrical bonding (grounding) can be used to connect the hose nozzle to
the container; this reduces the chance of a static electricity discharge. Process technicians
dispensing flammable liquids can also keep the flow as smooth as possible by making
sure the nozzle remains as close to the liquid’s surface in the container as possible to avoid
splashing. Always ensure that tanks and containers are grounded to prevent a buildup of
static charge.
116 Chapter 6

Figure 6.3 Classes of 200

IIIB
f­lammable and combustible 200°F > FP
liquids.
IIIA

FLASHPOINT, °F
140°F > FP < 200°F
140 COMBUSTIBLE
II
100°F > FP < 140°F
100
IC
73°F > FP < 100°F
73 FLAMMABLE

IA IB
FP < 73°F & BP < 100°F FP < 73°F & BP > 100°F

FP = Flashpoint BP = Boiling point

FLAMMABLE LIQUID — examples
IA — ethylene oxide, methylchloride, and pentane
IB — acetone, benzene, ethylalcohol, gasoline, and isopropanol
II — camphor oil, diesel fuel, and pine tar
COMBUSTIBLE — examples
IIIA — creosote oil, formaldehyde, formic acid, and #1 fuel oil
IIIB — castor oil, coconut oil, fish oil, and olive oil

Flammable Atmospheres
The vapor from flammable and combustible liquids, when combined with oxygen, have
a flammability range (based on percent of fuel in the air) that is specific to each material.
If the amount of fuel vapor falls below this range, then the mixture of oxygen and vapor
is considered too lean to burn. If the amount of fuel vapor rises above this range, then the
mixture is said to be too rich to burn.
OSHA states:
When vapor of a flammable or combustible liquid is mixed with air in the proper
proportions in the presence of a source of ignition, rapid combustion or an explosion
can occur. The proper proportion is called the flammable range and is also often
referred to as the explosive range. The flammable range includes all concentrations
of flammable vapor or gas in air, in which a flash will occur or a flame will travel if
the mixture is ignited. There is a minimum concentration of vapor or gas in air below
which propagation of flame does not occur on contact with a source of ignition.
There is also a maximum proportion of vapor in air above which propagation of
flame does not occur. These boundary-line mixtures of vapor with air are known as
the lower and upper flammable limits (LFL and UFL) respectively, and they are usually
expressed in terms of percentage by volume of vapor in air. The LFL is also known
Lower explosive limit (LEL) the as the lower explosive limit (LEL). The UFL is also known as the upper explosive
point below which a spark will not limit (UEL).
lead to combustion because there is
too much oxygen present. Below the LEL, the concentration of flammable vapor is too low to be able to support
combustion if a spark occurs since there is too much oxygen present. Above the UEL, the
Upper explosive limit (UEL) the concentration of flammable vapor, such as a volatile organic compound (VOC) is too high
point above which a spark will not
lead to combustion because there is to be able to support combustion if a spark occurs since there is too little oxygen present.
too little oxygen present. Figure 6.4 shows a comparison of lower and upper explosive limits (LEL and UEL).
Confined spaces can prove dangerous if flammable gases or vapor are present. A com-
mon cause of explosions in confined spaces is improper ventilation or failure to remove
flammable gases before any work is started in such areas.

Stages of Fire
The growth of a fire proceeds in stages. Combustion begins with no flames or smoke and
little heat (incipient). Smoldering starts when heat (flame) is applied to a combustible mate-
rial (the fuel); the heat oxidizes the material’s surface and turns it into combustible gases.
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 117

Figure 6.4 Comparison of

lower and upper explosive limits
Flammable range
(LEL and UEL).

Explosion pressure

LEL UEL
Vapor/gas concentration in air

So, even if a fuel is solid, only the combustible gases from it actually burn (just like with a
liquid fuel, where only the vapor burns). The oxidation process produces heat, which raises
the temperature of the combustible materials. The availability of combustible materials and Figure 6.5 Stages of fire.
oxygen determines how quickly or slowly a fire proceeds to the next stage, which is free or CREDIT: (Incipient) Dmytro Kohut/
open burning. See Figure 6.5 for the stages of fire. Shutterstock; (Smoldering) BlueSkyImage/
Shutterstock; (Flame/Heat) Dutourdumonde
Photography/Shutterstock.

Incipient Smoldering Heat/Flame

Free or open burning is when visible flames can be seen. Initially, the flames are limited
to the area of origin. More heat is released during combustion, which raises the temperature
of nearby objects to their ignition point. If the fire is contained inside a structure (such as a
building or tank), the combustible gases rise because they are lighter than air. At this point,
the fire either has sufficient oxygen to progress to the next stage (flashover) or does not have
enough oxygen and returns to the smoldering stage.
If the fire has enough oxygen, it grows in size. Excessive heat, flame, smoke, and gases
are generated. Combustible gases that have not yet been burned gather at the ceiling of the
structure. Temperatures near the ceiling can reach 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit (815.6 degrees
Celsius) in this superheated gas layer. The gases continue to build, and then start to return
to the floor. The gases heat all materials in the structure. If enough oxygen remains near
the floor, flashover occurs and everything in the structure instantly bursts into open flame.
Unprotected persons or living creatures in the room could not survive. The pressure, heat,
and smoke can push out of the structure now, as the combustion process speeds up. The fire
is harder to put out at this point, as it is fully developed.
118 Chapter 6

The post-flashover fire burns hot and moves fast. At this point, more resources are
required to fight and contain the fire, and more firefighting materials must be used to reduce
the ignition temperature (whatever is being used to put out the fire, such as water or foam).
Search and rescue operations become more dangerous and difficult at this stage.
Finally, the fire reaches the decay stage. The fuel has been consumed and the tempera-
tures start to decline.
Radiation the transfer of heat
through electromagnetic waves.
Heat Transfer
Convection the transfer of heat Once a fire has started, it can generate three different types of heat transfer (Figure 6.6).
through the circulation or movement
of a liquid or a gas. • Radiation—the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves
• Convection—the transfer of heat through the circulation or movement of a liquid or a gas
Conduction the transfer of heat
through matter via vibrational motion. • Conduction—the transfer of heat through matter via vibrational motion

Heat Transfer Methods

Figure 6.6 Conduction, con-
vection, and radiation.
1 Conduction
CREDIT: Udaix/Shutterstock.

2 Convection

3 Radiation

Radiant heat provides the energy from the flames to the fuel, which affects the burn rate.
Radiant heat is what causes flames to spread.

Classes of Fire
Fires are classified according to their properties, which are typically determined by the type
of fuel being burned. The type of fuel best determines the way that the fire is fought. Fires
are grouped according to classes, based on fuel:

• Class A—Combustible materials such as wood, paper, and plastic

• Class B—Oil or combustible and flammable gases or liquids
• Class C—Fire involving live electrical equipment
• Class D—Combustible metals (e.g., aluminum, sodium, potassium, and magnesium)
• Class K—Cooking oil, fat, grease, or other kitchen fires; intended to supplement a fire
suppression system (like in a commercial kitchen)

Firefighting equipment, such as extinguishers (Figure 6.7) and systems, are usually
designed to fight specific classes of fire. These types of equipment are discussed in more
detail in Chapter 24, Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment.

Vessels
Vessels, including tanks and other containers, can pose fire and/or explosion hazards. Vapor
and gases can build up in enclosed spaces and can catch fire if heat or another ignition source
comes into contact with them. This fire can build rapidly, and potentially cause an explosion.
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 119

Figure 6.7 Fire extinguisher.

CREDIT: Daniel Heighton/Shutterstock.

Tanks can be built to vent vapor to the atmosphere, or they can use a floating roof that
rises and falls with the liquid level inside the tank (and thus allows for expansion of vapor
from the liquid). Foam firefighting equipment can also be installed on a tank ceiling. Dikes
and other containment systems can be built around tanks to contain any fires involving
flammable liquids in the event the tank bursts or fails.
Flammable liquids are classified by the National Fire Protection Association as
Class I. Table 6.2 further categorizes them according to their boiling points. They have
flashpoints less than 100°F (37.8°C) and thus have a greater fire risk. Accurate inventory
records must be kept for Class I liquids, so that potentially dangerous leaks can be detected
and corrected.
OSHA and EPA regulations address other safety issues related to tanks, such as monitor-
ing leaks, automatic shutoffs for pressurized systems, tank and pipe construction, and spill
and overfill protection.

National Fire Code Section 704

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) created a National Fire Code that includes a
Section 704, which is a system for identifying the hazards of materials. Section 704 provides
easy visual identification of the hazards associated with a substance when it burns. NFPA
704 uses a color-coded diamond (Figure 6.8) along with a numbering system. Products and
packaging must be clearly marked with labels using this diamond.
The white section of the diamond displays special information that varies based on who
created that particular diamond. NFC Section 704 specifies only two symbols, W and OX,
explained in “White: Special Information” section of Table 6.3. Some commonly used types
of special information are also listed in Table 6.3. The field can be left blank if no special
hazards are present.
Other types of labeling systems can also be used, depending on the manufacturer.

Figure 6.8 National Fire

­ rotection Association (NFPA)
P
2 hazard diamond.

1 0
120 Chapter 6

Table 6.3 Hazard Diamond Information

Rating Description
Red: Flammability
0 No hazard; the material will not burn (e.g., water)
1 Slight hazard; the material must be preheated before ignition can occur (e.g., corn oil)
2 Moderate hazard; the material must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively high
­ambient temperature before ignition can occur (e.g., diesel fuel)
3 Extreme fire hazard; liquids and solids that can be ignited under almost all ambient
­temperature conditions (e.g., gasoline)
4 Extremely flammable gases or liquids with very low flashpoints; materials that will ­rapidly or
completely vaporize at atmospheric pressure and normal ambient temperature, or that are
readily dispersed in air and that will burn readily (e.g., propane gas)
Blue: Health
0 Material that on exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary
combustible material (e.g., peanut oil)
1 Material that on exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury
(e.g., turpentine)
2 Material that on intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary inca-
pacitation or possible residual injury (e.g., ammonia gas)
3 Material that on short exposure could cause serious temporary or residual injury
(e.g., chlorine gas)
4 Material that on very short exposure could cause death or major residual injury
(e.g., hydrogen cyanide)
Yellow: Reactivity
0 Material that is normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with
water (e.g., liquid nitrogen)
1 Material that in itself is normally stable, but which can become unstable at elevated tempera-
tures and pressures (e.g., phosphorous)
2 Material that on intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary
­incapacitation or possible residual injury (e.g., calcium metal)
3 Material that on short exposure could cause serious temporary or residual injury
(e.g., fluorine gas)
4 Material that on very short exposure could cause death or major residual injury
(e.g., trinitrotoluene—TNT)
White: Special Information
W Material has an unusual reactivity with water; do not use water (e.g., magnesium metal)
OX Material possesses oxidizing properties (e.g., ammonium nitrate)
ACID Material is an acid
ALK Material is a base (alkaline)
COR Material is corrosive
Material is radioactive

Dangerous Goods Classification and Labeling

The United Nations uses a globally recognized system of classifying and labeling dangerous
goods, which the U.S. Department of Transportation recognizes. These classification labels
are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3, Recognizing Chemical Hazards.

Explosion Hazards
The sudden burst of heat from an explosion generates energy waves that can travel rapidly
outward, up to a few feet per second. If an explosion occurs in a container, such as a ves-
sel, the explosion could be contained. The container walls could be designed to stretch and
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 121

absorb the pressure wave. However, if the internal pressure exceeds the container’s pressure
capacity, the container can rupture.
Explosions can cause a variety of direct and indirect safety and health hazards to
workers:

• Fatalities
• Flying or falling debris and shrapnel
• Collapsed structures, buildings, and equipment (which can trap or injure personnel)
• Concussion
• Ruptured eardrums
• Flames and burns
• Suffocation (due to smoke inhalation or oxygen-deficient atmospheres)
• Toxic fume inhalation
• Injuries due to being knocked down or thrown by the shockwave
• Product exposure from hazardous spills and gas releases

Explosions can cause extensive damage to property and equipment, result in upsets or
interruptions to processes, and harm the environment (through destruction and release of
hazardous materials).

Explosives
Most process technicians do not handle explosive materials as part of their jobs. However,
some jobs might require handling and storing explosives (such as those in mining). Explo-
sives are categorized by their degree of hazard.
The U.S. Department of Transportation uses a classification system (Figure 6.9) that is
based on an explosive material’s sensitivity to heat, impact, friction, and shock waves, and
that measures the resulting violence of an explosion.

• Class A—the most hazardous; highly explosive materials (usually considered to be high
explosive bombs), including TNT, nitroglycerin, and C4
Figure 6.9 Classes of
­explosives: A. C4 explosive.
• Class B—propellants, some fireworks, and pyrotechnic signal devices B. Fireworks. C. Ammunition.
CREDIT: (C4) Evgeniy Marian/Shutterstock;
• Class C—items with explosives in restricted quantities that pose a minimum hazard,
(fireworks) Akepong srichaichana/Shutter-
such as smokeless powders, blasting caps, and small-arms ammunition stock; (ammunition) Meg007/Shutterstock.

Class A Class B Class C

Storage magazines for explosives are divided into two groups, depending on the amount
(weight) of explosives stored:

• I: More than 50 pounds

• II: 50 pounds or less
122 Chapter 6

Types of Chemical Explosions

A chemical explosion occurs when chemical reactions generate and discharge high-pressure
gas. Chemical explosions are categorized into five types:

• Combustion—involving vapor clouds, gas, mist, dust, or backdraft.

• Thermal—when two or more chemical compounds rapidly react together and result in
an explosion (common to oil/gas and chemical facilities)
• Condensed phase—when rapid chemical reactions occur between solids or liquids to
cause an explosion (typical of high explosives)
• Nuclear—when energy is released rapidly due to an uncontrolled nuclear reaction (see
Chapter 7 for details on nuclear reactions)
Boiling liquid expanding vapor • Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE)—explosion resulting from exces-
explosion (BLEVE) explosion sive compression of vapor in the container head space and vapor flashing from its
resulting from excessive compression
of vapor in the container head space release to the atmosphere above its normal boiling point. A BLEVE results from the
and vapor flashing from its release sudden loss of containment of a liquid heated above its normal boiling point. The loss
to the atmosphere above its normal of containment, such as a tank rupturing (catastrophic failure), is usually the result of
boiling point.
the containment vessel’s failure due to the pressure inside the vessel. There are two
contributors to the BLEVE blast wave: (1) the compressed vapor in the container head
space, and (2) the vapor flashing from its release to the atmosphere above its normal
boiling point. Liquid heated above its normal boiling point (superheated liquid), if con-
tained within a vessel, causes the pressure within the vessel to increase rapidly. Failure
pressure of the vessel decreases as the vessel heats up. If the vessel fails (ruptures), the
superheated liquid vaporizes rapidly, causing an explosion.

Dust Explosions
When combustible dust particles such as grain, wood, paper, plastic, coal, etc., become
small enough they take on the properties of a flammable vapor. Particles below 0.1 microns
(0.00004 inches) tend to float in air and if the concentration of the particles become high
enough and there is a spark, an explosion occurs. Combustible dust particle explosions cause
substantial damage and occur whenever the dust particles have become too concentrated
in the absence of moisture and in the presence of an ignition source such as static electricity.
Figure 6.10 is an example of a grain dust explosion.

Figure 6.10 In 1979, a grain

dust explosion accompanied by
a huge ball of fire tore through
an elevator at a mill in Lexington,
Nebraska. The force of the explo-
sion blew two employees working
near the top of the 120 foot high
structure onto the ground below.
Authorities theorized grain dust
caused the explosion, which blew
itself out and thus prevented addi-
tional fire.
CREDIT: LEONARDO VITI/Shutterstock.

Coal dust explosions are also common. In fact, the most efficient type of coal-fired boiler
is “fluidized” coal. Fluidized coal consists of particles of coal suspended in air and sprayed
into the combustion chamber of a furnace just like diesel fuel or natural gas mixed with air
would be sprayed into the combustion chamber of a furnace.
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 123

Prevention of dust explosions is based on removal of oxygen (air) from the container
where the airborne dust particles reside, plus adding moisture to the air to prevent buildup
of static electricity. However, training of employees who handle material that can produce
flammable dust clouds is critical to avoiding dust-related explosions. Without training, it
may not be apparent to employees handling grain or wood that dust from these materials
can be explosive.

Did You Know?

Alfred Nobel invented dynamite (TNT) in 1866, and then later
established the Nobel Prize as part of his will after his death
in 1895. Nobel prizes are awarded in Physics, Chemistry,
­Medicine, Literature, Economics, and Peace.

CREDIT: Paramonov Alexander/

Shutterstock.

Detonation Hazards
A detonation is an explosion that generates a supersonic combustion shock wave. The shock
of the detonation compresses fuel and causes temperatures to reach the ignition point. The
ignited fuel burns behind the shock wave and releases energy that supports the shock wave
and sustains it. Detonations can be extremely violent, due to the high-velocity pressure
waves (between five and seven times the speed of sound) that accompany them.
Detonations present all the hazards of other types of explosions, but are much more
violent and dangerous. The accompanying shock waves can cause extensive damage to
structures and equipment.
High-speed detonations usually occur in long containers, such as pipe runs, which allow
shock waves from the detonation to increase in speed and intensity as they reflect along the
container length. Spherical detonations grow in all directions and the shock waves travel
more rapidly and with greater force.

Detonation Characteristics
Detonations have the following characteristics, which set them apart from other types of
explosions:

• The entire detonation process takes between a fraction of a second up to two seconds.
• The initial pressure produced can be 60 to 100 times greater than other types of
explosions.
• Detonation shock waves are supersonic (traveling faster than sound), and can reach up
to 8,000 feet per second (for some hydrocarbon mixtures).
• Very few containers are designed to withstand detonations.
• Shock waves produced by detonation can travel easily against gas flow (e.g., traveling
back up pipes into an upstream process vessel).
• Shock waves can build in intensity each time they reflect off a container wall, causing
pressure to increase.
• The high velocity and pressure causes high-impact stress, which can cause containers to
break before the container can expand or absorb any of the impact.
124 Chapter 6

Did You Know?

In 1947 the freighter Grandcamp, loaded with ammonium nitrate fertilizer, caught fire and exploded.
The resulting shock wave from the detonation knocked two light aircraft out of the sky, killing the
people on board.
The explosion was heard more than 150 miles away. More than 600 people are estimated to
have died in the disaster, deemed one of the worst industrial accidents in U.S. history.

Controls and Mitigation Hazard Protection

In the process industries, companies use engineering to reduce the risk of fire and explosion haz-
ards. Hazard protection can also be passive, meaning that sufficient heat sources are not present
to cause ignition. Some engineering solutions to reduce these hazards include the following:

• Fire monitors, detection systems, and alarms

• Firefighting systems (e.g., sprinklers, hydrants, hose stations, deluge systems, halon
systems, and CO2 systems)
• Low-heat lighting (lighting designed to put off a minimal amount of heat)
• Firewalls
• Fire-retardant materials
• Leak monitoring and detection
• Vessel design

Also, the following administrative programs are used to reduce fire and explosion
hazards:

• Fire-safety training
• Fire extinguisher placement and training
• Safety shower and eyewash placement and training
• Vessel loading and unloading training
• Electrical safety training
• Evacuation plans
• Written procedures
• Signs and markings
• Formation of fire brigades
• Material handling and storage
• Hazard communication and documentation (e.g., safety data sheets, labeling)
• Respirator training
• Confined-space entry training
• Hot-work permits

Personal protective equipment can be used to protect against some hazardous conditions:

• Fire-retardant clothing protects against burns.

• Respirators and rescue air prevent suffocation and inhalation of harmful substances.
• Gloves protect against hot surfaces.

It is the responsibility of the process technician to be aware of potential fire hazards

and watch for the elements that can produce fires. Immediate and appropriate responses
to fires can mean the difference between controlling and putting out the fire, versus having
it spread and cause wide damage, injuries, and even fatalities. Process technicians should
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 125

know how to report fires at their facilities and be familiar with the location and use of fire
extinguishers. They should also know how to properly handle and store flammable materials
and understand the properties and hazards of those materials.

6.2 Government Regulations

There are numerous government regulations relating either directly or indirectly to fire and
explosion hazards as Table 6.4 shows.

Table 6.4 Government Regulations Relating to Fire and/or Explosion Hazards

Regulation Description
OSHA 1910.155 and 156 Fire protection scope, applications, and definitions; fire brigades
OSHA 1910.157 and 158 Portable fire suppression equipment including fire extinguishers and standpipe/
hose systems
OSHA 1910.159–163 Fixed fire suppression equipment (sprinkler systems, dry chemical, gaseous agent,
water spray, foam)
OSHA 1910.164 and 165 Fire detection systems and employee alarm systems
OSHA 1910.106 Flammable and combustible liquids
OSHA 1926.152 Handling and storage of flammable and combustible liquids
OSHA 1910.1200 Hazard communication
OSHA 1910.134 Respiratory protection
OSHA 1910.307 Electrical for hazardous locations, such as electric equipment and wiring in
­locations which are classified depending on the properties of the flammable vapor,
liquids or gases, or combustible dusts or fibers (Note: the National Electrical Code
also addresses this hazard.)
OSHA 1910.109 Explosives and blasting agents
OSHA 1910.146 Permit-required confined spaces
OSHA 1910.119 Process Safety Management Rule

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), American Petroleum Institute (API),
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and other organizations also provide
information, guidelines, and recommendations for fire and/or explosion safety and prevention.

Summary
Although fire, explosions, and detonations rarely occur in the called the fire triangle. Removing any one element from the
process industries, when they do occur the results can be dev- triangle will extinguish the fire. Another factor in the propaga-
astating. Fire and explosions are some of the most dangerous tion of a fire is a chain reaction (a series of reactions in which
hazards a process technician may face. each reaction is initiated by the energy produced in the pre-
The heat from a fire can cause toxic fumes, burns, and ceding reaction). When a chain reaction is added to the compo-
suffocation. Fire can also spark a chain reaction in other areas nents of the fire triangle, it is referred to as a fire tetrahedron.
of the process. Explosions and deflagrations produce violent As with the fire triangle, removing any one element from the
bursts of energy and pressure that can cause serious damage, tetrahedron will extinguish the fire.
injury, or death. Heat from a fire or some other heat source can be trans-
In order for a fire to start, three elements must be pres- ferred in three ways: convection, conduction, and radiation.
ent: fuel, oxygen, and heat. These three elements together are Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic
126 Chapter 6

waves. Convection is the transfer of heat through the circula- Process technicians should be familiar with the different
tion, or movement, of a liquid or gas. Conduction is the trans- classes of fire (A, B, C, D, K); understand the characteris-
fer of heat through matter via vibrational motion. tics, hazards, and prevention of fires, explosions, and deto-
It is important for process technicians to be familiar with nations; and the governmental regulations that address all
the characteristics of flammable substances and the best meth- these issues.
ods for extinguishing the different types of fires.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 8. List the stages of a fire.
a. Combustion 9. The three different methods of heat transfer are:
b. Deflagration a. Radiation, combustion, and conduction
c. Detonation b. Convection, fusion, and flame
d. Explosion c. Radiation, convection, and conduction
e. Fire d. Flashpoint, fire point, and convection
f. Fire point
10. What type of fuel is involved in a Class B fire?
g. Fire tetrahedron
a. Wood
h. Fire triangle
b. Electrical equipment
i. Flammable
c. Metals
j. Fuel
d. Flammable liquids or gases
k. Volatility
11. What does Section 704 of the National Fire Code
2. Which of the following is the primary killer during fires? specify?
a. Carbon monoxide a. Classes of fire
b. Carbon dioxide b. Classes of flammable liquids
c. Heat c. Types of fire extinguishers
d. Sulfur dioxide d. Hazards of materials
3. How much oxygen does a fire need to ignite? 12. Match the explosion description with its type:
4. List and describe the four components of the fire I. Combustion a. Produced when boiling
tetrahedron. explosion liquid creates expand-
ing vapor, which then
5. What happens when the temperature of a flammable explodes
liquid rises?
II. Thermal explosion b. Generated when two
6. What is the term for the temperature at which burning is or more chemical com-
self-sustaining after removal of an ignition source? pounds rapidly react
together and explode
a. Combustion
III. BLEVE c. Created by dust, gas,
b. Convection
mist, or backdrafts
c. Fire point
IV Nuclear explosion d. Produced when rapid
d. Flashpoint chemical reactions
7. What class is a flammable liquid with a flashpoint less occur between solids or
than 73 degrees F and a boiling point less than 100 liquids
degrees F? V. Condensed phase e. Occurs due to uncon-
a. Class IA explosion trolled fusion or fission
reaction
b. Class IB
c. Class IC
d. Class IIA
 Fire and Explosion Hazards 127

13. What government regulation provides fire protection 14. What organizations provide information and guidelines
scope, applications, and definitions? for fire and/or explosion safety and prevention? (Select
a. OSHA 1926.152 all that apply.)
b. OSHA 1910.159–163 a. National Fire Protection Association
c. OSHA 1910.155 and 156 b. American Petroleum Institute
d. OSHA 1910.109 c. American Society for Testing and Materials
d. Society for Fire Prevention and Protection

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Inspect your home or work area for potential fire haz- 5. Perform inspection of a fire extinguisher.
ards, then make a list of them. Describe how each fire
hazard can be reduced. 6. Without actually discharging the fire extinguisher, dem-
onstrate PASS with a fire extinguisher by simulating
2. Research the Texas City explosion of 1947, involving a how you spray the extinguishing agent at a fire.
cargo ship loaded with ammonium nitrate fertilizer that [PASS–Pull–Aim–Side-to-Side at the base of the fire.]
caught fire, then exploded. Write a three-page paper
describing the event, the devastation it caused, and the 7. Demonstrate the proper use of a fire extinguisher to put
impact on the people and the community. out a fire (hopefully this can be hands on).

3. Discuss the Phillips 66 explosion and fire of October 8. OSHA 1910.119—The Process Safety Management Rule
1989 in Deer Park, TX. There were 23 fatalities and 317 of Highly Hazardous Chemicals—involves 14 require-
injuries. What legislation was passed as a result of this ments. Research this legislation. Write a brief paper
event? Discuss aspects of this legislation in class. What naming the 14 requirements and describing the purpose
did the new law do to protect workers? of each one.

4. Select a government regulation relating to fire or explo- 9. Tour a local fire station and learn about their equipment.
sion, then discuss the regulation. Present your research Have the local fire department demonstrate firefighting
to your fellow students. Describe the hazard, how the with a “live fire.”
regulation addresses or reduces the hazard, and how it
is enforced.
 Chapter 7
Pressure, Temperature,
and Radiation Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of pressure, temperature, and radiation hazards
in the process industries, which can affect people and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
7.1 Name specific hazards associated with pressure and pressurized equip-
ment used in the process industries and discuss the specific hazards
posed by this equipment:
Vacuum
High pressure
Compressed gases
Pressure vessels. (NAPTA Safety: Pressure Hazards 1*) p. 129
7.2 Discuss the hazards of temperature extremes in the working environ-
ment. (NAPTA Safety: Pressure Hazards 2) p. 133
7.3 Explain the effects of ionizing and nonionizing radiation. (NAPTA
Safety: Pressure Hazards 3) p. 139
7.4 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
pressure, temperature, and radiation hazards. (NAPTA Safety: Pressure
Hazards 4) p. 142

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here
in abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety: Pressure Hazards 1)” means that this
chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety in regard to
pressure, temperature, and radiation hazards.

Key Terms
Atmospheric pressure—the pressure at the surface of the earth (1.01 bar [14.7 PSIA]
at sea level), p. 129.
Dose—the amount of a substance taken into or absorbed by the body, p. 140.
128
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 129

Endothermic—having to do with a chemical reaction that requires the addition or

absorption of energy, p. 132.
Exothermic—relating to a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of
heat, p. 132.
Rad—radiation absorbed dose; the unit of ionizing radiation absorbed by a material,
such as human tissue, p. 140.
Rem—roentgen equivalent man; a unit of measure of the dose of radiation deposited
in body tissue, averaged over the body, p. 140.
Runaway reaction—a reaction that is out of control; can be either endothermic or
exothermic, p. 132.
Vacuum—any pressure below atmospheric pressure (1.01 bar [14.7 PSIA]), p. 129.

7.1 Introduction
In the process industries, the physical hazards associated with temperature, pressure, and
radiation can cause injury, illness, or death if these hazards are not handled properly. They
can also have short- or long-term effects on the environment.
Government agencies use regulations, and the process industries use engineering, admin-
istrative controls, and personal protective equipment to protect or limit personnel exposure to
temperatures, pressures, and radiation hazards. Process technicians are required to share the
responsibility to protect themselves, their coworkers, and the community from such hazards.

Did You Know?

The pressure and wind speed from an explosion are
powerful enough to rupture a person’s lungs, or even
knock down a building.
Consider, for example, the bomb (code named
“Little Boy”) dropped on Hiroshima during World War II.
The explosion produced by this bomb created estimated
wind speeds of 980 mph (1,577 kph) on the ground
directly beneath the explosion and generated a pressure
equivalent to 8,600 lb per square foot (4.12 bar [60 PSI])! CREDIT: Everett Historical/Shutterstock.

A mile away from the blast, the wind speed was

still 190 mph (306 kph) with a pressure equivalent of 1,180 lb per square foot (about 0.55 bar [8 PSI]).
A force of this magnitude would still be capable of bringing down even the sturdiest of buildings today.

Process technicians must be able to recognize and understand the temperature, pressure,
and radiation hazards associated with their operating facilities and how these hazards can
affect local communities.
This chapter provides an overview of the temperature, pressure, and radiation work-
place hazards that process technicians might encounter. Each hazard is briefly described,
along with its potential effects.

Pressure Hazards
We are constantly surrounded by air that pushes on every surface it touches. Pressure is the
force exerted on a surface divided by its area. Atmospheric pressure the
pressure at the surface of the earth
P = F/A (1.01 bar [14.7 PSIA] at sea level).

At sea level, air exerts a pressure on the surface of earth of 1.01 bar (14.7 pounds per
Vacuum any pressure below
square inch, or PSI). We call this atmospheric pressure. Any pressure below 1.01 bar atmospheric pressure (1.01 bar
(14.7 PSIA) is referred to as vacuum. [14.7 PSIA]).
130 Chapter 7

It is important for process technicians to understand the concept of pressure and its
impact on processes, equipment, and the human body. For example, pressure is used fre-
quently in the process industries to move fluids through pipes, hoses, and equipment. Our
bodies also use pressure to circulate our blood, operate our lungs, and control other functions
such as balance and hearing.
Process technicians must familiarize themselves with the proper operation and main-
tenance of pressure-related processes and equipment and learn to respect the hazards of
compressed gases and air.
While the specific details of pressured equipment operations and maintenance are outside
the scope of this textbook, technicians can do several things to reduce pressure-related hazards:
• Perform proper maintenance.
• Conduct periodic inspections.
• Ensure proper storage or placement of pressurized equipment and storage vessels (e.g.,
store in locations away from heat or cold, if possible).
• Ensure that lines and hoses are firmly clamped.
• Release pressure before working on pressurized equipment.
• Use shielding around high-pressure systems.
• Limit access to areas near high-pressure systems.

Pressure in the Process Industries

OSHA defines pressure vessels as storage tanks or vessels designed to operate at pressures
above 1.03 bar (15 PSI). The process industries are full of pressure vessels and pressurized
equipment, so most process technicians will encounter them on a daily basis. Because of this,
it is important for technicians to know that this equipment can pose significant hazardous
conditions if not handled properly.
Hazards posed by pressurized equipment include ruptures, fires, explosions, and leaks,
as well as pulsation or vibration of equipment and lines. All of these factors pose potential
hazards to technicians, equipment, the environment, and the community. For example, a leak
can expose technicians and the surrounding community to potentially hazardous substances.
A fire can expose individuals to hazardous substances and combustion products and can
even trigger a chain reaction (a self-sustaining series of reactions) that leads to an explosion.
Explosions can produce violent releases of energy that cause extreme changes in air pressure,
flying debris, flames, and smoke, as well as exposure to hazardous materials that can cause
poisoning, suffocation, or other effects.
The most significant sources of pressure hazards are posed by the following situations:

• Vacuum
• High pressure
• Compressed gases
• Runaway reactions in pressure vessels

VACUUM A vacuum occurs when the pressure inside equipment is less than the air pres-
sure outside of the equipment. If the equipment is not designed for use with a vacuum, it
could implode and cause significant damage and/or potentially cause the release of toxic
substances (Figure 7.1). Less-than-atmospheric pressures and changes in atmospheric condi-
tions can also be caused by weather phenomena such as hurricanes and tornadoes.

HIGH PRESSURE High pressure can occur due to thermal expansion of a fluid inside its con-
tainer. Take water, for example. When water is heated to its boiling point (212 degrees Fahrenheit
[100 degrees Celsius]), it expands up to 1,600 times its original volume when converted from a
liquid to a gas! This type of thermal expansion can cause pipeline ruptures, fractures, and other
equipment damage. That is why pressurized systems are typically designed to handle expan-
sion, and include safety relief valves that reduce the pressure if it reaches a dangerous level.
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 131

Figure 7.1 Imploded vessel.

CREDIT: Courtesy of Jeffrey Laube.

Did You Know?

The S.S. Grandcamp, the ship that caused the Texas
City explosion of 1947, was loaded with ammonium
nitrate (a substance used in fertilizers and demolition
bombs) when a small fire broke out. When responders
failed to extinguish the fire with jugs of drinking water
and a portable fire extinguisher, the captain ordered the
hatches on the ship be closed, and the steam fire sup-
pression system activated. This deadly combination of
pressure and steam caused the small fire to turn into
a runaway reaction that killed 600 people and caused CREDIT: Everett Historical/Shutterstock.
millions of dollars in damage.

COMPRESSED GASES Compressed gases can be extremely dangerous if suddenly

released. For example, if a cylinder of compressed gas (e.g., a scuba tank or a tank of helium
used to blow up balloons) develops a substantial leak, or if the tank falls over and the valve
on the top of tank breaks off, the cylinder may immediately be propelled like a rocket since
the energy being released from the leak can have more force than the weight of the cylinder
(Figure 7.2). This can cause serious injury to personnel and equipment. That is why it is
extremely important for process technicians to inspect compressed gas cylinders periodically
and report any that appear dangerous or are not secured properly.

Figure 7.2 Compressed gas

cylinders secured to a dolly.
CREDIT: Valentyna Chukhlyebova/
Shutterstock.
132 Chapter 7

Another hazard of compressed gases is that they can replace oxygen and potentially
cause a hazardous atmosphere if they are released in a small or confined space. If flammable,
they can rapidly release a cloud of gas or toxic material.
Compressed air can also be dangerous if it is not handled properly. For example, air
lines can whip around or cause flying debris that can damage the eyes, other parts of the
body, or equipment. In extreme cases, compressed gases or steam can be powerful enough
to cut through the skin and cause serious physical injury or death. Because of this, process
technicians should never point air lines directly at a person, use them for horseplay, or use
them to clean any equipment parts or clothing on the body.
Runaway reaction a reaction RUNAWAY REACTIONS A runaway reaction is a reaction that is out of control. These
that is out of control; can be either types of reactions can be extremely dangerous and difficult to stop. Reactions can be
endothermic or exothermic.
­exothermic (generating heat) or endothermic (consuming heat). If an exothermic reaction
gets out of control, the reaction vessel can become over-pressurized due to the uncontrolled
Exothermic relating to a chemical
reaction that releases energy in the release of heat or gas generation, which increases the pressure. If an endothermic reaction
form of heat. gets out of control, a vacuum can form inside the vessel as a result of pressure drops due to
a drop in temperature.
Endothermic having to do with a
chemical reaction that requires the PRESSURE LEAKS Pressure leaks can be difficult to determine. If enough fluid leaks out,
addition or absorption of energy equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere may be reached and the leak may stop.
Leaks can be caused by a variety of factors, including the following:

• Dirty or damaged valves, threads, gaskets, and other devices used to control flow
• Vessel overpressurization
• Thermal expansion of joints and materials due to temperature fluctuations

Did You Know?

Nitrogen, which cannot be detected by smell, is frequently used for
purging tanks because it has inert (nonreactive, nonflammable) proper-
ties. However, in high concentrations, nitrogen can be lethal because it
displaces oxygen in the body.
When oxygen levels in the body decrease, the brain triggers the
breathing rate to increase. This causes a further buildup of nitrogen
in the body. When oxygen levels fall to 4–6 percent, the victim will fall
into a coma in less than 40 seconds. Once this happens, chances of
survival are minimal.

CREDIT: Oleksiy Mark/

Shutterstock.

It is important to detect leaks whenever possible to prevent product loss, environmen-

tal contamination, injury, or death. Some gases (e.g., the natural gas used in homes) have
scents added to them to make them detectable by smell. Other gases are odorless and must
be detected using leak detectors or “sniffers.” Following are some other methods for detect-
ing leaks:

• Monitoring pressure gauges

• Listening for the sounds of escaping gas
• Checking cloth streamers for movement
• Looking for corrosion

Pressure and Our Bodies

It is vital that process technicians understand pressure, since it can have an impact on safety.
For example, pressure affects the process of breathing, so in order for supplied-air respirators
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 133

to work, adequate pressure is required. Failing to wear a respirator, wearing a respirator

that is incorrect for the environmental conditions, or wearing a respirator that does not fit
properly can result in serious injury or death.
In the process industries, technicians may encounter environments that are not opti-
mum for our bodies and our health. For example, some environments may be oxygen-rich,
while others are oxygen-deficient. In these environments, the pressure changes that regulate
breathing can be impacted.

7.2 Temperature Hazards

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness that can be measured by a thermometer
and a definite scale. Extremely hot or cold temperatures can affect how people work and
their performance.
Process technicians face temperature hazards from equipment and processes (e.g., fired
equipment, unfired pressure vessels, refrigeration, and cryogenics) that produce extremely
hot or cold working environments.

Heat
Temperature and heat are not the same. Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to another
as a result of a temperature difference between the two objects. Heat energy moves from hot
to cold, and it cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred from one object to
another. Heat can be transmitted in three different ways: conduction, convection, or radiation.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through matter via vibrational motion from one object
touching another, such as from a frying pan on a stove burner to an egg in the pan.
Convection is the transfer of heat energy through the circulation or movement of a fluid
(liquid or gas), such as warm air being circulated through a heating system.
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy through electromagnetic waves in space, without
matter moving in that space, such as the warmth from the sun or an open flame.

HOW THE BODY RESPONDS TO HEAT A person’s body constantly generates heat called
metabolic heat. Since humans are “warm-blooded,” the body maintains a consistent, con-
stant temperature, despite being exposed to a wide range of environmental temperatures. In
order to maintain a constant temperature, the body must rid itself of excess heat to keep its
internal temperature in safe limits, usually somewhere between 96 and 99 degrees Fahrenheit
(35.5 and 37.2 degrees Celsius). The body also varies the rate and amount of blood circulated
to help regulate temperature.
The body’s primary method for removing excessive heat is by sweating. As sweat evapo-
rates, the skin is cooled and excess heat is eliminated. A person at rest, with no stress con-
ditions, generates more than a quart (approximately one liter) of sweat per day. A person
performing extensive work, working in hot conditions, or feeling stress can produce more
than a gallon (up to four liters) of sweat in as little as four hours. Since sweat consists of
water and salt, a person must replace these in order to remain healthy.
Environmental heat is heat generated outside of the body. This heat could be generated
by the sun, a car, an oven, a heater, or many other things. In the workplace, this heat can be
generated by equipment and processes (e.g., high air temperatures, radiant heat sources,
high humidity).
As environmental heat approaches the body’s normal temperature and humidity increases,
it is more difficult for the body to cool itself. When the body cannot cool itself, less blood is
circulated to muscles, the brain, and other internal organs. When this happens, the person loses
strength and fatigue sets in. The person is also not as alert and mental capacity can be affected.
In hot working environments, sweaty palms can affect a person’s ability to grip tools.
Safety glasses can become fogged. A person can become dizzy more easily. Hot surfaces can
also lead to burns. Hot environments can also impact a person’s mental capabilities and
134 Chapter 7

physical performance. Emotionally, people can become irritable or angry, causing them to
overlook safety procedures or become distracted during hazardous tasks.

HEAT RASH Heat rash is a series of raised bumps or blisters on the skin that feel “prickly”
to the person. This condition occurs when sweat does not evaporate properly, such as in high
humidity environments.
Heat fatigue and heat collapse are other possible heat stress conditions. Sunburn is
another potential heat-related hazard.

Did You Know?

There are many ways to prevent heat-related hazards.

■■ Gradually adjusting to the environment

■■ Drinking plenty of fluids
■■ Adding salt to food to help replace salt lost through sweating
■■ Avoiding working outdoors during the hottest part of the day
■■ Resting between work periods
■■ Wearing appropriate clothing and/or PPE
■■ Using sunscreen
■■ Getting enough sleep and eating light meals
■■ Paying attention to warning signs of heat stress
■■ Understanding how some types of PPE (e.g., protective suits and respirators) can reduce
the body’s ability to tolerate heat
■■ Avoiding contact between skin and extremely hot surfaces

HEAT CRAMPS Heat cramps are muscle spasms in the arms, legs, or abdomen caused
when salt and potassium are depleted as a result of heavy sweating. This problem is com-
pounded if the person is drinking a lot of water but not replacing the lost salt and potassium.
Drinking specially designed liquids with added salt and potassium (such as sports drinks)
can help alleviate the cramps.

HEAT EXHAUSTION Heat exhaustion can also be caused by sustained physical exertion
in a hot environment, along with inadequate replacement of water and salt lost through
sweating. Heat exhaustion occurs when the body’s water and/or salt levels become lower
than normal. As the body becomes dehydrated, the amount of circulating blood is reduced.
Following are common symptoms of heat exhaustion:

• Clammy, damp skin

• Pale or flushed skin
• Fainting/dizziness
• Fatigue
• Nausea
• Headache

If any of these symptoms occur, emergency personnel should be notified and the person
should be moved to a cool place where they can drink plenty of liquids (avoid alcohol and
caffeine, however).

HEAT STRESS Heat stress is a common hazard associated with excessive temperatures.
Heat stroke (sometimes referred to as “sun stroke”) is one type of heat stress that happens
when the body’s ability to sweat becomes impaired or breaks down, causing the core tem-
perature to rise rapidly.
Prolonged physical activity in a hot environment can cause heat stress. Other factors
that can contribute to heat stress are obesity, poor physical condition, and cardiovascular
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 135

disease. A person experiencing heat stress must be cooled down immediately. The first step
is to contact emergency personnel. Move the person into a cool environment, cover him or
her with a damp sheet or a cool water spray, and fan the person with a newspaper or fan.

HEAT STROKE Heat stroke is one of the most serious heat-related conditions. It can occur
even in people who are not exercising if temperatures are hot enough. Individuals suffer-
ing from heat stroke have warm, flushed skin and do not sweat. In most cases, heat stroke
victims also have a very high temperature (106 degrees Fahrenheit [41.1 degrees Celsius] or
higher) and may become delirious, lose consciousness, or have seizures.
These individuals need to have their temperature reduced quickly and must be given IV
fluids for rehydration. Emergency medical treatment should be sought as quickly as possible.
A hospital stay for observation may be required following heat stroke since many different
body organs can fail as a result of the excessive temperature and its physiologic effects.

REDUCING THE IMPACT OF HEAT-RELATED HAZARDS Process technicians can use a

variety of techniques to counter heat-related hazards. These include the following:

• Acclimate to the environment by gradually increasing exposure to the hot work environ-
ment (this adjustment may take up to 10 to 14 days).
• Drink plenty of fluids, including water and sports drinks. You should drink 5 to 7 ounces
(150–200 milliliters) of fluids, preferably cooled slightly or room temperature, every
15 to 20 minutes. Do not depend on your body to signal thirst.

Did You Know?

Heat stroke is a life-threatening condition that develops
rapidly when the body’s natural cooling system fails dur-
ing long exposure to the sun. Certain groups of people
(e.g., older adults, infants, and outdoor workers) are
more susceptible than others. Pets can also develop
heat stroke.

CREDIT: SKphotographer/Shutterstock.

• Add salt to food, if necessary, to replenish salt lost due to sweating (salt tablets should
not be used).
• Avoid working outdoors between noon and 2 p.m. if possible, or at least limit your
exposure.
• Wear appropriate clothing and personal protective equipment.
• Use a sunscreen (the sun protection factor, or SPF, indicates the length of sun exposure;
for example, SPF 15 indicates 15 times longer sun exposure than without sunscreen).
• Get enough sleep and eat light meals.
• Pay attention to the warning signs of heat stress hazards, for yourself and your
coworkers.
• Understand how certain gear such as respirators and protective suits can reduce the
body’s ability to tolerate heat.
• Avoid contact between skin and extremely hot surfaces.

Companies can also reduce heat-related hazards by limiting nonessential tasks in hot
environments or adding extra workers. Following are some other controls:

• Work–rest periods
• Climate-controlled facilities (air conditioning, fans, ventilation)
136 Chapter 7

• Heat shielding and insulation

• Heat hazard and heat acclimation training
• Worker monitoring
• Personal protective equipment (e.g., reflective clothing, insulated suits and gloves, face
shields, ice vests, air cooled garments, vortex coolers, and water cooled garments)

Cold
Process technicians can also be exposed to cold conditions in the workplace. For example,
technicians may have to work outside in extremely cold conditions, or they may experience
cold due to process requirements or equipment. When the body is unable to warm itself
properly, serious cold-related injuries can result. Permanent tissue damage or even death
can occur.
Low temperatures, combined with wind speed and moisture, can result in cold-related
injuries. Wind speed can make the body sense coldness lower than the thermometer reading.
This is called wind-chill factor. Temperature and wind-chill factor combine to determine a
temperature colder than what a thermometer may indicate. Along with moisture, wind can
increase the hazard posed by cold temperatures considerably.
Cold-related injuries are considered to be either generalized (affecting the whole body)
or localized (affecting a particular body part, such as the feet).

Did You Know?

The temperatures in remote regions of Alaska can reach
- 80 degrees Fahrenheit ( - 62 degrees Celsius)! Process
technicians working in those environments must always
wear proper protective clothing and minimize their expo-
sure to the outside air, since temperatures that low can
burn the skin and cause the tears in your eyes to freeze
instantly.

CREDIT: I. Noyan Yilmaz/Shutterstock.

HYPOTHERMIA Hypothermia is a general hazard, during which the core body tempera-
ture drops to dangerous levels, below 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35 degrees Celsius). Symptoms
of hypothermia include the following:

• Fatigue/drowsiness
• Uncontrollable shivering
• Cool, blue-colored skin
• Slurred speech
• Uncoordinated movements
• Irritable, confused, or irrational behavior

If not treated, hypothermia can result in death. If hypothermia is suspected, immediately

contact emergency personnel, then move the person to a warm, dry area. Remove any wet
clothing and replace with dry clothing and wrap the person in blankets. Have the person
drink warm, sweet drinks such as sugar water or sports drinks. (Avoid caffeinated bever-
ages.) Have the person move the extremities to create muscle heat. If this isn’t possible, place
warm water bottles or hot packs on the arm pits, groin, neck, and head. DO NOT rub the
body or place the person in warm water.
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 137

FROSTBITE Frostbite is a localized hazard that generally affects the hands, feet, fingers,
toes, ears, and the nose. Frostbite involves a freezing of deep layers of skin and tissue.
­Following are symptoms of frostbite:

• Sensation of cold
• Hard, numb skin
• Tingling or stinging feeling
• Cramps
• Pale, waxy white skin color

If frostbite is suspected, contact emergency personnel, then move the person to a warm,
dry area. Remove any tight or wet clothing that affects the frostbitten area. Place the affected
area in a warm water bath (105 degrees Fahrenheit [40.6 degrees Celsius]) to warm the area
slowly. DO NOT rub the affected area or pour warm water directly on the affected area. If
there is a chance the affected area could get cold again, do not warm it until the person can
stay in a warm area. If the affected area is warmed then becomes cold again, tissue dam-
age can occur. After 25–40 minutes of warming, dry the affected area and wrap it to keep
it warm.

FROSTNIP Frostnip is a mild case of frostbite. If not treated properly, frostnip can become
frostbite. Trench foot is a frostnip-type condition caused by cold, wet environments (but not
freezing). Symptoms include foot pain, tingling, swelling, and itching. If not treated, trench-
foot can result in tissue death and blistering, permanently damaging the foot.
Process technicians can use a variety of ways to counter cold-related hazards, such as
the following:

• Acclimate to the environment by gradually increasing exposure to the cold work

environment.
• Drink plenty of warm drinks, including water and sports drinks, while avoiding caf-
feinated drinks.
• Avoid working outdoors during the coldest part of the day, if possible, or at least limit
your exposure.
• Wear appropriate clothing in layers and personal protective equipment.
• Use the buddy system.
• Keep feet and extremities dry.
• Take frequent, short breaks in a warm, dry shelter.
• Get enough sleep and eat warm, high-calorie meals (like pasta).
• Pay attention to the warning signs of cold hazards, for yourself and your coworkers.
• Avoid contact between skin and extremely cold surfaces.

Burns
The skin, the body’s largest organ, is composed of a tough outer layer called the epidermis
and an inner layer called the dermis. The skin provides these important functions:

• Protection
• Secretion
• Respiration
• Sensation

Burns prevent the normal functioning of skin, hindering its ability to protect vital inter-
nal organs and disrupting the other functions listed above. The severity to which a burn
138 Chapter 7

injures or damages the skin, and how deep the damage goes, is based on the following
(Figure 7.3):

• First-degree burns affect the outermost layer of skin, and result in a mild skin inflam-
mation (such as sunburn); the person may feel some pain and the skin can feel sensitive
to touch.
• Second-degree burns affect the outermost and underlying layer of skin, and result in
blisters, pain, redness, and swelling. The person feels more intense pain and the skin is
sensitive to touch.
• Third-degree burns extend into deep tissues under the skin and result in blackened,
charred skin or white skin that can be numb. Moist burns from steam or hot liquids
produce white skin, while dry burns from fire or hot surfaces cause blackened, charred
skin. Third-degree burns can be fatal.

Figure 7.3 Comparison of

first-, second-, and third-degree
burns.
CREDIT: Designua/Shutterstock.

Along with the degree of burn, the surface area of the body burned is critical. Burns
covering more than 75 percent of the body’s surface area can be fatal. Burns are classified as
minor, moderate, or critical based on the degree of burn and the area burned.

Did You Know?

When it is reported that a person has been burned over a certain percent of
their body, that percentage is determined based on which area was affected.
For example, if an adult were burned on both the back and front surfaces of
the torso, it would be said that the person was burned over 26 percent of the
body.

CREDIT: Blamb/
Shutterstock.

Both hot and cold objects can produce burns. Hot objects transfer heat to the skin, while
cold objects take heat from the skin. Cold burns can result from prolonged exposure to mod-
erately cold objects (such as snow) or brief contact with extremely cold objects (such as dry
ice or liquid nitrogen).
Chemicals can also cause burns if they come into contact with the skin. Chemical burns
are covered in Chapter 3, Recognizing Chemical Hazards.
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 139

7.3 Radiation Hazards

Radiation is defined as energy traveling through space, either as rays or waves of particles.
Radiation is a part of our daily lives, in sunlight, cell phones, power lines, microwaves, radios,
televisions, x-rays, and so on. We are exposed to background radiation on a daily basis.
There are two types of radiation:

• Ionizing
• Nonionizing

Process technicians may encounter both types of radiation in the workplace. Various radi-
ation sources can be found in a wide range of industrial settings. If radiation is not properly
controlled, it can prove hazardous to the health of workers. For example, in the process indus-
tries radiation can be generated by processes, instrumentation, testing, and other sources.
Ionizing radiation is radiation that is powerful enough to causes atoms to release elec-
trons and become ions.
Examples of ionizing radiation include x-rays and gamma rays. Ionizing radiation can
cause damage to the tissues and organs of the body. Ionizing radiation can also cause muta-
tions which could lead to cancer or birth defects. Ionizing radiation takes two forms:

• Particulate (alpha, beta, neutrons)

• Electromagnetic (x-rays, gamma rays, high-speed electrons, and high-speed protons)

Nonionizing radiation is low-energy radiation such as radio and television waves. Non-
ionizing radiation falls into one of the following categories, based on frequency (hertz, or
cycles per second):

• Extremely low frequency (ELF), including AC current fields

• Very low frequency (VLF)
• Radio frequency (RF)
• Microwaves (MW)
• Infrared (IR)
• Ultraviolet (UV)
• Visible light

Radiation at these low frequencies does not have enough energy to ionize atoms, and
thus does not damage tissue and organs as readily as ionizing radiation. The higher frequen-
cies of electromagnetic radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays do have enough energy to ionize
atoms and are considered ionizing radiation. Nonionizing radiation can still cause damage
though, as it can heat the skin and cause blisters or damage vision (Figure 7.4).

Figure 7.4 Radiation symbol.

CREDIT: Preres/Shutterstock.
140 Chapter 7

Ionizing Radiation
Dose the amount of a substance A dose is the amount of a substance taken into or absorbed by the body. A dose of radiation
taken into or absorbed by the body. is the amount of ionizing radiation absorbed by the body, based on the unit of mass for the
body part that received the dose or the entire body. A dose is measured in rads, the amount
Rad radiation absorbed dose; the
of ionizing radiation energy absorbed by body tissue related to the mass of the tissue. A rad
unit of ionizing radiation absorbed by
a material, such as human tissue. is equal to the absorption of 100 ergs per gram of tissue (an erg is an extremely small unit of
energy). A rem is a measure of ionizing radiation dosage, based on the biological effect of that
Rem roentgen equivalent man; radiation on body tissue, compared to an x-ray dosage. A millirem is one-thousandth of a rem.
a unit of measure of the dose of Ionizing radiation exposure can produce the following effects:
radiation deposited in body tissue,
averaged over the body. • Radiation poisoning
• Nausea
• Loss of hair
• Cancer
• Neurologic damage
• Reproductive problems
• Internal organ damage
• Death

Worker exposure to radiation must be carefully controlled and monitored. OSHA regu-
lates the amount of exposure to radiation that a worker can receive. Companies must ensure
that these exposure limits are not exceeded.
Maximum rem dosage over a calendar year for the following body parts is as follows:

• Entire body 1.25

• Head/trunk 1.25
• Blood forming organs 1.25
• Eye lens 1.25
• Reproductive organs 1.25
• Hands/forearms 18.75
• Feet/ankles 18.75
• Skin 7.5

Exposure for workers under 18 years old cannot exceed 10 percent of the maximum
rems stated above.
OSHA does allow exceptions to the maximum exposure for a worker in a restricted area,
as long as the following criteria are met:

• The maximum dosage to the entire body over the calendar quarter does not exceed
three rems.
• The entire body dosage, when added to the accumulated occupation dosage to the entire
body, does not exceed 5(N-18) rems, where N is the person’s age.
• The company maintains updated records that show the worker’s past and current expo-
sure, to indicate that the addition of a dosage will not exceed the worker’s specified dose.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) states that the total internal and external
dose for a worker cannot exceed five rems per year. Pregnant workers must not exceed a
dosage of 0.5 rems over the term of the pregnancy.
Personal monitoring devices must be used where appropriate. These devices include
dosimeters, film badges, and other similar devices worn or carried by a worker, to measure
the radiation dosage received (Figure 7.5). Special personal protective equipment (PPE) can
also be worn when working in areas with radiation hazards (e.g., shielded aprons, gloves,
and radiation suits).
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 141

Figure 7.5 Dosimeter attached

to employee badge.
CREDIT: Dario Lo Presti/Shutterstock.

Access to areas with radiation hazards can be restricted. A radiation area is any acces-
sible area where a radiation hazard can deliver a dose of five millirem in one hour to a
major portion of the body, or 100 millirem over five days to a major portion of the body.
A high-radiation area is any accessible area where a radiation hazard can deliver a dose of
more than 100 millirem in one hour. Caution signs must be used to mark radiation areas,
high-radiation areas, areas where radioactive materials are stored, airborne radioactive areas,
and containers used to store radioactive materials. Companies that produce, use, store, or
transport radioactive materials may also have an auditory warning signal in the event the
facility must be evacuated.
The best protection from radiation exposure is to distance yourself from the source.
The reduction in intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
the source. In other words, the intensity drops off rapidly as you move away from the
source.

Did You Know?

In the 1950s and 1960s, before the hazards of radiation were completely understood, many shoe
stores contained special x-ray machines that customers could use to determine proper shoe size and
fit. These machines were often out of adjustment and were constructed so radiation leaked into the
surrounding area. By 1970, 33 states had banned their use, and the other 17 states had restrictions
in place that made their use impractical.

Radiation source shields can melt or be destroyed by fire and the source unaffected.
Because of this, process technicians should always follow post-fire procedures for entering
areas with radiation sources.
Ionizing radiation used in pipe and vessel x-rays can cause instrumentation to produce
false readings where nuclear gauging is used and also cause flame detectors in boilers and
furnaces to fail. These instrument failures could be hazardous, so process technicians need
to be aware of their possibilities. All radiation-related problems must be reported to the
designated site-radiation safety representative.
Companies are required to notify OSHA of incidents and keep records and reports of
overexposure, along with cumulative exposure totals. Various regulations apply to storage
and disposal of radioactive materials, including hazardous waste operations (HAZWOPER),
which regulate hazardous material cleanup.
Radioactive materials must also be protected from unauthorized removal, so companies
that handle radioactive materials above certain regulatory quantities must be prepared to
deal with terrorist attacks or other attempts to gain control of these materials.
142 Chapter 7

Nonionizing Radiation
Sunlight is the most common form of electromagnetic energy, consisting primarily of infrared
and ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet radiation from sunlight can cause eye damage, premature aging
of the skin, and skin cancers (such as melanoma). Workers can protect themselves from these
hazards by using sunscreen and wearing appropriate clothing and eyewear when outdoors.
Ultraviolet light sources also include welding, UV lamps, and lasers. Infrared light
sources include high-temperature processes which can produce heat that leads to heat stress
hazards, dry skin and eyes, and other health hazards (e.g., skin cancer and cataracts).
Visible radiation can also cause distortion of light sources, which affect individuals who
are color deficient (“color-blind”). This can pose a safety issue if someone needs to visually
interpret color-coded warning signs, symbols, and alarms. Good lighting can improve safety
and production, while poor lighting can potentially lead to hazards.
The potential hazards of other types of nonionizing radiation, such as that generated
by cell phones, power lines, and computer monitors, are being researched. Conflicting stud-
ies have been reported, with some stating that such sources can cause cancer, neurological
problems, and reproductive effects, while others debate the findings. It is known, however,
that radio frequency and microwaves can interfere with medical devices such as pacemakers.

7.4 Government Regulations

While OSHA does not have specific standards that address temperature in the workplace it
does publish fact sheets for working in hot and cold environments.
For pressure-related hazards, OSHA does not have one specific standard for pressure
vessels. Some OSHA standards require a pressure vessel to be built in accordance with the
industry codes and standards. Compressed gases are covered in 1910.101.
For radiation in the workplace, the following government regulations apply:

• Nonionizing radiation OSHA 1910.97

• Ionizing radiation OSHA 1910.1096
• Hazardous Waste Operations (HAZWOPER) 1910.120 and 1926.65
• Occupational radiation protection Department of Energy 10 CFR 835
• Standards for protection against radiation Nuclear Regulatory Commission 10 CFR 20

Summary
In the process industries, the physical hazards associated with exposure to temperatures, pressures, and radiation hazards.
temperature, pressure, and radiation can cause injury, illness, Process technicians share the responsibility to protect them-
or death if these hazards are not handled properly. They can selves, coworkers, and the community from such hazards.
also have short- or long-term effects on the environment. Process technicians must be able to recognize and under-
Government agencies use regulations, and the process stand the temperature, pressure, and radiation hazards associ-
industries use engineering, administrative controls, and ated with their operating facilities and how these hazards can
personal protective equipment to protect or limit personnel impact local communities.
 Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards 143

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 7. What is the serious medical condition that occurs when
a. Atmospheric pressure the body’s ability to sweat becomes impaired or breaks
down, and the core temperature rises rapidly?
b. Dose
a. Heat stroke
c. Endothermic
b. Heat cramp
d. Exothermic
c. Heat stress
e. Rad
d. Metabolic heat
f. Rem
g. Runaway reaction 8. List at least four things you can do to protect yourself
against heat stress.
h. Vacuum
9. Which cold-related injury affects only extremities such
2. When the pressure inside equipment (such as a vessel)
as the hands, feet, or nose?
is less than the air pressure outside, which of these can
occur? a. Frostbite
a. Explosion b. Hypothermia
b. Toxic flashover c. Cold shock
c. Implosion d. Frostnip
d. High pressure reversal 10. ________________ can prevent the normal ability of skin
to protect internal organs from potentially infectious
3. List three methods for detecting pressure leaks.
agents.
4. __________________________ is the transfer of energy a. Frostbite
from one object to another as a result of a temperature
b. Hypoxia
difference between the two objects.
c. Narcosis
a. Temperature
d. Burns
b. Pressure
c. Radiation 11. List three types of ionizing radiation.
d. Heat 12. List at least four effects of ionizing radiation exposure.
5. Define convection, conduction, and radiation. 13. What is the most common form of electromagnetic
energy?
6. How many liters of sweat can a person lose in 4 hours if
working extremely hard or in hot conditions?

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Look on the OSHA website for information on pressur- condition, potential effects (e.g. tissue damage, death),
ized vessels or compressed gases. Find out what the symptoms and treatment.
hazards are and how they can be prevented (controls).
Make a list of hazards and potential controls. 3. Use the internet or library to learn about the short- and
long-term effects of radiation on people and the envi-
2. Research a heat stress- or cold stress-related medical ronment in today’s manufacturing industries. Compare
condition and write a one-page paper describing the your findings in a class discussion.
 Chapter 8
Hazardous
Atmospheres and
Respiratory Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of respiration hazards in the process industries,
which are caused by hazardous atmospheres.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
8.1 Describe the effect of hazardous atmospheres on respiration.
(NAPTA Safety, Hazardous Atmosphere 2*) p. 145
8.2 Name specific hazards associated with hazardous atmospheres,
­ entilation, and other respiratory-related issues. (NAPTA Safety,
v
­Hazardous Atmosphere 1) p. 147
8.3 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
hazardous atmospheres and respiration hazards. (NAPTA Safety,
­Hazardous Atmosphere 3) p. 160

*Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure that Process Tech-
nology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-level employees in
process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in abbreviated form.
For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Hazardous Atmosphere 2)” means that this chapter’s objec-
tive 1 relates to objective 2 of NAPTA’s course content on safety in regard to hazardous
atmospheres and respiratory hazards.

Key Terms
Absorption—the complete uptake of a contaminant into a liquid or a solid, p. 156.
Adsorption—the adhesion of a contaminant to the outer surface of a solid body or a
liquid, p. 156.
Air-purifying respirator—a type of PPE that usually covers a wearer’s nose and
mouth, using a filter or cartridge to remove any contaminants before they enter the
wearer’s lungs, p. 154.

144
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 145

Air-supplying respirator—a type of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) that covers

a wearer’s face with a mask, providing breathable air through a hose that connects
the mask to a clean air source (usually a compressed air tank or compressor), p. 154.
Asphyxiants—substances that can result in suffocation, p. 149.
Atmosphere—the air space or environment in which the process technician is
working, p. 146.
Confined space—a work area, not designed for continuous employee occupancy, that
restricts the activities of employees who enter, work inside, and exit the area, and
provides a limited means of egress, p. 152.
Contaminant—a substance not naturally present in the atmosphere or present
in unnaturally high concentrations; also called an impurity. Can be a physical,
chemical, biological, or radiological substance, p. 155.
Hazardous atmosphere—an atmosphere that can cause death, illness, or injury if
people are exposed to it. Examples of hazardous atmospheres are flammable,
oxygen-deficient/enriched, toxic, or irritating/corrosive environments, p. 147.
HVAC—ventilation systems used to control workplace environmental factors such as
temperature, humidity, and odor. The acronym is short for heating, ventilating, and
air conditioning, p. 151.
Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH)—any condition that presents
an immediate threat to a person’s life or causes permanent health problems. This
usually refers to an airborne concentration that is immediately dangerous to life
and health or can impair a person’s ability to escape the atmosphere, p. 147.
Oxygen-deficient—an atmosphere in which the oxygen concentration is less than
19.5 percent, p. 148.
Oxygen-enriched—an atmosphere in which the oxygen concentration is greater than
23.5 percent, p. 148.
Respiration—the bodily process of taking oxygen from air breathed in (inhalation)
and giving off carbon dioxide (exhalation); also called breathing, p. 146.

8.1 Introduction
Many process facilities expose workers to various potentially hazardous atmospheres,
biological hazards, airborne contaminants, and other similar health threats. These haz-
ardous atmospheres include insufficient oxygen levels or harmful contaminants in the
air such as dust, particulates, smoke, gases, vapor, mist, and spray. Respiratory pro-
tection is critical in these situations and requires the use of ventilation systems and
respirators.
Hazardous atmospheres can cause short-term effects, such as irritations to the lungs or
mucous membranes, coughing, shortness of breath, light-headedness, or mental or physi-
cal impairment. Some can also result in long-term effects such as cancer or lung disease. In
some cases, these hazards can even result in death. The lungs can serve as a route of entry
for hazardous chemicals. If you inhale them, they can act on other parts of the body such as
the brain or liver.
Process technicians must be aware of the dangers that hazardous atmospheres pose,
especially to respiration (breathing), along with controls that can reduce or remove the haz-
ard. These controls include ventilation, limited exposure, training, respirators, and other
protective devices. Process technicians must also know how to select, fit, wear, use, clean,
maintain, and store respirators. Respirators can be used in everyday work situations, such
as performing a maintenance task in a confined space with a hazardous atmosphere or in
an emergency situation such as a release, spill, fire, or terrorist attack.
This chapter provides an overview of hazardous atmospheres and respiratory hazards
that process technicians might encounter.
146 Chapter 8

Respiration
Oxygen is vital for life and required for the fundamental processes that keep us alive and
Respiration the bodily process healthy. Respiration, or breathing, is the bodily process of taking oxygen from air breathed
of taking oxygen from air breathed in (inhalation) and giving off carbon dioxide (exhalation).
in (inhalation) and giving off carbon
dioxide (exhalation); also called The purpose of the respiratory system is gas exchange: It absorbs oxygen from the air
breathing. into the body and expels the waste gas carbon dioxide to the environment. Oxygen comes
from the air around us—a layer of gases surrounding Earth that is typically made up of
about 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen. Carbon dioxide is produced as the body
uses energy.
The respiratory system starts at the nose and ends in the tissue of the lungs, called alveoli
(Figure 8.1). The major parts are the nose, mouth, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), wind-
pipe (trachea), and lungs. The windpipe branches into two sections (bronchus) that go to the
left and the right lung. In each lung, the bronchus branches into smaller tubes, bronchioles,
which then branch into small clusters of alveoli, or air sacs.

Figure 8.1 The respiratory

s­ ystem starts at the nose and
ends in the tissue of the lungs.
CREDIT: Ilusmedical/Shutterstock.

Alveoli, only two cells thick, handle the actual gas exchange. Because alveoli are so thin,
oxygen can pass directly from the lungs to the blood (through small blood vessels called
capillaries). The oxygen is then circulated to other parts of the body, where it is used as part
of the body’s energy process. The capillaries carry the waste gas carbon dioxide from this
energy process to the alveoli, where it is removed (exhaled) through the lungs.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, Types of Hazards and Their Effects, inhalation is one possible
Atmosphere the air space or way for hazardous materials to enter the body from the atmosphere, the air space or envi-
environment in which the process ronment in which the process technician is working. Inhalation is the most common route
technician is working.
of entry for a hazardous substance and occurs when an airborne hazard (e.g., dust, mist, or
vapor) is inhaled. These hazardous substances often enter the body through the mouth or
nose and are then transported into the lungs. Hazardous chemical or biological agents, in
forms such as dust, mist, or vapors, can be inhaled and cause problems in the nose, throat,
or lungs (or be absorbed into the body through the lungs). These can cause short- and long-
term health effects. Even a nonhazardous substance can affect breathing if enough of it builds
up in the lungs.
The respiratory system has a variety of defensive mechanisms to protect the body from
hazardous chemicals:

• Nose hairs act as a filter to trap large particles, preventing them from going farther into
the respiratory system.
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 147

• A mucous layer coats the respiratory system, including the inside of the nose, to trap
particles and absorb gases or vapors. This mucus can be expelled from the body by
sneezing, blowing the nose, or coughing. Although this mucus can also be swallowed,
it is advisable to remove it from the body.
• The windpipe (trachea) is covered with tiny hair-like cells called cilia, which moves
mucus and any trapped particles it contains to the throat so it can be coughed out.

Some examples of health effects that can result from inhalation of hazardous substances
include the following:

• Direct effect on the respiratory system tissues, causing irritation, shortness of breath,
difficulty breathing, and/or fluid buildup in the lungs (edema), can be caused by irritat-
ing or corrosive chemicals (see the Irritant or Corrosive Atmosphere section later in this
chapter). Edema is life threatening because it can fill the alveoli with fluid and prevent
gas exchange, resulting in suffocation.
• Scarring of lung tissue can be caused by particles (dust and fibers) building up in the
lungs. Scarred lung tissue becomes thickened and has a harder time expanding. This
makes the gas exchange process more difficult. The body cannot inhale as much oxygen
as necessary, and the inhaled oxygen does not pass into the blood in adequate amounts.
Some particulates (e.g., asbestos) can cause lung cancer.
• Organ problems, including the brain, liver, kidneys, and bone tissue, can be caused by
chemical gases or vapor being inhaled and absorbed into the blood and being carried
to different organs. For example, solvent vapor can be inhaled and carried by the blood
to the brain, where they can cause disorientation and dizziness. Hazardous atmosphere an
atmosphere that can cause death,
illness, or injury if people are exposed
to it. Examples of hazardous
8.2 Hazardous Atmospheres atmospheres are flammable, oxygen-
deficient/enriched, toxic, or irritating/
Process technicians can encounter a wide variety of hazardous atmospheres in the workplace. A corrosive environments.
hazardous atmosphere is a concentration of any substance in the air that can cause death, inca-
pacitation, impaired abilities (including self-rescue), injury, or illness. Hazardous atmospheres Immediately dangerous to life
and health (IDLH) any condition
are any atmospheric conditions that exceed the threshold limit value (TLV) for that substance
that presents an immediate threat to
(see Chapter 2, Types of Hazards and Their Effects, for details). Knowing TLVs is important when a person’s life or causes permanent
selecting the proper respirator to use when exposed to a hazardous atmosphere (Figure 8.2). health problems. This usually refers
When a condition presents an immediate threat to a person’s life or could cause permanent health to an airborne concentration that is
immediately dangerous to life and
problems, it becomes immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH). This term usually refers health or can impair a person’s ability
to an airborne concentration that can impair a person’s ability to escape the atmosphere. to escape the atmosphere.

Figure 8.2 Proper protective

gear helps prevent health effects
that can result from inhalation of
hazardous substances.
CREDIT: Sandyman/Shutterstock.
148 Chapter 8

Benzene is one example of a substance that can contribute to a hazardous atmosphere.

Benzene is commonly used in the process industries as a solvent. Benzene acts as an irritant
or as a depressant on the central nervous system. Some studies have linked leukemia to
benzene exposure (a systemic poison). People can be exposed to benzene from exposure to
nonindustrial sources, such as smoking, gasoline pumps (contributing to the use of vapor
recovery systems), glue, or other common products.
Asbestos is another example. Asbestos was a commonly used building material (typi-
cally in insulation or fireproofing) that is now banned by the EPA, since it can release fibers
into the air that can be inhaled. These fibers have been linked to health problems such as
lung cancer, lung scarring (called asbestosis), and cancer of the chest or abdominal lining
(mesothelioma).
The following are descriptions of the major types of hazardous atmospheres.

Oxygen-Deficient or Enriched
Atmospheres and Asphyxiants
Typically, oxygen accounts for a little over 20 percent of a healthy atmosphere (Figure 8.3).
Oxygen-deficient an atmosphere An oxygen-deficient atmosphere occurs when the oxygen level of an atmosphere drops
in which the oxygen concentration is below 19.5 percent. Oxygen-deficient atmospheres deprive the body of the needed amount
less than 19.5 percent.
of oxygen, which can lead to blackouts, brain damage, or death. Oxygen-rich atmospheres
can also cause problems such as oxygen intoxication and fire hazards (some substances will
ignite and burn more quickly).

100
Figure 8.3 An oxygen-defi-
Percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere

cient atmosphere occurs when 90

the oxygen level of an atmosphere
drops below 19.5 percent. 80

70

60 Enriched
50

40

30

20 Normal

10 Deficient
0

Two main factors can create oxygen-deficient atmospheres: consumption of oxygen,

such as during a fire, or displacement of oxygen, when another gas forces oxygen or air out
of the area. Other oxygen-deficient atmospheres include welding operations and chemical
reactions that consume oxygen. Displacement can occur during operations such as “inert-
ing” or “purging” a vessel, by placing a gas such as nitrogen in it. The atmosphere inside of
process equipment is often intentionally made inert with nitrogen inside a vessel or other
process containment systems in order to remove hydrocarbons and oxygen so that the atmo-
sphere inside is not flammable.
Oxygen-enriched an atmosphere An oxygen-enriched atmosphere occurs when the oxygen level rises above 23.5 percent.
in which the oxygen concentration is This can happen when oxygen is added to an atmosphere, replacing other gases. Oxygen-
greater than 23.5 percent.
enriched environments can pose fire hazards. Some materials not usually considered fire
hazards will ignite and burn rapidly in an oxygen-rich environment.
Both oxygen-deficient and oxygen-enriched atmospheres can cause a variety of health
problems, including short- and long-term effects, or even death.
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 149

Asphyxiants are substances that can result in suffocation. A simple asphyxiant displaces Asphyxiants substances that can
oxygen to the point where the body cannot satisfy its oxygen requirements. Types of simple result in suffocation.
asphyxiants include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium, hydrogen, ethane, and methane.
Chemical asphyxiants interfere with the body’s ability to process oxygen, through chemical
reactions. Types of chemical asphyxiants include carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and
hydrogen cyanide (used in gas chambers, but also an industrial insecticide).

Flammable Atmospheres
A flammable atmosphere exists when the air in a specific area contains enough of a gas,
vapor, or mist to cause it to exceed a lower flammable limit, or when a combustible dust
reaches a concentration in the atmosphere meeting or exceeding the lower flammable limit
(Figure 8.4).

Figure 8.4 A flammable

­ tmosphere exists when the air in
a
a specific area contains enough
of a gas, vapor, mist, or dust to
exceed a lower flammable limit.
CREDIT: Janis Abolins/Shutterstock.

Often, a flammable atmosphere is the result of an oxygen-enriched atmosphere. Flam-

mable atmospheres can also result from vaporization of a flammable liquid, chemical reac-
tion, work by-product, extreme concentrations of combustible dust, or a release of trapped
substances from the lining of a confined space (such as propane being removed from a tank).
For an atmosphere to become flammable, the ratio of oxygen to combustible material
must reach a point where it is neither too lean nor too rich for combustion to take place (see
Chapter 6, Fire and Explosion Hazards). Flammable gases, vapor, or mists can accumulate
when there is improper ventilation in an area, such as a confined space. Combustible dust
is usually created during loading or unloading operations involving certain materials
(e.g., coal, grain, fertilizers). Static electricity can spark these materials, especially during low
humidity. Flammable atmospheres pose hazards such as fires, explosions, and respiratory
problems.

Toxic Atmospheres
A toxic atmosphere is air that is poisonous. Toxic atmospheres can result from gases, dust,
particulates, or vapor from the process itself, from a stored product, from tasks performed
in a confined space (e.g., welding), or from leaks or spills. Such atmospheres can also arise
from routine handling of chemicals during such tasks as sampling and equipment mainte-
nance. Examples of toxic atmospheres include carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Some types of toxic atmospheres include systemic poisons. Systemic poisons are chronic
hazards that attack the body’s vital organs and systems. Mercury is a commonly known
systemic poison that can be vaporized at room temperature.
150 Chapter 8

Irritant or Corrosive Atmospheres

Irritant or corrosive atmospheres contain substances that cause irritation to the skin, eyes,
upper respiratory tract, nose, mouth, and throat (Figure 8.5). Irritants can cause tempo-
rary discomfort, while corrosives can cause serious damage to tissues. Irritant or corro-
sive atmospheres are divided into two groups: primary and secondary. A primary irritant
shows no systemic toxic effects (effects on the entire body), but directly affects the respira-
tory system. Some common primary irritants are chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid,
and ammonia. A secondary irritant produces systemic toxic effects along with surface
irritation. Examples of secondary irritants are benzene, carbon tetrachloride, ethyl chloride,
and dusts (such as coal dust, silica, and grain dust), which can all cause long-term health
problems.

Figure 8.5 Irritant or corrosive

atmospheres contain substances
that cause irritation to the skin,
eyes, upper respiratory tract,
nose, mouth, and throat.
CREDIT: Arcady/Shutterstock.

Prolonged exposure to irritant or corrosive concentrations can produce “little or no

evidence of irritation,” according to OSHA. “This may result in a general weakening of the
defense reflexes from changes in sensitivity. The danger in this situation is that the worker
is usually not aware of any increase in his or her exposure to toxic substances.”

Depressant, Anesthetic, or Narcotic

Atmospheres
Depressant, anesthetic, or narcotic atmospheres contain substances that can affect the body’s
nervous system. The effects can be temporary and cause no lasting damage. However, in high
concentrations they can cause asphyxiation and result in loss of consciousness or even death.
They can also make a person unable to handle emergency situations or remove themselves
from dangerous environments (self-rescue). They can impair a person’s ability to concentrate
(which can lead to any number of hazards in the workplace). Symptoms include dizziness,
staggering, slow reflexes, and personality changes. In carefully controlled amounts, anes-
thetics can be used to put a patient “under” for medical procedures and controlling pain
(e.g., ether or chloroform for dentistry, surgery, etc.).
One familiar depressant, ethyl alcohol, is familiar to everyone as drinking alcohol. In
the process industries, it is typically referred to as ethanol. When vaporized and inhaled,
ethanol creates effects similar to drunkenness.
A substance such as methyl alcohol (or methanol) is both a depressant and a systemic
poison; it also poses a fire and explosion hazard. Benzene is a depressant, irritant, and sys-
temic poison, as well as a fire and explosion hazard.
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 151

Hazardous Atmosphere Controls

Hazardous atmospheres can be addressed through the use of engineering controls, adminis-
trative controls, or personal protective equipment (PPE). Engineering controls include ven-
tilation or using closed processes so workers are not exposed to hazardous atmospheres.
Administrative controls include education and training, written procedures, emergency
plans, and other similar efforts. To prevent workers from entering spaces with hazardous
atmospheres, appropriate warning signs and barricades can be used.
OSHA requires employers to develop a written respiratory protection program to pro-
tect workers from hazardous environments. Workers must be trained on the respiratory
protection program.
Finally, if engineering controls and administrative controls do not sufficiently reduce
the hazard, PPE must be used. The primary type of PPE used to address respiration hazards
is a device called a respirator.
The following sections describe various engineering, administrative, and PPE controls
that are used to deal with hazardous atmospheres:

• Ventilation
• Monitoring
• Confined space permits
• Medical evaluation
• Respirators

Ventilation
Ventilation is a common engineering control used to address hazardous atmospheres
(Figure 8.6). Exhaust (local) ventilation is used to trap and remove hazardous atmo-
spheres from a source. Examples are vent hoods (e.g., welding hoods, lab hoods), similar
to those found in kitchens. Dilution ventilation involves moving air in and out of an
area, room, or building to reduce (dilute) the concentration of a potentially hazardous
atmosphere.

Figure 8.6 Ventilation is a

common engineering control used
to reduce or eliminate hazardous
atmospheres.
CREDIT: Grand Warszawski/Shutterstock.

HVAC ventilation systems used

Other workplace environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, and odors, are to control workplace environmental
controlled with ventilation systems collectively called heating, ventilating, and air condi- factors such as temperature,
humidity, and odor. The acronym is
tioning (HVAC). In areas where ventilation does not totally remove a hazardous atmosphere short for heating, ventilating, and air
or is not feasible, workers must wear approved respirators. conditioning.
152 Chapter 8

Monitoring
Monitoring can be used to detect the type and measure the concentration of airborne con-
taminants. This information can determine what type of respirator to wear for that atmo-
sphere. If the type and/or concentration of an atmosphere is unknown, then the highest level
of respiratory protection should be worn (most often a supplied-air system).
Various devices that can alert workers to potentially dangerous changes in the environ-
ment can be used to detect and measure hazardous atmospheres. These devices can either be
permanently affixed to an area and tied into an alarm system or be a portable device. These
devices sample the air and analyze it for various contaminants and concentrations. Monitor-
ing involves both engineering controls (the devices) and administrative controls (procedures
for using them). See Chapter 23, Monitoring Equipment, for more details.

Confined Space Permits

Confined space a work area, not Confined space permits are an administrative control (Figure 8.7). Confined spaces are areas
designed for continuous employee with restricted or limited access, large enough for a person to enter but not designed for
occupancy, that restricts the activities
of employees who enter, work inside, ongoing occupancy. Examples of confined spaces include tanks/vessels, furnaces, boilers,
and exit the area, and provides a reactors, and excavations. Confined space procedures take into account hazardous atmo-
limited means of egress. sphere monitoring, testing, and PPE.

Figure 8.7 Confined space

permits are administrative con-
trols used to restrict entry to
­hazardous areas.
CREDIT: Rifkhas/Shutterstock.

Ventilation is a key control that can be used to reduce hazardous atmospheres before
workers enter the confined space and to remove any contaminants produced during the
work in the space. The atmosphere must be checked before any workers enter the confined
space. Conditions can also be monitored for changes using devices that can detect and mea-
sure hazardous atmospheres.
Persons entering a space containing a hazardous atmosphere must be instructed in the
nature of the hazard, precautions to be taken, and the use of protective and emergency equip-
ment. Standby observers, similarly equipped and instructed, must continually monitor the
activity of employees working within the confined space.
Confined spaces are covered in more detail in Chapter 9, Working Area and Height
­Hazards, and Chapter 21, Permitting Systems.

Medical Evaluation
Medical evaluation is an administrative control. The OSHA respiratory protection standard
requires that a physician or other licensed health care professional must perform a medical
evaluation on each worker who will be exposed to hazardous atmospheres. The determina-
tion must be made that the worker will be able to perform work and use the equipment
(Figure 8.8).
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 153

Figure 8.8 Medical evalua-

tion is an administrative control
used to protect workers who
will be exposed to hazardous
atmospheres.
CREDIT: J88DESIGN/Shutterstock.

The evaluation consists of a medical examination and/or questionnaire. Certain conditions

can affect whether a worker can wear a respirator, such as asthma, emphysema, epilepsy, diabe-
tes, or claustrophobia. The health care professional must provide a written recommendation to
the employer before the employee can be fit tested or allowed to use a respirator. If the employ-
ee’s health condition changes, an additional medical evaluation is required. Other reasons for
an additional medical evaluation are a supervisory recommendation or workplace changes.

Other Controls
The following are some other controls that can be used to address hazardous atmospheres:

• Changing a process to use a material that is not hazardous or less hazardous (engineering)
• Creating a closed process that does not expose workers to the hazardous atmosphere
(engineering)
• Limiting exposure through breaks and temporary reassignments (administrative)
• Performing housekeeping tasks to keep a work area clean and orderly (administrative)

Respirators
Respirators are a type of personal protective equipment (PPE) that protects workers from expo-
sure to hazardous atmospheres that can result in acute or chronic health hazards (Figure 8.9).

Figure 8.9 Respirators protect

workers from exposure to hazard-
ous atmospheres. Employees are
required to complete a computer-
ized respirator fit test before initial
use. The type of hazard usually
determines the type of respira-
tor to select and use. A and
B. Examples of half face cartridge
respirators. C. Dust respirators.
A. B. D and E. Examples of full face
cartridge respirators.
CREDIT: A. Anton Starikov/Shutterstock;
B. Kostrez/Shutterstock; C. kostrez/Shutter-
stock; D. Bundit jonwises/Shutterstock;
E. Adem Demir/Shutterstock.

C. D. E.
154 Chapter 8

Respiratory protection training can cover topics such as the following:

• Hazardous atmospheres specific to a work area or unit

• Purpose of respirators and the consequences of improper fit and use
• Limitations of respirators
• Fit testing, or the process for determining the correct size of face mask that will give
a good seal. NOTE: Workers must be fit tested for every type of respirator that might
be used
• Types of respirators available for an area or unit
• How to properly select, put on, and remove a respirator
• How to inspect, clean, maintain, and repair respirators
• Medical warning signs and symptoms that can hinder the use of respirators
• How to use respiratory protection in an emergency
• How to store respirators after use

Employees are required to be fit tested for a respirator before initial use and be retested
annually. The fit test determines that the respirator fits properly and has a good seal. Work-
ers must use respirators that have a good seal, with no leakage. The fit test is administered
using an OSHA-approved seal test. Workers must not have facial hair or facial conditions
that will interfere with the respirator’s seal or valve function. A good seal can be affected by
facial hair (e.g., beards), scarring, dental changes, glasses, cosmetic surgery, or a significant
change in body weight.
Employees must clean and disinfect respirators, following manufacturer recommenda-
tions and company policy. If the respirator is to be used by more than one employee, it must
be cleaned and disinfected before each use or after each fit testing and training use.
Before entering a hazardous atmosphere, employees should inspect the respirator for
maintenance needs. All maintenance needs must be addressed before the respirator can be
used. The wearer should then perform a fit check after donning the respirator. After each
use, the respirator should be inspected again.

Types of Respirators
Respirators fall into one of two types:
Air-purifying respirator a type of • Air-purifying respirator—a respirator that works by one of two mechanisms. one type
PPE that usually covers a wearer’s filters contaminants out of the air, protecting the wearer from particles as small as
nose and mouth, using a filter or
cartridge to remove any contaminants 0.3 microns (e.g., a HEPA filter). Another type uses adsorbing cartridges to trap chemical
before they enter the wearer’s lungs. vapors. Air-purifying respirators cannot be used in atmospheres with less than
19.5 ­percent oxygen (O2) content. Examples include dust masks, half or full face masks,
and gas masks.
Air-supplying respirator a type • Air-supplying respirator—a respirator that provides breathable air to the wearer
of Personal Protective Equipment through a mask and hose connected to a clean air source. Examples include breathing
(PPE) that covers a wearer’s face
with a mask, providing breathable air hose and a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
air through a hose that connects the
Employers must provide respirators, certified by the stringent guidelines set by the
mask to a clean air source (usually a
compressed air tank or compressor). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), to all workers who need
them. Employers must also identify and evaluate the respirator hazards in the workplace.
These hazards must be categorized as “immediately dangerous to life and health” (IDLH)
or non-IDLH.
IDLH is any condition (e.g., oxygen-deficient atmosphere) that presents an immediate
threat to a person’s life or can cause permanent health problems. Another term used is IDL,
or “immediately dangerous to life.” Employers must select the appropriate types of respira-
tors to use for IDLH and non-IDLH atmospheres, and train employees on their selection, fit,
use, and other important information.
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 155

For protection against gases or vapors, the respirator must be equipped with an
end-of-service-life indicator and be certified by NIOSH for a specific gas or vapor. The end-
of-life indicator is required because, if an air-purifying respirator is used and the filter is
saturated, the wearer may not be able to detect the presence of gas leaking into the respirator.
For protection against very small particulates, the employer must provide either an air-
supplying respirator or an air-purifying respirator equipped with high-efficiency particulate
air (HEPA) filters.
The type of hazard usually determines the type of respirator that should be used. Selec-
tion of the proper respirator is based on answering the following questions:

• What are the contaminants and hazards that the worker could encounter? If unknown,
the highest level of respiratory protection must be used, typically an air-supplying
respirator.
• What are the physical, chemical, and/or biological characteristics of the contaminants?
• Is the contaminant organic or inorganic?
• Is the contaminant an acid or a base?
• What is the concentration of the contaminant?
• Are the contaminants airborne?
• What is the boiling point and vapor pressure? This can help determine airborne levels.
• Is the atmosphere oxygen-deficient (less than 19.5 percent oxygen) or oxygen-enriched
(greater than 23.5 percent)? If so, an air-supplying respirator must be used.
• Does the hazardous atmosphere contain a gas that has no distinguishable warning prop-
erties? If so, an air-supplying respirator must be used.
• What is the exposure time limit?
• What are the physiological effects on the body? If the contaminant is an eye irritant, a full
face mask must be worn. If it is an asphyxiant, an air-supplying respirator must be worn.
If the contaminant can be absorbed through the skin, a full face mask must be worn.
• What specific tasks will be performed around the contaminant, and how long will they
take?
• What other personal protective equipment is required (e.g., can the hazard also be
absorbed through the skin)?
• What is the current health condition of the worker?
• Has the worker been fit tested to wear specific types of respirators?
• What types of respirators are currently available?

The most important question to consider is if the respirator will adequately protect the
worker from the hazard.
Before entering a hazardous atmosphere, other factors should also be considered:

• What approvals must be obtained first?

• How will conditions be monitored?
• What permits might be required?
• How will emergencies be dealt with?
• How will communications be handled?
• Have all the entrants familiarized themselves with the SDS for possible contaminants?

Contaminant a substance not

Air-Purifying Respirators naturally present in the atmosphere
Air-purifying respirators are designed to remove particulates and gases/vapors. Air- or present in unnaturally high
concentrations; also called an
­purifying respirators are designed to handle specific contaminants, protecting the wearer’s impurity. Can be a physical, chemical,
respiratory system from substances not naturally present in the atmosphere or that are biological, or radiological substance.
156 Chapter 8

present in unnaturally high concentrations. Companies or manufacturers mark the respirator

with the type of contaminant for which it is designed to handle. Filter types use a mechanical
method to remove particulates (dust, fumes, fibers, or mists). Air passes through the filter,
which removes any contaminants by trapping them. Cartridge types contain materials (such
Absorption the complete uptake of
a contaminant into a liquid or a solid. as activated charcoal or silica gel), which remove chemical gases and vapors from the air
through a chemical reaction (either through absorption, the complete uptake of a contami-
Adsorption the adhesion of a nant into a liquid or a solid; or adsorption, the adhesion of a contaminant to the outer surface
contaminant to the outer surface of a of a solid body or a liquid).
solid body or a liquid.
The following are descriptions of various air-purifying respirators:

• Dust masks can handle particulates (solids in the air), such as irritant dusts. Dust masks
are often misused and can result in up to 20 percent leakage due to fit. Dust masks can
be disposable.
• Half masks cover the face from under the chin to the bridge of the nose. Elastic or rub-
ber is used to secure the mask to the head. A variation is a quarter mask, which does
not cover the chin.
• Full masks cover the entire face, with the filtering chamber attached to the face mask.
• Gas masks also cover the entire face. However, the filtering chamber is too heavy to
attach to the face mask and is typically suspended by a harness; the chamber is attached
to the face mask using a flexible hose.

Air-purifying respirators are typically designed to protect the wearer from between
5 and 50 times the exposure limit for contaminants. In some conditions, air-purifying respira-
tors can be overpowered by the amount of contaminant and exceed the respirator’s design
limitations. The wearer will notice that breathing becomes difficult or the contaminant is
entering the respirator. The wearer should immediately leave the area.
Air-purifying respirators and the filters they use are color coded to match. Filters from
one manufacturer should never be used on another manufacturer’s respirator.
Filters are divided into three classes:

• Class N (not oil resistant) cannot be used in atmospheres with oil-based particulates
present.
• Class R (oil resistant) can be used in any atmosphere; however, the filters must be
changed after every shift when used in atmospheres with oil-based particulates.
• Class P (oil proof) can be used in any atmosphere, regardless of the particulates present.

Each class has three different efficiency ratings: 95 percent, 99 percent, and 100 percent.
High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are useful for extremely small-size particles,
such as asbestos.
Filters must be replaced as necessary, based on how long they have been in use and the
concentration (or amount) of contaminants to which they have been exposed. Otherwise, the
filter can become clogged or contaminants can break through. When the wearer has difficulty
breathing normally, the filter likely needs to be changed.
There are different types of cartridges based on the type of chemical contaminant, which
are also color coded:

• Organic vapor: black

• Acid gas: white
• Ammonia/amine: green
• Combined organic vapor/acid gas: yellow

Cartridges must be replaced if the wearer can smell the chemicals inside the mask.
Therefore, these types of respirators should never be used around chemicals that have no
distinguishing warning properties (such as smell or taste).
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 157

When a cartridge becomes saturated, and thus no longer effective, the wearer cannot
detect that the gas or vapors are leaking into the respirator. So, cartridge respirators must
only be used with chemicals that have odor thresholds below the threshold limit value (the
safe exposure limit). If the wearer cannot detect the chemical until it is at levels above the
TLV, the danger exists that the wearer will be overexposed to the chemical if there is a leak.
Workers should check the protection factor for a cartridge before using it. By knowing
the TLV, a worker can check it against the cartridge protection factor, typically described
as x times the TLV, where x is a number, such as 5 times the TLV. The cartridge will have a
maximum use concentration printed on it, indicating the level of concentration that should
not be exceeded.
Limitations of cartridges are that they cannot be used under the following conditions:

• If the hazard is unknown, because the correct cartridge cannot be selected

• In oxygen-deficient atmospheres or IDLH atmospheres
• With substances that have poor warning properties for the wearer (smell, taste, reaction)

Organic vapor cartridges are not acceptable for use with all organic vapors. For example,
methanol cannot be readily handled by a cartridge respirator. Only air-supplying respira-
tors can effectively protect the wearer. Because of the complex nature of chemicals, organic
vapor respirators cannot be labeled with all the organic compounds that they can be effective
against. Workers should check with the cartridge manufacturer for a full list of substances
that the cartridge will handle.

Air-Supplying Respirators
Air-supplying respirators are used in environments with toxic concentrations of contami-
nants or oxygen-deficient atmospheres (Figure 8.10).

Figure 8.10 Air-supplying

r­ espirators are used in environ-
ments with toxic concentrations of
contaminants or oxygen-deficient
atmospheres.
CREDIT: Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock.

Following are descriptions of various air-supplying respirators:

• Airline respirators use a small-diameter hose to connect an air-supply source to a face

mask or hood. Air can be supplied by cylinder (or bank of cylinders) or compressors
rated for breathing air. The air supply must be properly filtered and meet OSHA guide-
lines for breathing air. The airline typically should not exceed 300 feet (about 91 meters)
in length.
158 Chapter 8

• There are three different types of airline regulators:

• Continuous flow, in which the wearer receives air automatically; the respirator forces
the air to the wearer. Because of the continuous flow, positive pressure builds up and
prevents hazardous atmospheres from entering any leak points. However, the large
amount of air used limits the use of cylinders as an air supply (since they can quickly
become depleted).
• Demand flow, in which the wearer inhales and produces a negative airflow that
opens a valve to supply air. When the user exhales (positive pressure), the valve is
closed. This type of regulator uses less air than a continuous flow type, so cylinders
can be used. The process of inhalation required to open the air valve can draw in haz-
ardous atmospheres through leak points. This type of regulator is becoming obsolete,
because a steady leak in the mask can cause positive pressure, thus preventing the
air valve from opening.
• Pressure demand, in which a preset exhalation valve maintains a positive pressure.
• Hose masks are a crude type of airline respirator that uses a larger diameter hose.
This allows air to be inhaled using normal lung power, although a blower can be used
to assist air flow. Hose masks are decreasing in use.
• SCBA, or self-contained breathing apparatus, requires the wearer to carry all breathing
equipment. Air is supplied using a cylinder attached to a harness, that can be worn
(typically on the back). SCBA respirators allow the wearers more mobility than airline
or hose respirators and there is no air-supply line trailing behind the wearer, which can
get crushed, damaged, or tangled. One drawback is that the cylinder may restrict the
wearer from entering some spaces. At more than 30 pounds (13.6 kg), SCBA also weighs
more than airline or hose mask respirators. Following are two types of SCBA:

• Open-circuit, with exhaled air venting to the atmosphere

• Closed-circuit, with exhaled breath recycled to keep up the amount of oxygen.
Closed-circuit systems can be smaller and lighter than open-circuit systems.
For compressor-provided air, use only a compressor approved for breathing air. Never
use a mechanical tool compressor. A potential problem with using compressors to supply air
is that the compressor can have mechanical problems and fail. When the compressor shuts
down, then the air stops flowing to airline or hose mask wearers. Breathing air compressors
should have an alarm that indicates impending failure. Some other types have an automatic
shutdown procedure to keep wearers from breathing carbon monoxide created by an over-
heated compressor. Airline or hose mask wearers must carry an escape unit respirator (like
a mini SCBA unit), which typically provides about five minutes of emergency air.
A drawback with cylinders is that they are limited on the amount of air they can sup-
ply (potentially less than 30 minutes). Several factors can further reduce the amount of time
available:

• Wearer’s exertion
• Wearer’s physical condition
• Wearer’s body size
• Wearer’s emotional state (panic, fear)
• Total cylinder charge
• Leaks
• Atmospheric pressure

For airline or hose mask respirators, wearers do not have to carry a cylinder and can
work for a long time. However, wearers must be aware of the hose and its limitations. Its
weight can affect movement. The length of the hose limits the distance the wearer can travel.
The hose must not get tangled, crushed, or rubbed against sharp edges.
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 159

Often, SCBA use is reserved for emergency situations, such as rescue operations and
fires. SCBA users might be required to don the equipment in one minute or less, so practice
is essential. SCBA also changes the wearer’s center of gravity, so a worker must get used to
wearing it. Process facilities often hold monthly training sessions on SCBA gear use. SCBA
should have a low-pressure warning device, which should be tested regularly.

Emergency Respirators
Other types of respirators are called emergency escape respirators. These are intended for
use to escape from an area where a hazardous leak or spill has happened. One type of escape
respirator is called a mouthpiece respirator. The wearer clamps it in the mouth. A plug is
used to prevent air intake through the nose, so the wearer must breathe through the mouth.
Since it is difficult to use and form a proper seal, it is intended for use only in emergencies.
Another type is called an escape pack, egress bottle, or egress bag. It consists of a clear plastic
bag the wearer dons, along with a limited supply air bottle.

Respirator Fit, Use, and Care

Air-purifying respirators are less expensive and easier to use than air-supplying sys-
tems, making them the best option if they sufficiently address the hazard. However, some
­hazardous atmospheres cannot be sufficiently reduced by using air-purifying respirators.
Air-supplying respirators must be used in these situations and in oxygen-deficient atmo-
spheres. If the contaminant type and/or concentration of an atmosphere is unknown, then
the highest level of respiratory protection should be worn.
When doing fit testing, the wearer should ensure there are no leaks and that a good
seal is established. After being fitted to a particular make and model of respirator, a worker
should be able to use all respirators of that type, unless a change occurs that affects facial
structure (e.g., weight change, scars).
Fit tests typically involve the person donning the respirator, then being exposed to a
“challenge” atmosphere. A challenge atmosphere is one to which a substance is added (such
as banana oil, saccharin, or smoke). The wearer goes through some exercises that match
work-related movements (e.g., moving the head around, talking, and jogging). If the wearer
detects the challenge atmosphere (by smelling, tasting, or reacting), this means that the seal
is not proper. Some tests use an electronic probe placed inside the mask to check the fit.
Your respirator can be checked two ways:

• Negative testing, where the user dons the respirator and ensures a good seal by covering
the inlet(s), typically with a hand, to see if a vacuum is created inside the respirator. The
user should cover the inlet for at least 10 seconds to properly check the seal.
• Positive testing, where the user dons the respirator and ensures a good seal by covering
the exhaust ports, typically with a hand, to see if pressure is created inside the respira-
tor. The user should cover the exhaust ports for at least 10 seconds to properly check
the seal.

Companies can perform other types of tests as their policies require.

For respirators with face masks, some hazards include the following:

• Reduced peripheral vision

• Limited vision, if the mask fogs (due to heat and humidity)
• Muffled communication
• Potential overheating of the wearer

Following are some general recommendations for respirators:

1. Inspect, clean, and maintain respirators properly (see the following section).
2. Respirators must be placed in areas where they are easily accessible and in plain sight.
160 Chapter 8

3. Often, a respirator must be worn with other PPE. Make sure to properly fit all PPE along
with the respirator.
4. Wearing glasses or contact lenses can affect respirator use. Check with a health care
professional or safety personnel about this issue.
5. Understand the limitations of respirators.
6. Familiarize yourself with emergency procedures, such as switching to emergency air if
a compressor failure occurs when using an air-supplying respirator.
7. If you have any physical changes that can affect respirator fit (e.g., weight changes),
make sure you perform another fit test.

After a respirator has been used, follow these steps:

1. Inspect the respirator for damage and make any necessary repairs. If the respirator is
damaged beyond repair, dispose of it and replace it.
2. Clean and disinfect the respirator using company-provided cleaning materials and
procedures.
3. Dispose of any used filters/cartridges properly; if the filters are contaminated, you may
need to follow special procedures for disposal.
4. Make sure that the face piece seal is not bent or folded.
5. Store the respirator in a plastic bag to keep it clean and free of dirt.
6. Return the respirator to its proper location, so it is ready for the next use.

8.3 Government Regulations

There are a variety of government regulations ensuring that employers provide training and
equipment for the protection of their workers. Many of these regulations relate either directly
or indirectly to hazardous atmospheres and respiratory protection.
OSHA describes deficient ventilation as occurring in the following locations:

• Confined spaces
• Facilities failing to provide adequate maintenance of ventilation equipment
• Facilities operating to maximize energy conservation
• Windowless areas
• Areas with high occupant densities.

Industrial ventilation to correct for deficiencies generally involves use of supply and
exhaust ventilation to control airborne contaminants and bring them to acceptable levels.
Industrial ventilation also helps to prevent fire and explosions and to control temperature,
humidity, and odors.
OSHA sets enforceable permissible exposure limits (PELs) to protect workers against
the health effects of exposure to hazardous substances, including limits on the airborne con-
centrations of hazardous chemicals in the air. Most OSHA PELs are 8-hour time weighted
averages (TWA), although there are also ceiling and peak limits. Approximately 500 PELs
have been established.
Confined spaces may be encountered in virtually any occupation. Recognition is the first
step in preventing fatalities. Since deaths in confined spaces often occur because the atmo-
sphere is oxygen-deficient, toxic, or combustible, such spaces should be classified as permit-
required confined spaces, should be tested prior to entry, and should be monitored continually.
 Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory Hazards 161

• OSHA general industry standards include the following:

• 1910 Subpart G: Health and Environmental Controls
• 1910.94 Ventilation
• 1910 Subpart H: Hazardous Materials
• 1910 Subpart I: Personal Protective Equipment
• 1910.134 Respiratory Protection
• 1910 Subpart J: General Environment Controls
• 1910.146 Permit-Required Confined Space
• 1910 Subpart L: Fire Protection
• 1910 Subpart Z: Toxic and Hazardous Substances
• NIOSH 42 CFR Part 84
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA)

The OSHA Respiratory Protection standard addresses the following:

• Employee training (respiratory hazards, care and use of respirators)

• Medical certification prior to respirator use
• Fit testing
• Objects that can interfere with a good seal (e.g., facial hair, glasses)
• Written program

Summary
Many process facilities expose workers to various poten- Process technicians must be aware of the dangers that
tially hazardous atmospheres, biological hazards, airborne hazardous atmospheres pose, especially to respiration
contaminants, and other similar hazards. These hazardous (breathing), along with controls that can reduce or remove
atmospheres include insufficient oxygen levels or harmful the hazard. These controls include ventilation, limited expo-
contaminants in the air such as dust, particulates, smoke, sure, training, respirators, and other protective devices. Pro-
gases, vapors, mists, and sprays. Respiratory protection is cess technicians must also know how to select, fit, wear, use,
critical in these situations and requires the use of ventilation clean, maintain, and store respirators. Respirators can be used
systems and respirators. in everyday work situations, such as performing a mainte-
Hazardous atmospheres can cause short-term effects, nance task in a confined space with a hazardous atmosphere
such as irritations to the lungs or mucous membranes, cough- or in an emergency situation such as a release, spill, fire, or
ing, shortness of breath, light-headedness, or mental or physi- terrorist attack. Process technicians must know about gov-
cal impairment. Some can also result in long-term effects such ernment regulations that relate to hazardous atmospheres
as cancer or lung disease. In some cases, these hazards can and follow regulation requirements to maintain a safe work
even result in death. The lungs can serve as a route of entry environment.
for hazardous chemicals. If you inhale them, they can act on
other parts of the body such as the brain or liver.
162 Chapter 8

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: c. A process to determine what type of respirator forms
a. Absorption a good seal on a process technician’s face
b. Adsorption d. An emergency procedure to follow if an airline respi-
rator fails
c. Confined space
d. Contaminant 7. (True or False) Facial hair does not interfere with the seal
of a respirator.
e. Hazardous atmosphere
f. HVAC 8. Name the two types of respirators.
g. Oxygen-enriched 9. Air-purifying respirators use ______________ to remove
any contaminants.
2. The percentage of oxygen in an oxygen-deficient atmo-
sphere is ________________ or less. a. Ventilators
a. 20 percent b. Filters
b. 23.5 percent c. Air hoses
c. 21.8 percent d. Fans
d. 19.5 percent 10. Which type of air-purifying respirator covers the entire
face, but uses a harness to hold the filtering chamber?
3. List three natural defense mechanisms that the body has
to protect itself from inhaling hazardous chemicals. a. Dust mask
b. Half mask
4. What is commonly used in the process industries as a
solvent, but also acts as an irritant or as a depressant on c. Full mask
the central nervous system? d. Gas mask
a. Mercury 11. A ____________________ air-supplying respirator allows
b. Benzene the wearer to receive air automatically; the respirator
c. Carbon dioxide forces the air to the wearer.
d. Hydrogen sulfide a. Hose mask
b. Continuous flow
5. __________________ is a common engineering control
used to address hazardous atmospheres. c. Demand flow
a. Ventilation d. Pressure demand
b. PPE 12. What does the acronym SCBA represent?
c. Training 13. Name the two ways process technicians can check their
d. Medical evaluation respirators.
6. What is fit testing? 14. What is the time frame of most OSHA permissible expo-
a. Monitoring hazardous atmospheres for leaks sure limits?
b. Checking that ventilation works properly

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Review the OSHA website and the regulations on respi- 3. Research the process of respiration along with potential
ratory protection. Select one aspect of the regulation (as respiratory hazards that the process industries pose. List
outlined in the Government Regulations section of this five hazards, along with how they affect respiration.
chapter) and write a two-page summary.
4. Test fit a respirator (if available), and then check the seal.
2. Using the internet and other resources, look up different Practice donning the respirator a few times, then have
manufacturer’s recommended care and maintenance someone time you. Attempt to don the respirator in less
requirements of their respirators. Discuss your findings than one minute.
with your fellow students.
Chapter 9
Working Area
and Height Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of working area and height hazards in the process
industries, which can affect the safety and health of workers.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
9.1 Name specific hazards associated with work areas, such as the
following:
Working surfaces
Means of egress
Heights
Confined spaces. (NAPTA Safety, Working Area 1*) p. 164
9.2 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
working surfaces, means of egress, height, and confined space hazards.
(NAPTA Safety, Working Area 2) p. 175
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Working Area 1)” means that this chapter’s
objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety in regard to working
area and height hazards.

Key Terms
4-to-1 rule—a safety rule for using straight or extension ladders, p. 168.
Dockboard—a temporary platform used during the loading operations of cargo
vehicles, p. 167.
Engulfment—the state of being surrounded or completely covered by materials or
products within a confined space, p. 172.
Fall protection—a system designed to minimize injury from falling when the work
height is six feet or greater (above or below grade), p. 167.

163
164 Chapter 9

Guardrail—a rail secured to uprights and erected along the exposed sides and ends
of platforms (OSHA), p. 167.
Handrail—a single bar or pipe supported on brackets from a wall or partition, as on
a stairway or ramp, to furnish persons with a handhold in case of tripping (OSHA),
p. 166.
HAZWOPER—the acronym for the OSHA standard for Hazardous Waste Operations
and Emergency Response, p. 175.
Means of egress—an exit or way to evacuate a building or facility during an
emergency, p. 168.
Three-point contact—a safety practice in which both feet and at least one hand are
used when ascending or descending stairs, p. 167.
Toeboard—a vertical barrier at floor level erected along exposed edges of a floor
opening, wall opening, platform, runway, or ramp to prevent falls of materials
(OSHA), p. 167.
Walking and working surfaces—how OSHA refers to floors, walkways,
passageways, corridors, platforms, and other similar surfaces, p. 164.

9.1 Introduction
Many accidents in the workplace result from slips or falls. These can be caused by someone
tripping over an obstacle in a walkway, slipping on a spill, falling off a ladder, stumbling off
a loading dock, or a wide variety of other actions.
Other workplace hazards include blocked exits during an emergency, falls from heights,
falling objects, and confined spaces with potentially hazardous atmospheres.
The process technician must be aware of these hazards and the safety measures that can
be used to reduce their incidence. Also, they should perform housekeeping duties to keep
work areas clean and free of clutter.
This chapter provides an overview of hazards that the process technician can encounter
Walking and working surfaces in general work areas, including walking and working surfaces (e.g., floors, walkways,
how OSHA refers to floors, walkways, passageways, corridors, and platforms), ladders, exits, heights (falls and falling objects) and
passageways, corridors, platforms,
and other similar surfaces. confined spaces.

Working Areas
Process facilities consist of many common workplace elements, which can seem harmless
but actually result in a number of workplace accidents. Following are some of these com-
mon elements:

• Floors and walking surfaces

• Lighting
• Doors, exits, and aisles
• Stairs, ladders, and elevated walkways

Federal, state, and local codes address a variety of issues relating to safety in building
design, construction, and maintenance. Despite these codes, hazards can still exist, since the
work environment at a process facility is dynamic and changes daily. For example, parts
from a piece of equipment could be left in a walkway during maintenance, causing a trip-
ping hazard. So even though the walkway itself might meet the building code, a hazard can
still exist. Below are other examples of hazards:

• New security measures that result in an exit being locked

• Burned-out lights
• A cable lying across a walkway
 Working Area and Height Hazards 165

• A spill creating a slippery walking surface

• Materials being moved into a warehouse, blocking an aisle
• Hoses left unrolled or not stored properly after use

Also, facilities are not always designed and built for convenient access during mainte-
nance tasks. These types of tasks can put workers at risk as they clean, repair, and perform
general maintenance on equipment or the facility itself.

Walking and Working Surfaces

Floors are referred to in government regulations as walking and working surfaces. These
surfaces include the following:

• Walkways and aisles

• Stairs
• Platforms
• Catwalks
• Scaffolds
• Ramps
• Docks

Some of the most common injuries in the workplace occur due to falls or slips on walk-
ing and working surfaces. Various factors can result in falls or slips:

• Foreign objects on the walking surface (typically, objects that are not a permanent part
of the walking surface, such as cables, boxes, and tools)
• Slippery or slick walking surfaces (spills, water, smooth concrete, or metal) (Figure 9.1)
• Improper lighting (e.g., dim lighting, no lighting, or extremely bright light)
• Incorrectly designed or built walking surfaces (no traction, low areas where water can
collect, steep inclines, narrow stair treads)
• Irregular or uneven surfaces

Figure 9.1 Nonslip walking

surface.
CREDIT: SARIN KUNTHONG/Shutterstock.

A person’s physical condition can also result in falls. People with disabilities might have
difficulties moving around in a poorly designed or constructed work area. Tired or distracted
workers can trip and fall, as can people carrying bulky or awkward loads.
Falls from heights, such as ladders and walkways, are covered in a later section.
Falls and slips can result in the following:

• Cuts, scrapes, and bruises

• Sprains
166 Chapter 9

• Broken bones (especially legs, arms, and ribs)

• Concussion
• Death

When OSHA inspectors review walking and working surfaces at a process facility, they
look for how well the surface is maintained (i.e., is it “clean and orderly”?). To help lessen
hazards associated with walking surfaces, the process technician must contribute to general
“housekeeping” duties, such as these:

• Make sure permanent aisles are marked with signs, and areas leading to exits are kept
clear of hazards.
• Check that fall guards are in working order.
• Make sure walkways are kept clear of foreign objects.
• Roll up hoses or store them properly after use.
• Clean up spills promptly.
• Tidy up work areas.
• Barricade and identify areas where hazardous conditions cannot be immediately
corrected.
• Notify a supervisor of any hazards that the process technician cannot correct.

Following are some safety tips:

• Wear the proper footgear with nonskid soles at all times (Figure 9.2).

Figure 9.2 Technicians should

always wear proper footgear with
nonskid soles.
CREDIT: APICHAT KHUTCHITA/
Shutterstock.

• Do not allow yourself to be distracted when walking around the facility.

• Remember that the nature of process facility work includes equipment maintenance
(e.g., parts may be placed out in walkways during this work) and that materials are
often moved around. Liquids could spill or solids could spill out of their containers.
A hazard that was not there yesterday could be there today.
• Keep a watchful eye for potential hazards.
• Tape off or block hazardous areas.
• Do not overload yourself when carrying objects. You should always be able to extend
your arms and catch yourself if you begin to fall.
Handrail a single bar or pipe • Do not walk up or down stairs too quickly. Use the handrail that is attached to the wall
supported on brackets from a wall or to prevent tripping.
partition, as on a stairway or ramp,
to furnish persons with a handhold in Areas with wet processes should include drainage, along with false floors, platforms,
case of tripping (OSHA).
mats, or other dry standing and walking surfaces for workers. Another important issue
 Working Area and Height Hazards 167

regarding floors is load limits. Some floors have with floor-load marking plates to indicate Dockboard a temporary platform
the load that the floor can withstand. Process technicians must be aware of floor load limits used during the loading operations of
cargo vehicles.
and help follow them.
An important note about aisles and walking surfaces is that process technicians must Guardrail a rail secured to uprights
be aware that vehicles such as forklifts and hoists could be in use. Also, working with and erected along the exposed sides
­dockboards (temporary platforms used during loading operations of cargo vehicles) can and ends of platforms (OSHA).
prove dangerous if they shift during use. Refer to Chapter 12, Vehicle and Transportation
Toeboard a vertical barrier at floor
­Hazards, for more details on these hazards.
level erected along exposed edges
Guardrails erected along the exposed sides and ends of platforms or secured to uprights, of a floor opening, wall opening,
and covers are used to protect open floors, platforms, and runways when areas are 4 feet platform, runway, or ramp to prevent
(1.2 meters) or more off the adjacent floor or ground level. Stairs have landings, tread width, falls of materials (OSHA).
height, guardrails, handrails, toeboards (vertical barriers placed along exposed edges of
Three-point contact a safety
floor openings, platforms, runways, or ramps to prevent materials from falling on someone practice in which both feet and
below), and other safeguards to protect workers. Do not climb or lean over railings. Climb at least one hand are used when
stairs carefully; do not hurry when going up or down the stairs. Use caution if you must ascending or descending stairs.
carry anything on stairs. Have both feet and at least one hand available when ascending and
descending stairs, a safety practice known as three-point contact. Fall protection a system designed
to minimize injury from falling when
the work height is 4 feet or greater
Ladders (above or below grade).

Process technicians might be required to work with ladders, either portable (e.g., step,
straight, or extension) or fixed (Figure 9.3). Fall protection measures must be followed
whenever the work height is 4 feet (1.2 meters) or more to minimize injury.

Figure 9.3 A. Standard step-

ladder. B. Fixed wall ladder.
CREDIT: A. Le Do/Shutterstock.
B. Noomcpk/Shutterstock.

A. B.

To be safe while using a portable ladder, inspect it before use with the following
procedures:

• Read the manufacturer’s label on the ladder. Familiarize yourself with the ladder’s
weight capacity and applications, and select the correct ladder for the task. Select a lad-
der that is the proper height for the job.
• Make sure the ladder is not cracked, has no loose rungs or braces, or any damaged
connections.
• Look for corrosion or weather damage (from heat or cold).
• If using a wooden ladder, inspect it for moisture (which can conduct electricity).
168 Chapter 9

• Pay extra attention when inspecting painted wooden ladders, as paint can hide cracks.
If available, use ladders with varnish or clear lacquer instead of painted ones.
• If using a metal ladder, inspect it for sharp edges.
• If using a fiberglass ladder, make sure the fiberglass is not deteriorating.
• If the ladder has safety shoes (rubber or other nonskid materials on the feet), make sure
they are secure and in good shape.
• Never use a makeshift ladder.
• If working around electricity, remember that a metal ladder can conduct electricity (rub-
ber or nonconductive feet might reduce the hazard, but the hazard is still present).
• Inspect the rungs to make sure they are not slippery.
• Check the latch and rope on extension ladders.

Once you have inspected a portable ladder, follow these recommendations for its use:

• Make sure the ladder is properly opened and placed on a firm, dry base.
• Do not set a ladder on top of any loose objects or raise its height by placing it on other
objects.
• Allow only one person at a time on the ladder.
• When climbing up or down a ladder, always face toward the ladder.
• If the ladder is near an entrance, place a barricade around the ladder.
• Do not have tools in your hand when climbing the ladder. Use a tool belt, have someone
hand you the tools, or find some other way of getting tools to the raised work area.
• Do not lean too far to either side when working on a ladder. Climb down, reposition the
ladder, and then resume the work.
• If reaching up, do not let your waist extend above the top rung.
• Follow the manufacturer’s warnings.

Follow these rules for straight or extension ladders:

• When leaning a ladder against a surface, make sure the surface is not slippery or fragile.
4-to-1 rule a safety rule for using • Use the 4-to-1 rule: Put the base one foot away from the wall for every 4 feet (1.2 meters)
straight or extension ladders. of height between the base and the support point (where you lean the ladder). For
example, if the support point is 12 feet (3.7 meters) from the ground, place the base at
least 3 feet (just under 1 meter) away from the wall.
• The ladder should extend about three feet beyond the top of the support point.
• Tie off the ladder at the top with a rope when in place. Always have someone hold the
ladder at the base if it is not tied.

For fixed ladders, check that rungs and side rails (if present) are properly secured and
not slippery (see Figure 9.3 B). If a ladder safety device is used instead of a cage for long fixed
ladders, inspect the harness for wear and tear, then make sure you properly secure it to your-
self and the fixed rail. Check that the braking system (if available) is functioning properly.
In some situations, safety net systems or guardrails can be used instead of fall protec-
tion equipment.

Exit Routes (Means of Egress)

Means of egress an exit or way to Means of egress refers to an exit or other way to escape in case of an emergency (such as
evacuate a building or facility during fire). Workers must be able to exit a building or work area quickly and safely. The location
an emergency.
and types of doors, lighting, aisles, stairways, limited-access areas, locked or blocked interior
doors, obstructions, and other factors all affect exits and how quickly workers can escape.
 Working Area and Height Hazards 169

The number of exits is determined by various factors, such as the size of the facil-
ity, total occupancy, workplace arrangement, and number of employees. Often, two or
more exits are required at process facilities. Signs must be posted along the exit route to
indicate where to find the nearest exit, and all exit signs must be illuminated. Exits must
open up to a street, walkway, refuge area, public way, or open space with access to the
outside and these areas must be large enough to accommodate the facility occupants
using that route.
Even areas outside exits can affect escape. For example, landscaping or fences might
restrict escape efforts. In addition, efforts to improve security at process facilities can also
impact exits and safety. As access is restricted, so are the potential exits during an emergency.
Exits should include a way to open the door from inside while preventing outside access
(e.g., a device such as a “panic bar” on a door).
Lighting is important for a quick and safe exit. Emergency light sources can help guide
workers out of dim or dark situations, or situations where vision is obscured (e.g., smoke)
(Figure 9.4 A). Some areas where emergency lights are installed include stairs, aisles, ramps,
and passageways, especially those that lead to exits (Figure 9.4 B).

Figure 9.4 A. Emergency

escape light. B. Emergency exit
sign.
CREDIT: A. Sunshine Studio/Shutterstock.
B. Tim Bird/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Process technicians should follow these recommendations:

• Know the different ways that you will be notified in an emergency (lights, horns,
announcements, etc.) and how to respond to each one.
• Make sure you know where exits are located and the emergency plan for your work
area. Go immediately to any designated assembly points and report to the designated
emergency coordinator.
• Remember that emergency exits may have an alarm that sets off, so use them only in
an actual emergency.
• Follow housekeeping practices that help exits and aisles remain clear and unobstructed.
• Make sure flashlights or other light sources used in your work area always have a suf-
ficient charge.

Heights and Fall Protection

Process technicians may be required to work at a variety of heights. Job tasks may require
them to climb ladders, work on raised platforms or catwalks (Figure 9.5), walk on top of
tanks, climb towers, and so forth. A surprising number of deaths from falls occur in the eight-
foot range, so OSHA mandates that employees use fall protection if working at elevations of
4 feet (1.2 meters) or more (measured from the walking or standing surface to the next lower
level) unless proper protection already exists (e.g., railing and cages).
170 Chapter 9

Figure 9.5 Catwalk guardrail.

CREDIT: ZzMidnightzz/Shutterstock.

For fall protection (or fall arrest), process technicians must wear a full-body harness
(Figure 9.6). This harness is designed to evenly distribute the forces of a fall to muscle groups
that can better absorb the forces than other body parts. In a fall-arrest system a lanyard is used
to attach the harness to an anchor point. OSHA standards require all body harnesses to be tied
off 100 percent of the time. The lanyard and anchor point must be able to support at least 5,000
pounds (2268 kilograms), and the lanyard length must not allow a fall of greater than 4 feet
(1.2 meters). The following can help you remember the ABCs of fall protection equipment:

• Anchor point
• Body harness
• Connecting device (lanyard)

Figure 9.6 Fall protection

harness.
CREDIT: Sailom/Shutterstock.

Before performing a task that requires a fall protection system, make sure you under-
stand how to properly adjust and wear the harness, as well as remove it (your facility should
provide training on this).
Never reuse fall protection equipment that has been worn during a fall, unless the manu-
facturer states that reuse of such equipment is okay. The impact from a fall can weaken
equipment; most often, this equipment is removed from service. Your company might have
a policy against reusing fall equipment worn during a fall, no matter what the manufacturer
states. In addition, you should also do the following before working at heights:

1. Inspect the harness for wear or damage (frayed or torn material), paying special atten-
tion to the buckles.
2. Make sure the lanyard has no knots on it, and that the D-ring on the lanyard is not dam-
aged (check for sharp edges, dents, or corrosion).
 Working Area and Height Hazards 171

3. Check snap hooks for proper operation.

4. Put on the harness, adjust it properly, and attach the lanyard.

When you reach the desired height, immediately attach the lanyard (already attached
to the harness) to the anchor point. Once the job is complete, return to ground level, remove
the harness, and return it to the proper location. If any fall protection equipment must be
cleaned or repaired, notify the person responsible for the maintenance of this equipment.

Falling Objects
Falls and slips involve impacts between a person and a surface. Falling objects also involve
impacts between the dropped object and either a surface or a person. Other accidents can
also involve impacts, such as vehicle accidents or a flung object (e.g., a part that has broken
off a piece of rotating equipment). This section focuses on dropped objects.
Falling objects typically pose a hazard to the head (including the face and eyes), but can
also involve legs, feet, arms, hands, and even the torso. Protection from falling objects always
involves PPE (e.g., hard hats, safety shoes, and safety goggles or glasses) (Figure 9.7). In
some cases, it may involve drop nets (mesh arranged to catch falling objects), screens, roping
off the area under the work, or tethering tools. Toeboards, vertical barriers, approximately
4 inches (10 centimeters) high, placed across the bottom of railings, may also be required to
prevent objects from falling. Refer to Chapter 22, Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid,
for more details on the different types of PPE.

Figure 9.7 Hardhats help

­ revent head injuries caused by
p
falling objects.
CREDIT: Alex Staroseltsev/Shutterstock.

If you are working at heights, make sure tools are not placed on the edge or in walkways
where they can be accidentally knocked off. Wipe any moisture off your hands, or use gloves
to maintain a good grip on tools. Also, watch your step to make sure you do not trip and
drop any objects you are carrying.

Confined Spaces
Confined spaces are areas with restricted or limited access that are large enough for a person
to enter but are not designed for ongoing occupancy.
Examples of confined spaces include the following:
• Tanks/vessels
• Reactors
• Silos
• Furnaces
• Boilers
• Columns
• Sewers
• Excavations
• Pits
172 Chapter 9

Entry into confined spaces is controlled because the area could contain hazardous atmo-
spheres (e.g., oxygen-deficient or flammable), toxic chemicals, powered equipment, extreme
temperatures, heights, and so on. Confined spaces can cause potential hazards such as
Engulfment the state of being asphyxiation, engulfment (being trapped in materials or products in a confined space), heat
surrounded or completely covered stress, flooding, electrocution, exposure to toxic chemicals, entrapment, falls, and contact
by materials or products within a
confined space. with rotating equipment. In addition, confined spaces do not have easy egress, meaning they
can be difficult to exit in case of emergency (Figure 9.8).

Figure 9.8 Extreme ­caution

should be used in confined
spaces, as they may contain
­hazardous atmospheres and may
be difficult to exit in the event of
an emergency.
CREDIT: Jaochainoi1980/Shutterstock.

Because of such hazards, OSHA regulations require workers to obtain a permit before
entering a confined space. Confined spaces may also include dangerous equipment, piping,
and other hazards with which a worker will come into close proximity.
The OSHA Permit-Required Confined Spaces regulation defines confined space entry, stating
that companies must develop a confined space entry program. Such programs should address
the hazards associated with confined space entry, who is involved with the confined space proce-
dures, and equipment needed for testing, monitoring, communications, ventilation, and retrieval
(safety line). Workers must be trained on the confined space program and its procedures.
Companies determine what constitutes confined spaces in their facility. All confined
spaces should be marked with warning signs, and efforts should be made to prevent unau-
thorized entry. In order to monitor and control confined spaces, a permitting process must be
established, and workers are required to obtain a permit before entering the confined space.
Confined space permits typically require the following pieces of information:

• Authorization (authorized signatures, time period covered)

• Location of the confined space
• Confined space entry team (including the name of the person entering the space)
• Potential hazards, including atmospheric levels
• Required personal protective equipment (PPE)
• Communication procedures
• Rescue procedures
• Equipment checklist

Each company determines the exact information required for a permit. Confined space
permits are separate from other types of permits, such as lockout and tagout or hot work (see
Chapter 21, Permitting Systems, for more details). Any additional permits must be obtained
before a worker enters the confined space (Figure 9.9).
 Working Area and Height Hazards 173

CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PERMIT Figure 9.9 Sample confined

space permit.
Confined Space Location/Description/ID Number               Date:
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Purpose of Entry

Time In: _____________    Permit Canceled Time:___________________________________________

Time Out: ____________    Reason Permit Canceled:__________________________________________

Supervisor: __________________________________________________________________________________

Rescue and Emergency Services

Hazards of Confined Space Yes No Special Requirements Yes No

Oxygen deficiency Hot work permit required
Combustible gas/vapor Lockout/tagout
Combustible dust Lines broken, capped, or blanked
Carbon monoxide Purge—flush and vent
Hydrogen sulfide Secure area—post and flag
Toxic gas/vapor Ventilation
Toxic fumes Other—list
Skin—chemical hazards Special Equipment
Electrical hazard Breathing apparatus—respirator
Mechanical hazard Escape harness required
Engulfment hazard Tripod emergency escape unit
Entrapment hazard Lifelines
Thermal hazard Lighting (explosion proof, low
voltage)
Slip or fall hazard PPE—goggles, gloves, clothing, etc.
Fire extinguisher
Communication Procedures:

DO NOT ENTER IF PERMISSIBLE ENTRY Test Start and Stop Time:

LEVELS ARE EXCEEDED Start Stop
Permissible Entry Level
% of Oxygen 19.5 % to 23.5 %
% of LEL Less than 10%
Carbon monoxide 35 PPM (8 hr.)
Hydrogen sulfide 10 PPM (8 hr.)
Other
Name(s) or person(s) testing: ___________________________________________________________________

Test instruments(s) used—Include name, model, serial number, and date last calibrated:
CFM—ventilation Size—cubic feet Pre-entry time ❒ Central notified Time notified:
before entrance
❒ Central notified Time notified:
after entrance

Authorized Entrants Authorized Attendants

_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________

PERMIT AUTHORIZATION
I certify that all actions and conditions necessary for safe entry have been performed.
Name—(print):
Signature:
Date: Time:
174 Chapter 9

For safety reasons, teams are often used for work in confined spaces. Teams typically
consist of at least three people: an entry supervisor, the person entering the confined space
(entrant), and a standby (or attendant). An entry supervisor oversees the operation and
checks that conditions are safe and constantly monitors any changes. There can be one or
more entrants.
The entrants perform the work in the confined space, communicating status and con-
ditions with the team. An attendant or standby communicates with the entrants, monitors
conditions, watches for hazards, keeps unauthorized workers out of the confined space,
coordinates rescues if required, and remains on-station outside the confined space until the
entrant leaves the space.
It is critical that the name of the person entering the confined space (entrant) is listed
on the permit, and that the person be tracked upon entering or exiting the confined space
(such as a sign-in/sign-out process).
Before anyone enters the confined space, the following tasks should take place:

• The permit is posted near the confined space.

• The confined space is isolated from the process using blinds or shunts.
• Any chemicals present are purged and the area is cleaned.
• All hazardous energy is controlled.
• Ventilation is used to remove any potentially hazardous atmospheres.
• Access to the space is restricted with barriers and signs.
• Proper PPE is selected, tested, and the fit adjusted.
• A safety review is conducted, and the confined space is monitored for any hazardous
atmospheres or chemicals that might still be present.

OSHA defines entering a confined space as when any part of a person’s body breaks the
plane of the space’s opening. It is extremely dangerous to put even a part of the body into
a confined space, especially the head or even a hand, without following proper confined-
space entry procedures.
Workers have died or been injured by just briefly looking into a confined space. Imagine
an invisible wall at the perimeter of the confined space, and never put any part of your body
across that wall, or “plane,” under any circumstances.
Process technicians must remember these vital recommendations about confined spaces:

• Never enter any confined space, or break the plane of such a space with any body part,
without a permit.
• Observe all signs relating to confined spaces.
• Follow all confined space program requirements exactly.
• Obtain all other required permits before entering a confined space.

If working in a confined space, remember the following:

• Check that all confined space entry requirements have been met.
• Make sure that you properly wear all required PPE.
• Be aware of your own physical conditions, such as excessive sweating, difficulty breath-
ing, increased heart rate, blurred vision, ringing in the ears, and mental fogginess.
• Constantly update your team on your status, including work and physical condition
changes.
• Understand that conditions can change in a confined space. Be ready to exit immediately
if the situation requires it.
 Working Area and Height Hazards 175

Welding in confined spaces presents additional hazards. Welding is discussed in

Chapter 11, Construction, Maintenance, and Tool Hazards.
Hazardous atmospheres and confined spaces are covered in Chapter 8, Hazardous Atmo-
spheres and Respiratory Hazards. Chapter 21, Permitting Systems, also covers confined space permits.

9.2 Government Regulations and

Industry Standards
A variety of government regulations relate either directly or indirectly to working areas, fall
protection, and confined spaces:

• OSHA General Industry Standards

• 1910 Subpart D: Walking Working Surfaces
• 1910 Subpart E: Exit Routes, Emergency Action Plans, and Fire Prevention Plans
• 1910 Subpart F: Powered Platforms, Manlifts, and Vehicle-Mounted Work Platforms
• 1910 Subpart I: Personal Protective Equipment
• 1910 Subpart R: Special Industries
• OHSA 1910.146 covers permit-required confined spaces

OSHA designates illumination levels in the workplace through its Hazardous Waste
Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) standard. It sets illumination standards HAZWOPER the acronym for
for areas such as corridors, hallways, exit ways, warehouses, mechanical and electrical the OSHA standard for Hazardous
Waste Operations and Emergency
rooms, storerooms, living quarters, locker rooms, indoor restrooms, workrooms, and other Response.
similar areas.
The National Fire Protection Association publishes a Life Safety Code, which includes
recommendations on exits and evacuations. The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) publishes a Fall Protection Standard.

Summary
There are many potential hazards in the workplace. Slips with a confined space. Technicians must also be familiar
and falls are just two of these hazards. Slips and falls can with the permits and procedures associated with confined-
occur when walkways are slippery, improperly built, lit- space entry.
tered with foreign objects, or when improper footwear is While federal, state, and local codes are in place to reduce
worn. They can occur as a result of improper ladder usage, the likelihood of workplace injury, hazards and injuries can
failure to use PPE properly, or falling objects. Blocked or still occur. In order to prevent these injuries, process techni-
inadequate egress or egress that is poorly lit can also lead cians should always be safety conscious and aware of their
to serious injury. surroundings, follow proper procedures, and use appropriate
Another process industry hazard is confined spaces. personal protective equipment when required. In addition,
When working in confined spaces, process technicians must technicians should take actions to prevent accidents or injury
always be aware of exit locations, the potential for hazardous whenever possible (e.g., cleaning up a spill, or removing haz-
atmospheres, and any other hazards that could be associated ardous obstructions from walkways).
176 Chapter 9

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 8. The length of a lanyard on a fall protection system must
a. Dockboards not allow a fall of greater than how many feet?
b. Engulfment a. 2 feet
c. Guardrail b. 4 feet
d. HAZWOPER c. 6 feet
e. Three-point contact d. 8 feet
f. Toeboard 9. List the ABCs of fall protection equipment.
2. List at least three factors that can result in falls or slips. 10. According to OSHA regulations, what must a worker
obtain before entering a confined space?
3. List five recommendations to follow when working with
ladders. a. Training
b. Permit
4. Means of egress refers to _________.
c. Physical health screening
5. What is the 4-to-1 rule when leaning a ladder against a
d. Proper PPE fitting
support position?
11. What is the name of the OSHA regulation covering
6. A surprising number of deaths occur because of falls
­confined spaces?
from which height?
a. 8 feet 12. Which agency publishes a Fall Protection Standard?
b. 10 feet a. OSHA
c. 12 feet b. Life Safety Agency
d. 20 feet c. National Fall Protection Association
d. American National Standards Institute
7. According to OSHA, employees need fall protection
when working at heights of ____ feet or higher.
a. 2 feet
b. 4 feet
c. 6 feet
d. 8 feet

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Inspect your home or work area for potential fall or slip 4. Using a permit, simulate a given confined space entry
hazards, then make a list of them. Describe how each scenario, explain and document hazards and proper
hazard can be reduced. safeguards to perform work safely. Plan a field simula-
tion, if possible.
2. Using your school or work area, locate the escape route
for fires or emergencies. Make sure you know how 5. Using a permit, simulate a given elevated work scenario,
to exit the facility in case of evacuation. Think about explain and document hazards and proper safeguards to
potential obstacles that you must overcome, or how perform work safely.
you would handle different scenarios (such as the lights
going out). 6. If possible, simulate these scenarios wearing the proper
clothing and PPE. Don/doff lanyard and body harness,
3. Research the OSHA confined space entry regulations, respirator, etc.
and write a paper on what the regulation is, what it pro-
tects against, what it requires companies to do, and how 7. If available, practice inspecting and properly using a
it is enforced. portable ladder.
Chapter 10
Hearing and Noise
Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of hazards from noise in the process industries,
which can affect people and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
10.1 Identify noise levels and specific hazards associated with noise
­ enerated in a process industry environment. (NAPTA Safety,
g
Hearing 1*) p. 178
10.2 Describe how these variables can affect hearing:
Length of exposure
Volume of noise. (NAPTA Safety, Hearing 2) p. 181
10.3 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
noise and hearing protection. (NAPTA Safety, Hearing 3) p. 187
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here
in abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Hearing 1)” means that this chapter’s
objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety with regard to hearing
and noise hazards.

Key Terms
Amplitude—the measurement used to describe the intensity of sound, p. 179.
Decibel (dB)—the measurement of the intensity of a sound, based on the human ear’s
perception. A unit that is used to measure sound-level intensity (how loud a sound
is), p. 180.
Frequency—the number of sound vibrations per second (peaks of pressure in a sound
wave), p. 179.
Hertz (Hz)—a measurement used to describe frequency. One hertz is one cycle per
second, p. 179.
Intensity—the loudness of a sound (pressure-peak intensity of a sound wave), p. 180.

177
178 Chapter 10

Noise—any unwanted or excessive sound, p. 178.

Sound—a form of vibrational energy conducted through a medium (e.g., solid, liquid,
or gas) that creates an audible sensation that can be detected by the ear, p. 179.
Sound wave—a pressure wave that moves through the air and is audible to the
human ear, p. 179.
Vibration—the rapid movement of an object back and forth along its radial or
horizontal axis, in a periodic motion, p. 179.
Wavelength—the distance between successive points of equal amplitude on a sound
wave, p. 179.

10.1 Introduction
The process industries can be noisy workplaces, with much of the noise created by the equip-
ment used in operational processes and flow of materials through pipes. Process technicians
must recognize the hazards that noise presents, understand how to reduce the risk of noise-
induced hearing loss, and be familiar with the government regulations that address noise
and hearing conservation.
This chapter explains what sound and hearing are, how noise is defined, the impact
of noise on hearing, vibration and its effects, and the government regulations that address
noise and hearing conservation.

Noise and Hearing Hazards Overview

Noise any unwanted or excessive Noise is any unwanted or excessive sound. In the workplace, excessive noise can result in a
sound. variety of potential hazards. These include the following:

• Hearing loss or reduction (either temporary or permanent)

• Ringing in the ears (tinnitus)
• Equilibrium problems (dizziness, disorientation)
• Speech problems
• Distraction (which could lead to an accident)
• Interference with communication or the ability to understand communication (e.g., ver-
bal instructions or alarms)
• Psychological effects (e.g., stress)
• Fatigue

The effects of noise hazards can be caused by long-term exposure (e.g., repetitive noise
over an extended period of time) or a single acute exposure (e.g., an explosion).
The next section explains more about noise by discussing the characteristics of sound
and how hearing works.

Did You Know?

Ultrasound equipment uses high-frequency sound
waves to create an image of internal organs. The fre-
quency of these sound waves (approximately 20,000 to
10 billion cycles per second) is beyond the range of what
the human ear can hear.

CREDIT: Whitetherock photo/Shutterstock.

 Hearing and Noise Hazards 179

Basics of Sound and Noise

Sound is a form of energy conducted through a medium (e.g., solid, liquid, or gas) that cre- Sound a form of vibrational energy
ates an audible sensation that can be detected by the ear. Sound starts with a vibration that conducted through a medium (e.g.,
solid, liquid, or gas) that creates
travels in waves (called sound waves). Sound waves can vary in length and amplitude. an audible sensation that can be
Wavelength is the distance between successive points of equal amplitude on a sound detected by the ear.
wave. Amplitude describes the intensity of sound and is the distance from the midpoint to
Sound wave a pressure wave that
the top (crest) of a sound wave or from the midpoint to the bottom (trough) of the wave. moves through the air and is audible
Figure 10.1 illustrates wavelength and amplitude. to the human ear.

Wavelength
e Figure 10.1 Illustration of
litud wavelength and amplitude.
A mp
1.0

0.5 Wavelength the distance between

successive points of equal amplitude
0.0
on a sound wave.
–0.5
Amplitude the measurement used
–1.0 to describe the intensity of sound.
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Time

Vibration is the rapid back-and-forth movement of an object along its radial or horizon- Vibration the rapid movement of
tal axis, in a periodic motion. This vibration disturbs the surrounding medium (e.g., air) an object back and forth along its
radial or horizontal axis, in a periodic
causing it to vibrate. As the atoms in the medium vibrate, they transfer energy (pressure) motion.
outward from the source (similar to ripples in a pond). When the pressure wave reaches our
ear, it is received and then converted into a signal that our brains interpret as sound.
The ear is made up of three main sections: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner
ear. The outer ear is the external part that “gathers” sound waves and directs them toward
the eardrum. When a sound wave is received, the eardrum vibrates. As the eardrum vibrates,
the bones and muscles in the middle ear begin to move and conduct sound from the outer
ear to the inner ear. The inner ear then converts sound to nerve impulses, which are sent to
the brain for interpretation (see Figure 10.2).

Figure 10.2 The human ear

gathers sound waves and con-
verts them to signals the brain
interprets as hearing.
CREDIT: Ilusmedical/Shutterstock.

Frequency the number of sound

vibrations per second (peaks of
pressure in a sound wave).
Two terms are important to understand about sound: frequency and intensity. ­Frequency
is the number of sound vibrations per second. The measurement used to describe frequency
Hertz (Hz) a measurement used to
is called hertz (Hz). The human ear has the ability to hear frequencies of approximately describe frequency. One hertz is one
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. cycle per second.
180 Chapter 10

Intensity the loudness of a sound Intensity is the loudness of a sound. The concept of loudness is subjective. Whether a
(pressure-peak intensity of a sound sound is considered to be “soft” or “loud” depends on the person experiencing the sound.
wave).
The measurement used to describe intensity is called amplitude. In addition to intensity,
the human ear can sense frequency (pitch). The body can also feel loud or low frequency
sounds (think of a stereo with the bass turned up). Figure 10.3 illustrates frequency and
amplitude.

Figure 10.3 Comparison of

sound amplitude and frequency
modulation.
CREDIT: Designua/Shutterstock.

Decibel (dB) the measurement of Sound is measured in decibels. A decibel (dB) is the smallest difference in the level of
the intensity of a sound, based on the sound that the human ear can perceive. The human ear is sensitive to a wide range of sound
human ear’s perception. A unit that is
used to measure sound-level intensity frequencies. However, the ear has been found to be more sensitive to frequencies in the upper
(how loud a sound is). middle range. Sound-level measurement takes this into account, using an international stan-
dard adjustment called the “A weighted scale.” Readings from this scale are listed as dBA,
instead of just dB.

Did You Know?

The decibel was named after Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the
telephone and founder of the Bell Telephone Company. Bell was also
known for his work educating the deaf.

CREDIT: Everett Historical/

Shutterstock.

The decibel scale does not follow a linear route; it is more of a rising curve (called a
logarithmic scale). According to this scale, noise intensity doubles with each 3-dB increase.
This means that a sound that is 88 dB is twice as loud as a sound that is 85 dB, and a 30-dBA
sound is more than 1,000 times greater than a 1-dBA sound.
The threshold of hearing (the weakest sound a human ear can hear in a quiet environ-
ment) is 1–10 dBA. Discomfort can occur during sounds in the 85–95 dBA range. The thresh-
old of pain (the maximum level before the sound becomes painful to the ear) is 120–140 dBA.
Table 10.1 lists some common sounds and their approximate dBA values.
Often, the way a sound is perceived by a person determines whether the sound is con-
sidered to be noise or not (e.g., loud rock music may be entertainment to one person, and
painful noise to another).
 Hearing and Noise Hazards 181

Table 10.1 Common Sounds and their Corresponding Decibel (dB) Values
Sound Loudness (dB)
Gunshot (peak level) 140 to 170
Jet takeoff 140
Rock concert 110 to 120
Chain saw 110 to 120
Diesel locomotive 110 to 120
Stereo headphones 110 to 120
Motorcycle 90
Lawn mower 90
OSHA level for required hearing protection 85*
Conversation 60
Quiet room 50
Whisper 30 to 40
* 8-hour time-conservation program weighted average.

CREDIT: Trgrowth/Shutterstock.

10.2 Noise Exposure and Duration

Hearing loss can occur quickly or slowly. A single exposure to 140 dBA of noise can cause
hearing loss. Prolonged exposure to noise over 85 dBA can also produce the same results.
Figure 10.4 shows an example of an audiogram from a person with noise-induced hearing
loss.
Following are factors associated with noise hazards and potential hearing loss:

• Noise intensity
• Frequency of the sound
• Daily duration of noise exposure
• Total duration of noise exposure (e.g., number of years)

Recall that intensity is the loudness of a noise. For duration, both daily exposure and
total exposure are factors. Other factors include the distance between the worker and the
noise and the orientation of the ears to the noise (i.e., one ear might be turned toward the
noise while the other is away from it).
182 Chapter 10

Figure 10.4 Audiogram of AUDIOGRAM

Left ear Right ear
a person with noise-induced –10
­hearing loss. 0
Normal hearing
10

20
Mild hearing loss

Hearing level in decibels (dB)

30

40
Moderate hearing loss
50

60

70
Severe hearing loss
80

90
Profound hearing loss
100

110

120
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Frequency (Hz)

Some individuals are more susceptible to noise, showing more sensitivity to sounds than
others. Age and the health of the worker are also factors. Hearing loss can occur naturally
the older a person becomes (age-induced hearing loss is called presbycusis). Hearing loss
from old age is a relatively even loss over all frequencies.
Government regulations on noise hazards address noise level and duration. A general
rule is that if you must raise your voice to speak with someone less than a few feet away, then
the noise in the environment could be hazardous. Also, if your ears ring or sounds seem dull
after leaving a noisy environment, then the noise is probably hazardous.

Noise-Related Hazards
In the process industries, noise is sound that is excessive or can cause harm. Government
regulators have established guidelines for hearing conservation and managing noise hazards
(provided later in this chapter). Noises can be described by the following terms:

• Continuous noise—steady, unchanging noise; typically generated by equipment in

operation, such as pumps, compressors, turbines, and fans
• Impulse noise—noise that has a sharp rise followed by a rapid decline in sound levels
(less than one second); can be repetitive or occur just once. Some pumps or piston-driven
equipment can make this type of noise
• Impact noise—noise generated by an object striking another surface. This is typically a
noise that lasts less than a second in duration, but may produce a delayed sound such
as a ringing. Some pneumatic tools (e.g., jackhammers and nail guns) can cause this
kind of noise
• Intermittent noise—noise in which the level is interrupted by periods of low sound
• Varying noise—noise in which the levels change substantially
• Ambient noise—background noise associated with a given environment (e.g., heating
or air conditioning noise or traffic noise). Localized ambient noise in the process indus-
tries can often exceed 85 dB

Noises can consist of sounds from a wide range of frequencies (e.g., many types of pro-
cess operations environments) or a narrow range of frequencies (e.g., power tools).
Hearing loss is the primary hazard associated with noise. While noise-induced hear-
ing loss can be prevented, once hearing loss starts it is permanent (i.e., damage cannot
be reversed). Noise-induced hearing loss usually occurs following long-term exposure to
excessive noise, but it can also be caused instantly by a quick, intense sound such as a blast
or some other trauma.
 Hearing and Noise Hazards 183

Did You Know?

Because sound is the vibration of matter, it does not
travel through a vacuum or in outer space. In movies
and TV shows, the sounds of spaceships exploding are
added for dramatic effect. In reality, you would see the
explosion but would not be able to hear it.

CREDIT: Alex Mit/Shutterstock.

Gradual hearing loss occurs over time and may not be noticeable for 20 years or more
when normal sounds begin to seem muffled or garbled. Usually a person feels no pain dur-
ing gradual hearing loss.
Hearing loss can result from damage to just about any part of the ear. However, noise-
induced hearing loss specifically targets hair cells in the inner ear. As sounds are received,
these hairs wave back and forth, helping to transmit sound vibrations to the audiometric
nerve (the nerve that transmits hearing to the brain). When the ears are subjected to constant
repetitive noise, the hair cells in the ear become worn from continuous movement. This leads
to permanent damage of the hair cells (similar to how walking on grass repeatedly will wear
a path of damage or dead patches). If the noise is excessively loud and sudden, the hairs
can actually be sheared off. Unlike the hairs on the head, hair cells in the ear do not repair
themselves once they are damaged.
Depending on conditions, hearing loss can be short or long term. For example, a person
in a noisy environment (e.g., a rock concert), or who has heard a loud noise (e.g., a gun-
shot), may experience short-term hearing problems. Once away from the noise, however,
normal hearing may return. However, with gradual hearing loss, normal hearing does not
return.
High-frequency hearing loss occurs first (above around 2,000 Hz), affecting the ability
to hear speech. Once this loss occurs, low-frequency hearing loss can follow, impacting the
ability to hear other sounds as well. Some individuals with hearing loss may also experience
tinnitus, a condition which results in a ringing or roaring sound in the ear.
If a person experiences a permanent hearing loss across a variety of frequencies, this can
be considered a handicap. Such a handicap can impact employment, family relationships,
social interactions, and more. A hearing handicap can negatively impact the person’s ability
to communicate with others.
Noise can cause workers to be distracted and lose focus on their task and safety, which
can lead to accidents. Noise can also drown out important sounds such as communications,
alarms or warnings, and how running equipment sounds.
Noise in the workplace can produce other effects in addition to hearing loss:

• Interference with communication or the ability to understand communication such as

verbal instructions or alarms (this is probably the second most common and serious
hazard in the workplace)
• Disorientation or dizziness (related to equilibrium and caused by inner ear problems)
• Speech problems (related to hearing loss)
• Pain and nausea
• Muscle tension
• Stress or other psychological issues
• Increased pulse and elevated blood pressure (related to stress)
• Fatigue
184 Chapter 10

Acoustic trauma is a single event that results in abrupt hearing loss. For example, a loud
explosion can cause acoustic trauma. But other incidents, such as a blow to the head or flying
objects (e.g., chemical splashes, welding sparks, or rotating equipment throwing a part) that
hit the ear or ear drum can also result in acoustic trauma.
Exposure to some chemicals, such as solvents and heavy metals, can potentially con-
tribute to hearing loss. Other factors, such as a person’s age and health, also contribute to
hearing problems.

Hearing Conservation and Protection

Noise levels at process facilities must be monitored on a regular basis. When changes occur
in the work environment (such as when a new process is added, or new equipment is
installed), noise levels must be rechecked. Equipment that needs maintenance or is starting
to fail can also create a change in the noise level. A special tool, such as a sound-level meter,
can be used to measure noise levels. Employees can share with sound-level surveyors their
knowledge of the work environment, the equipment, the process, and other factors that can
affect sound-level measurements.
Companies with high noise levels in one or more work areas must implement a hearing
protection program to conserve the hearing of employees exposed to the noise. Exposure to
noise levels of 80 dBA or less is generally considered safe. Prolonged exposure to any noise
levels over 80 dBA requires hearing protection. The process industries generally require
hearing protection in areas that exceed the 80-dB level. Exposure to levels over 115 dBA
can be dangerous. A one-time exposure to a noise 140 dBA or higher can cause permanent
hearing damage.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) are the two main sources of noise hazard regulations and stan-
dards. OSHA defines a hazardous noise as “any sound for which any combination of fre-
quency, intensity, or duration is capable of causing permanent hearing loss in a specified
population.” OSHA hearing protection regulations (see Table 10.2) require companies to
implement a hearing conservation program and provide hearing protection when employ-
ees are exposed to an 8-hour time weighted average (TWA) of 85 dBA or above, based on a
40-hour workweek. TWA is an average determined by dividing the total sample weight by
the total sampling time.

Table 10.2 OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits for Noise

Number of Hours Decibel (dBA) Level
8 90
6.2 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1.5 102
1 105
0.5 (half an hour) 110
0.25 (15 minutes) 115

A noise dose, or exposure, is expressed as a percentage of the allowable daily exposure.

OSHA also has set a permissible exposure limit, or PEL, of 90 dBA for an 8-hour TWA.
OSHA uses a rate relationship between the intensity and a dose of 5 dB. Thus, if the
intensity of an exposure increases by 5 dB, then the dose is considered to be doubled. For
example, for a dBA of 95, the duration must not exceed four hours.
 Hearing and Noise Hazards 185

The OSHA regulations cover the following basic requirements:

• Noise-level monitoring—checked on a regular basis or when changes occur in the work

environment (e.g., a new process is added, an existing process is changed, or equipment
is added).
• Medical monitoring—employees exposed to high noise levels must have their hear-
ing tested. Employees are given audiometric hearing tests for both ears (the results
are called an audiogram) when they are hired to establish a baseline and at least on an
annual basis thereafter. OSHA requires records to be kept relating to hearing tests. Indi-
vidual employee exposure to sound can be tracked, using a device called a dosimeter.
A dosimeter is an instrument that measures and stores sound levels over a specified
interval. This device allows a company to monitor an employee’s exposure to sound
and track historical data.
• Noise-related OSHA Recordable Injury—An STS (Standard Threshold Shift) could
be an OSHA recordable injury. This type of injury is recordable ONLY if the answer is
“yes” to all three questions.
1. Is the STS in one or both ears an average of more than 10 dB relative to the most cur-
rent audiogram in the 2000, 3000, and 4000 Hz range?
2. Is the employee’s overall hearing level 25 dB or more above audiometric zero?
3. Is the hearing loss work-related?
• Noise controls—used to address the source of noise. Noise control is required in settings
where the noise level exceeds 90 dBA. Administrative programs, such as training and
limited exposure, can be used unless the noise exceeds 100 dBA. In those cases, engi-
neering controls (such as sound dampening or a barrier to keep workers away from the
noise) must be used to control the noise hazard (Figure 10.5).

Figure 10.5 Noise abatement

walls and barriers are a means
of reducing the effects of noise
hazards.
CREDIT: DuxX/Shutterstock.

• Training and education programs—designed to address the effects of noise on hearing,

the purpose of hearing testing, the purpose of hearing protection devices, and how to
properly select and fit such devices.
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)—provided to workers for use around high noise
levels; includes ear plugs, ear muffs, and similar devices. PPE is required when engineering
and administrative program noise controls do not reduce the levels below the legal limits.

ANSI has published a set of standards, called S12.13-991 “Evaluation of Hearing Con-
servation Programs” to help employers determine the effectiveness of their programs.
186 Chapter 10

Types of Hearing Protectors

Hearing protection is selected based on the following criteria, in order of importance:

1. Intensity of noise
2. Personal comfort
3. Availability

The main types of hearing protectors are earplugs or earmuffs (Figure 10.6). Earplugs
are made of materials such as foam, rubber, or plastic, and are inserted into the ear canal.
Earmuffs cover the entire ear with a cushioned cup held in place with a headband. Earplugs
and earmuffs can reduce noise levels by up to 20–30 dBA. Worn together, they can reduce the
noise level up to an additional 5 dBA (double hearing protection is required if the worker is
exposed to noise levels of 110 dBA or higher).

Figure 10.6 The main types of

hearing protectors are earplugs or
earmuffs.
CREDIT: (earplugs) ShutterOK/Shutterstock.
(earmuffs) Photo smile/Shutterstock.

One drawback to hearing protection equipment is the reduced ability to hear important
sounds, such as alarms, announcements, vehicles, and equipment problems.

Fit, Use, and Maintenance of Hearing Protectors

Employers are required to provide hearing protection and train workers on its use and care.
The following are some general safety procedures related to hearing protectors:

• Select the proper hearing protector based on the noise level and personal comfort. Cot-
ton balls or fingers are never a substitute for proper hearing protection.
• Make sure your ear canals are free of ear wax, or that you do not have an ear infection.
These can complicate the wearing of hearing protection.
• Before use, inspect hearing protectors for wear or damage. Replace any damaged hear-
ing protectors.
• Make sure hearing protectors fit properly (e.g., adjust earmuffs or place plugs securely
in the ear canal).
• Clean hearing protectors before use, based on manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Do not remove hearing protection while exposed to the noise hazard, even for a short
period. This significantly reduces the hearing protection’s effectiveness.
• Wear hearing protection properly and consistently.
• Always wear your dosimeter (if one is provided).
• Maintain an accurate record of potential hearing loss; keep medical records updated,
including any nonoccupational exposure to noise and any exposure to chemicals.
 Hearing and Noise Hazards 187

10.3 Government Regulations

on Noise Hazards
OSHA regulation 29 CFR 1910.95 regulates occupational noise exposure, describing per-
missible noise exposures. It also outlines requirements for engineering and administrative
controls, along with a hearing conservation program.
Following are other federal agencies with noise standards that may affect the process
industries:

• Department of Transportation (DOT)

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• Coast Guard
• Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

Summary
The process industries can be very noisy, with much of the Hearing loss is the primary hazard associated with noise.
noise being produced by equipment and the flow of materials Hearing loss can occur quickly or slowly. A single exposure
through pipes. These sounds, which are measured in decibels to 140 dB of noise can cause permanent hearing loss. Pro-
(dB), can vary in frequency (pitch) and intensity (loudness). longed exposure to noise over 85 dBA can produce the same
The decibel scale does not follow a linear route; it is more results. Because of this, companies with high noise levels in
of a rising curve. According to this scale, noise intensity dou- one or more work areas must implement a hearing conserva-
bles with each 3-dB increase. This means that a sound that is tion program to conserve the hearing of employees exposed
88 dB is twice as loud as a sound that is 85 dB, and a 30-dBA to the noise.
sound is more than 1,000 times greater than one that is 1 dBA. Process technicians must recognize the hazards that
Sounds below 85 dB are considered safe and do not noise presents, understand how to reduce the risk of noise-
require hearing protection. Sounds over 85 dB do require hear- induced hearing loss, and be familiar with the government
ing protection. Discomfort can occur with sounds in the range regulations that address noise and hearing conservation in
of 85–95 dB. Sounds over 120 dB can cause intense pain. the workplace.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: f. Noise
a. Amplitude g. Sound
b. Decibel (dB) h. Sound wave
c. Frequency i. Vibration
d. Hertz (Hz) j. Wavelength
e. Intensity 2. List at least four potential hazards of excessive noise.
188 Chapter 10

3. Frequency is the number of sound _________ per second. 7. What is the primary hazard associated with noise?
a. Amplitudes 8. Name five potential effects other than hearing loss that
b. Wavelengths noise hazards can cause.
c. Waves 9. What is the prolonged noise level that requires hearing
d. Vibrations protection?
4. Intensity is: 10. Which OSHA regulation requires hearing tests for
a. A decibel measurement. employees exposed to high noise levels?
b. A high-frequency sound that is beyond the range of a. Noise-level monitoring
the human ear to hear. b. Medical monitoring
c. Unwanted sound. c. Noise-related OSHA Recordable Injury
d. The loudness of a sound. d. Noise controls
5. A decibel is: 11. List the three criteria for determining hearing protection.
a. A weighted frequency average. 12. Which of the following federal agencies have noise stan-
b. A sound measurement. dards that may affect the process industries? (Select all
c. Part of the inner ear. that apply.)
d. Another term for noise. a. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
b. Department of Transportation (DOT)
6. Which type of noise is background noise?
c. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
a. Ambient noise
d. Coast Guard
b. Impact noise
c. Impulse noise
d. Continuous noise

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Write your definition of sound and noise, and then 4. Wearing protective hearing equipment, pair up with
­survey your classmates to get their definitions. Make a a classmate and attempt to have a normal conversa-
list of all the definitions and compare them. tion with him/her. Determine what you need to do
to ­communicate effectively while wearing hearing
2. Brainstorm activities outside the workplace that can protection.
cause hearing loss and use the Internet to research their
decibel levels. 5. Visit the OSHA website and find 1910.95, address-
ing occupational noise exposure. Write a one-page
3. Practice wearing various types of hearing protection. paper on how this regulation protects process
Identify the best fit and compare with the rest of your technicians.
classmates.
Chapter 11
Construction,
Maintenance, and
Tool Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of construction, maintenance, and tool hazards in
the process industries, which can affect the safety and health of workers.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
11.1 Name specific hazards associated with construction and maintenance
tasks in a process industry environment. (NAPTA Safety, Construction
Hazards 1*) p. 190
11.2 Describe how hand and power tools can be hazards. (NAPTA Safety,
Construction Hazards 2) p. 191
11.3 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that
address construction, maintenance, and tool hazards. (NAPTA Safety,
­Construction Hazards 3) p. 199

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Construction Hazards 1)” means that this
chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety in regard to
construction, maintenance, and tool hazards.

Key Terms
Arc welding—a welding process that uses an electrical arc produced between two
electrodes to generate heat, p. 196.
Electric tool—a tool operated by electrical means (either AC or DC), p. 194.
Hand tool—a tool that is manually powered, p. 193.
Hydraulic tool—a tool that is powered using hydraulic (liquid) pressure, p. 194.
Oxyacetylene welding—a welding process that burns a blend of oxygen and
acetylene to generate heat, p. 196.
189
190 Chapter 11

Pneumatic tool—a tool that is powered using pneumatic (air or gas) pressure, p. 194.
Powder-actuated tool—a tool that uses a small explosive charge to drive fasteners
into hard surfaces such as concrete, stone, and metal (e.g., nail gun), p. 194.
Power tool—a tool that is powered by a source such as electricity, pneumatics,
hydraulics, or powder actuation, p. 194.
Resistance welding—a welding process that uses electricity generated through the
material to be welded combined with pressure at the weld point, to create the
weld, p. 196.

11.1 Introduction
There are many tool and construction hazards in the process industries. Even though process
technicians are not likely to be involved in construction-related tasks, they might encounter
construction areas around the facility. Because of this, technicians must be aware of the safety
hazards that construction areas present.
Process technician duties include many maintenance-related tasks. They must
understand all the hazards that maintenance tasks pose, as well as some general safety
recommendations.
Hand and power tools are an integral part of the process technician’s daily job. Knowing
how to use tools properly and safely is critical.
This chapter provides an overview of hazards that the process technician can encounter
in construction, maintenance, and tool usage.

Hazards Associated with Construction

and Maintenance
Construction
In most instances process technicians will not be involved in construction tasks at work.
However, they could be required to work around construction or repairs at their facility. It is
outside the scope of this textbook to cover all construction-related government regulations
and safety precautions. However, there are some general guidelines that should be followed.
Specifically, process technicians should follow these general guidelines:

• Obey all construction signs.

• Never cross a construction barricade without approval.
• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) when passing through a
­construction area (e.g., hard hat, safety glasses or goggles, steel-toed shoes if ­appropriate,
gloves, and hearing protection in noisy areas).
• Be aware that conditions around the facility can change and that new hazards can
appear during the course of construction (e.g., vehicles, construction debris, pits, and
utility line damage).
• Watch out for construction vehicles (e.g., cranes, hoists, backhoes, bulldozers, dump
trucks, cement trucks, and powered lifts).
• Exercise caution near trenches and excavations.
• Monitor noise levels and use hearing protection as needed.

OSHA guidelines for construction are similar to some of the general industry regulations
(e.g., fall protection, ladders, and PPE). However, some construction regulations cover issues
that OSHA does not address in general industry regulations, such as lighting requirements.
 Construction, Maintenance, and Tool Hazards 191

Maintenance
Process technicians may perform a variety of maintenance and repair tasks as part of their
jobs, since making sure equipment is maintained regularly and working properly is key to
efficient process operations. However, maintenance operations expose process technicians
to a variety of risks:

• Chemical or biological hazards, when opening equipment that had product moving
through it or product that was not properly isolated from the process
• Electrical hazards from energized equipment
• Pressure hazards from pressurized equipment
• Heat hazards from fired equipment and hot work environments
• Radiation hazards from testing equipment or specialty operations instruments
• Fire or explosion hazards when working in or near flammable or hazardous atmospheres
• Hazardous atmospheres when working in confined spaces or doing emergency repairs
for spills and releases
• Injuries from repetitive tasks or working in unnatural or ergonomically incorrect
positions
• Confined spaces
• Exposure to high levels of noise

When performing maintenance tasks, process technicians should always follow these
procedures:

• Use tools properly and follow safety procedures.

• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
• Work safely with ladders; use fall protection if working at heights of 4 feet (1.2 meters)
or more.
• Follow proper permitting processes for hot work, confined space entry, hazardous
energy control, and other similar requirements.
• Follow proper processes and procedures as outlined by the company.
• Use lockout/tagout procedures when appropriate.
• Use monitoring and testing equipment properly.
• Be aware of conditions that could change while performing maintenance procedures
and create a hazard.
• If working near an area where maintenance is being performed, be alert for hazards that
might not have previously existed (e.g., open hatches, spills, loose parts, and tools in
walkways). Obey all signs and instructions around these areas.

At times process technicians will observe work being carried out in their area by
­ aintenance and construction personnel. Process technicians are responsible for the safe
m
performance of these tasks. Because construction and maintenance personnel may not be
familiar with hazards and procedures in the process technician’s area, process technicians
should pay attention to all work being performed. They should also ensure that proper
permits are completed and that all activity meets plant standards.

11.2 Hazards Associated with Tools

Hand and power tools are common to every process technician’s job. Tools can help workers
perform their daily tasks effectively and efficiently. However, even the simplest tools can
present hazards if not used properly and safely.
192 Chapter 11

The types of tools that process technicians use vary based on the process industries in
which they work, along with job requirements. While it is beyond the scope of this textbook
to discuss every type of tool a process technician might use, this section does cover some
general usages and safety tips.
Following are some of the more common tools:

• Screwdriver
• Hammer
• Pliers
• Wrench
• Socket wrench
• Drill
• Vise™ grips
• Knife
• Saw
• Grinder

OSHA states that employers shall be responsible for the safe condition of tools and
equipment used by employees. It is up to the employee to ensure that tools are used properly
and safely. Some general tool usage and safety tips follow:

• Wear the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).

• Always obtain required permits for dangerous or hazardous work (e.g., a hot work
permit for grinding operations).
• Use the right tool for the job. Do not try to improvise with a tool that was not designed
for the intended use.
• Select the proper handgrip, either left handed, right handed, or ambidextrous.
• Understand how to use and maintain the tool.
• Review manufacturer’s instructions and safety procedures to learn hazards associated
with a specific tool.
• Inspect the condition of the tool before use.
■■ Check that cutting tools are sharp.
■■ Look over metal tools for slivers, cracks, or rough spots.
■■ Check for wear or damage on any plastic or rubber parts or coatings.
■■ Inspect wood handles for splinters, chips, or weathering.
■■ Do not use damaged tools (make sure they are labeled “Do Not Use” and report the
tool condition to your supervisor).
• Make sure the work area is clear and obstacles are removed.
• Keep a firm grip on the tool and maintain proper balance and footing.
• Make sure the floor is clean and dry to prevent slips or falls with or around tools.
• Remove flammable materials from the area if sparks (e.g., from grinding) or flames
(e.g., from a cutting torch) will be generated.
• Make sure the work area is properly lit.
• Be aware of other work that may affect the usage of the tool in that area.
• Maintain a safe distance from other workers.
• Do not distract others while they are using a tool.
• Never “horseplay” in the workplace or when working with tools.
• Do not leave tools unattended and use caution in walkways or high traffic areas.
• Clean the tool when done and return it to the proper place.
 Construction, Maintenance, and Tool Hazards 193

Following are some general hazards that tools can cause:

• Sparks (especially from grinding tools) in flammable or hazardous environments,

­resulting in a fire or explosion; may need special nonsparking tools in certain areas
• Impact from flying parts or fragments (from the tool or material being worked on)
• Cuts, scrapes, bruises, broken bones, or similar injuries
• Harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases released by the material being processed
• Impalement on sharp edges
• Impact if the tool is dropped from a height (may hit something or someone)
• Ergonomic hazards such as carpal tunnel syndrome or tendonitis from improper design
or use, or repetitive motion
• Noise hazards, such as from a power tool or from a hand tool striking a surface
• Falls while trying to use the tool at heights

Hand Tool Use and Safety

Hand tools are manually powered and come in a wide range of types and designs Hand tool a tool that is manually
(­Figure 11.1). Misuse and improper maintenance pose the greatest hazard. The following are powered.
some general tips specific to the proper and safe use of hand tools:

Figure 11.1 Common hand

tools.
CREDIT: Psirob/Shutterstock.

• Check wooden-handled tools for splinters, cracks, chips, or weathering. Make sure the
handle is securely attached (such as hammer heads).
• Do not use screwdrivers as chisels.
• Check impact tools (e.g., chisels and wedges) for heads that have been flattened from
repeated use (called “mushroom” heads). Flattened heads can shatter.
• Inspect wrenches to make sure that jaws are not sprung to the point that slippage occurs.
• Use spark resistant tools around flammable substances (e.g., tools made from
­nonsparking materials such as brass, plastic, aluminum, wood, titanium, and bronze).
• Be cautious when working around electricity; make sure tools are grounded and
insulated.
• Inspect spark-resistant tools for wear or damage, since they are made of materials that
are softer than other tools and can wear down more quickly.
• Keep a proper grip, holding the handle firmly across the fleshy part of your hand.
• Do not overexert yourself. If you feel your hand or arm strength weakening, take a break
and resume the task later.
194 Chapter 11

• In moist environments, make sure your hand remains dry and your vision is not blurred
by sweat.
• Use hand tools for their intended purpose and never engage in careless activity or
“play” with them.

Power Tool Use and Safety

Power tool a tool that is powered There are various types of power tools: electric tools (powered by an AC or DC current),
by a source such as electricity, pneumatic tools (powered by air or gas pressure), fuel-operated tools, hydraulic tools
pneumatics, hydraulics, or powder
actuation. (­powered with liquid pressure), or powder-actuated tools (powered by a small gunpowder
charge). Power tools can enhance performance, but they can also pose the hazards described
Electric tool a tool operated by previously for all tools, along with the following:
electrical means (either AC or DC).
• Power source-related injuries such as electrocution (electrical) or line whip (pneumatic)
Pneumatic tool a tool that is • High-speed impact from projectiles hurled by broken tools or materials
powered using pneumatic (air or gas) • Injuries from contact with moving parts or entanglement
pressure.
• Falls or trips from cords or hoses
Hydraulic tool a tool that is • Vibration and noise
powered using hydraulic (liquid)
• Slipping on leaking fluids
pressure.

SAFETY PROCEDURES WITH POWER TOOLS In addition to the general safety p ­ rocedures
Powder-actuated tool a tool that
uses a small explosive charge to drive outlined previously, the following are some safety procedures specific to power tools:
fasteners into hard surfaces such as
concrete, stone, and metal (e.g., nail
• Follow all manufacturers’ specifications for proper and safe use and read all warning
gun). labels.
• Understand the tool’s capabilities, limitations, and hazards.
• Inspect the tool before using it to determine that it is clean, that all moving parts o
­ perate
freely, and that the barrel is free from obstructions and has the proper shield, guard, and
attachments recommended by the manufacturer. Check that all safety features work
properly.
• Make sure the tool is kept clean and properly maintained, including lubrication, filter
changes, and other manufacturer-recommended practices.
• Never point the tool in the direction of another person.
• Keep hands clear of the barrel end.
• Check that all guards and shields are in place.
• Do not use tools that are too heavy or too difficult for you to control.
• Do not wear loose-fitting clothing that could get pulled in by a power tool.
• Do not load the tool unless it is to be used immediately. Do not leave a loaded tool
­unattended, especially where it would be available to unauthorized persons.
• Avoid using tools in dangerous environments (e.g., explosive or flammable atmosphere,
wet environment, extreme heat or cold).
• Use only intrinsically safe or explosion-proof tools in flammable environments.
• Inspect all cords or hoses for wear, fraying, or damage.
• Do not carry the tool by its cord or hose or yank the tool cord or hose to disconnect it.
• Do not let cords or hoses get knotted or tangled with other cords/hoses.
• Keep cords and hoses away from heat, oil, sharp edges, and rotating or moving parts.
Make sure cords or hoses are not lying across a walkway presenting a fall hazard.
• Choose the correct accessories and use them properly.
• Check all handles to make sure they are secure and any grips are tightly attached.
 Construction, Maintenance, and Tool Hazards 195

• Keep your finger off the switch when carrying the tool or before it is in position to avoid
accidental startup.
• Hold or brace the tool securely.
• Disconnect the tool before servicing it or when changing accessories (e.g., blades
and bits).

SAFETY PRACTICES WITH ELECTRIC POWER TOOLS Following are some safety
­practices related to electric power tools:

• Make sure all electric tools are properly grounded or double insulated.
• Always use a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) when using electric power tools.
• Make sure to use extension cords rated for the service. Do not plug an extension cord
into another extension cord.
• Know the hazards of electricity, including electrocution, shocks, and burns.
• Be aware of potential secondary hazards from electricity (e.g., a mild shock from an
electric tool that startles a worker off a ladder).
• Never remove the grounding plug from a cord.
• Understand the mechanical hazards of the tool.
• Avoid using the tool in wet or damp environments.
• Do not use a tool if it becomes wet.

SAFETY PRACTICES WITH PNEUMATIC TOOLS Pneumatic tools can be powered by

compressed air or gas (Figure 11.2). Safety practices related to pneumatic tools are as follows:

Figure 11.2 Pneumatic

wrench.
CREDIT: Myibean/Shutterstock.

• Do not use compressed air for cleaning purposes, unless it is reduced to less than 30 PSI
and then only with effective chip guarding and PPE.
• Make sure attachments are properly secured with a tool retainer or safety clip.
• Check the hose and hose connections.
• Do not exceed the manufacturer’s safe operating pressure for hoses, pipes, valves, filters,
and fittings.
• For hoses with a ½ inch (1.3 cm) inside diameter, a safety device must be used at the
source of supply or branch line to reduce pressure in case of hose failure in order to
prevent line whip.
• Never kink the hose to cut off the air supply; turn off the air using the valve.
• Check for proper gas pressure before using the tool.
• Secure hose connections with a lanyard.
196 Chapter 11

SAFETY PRACTICES WITH HYDRAULIC, FUEL-OPERATED, AND POWDER-ACTUATED

TOOLS Many of the safety precautions for pneumatic tools relate to hydraulically powered
tools as well, along with the added precaution about exposure to hydraulic fluids. Hydraulic
fluids can be very hot and/or harmful if you are exposed to them.
For fuel-operated tools, use caution when filling. Remember that liquids can cause a
static electricity buildup when filling the tool. Fill the tool in open air to avoid buildup of
fumes.
For powder-actuated tools, handle them carefully. Never point the tool at another
­person. Remember you are dealing with an explosive charge, even if it is a small one. Most
of these types of tools will not activate unless the tip is pressed against a work surface. Never
press the tip to anything other than the work surface.

Welding
Welding, cutting, and brazing operations are widely used tasks in the process industries.
Arc welding a welding process that Welding covers processes such as gas welding, electric arc welding (which uses an electrical
uses an electrical arc produced between arc produced between two electrodes to produce heat), resistance welding (which uses
two electrodes to generate heat.
electricity generated through to the material being welded combined with pressure at the
Resistance welding a welding weld point, to create the weld) and similar processes such as brazing and soldering. This
process that uses electricity section describes some general welding hazards and safety precautions. Anyone doing
generated through the material to be
­welding work should be properly trained and understand the inherent dangers.
welded combined with pressure at
the weld point, to create the weld. Welding hazards include heat, sparks, intense light (which can cause blindness),
fumes, flammable gases (gas welding), and electricity (arc welding). Adherence to spark
­containment and fire prevention procedures is essential during each welding job to prevent
incidents and accidents.
Welding is also one of the principal causes of industrial fires (Figure 11.3). OSHA­
welding requirements cover fire protection, ventilation, and personal protection. OSHA
classifies welding work under hot work permits (discussed in more detail in Chapter 21,
Permitting Systems). A hot work permit must be obtained before any welding work is started.
Welding also produces hazardous gases and fumes, so proper ventilation is required. Some
gases can combine with water to form acids. Proper PPE must always be worn, including
vision protection and clothing to protect from burns.

Figure 11.3 Welding is one of

the principal causes of industrial
fires.
CREDIT: Factory_Easy/Shutterstock.

Oxyacetylene welding a welding Acetylene gas, used as the fuel for the gas welding process (also known as o
­ xyacetylene
process that burns a blend of oxygen welding), is extremely unstable. It can be mixed with a suitable solvent, such as acetone,
and acetylene to generate heat.
so it can be pressurized to around 200 PSI and stored in a portable cylinder. The tradeoff
 Construction, Maintenance, and Tool Hazards 197

for achieving this pressure is that the acetone solvent is highly flammable. Alternative gases
can be used, but often do not produce the same high-temperature flames that acetylene
does.
Acetylene containers must be stored and used in an upright position. Containers can
leak near the cylinder valve stem, resulting in a “stem fire.” Also, if the valve stem is broken
off, the pressure release can turn the cylinder into a missile.
Oxygen cylinders must be handled carefully. The valve protection cap must remain on
while the cylinder is in storage, being transported, and whenever it is not in use. Do not use
the slots on the valve protection cap to grasp or hold the cylinder. These vents are designed
to safely channel the gas out if the valve is damaged with the cap on. Also, remember that
oxygen is one of the prime elements in the fire triangle. Make sure your hands or gloves do
not have grease or flammable materials on them when handling the cylinder. Materials that
don’t burn in air (e.g., metals) can burn in the presence of oxygen.
Since acetylene is flammable, and oxygen is part of the fire triangle, extreme caution
should be exercised when oxygen and acetylene cylinders are stored in the same location.
A barrier at least 5 feet (1.5 meters) high, made of noncombustible material, must be placed
between the cylinders, or the cylinders must be separated by at least 20 feet (6 meters) when
being stored. Hoses must be inspected for wear and damage. Hoses must not become tangled
with other hoses. The welding torch can experience a dangerous condition called flashback,
in which the flame travels back up the mixture stream (oxygen and acetylene) and inside the
torch. Flashback produces distinct popping, snapping, and humming sounds. Immediately
turn off both the oxygen and gas valves if this occurs.
Acetylene (Figure 11.4) is very explosive. Gas regulators on acetylene cylinders are
designed to limit the gas pressure to 15 PSIG maximum. An explosion could occur if the gas
pressure is above 15 PSIG. Acetylene is also very shock sensitive. Acetylene cylinders should
never be placed on their side, dropped, or handled in a rough manner.

Figure 11.4 Acetylene is very

explosive and shock sensitive; the
cylinders should never be placed
on their side, dropped, or handled
in a rough manner.
CREDIT: Steve Hamann/Shutterstock.

Arc welding can pose more hazards than gas welding. Arc welding requires large
amounts of low-voltage, high-amperage power. The frame of the welding machine must be
properly grounded. Cables can become overheated, damaging the insulation and ­causing
a fire or electrocution hazard. Coiled cable must be spread out before welding starts. The
welder must ensure that only the proper objects are made part of the welding circuit.
­Resistance welding can pose shock hazards similar to arc welding; it may also cause mechan-
ical hazards (e.g., pinch points).
Welding in confined spaces can be hazardous because of the sparks and potentially
hazardous atmospheres that may be generated. In such cases, a confined space permit must
be obtained along with a hot work permit.
198 Chapter 11

Critical Lifts, Excavation, Heavy Equipment, Scaffolding

If there is potential for dropping or upsetting the load or for a collision, the lift should be
designated as a critical lift. Lifts may be critical because more than one crane is used, the job
is using more than 80 percent of the crane’s capacity, or there is an issue with the item being
lifted or the area in which it is being lifted. The facility management makes the d
­ etermination
whether a lift will be a critical lift. OSHA provides guidelines that list factors to help in this
designation. Documentation for critical lifts may include a preliminary rigging sketch and
sign-off sheets.
Excavation safety includes protection from cave-ins, the greatest excavation risk.
Trenches deeper than 5 feet (1.5 meters) require a protective system. OSHA describes
­sloping (cutting back the walls at an angle), shoring (installing aluminum hydraulic or other
­supports), and shielding (using trench boxes for protection) as some protective m ­ easures.
OSHA also requires daily inspection by a competent person. There must be a safe means
of access and egress (entry and exit), and heavy equipment must be kept away from edges
of trenches.
For use of heavy equipment, OSHA provides regulations for:

• Keeping the equipment serviceable

• Training operators
• Inspection at the start of each shift
• Loading
• Roll-over protection
• Use of equipment for intended purposes and within safe capacities.

OSHA has specific guidelines for use of scaffolding (Figure 11.5). Each employee more
than 4 feet (1.2 meters) above a lower level must be protected either by guardrails with a
height of 38 to 45 inches (about 1 meter) or by a fall arrest system. Scaffolding regulations
cover the cross bracing, midrails, and footings that are to be used in scaffolding, as well as
procedures for erecting and dismantling the scaffolds. Employers must train employees on
the safe use of scaffolds, and scaffolds must be inspected by a competent person before each
use and after any occurrence.

Figure 11.5 Scaffolding.

CREDIT: Goodluz/Shutterstock.
 Construction, Maintenance, and Tool Hazards 199

11.3 Government Regulations

There are a variety of government regulations relating either directly or indirectly to
­construction and tool use:

• OSHA 1926 Construction Standards

• OSHA General Industry Standards
■■ 1910 Subpart P: Hand and Portable Power Tools and Other Hand-Held Equipment
■■ 1910.241 Definitions
■■ 1910.242 Hand and portable power tools and equipment, general
■■ 1910.243 Guarding of portable power tools
■■ 1910.244 Other portable tools and equipment
■■ 1910 Subpart Q: Welding, Cutting, and Brazing

Summary
There are many tool and construction hazards in the pro- with tools, technicians should always select the proper tool
cess industries. While process technicians are not likely to be for the job. They should inspect the tool for wear, damage, or
involved in construction-related tasks, they may encounter other defects that can make a tool unsafe. In addition, techni-
construction areas around their facility. Because of this, tech- cians should always use proper techniques and safe practices
nicians must be aware of the safety hazards that construction when using tools. This includes wearing proper PPE, clearing
areas and tools present. obstacles or hazards from the work site, using nonsparking
Proper care, use, and maintenance of tools are essential tools in flammable atmospheres, and ensuring that other indi-
parts of maintaining a safe work environment. Before working viduals are a safe distance away before work begins.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 3. Which of the following is a risk that process technicians
a. Arc welding are exposed to when performing maintenance? (Select
all that apply.)
b. Electric tool
a. Pressure hazards
c. Hydraulic tool
b. Radiation hazards
d. Oxyacetylene welding
c. Air quality hazards
e. Pneumatic tool
d. Fire or explosion hazards
f. Powder-actuated tool
g. Power tool 4. Who is responsible for the safe condition of tools and
equipment?
h. Resistance welding
a. Process technicians
2. List at least five general guidelines that process
b. Employers
­technicians should follow with regards to construction.
c. OSHA
d. Tool manufacturer
200 Chapter 11

5. List five good safety practices for hand tools. Question 11. According to OSHA, a protection system must be in
should end here without possible answers listed. place when an employee is on scaffolding that is ____
feet or more above a lower level.
6. Name the greatest hazards of hand tools.
a. 4
7. Name five materials that can be used to make
b. 6
­spark-resistant tools.
c. 10
8. List at least five safety practices related to electric tools.
d. 12
9. What is one of the principal causes of industrial fires
12. What is the name of the OSHA regulation covering
mentioned in this chapter?
tools?
10. What is the fuel for the gas welding process?

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. What are the potential hazards associated with 3. Select from a list of specific tools. Research their safety
­maintaining a piece of equipment, such as a pump procedures and typical injuries related to their use.
or a furnace? Make a list. Share your findings with the class.

2. Based on your personal experience, discuss some 4. If available, visit a tool room to study and test tools used
­hazards you have encountered working with tools, in construction settings. A video, animation, or virtual
along with any injuries you or others suffered. How reality simulation may be used for this activity.
could these hazards have been prevented? Discuss this
with your fellow students.
Chapter 12
Vehicle and
Transportation Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of vehicle and transportation hazards in the process
industries, which can affect the safety and health of workers, as well as equipment, the
facility, the surrounding community, and the environment.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
12.1 Name specific hazards associated with vehicles and transportation
used in the process industry environment, including:
Forklifts
Powered platforms
Cranes
Trucks
Trains
Watercraft
Pipeline
Helicopters
Personal vehicles
Bicycles and carts. (NAPTA Safety, Vehicle Hazards 1*) p. 202
12.2 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that
address vehicle and transportation hazards. (NAPTA Safety,
­Vehicle Hazards 2) p. 214

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here
in abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Vehicle Hazards 1)” means that this
chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of the NAPTA curriculum about vehicles and
transportation hazards.

201
202 Chapter 12

Key Terms
Bonding—a system that connects conductive equipment together, keeping all bonded
objects at the same electrical potential to eliminate static sparking, p. 207.
Grounding—intentionally creating a low-resistance path to conduct electricity safely
to the earth from a tool or electrical system, p. 207.
Powered industrial truck—a mobile, power-propelled truck used to carry, push,
pull, lift, stack, or tier materials. Forklifts and other similar vehicles are considered
powered industrial trucks by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), p. 202.
Powered platform—equipment designed to lift personnel on a platform to work at
heights, p. 204.
Working load limit—the maximum weight, designed by the manufacturer, which
should not be exceeded when working with a load, p. 206.

12.1 Introduction
The process industries are extremely busy mobile work environments. Many different types
of vehicles and equipment are used to move materials in, around, and out of a facility,
including forklifts, cranes, trucks, rail cars, tankers, barges, and pipelines. Process technicians
must be aware of the hazards presented by these vehicles and equipment, as well as safety
procedures for mitigating or eliminating those hazards.
This chapter discusses the various hazards presented by vehicles and other transporta-
tion methods associated with the process industries.

Vehicle and Transportation Hazards

Moving vehicles can pose many hazards. Two hazards associated with vehicle operation are
rollovers involving the driver (and any passengers) and runovers involving pedestrians. To
avoid rollovers, vehicle operators must be aware of vehicle handling characteristics, proper
loading procedures, driving conditions, and potential obstacles and hazards. Two factors
can contribute to runovers: visibility issues (driver) and awareness (driver and pedestrian).
To maintain visibility, use headlights, wipers, and heaters as necessary. Remain alert;
do not get distracted while driving. To minimize distractions, power off cell phones while
driving. Slow down as you approach blind spots.
Both drivers and pedestrians have a responsibility to maintain situational awareness
at the worksite. Drivers should familiarize themselves with high pedestrian-traffic areas in
the facility. Pedestrians should keep an eye out for vehicles while walking and should slow
down or stop, look, and listen for vehicles if approaching a blind spot. Some facilities use
mounted mirrors to help reduce blind spots and, where possible, limit traffic in the work
area through roping or other means to help ensure worker safety.
Sleep deprivation and disorders are two other risks for drivers. Drivers should ensure
they are fit for duty by getting adequate rest. They must be responsible about health issues
and not drive while taking any medication that might impair their driving skills or focus.

Forklifts and Powered Industrial Trucks

Powered industrial truck
a mobile, power-propelled truck used The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) defines a powered industrial truck
to carry, push, pull, lift, stack, or tier as a mobile, power-propelled truck used to carry, push, pull, lift, stack, or tier materials.
materials. Forklifts and other similar
­Following are some of the most commonly used powered industrial trucks:
vehicles are considered powered
industrial trucks by the American • Forklifts
Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME). • Pallet trucks
 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 203

• Rider trucks
• Fork trucks
• Lift trucks
• Aerial lifts

Powered industrial trucks are used in the process industries to accomplish a wide range
of materials-handling tasks. Forklifts are the most commonly used powered industrial truck
in the process industries (Figure 12.1). Forklifts are used to load and unload raw materials
or finished products onto and off cargo trucks or railcars. They transport materials to the
warehouse for storage or to other locations when needed.

Figure 12.1 Forklifts are the

most commonly used powered
industrial truck in the process
industries.
CREDIT: Maxx-Studio/Shutterstock.

Powered industrial trucks are categorized by a variety of factors, including fuel source,
exhaust, electrical safeguards, and so on, and therefore can be hazardous in a variety of
ways. For example, if electric forklifts are in use, battery charging can produce hazardous,
flammable fumes. Fuel-powered forklifts, on the other hand, can generate high levels of
carbon monoxide gas, which is hazardous to workers when operated indoors. Workers near
a forklift during operation can be struck by a shifted load (“struck-by hazard”) or pinned
between the load and another object (“caught-between hazard”). Therefore, for your safety,
never stand under a forklift load or between the forklift and a fixed object. Always be aware
of forklifts in or around your work area. Remember: if you cannot see the driver, the driver
cannot see you.
Unless a specially constructed safety platform is used, you should avoid using a forklift
as a personnel hoist. Workers should never ride as a passenger on the forklift or on the forks.
If a forklift is working nearby on an uneven surface, be aware that the forklift itself can shift
and slide or fall sideways.
Forklift operations can create a buildup of static electricity, which can prove dangerous
in areas containing flammable or combustible materials. For this reason, some types of pow-
ered industrial trucks are prohibited in certain hazardous areas. Using a powered industrial
truck in an area that it is not rated for it could result in a fire or explosion.
OSHA requires that forklift operators be formally trained and certified. OSHA also
requires recertification on a periodic basis, or after any accident or observation of unsafe
driving. Training programs should also address site-specific issues, such as facility hazards
(e.g., ramps, narrow aisles, pedestrian traffic areas).
Workers often assume that if they can drive a car, they can successfully operate a forklift.
However, forklift operation requires a different skill set. Picking up a load, moving it, and
placing it in a new location require skill and experience.
Instability is a major hazard of forklift operations. Due to their shorter wheelbase and
shifting center of gravity during lifting operations, forklifts can easily become unstable
and flip over. To reduce this hazard, sufficient counterbalance weights must be added to
make sure the load is properly balanced. Some forklifts have overhead guards to protect
204 Chapter 12

the operator from falling objects. Others have protection systems to protect against vehicle
overturns and rollovers. Forklift operators should be aware that while rear-wheel steering
provides forklifts greater maneuverability, this feature actually decreases their stability at
elevated speeds.
Visibility is often restricted for the forklift operator and can be further restricted by poor
lighting and other environmental factors. Warehouses and storage areas often have blind
corners where visibility is limited. The noise from a forklift can be loud, making it difficult
for the operator to hear important sounds in the area. Because forklifts are often used in
aisles where there is heavy pedestrian traffic, extra precautions must be taken to ensure
pedestrian safety.
For these reasons, many companies require a spotter to help direct a forklift safely to
its desired location. Proper precautions must be taken anytime people are in the vicinity of
moving vehicles or equipment.
Forklifts can also cause damage to pipes, cables, sprinklers, walls, machinery, and
other equipment if the operator is not paying attention to potential obstacles when moving
the fork.
One of the most dangerous hazards is the transition between the dock and a cargo
vehicle or rail car, over a ramp called a dockboard. The dockboard must be of adequate
strength, properly placed, and anchored or locked into position. The forklift operator must
drive slowly when moving over the dockboard.
The following are some forklift safety recommendations:

• Select the proper forklift for the job, based on load capacity, work area, operating condi-
tions, and size.
• Handle only stable or safely arranged loads.
• Verify that the forklift has been inspected before use. OSHA requires daily safety inspec-
tions. Worn tires, damaged pressure lines, faulty brakes, or bent forks can all cause major
hazards. If the forklift does not meet the required inspection, remove it from service.
• Ensure that only authorized personnel make forklift repairs.
• Maintain the forklift in a clean condition. Follow the manufacturer’s cleaning
recommendations.
• Before each use, check the horn, brakes, lights, play in the steering wheel, and controls.
• Always wear the proper personal protective equipment (PPE) when operating a forklift.
• Know and follow the material storage and handling guidelines for your facility.
• Always be alert for potential hazards.
• Do not rush or take shortcuts.
• Never exceed the forklift’s lift capacity or overload the truck.
• If the forklift must be left unattended:
• Shut off the motor and set the brakes.
• Lower the fork and shift the controls to neutral.
• When ascending or descending grades in excess of 10 percent, drive loaded forklifts
with the load up the grade. This will require backing down a slope to keep the load on
the higher side of the grade.
• Never charge an electric forklift in a nondesignated area.

Powered Platforms
Powered platform equipment Process technicians may use powered platforms, manlifts, or vehicle-mounted work plat-
designed to lift personnel on a forms to work at heights (Figure 12.2). This type of equipment includes aerial baskets, aerial
platform to work at heights.
ladders, boom platforms, and platform elevation towers.
 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 205

Figure 12.2 Process techni-

cians may use powered platforms,
manlifts, or vehicle-mounted work
platforms to work at heights.
CREDIT: Sarawuth wannasathit/Shutterstock.

Employers must ensure that all such equipment is properly maintained and inspected
every 30 days for mechanical operation and integrity. Employers must also train employees
on the proper and safe use of powered platforms and associated equipment before allowing
employees to use the equipment.
Emergency procedures must include action plans for how workers can escape the plat-
forms in the event of a power failure, equipment failure, or other emergency. Employees
must be trained on these procedures.
While on the platform, employees must wear personal fall protection (e.g., harnesses,
lifelines, lanyards, or other approved devices). The fall protection must not hamper the
employee’s work and must be securely anchored to prevent injury. Stabilizer ties must be
used to allow an employee to move along the full length of the platform without becoming
entangled.
In addition to the height hazard, other hazards include:

• Electrocution if the platform contacts a power line

• Injury if the platform strikes an object
• Impact from falling objects, such as tools accidentally dropped from the platform.

Improper use of platforms causes more injuries than equipment failures. The following are
some general safety procedures for powered platforms:

• Always wear your fall protection device.

• Wear appropriate PPE.
• Keep clear of power lines, using a safe distance as specified in company procedures and
OSHA regulations.
• Be alert for obstacles and other hazards as the platform raises or lowers.
• Do not exceed the platform’s weight limits.
• Keep the platform clear of tools, materials, and debris not related to the task being
performed.
• Do not lean too far over the basket to perform a task; instead, reposition it.
• Never ride in the basket when a vehicle-mounted platform is in motion.
• If required by the operating unit, obtain a vehicle entry permit.
206 Chapter 12

Cranes
Cranes are used in process facilities to handle various lifting needs, from small (50 lb
[22.7 kg]) to large (50 tons [45.4 metric tons] or more); see Figure 12.3. Cranes use the basic
principles of a block and tackle, a system of cables and pulleys, to lift heavy loads.

Figure 12.3 Cranes are used

in process facilities to handle vari-
ous lifting needs.
CREDIT: Banksy_boy/Shutterstock.

Cranes come in different types of designs. They can be as simple as I-beams fitted with
chains (usually called a hoist) for lifting light loads or as complex as a pneumatically o
­ perated
crane that lifts several tons. Cranes can be fixed or mobile. Fixed cranes are ­permanently
attached to a structure, such as the ceiling of a warehouse, and they move on track systems.
Mobile cranes, on the other hand, can be relocated to different areas as necessary, moving
about on giant wheels or treads.
Due to the complexities associated with crane operation, such as load balancing,
­rigging, and safety, crane operators are required to have extensive training and c­ ertification.
Although most process technicians will not operate cranes as part of their job duties, they
may be required to assist with crane loading and unloading operations and therefore must
understand two important safety concepts: load limitations and proper methods for rigging
a load.

LOAD LIMITATIONS Cranes should never exceed their lift capacity. Failure to adhere to
lift limitations could cause the crane to collapse and drop its load, the load to shift during
motion, or the rigging to snap and whip around violently, which could cause worker injury
or death. Because of these risks, whenever possible, roping or other means should be used
to limit traffic in the work area.

RIGGING THE LOAD A vital task with crane operations is rigging the load. This
­time-consuming process represents the biggest potential hazard for crane operation. To
Working load limit the maximum ensure worker safety when assisting with crane loads, you must know the working load limit
weight, designed by the manufacturer, (the maximum weight that can be lifted) and make sure the load does not exceed this limit.
which should not be exceeded when
working with a load. A stable load is critical to proper rigging. The load’s center of gravity should be directly
below the main hook and below the lowest point of sling attachment. Load stability is
achieved by balancing the center of mass, weight distribution, and rigging tightness. F ­ inding
the center mass ensures the appropriate balance point and may require several attempts.
To operate a crane safely, crane operators must:

• Be certified based on type of crane and weight of load

• Know and follow the load rating of the crane
• Avoid hoisting or swinging loads over people
 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 207

• Test the brakes each time a load approaches the rated load
• Never leave the controls unattended when a load is suspended
• Check the upper limit switch of each hoist under no-load conditions prior to the start
of each shift
• Know proper crane hand signals before working with cranes
• Make sure each load is secure and properly balanced
• Use the correct sling rating based on load weight
• Inspect the rigging, ensuring the slings are not damaged by:
• Kinks
• Sharp edges
• Excessive loading.
• For multiple slings, check that each leg is the proper length
• Remove or secure any loose items.

Other hazards associated with crane operations include electrical hazards if the boom
comes into contact with power lines or electrical equipment; wind hazards, which can cause
instability; and power failures, especially if a load is being lifted.

Loading and Unloading Liquids

Process technicians are often required to load or unload liquids from rail tank cars, tank trucks,
tankers, barges, or other vehicles (Figure 12.4). Prior to loading or unloading liquids from rail
tank cars, process technicians should physically inspect the railcar for any signs of tampering
or compromise and any suspicious items, including, but not limited to, explosive devices.

Figure 12.4 Process techni-

cians are often required to load or
unload liquids from rail tank cars,
tank trucks, tankers, barges, or
other vehicles.
CREDIT: Somjade dachklung/Shutterstock.

Bonding or grounding systems can reduce the potential for static electricity discharge,
which could result in a fire or explosion. A bonding system connects conductive equipment, Bonding a system that connects
keeping all bonded objects at the same electrical potential to eliminate static sparking. conductive equipment together,
keeping all bonded objects at the
Grounding, which is a type of bonding, intentionally creates a low-resistance path to ­conduct same electrical potential to eliminate
electricity safely to the earth from a tool or electrical system. In other words, grounding static sparking.
­connects a conductive object to a grounding electrode or building ground system.
Avoid a potential static electricity discharge or stray electrical currents using the Grounding intentionally creating
a low-resistance path to conduct
­following guidelines:
electricity safely to the earth from a
• Know the liquid’s flashpoint. tool or electrical system.

• Follow all bonding and grounding procedures.

• Ensure grounding or bonding connections are in good condition and properly placed
at appropriate points.
208 Chapter 12

• Remove all dirt, paint, rust, or corrosion from contact points before connections are made.
• Inspect containers (e.g., drums, tote bins, tank cars) for foreign objects, which can cause
sparks.
• Thoroughly clean receptacles prior to loading a new liquid.
• Avoid mixing air or steam with any liquids being handled.
• Use a low flow rate until the loading spout is submerged (splashing and spraying
increases static potential and can cause air to mix with flammable liquids, resulting in
a fire or explosion hazard).
• Avoid moving through steam clouds if going into a hazardous area, as this can cause
you to become charged with static electricity.

Trucks
Trucks haul a variety of materials to and from process facilities (Figure 12.5). Trucks come
in a wide variety of designs, based on the type of material being hauled (e.g., cargo trucks,
tank trucks). Collisions, fire, explosions, and spills are all potential hazards associated with
trucking. Process technicians can be required to load or unload solid or fluid materials from
trucks. Some materials may require extreme cold or heat during transport. Therefore, always
be aware of the hazards that extreme temperatures might cause (e.g., burns) and follow
appropriate safety procedures, such as wearing the proper PPE.

Figure 12.5 Trucks haul a

variety of materials to and from
process facilities.
CREDIT: Herjua/Shutterstock.

Materials can also be hazardous. To ensure your safety, always know what you are
­ andling; read all labels, warnings, and documentation (e.g., safety data sheet, or SDS); wear
h
appropriate PPE; and follow proper procedures when handling these materials. In addition,
if materials are flammable or combustible, make sure you understand the potential fire and
explosion hazards associated with these materials.

Trains
Trains are used to transport materials to numerous companies in the process industries
(Figure 12.6). Process technicians can be required to load and unload materials from trains.
Such materials may be solid products in hoppers or boxcars or fluid products in tank cars.
Train-related safety hazards include fire, explosion, derailments, and spills or releases.
Loading and unloading of solid materials can present hazards. These hazards can lead
to injuries such as pinches, broken bones, cuts, bruises, or fatalities from falling cargo. Work-
ers should realize that materials could shift during transport and should therefore exercise
caution when opening or accessing materials. Straps can become damaged in transit, caus-
ing stacked materials to fall. Always wear appropriate PPE (e.g., respirators) because some
materials might be hazardous or flammable, posing fire and/or explosion hazards. Be aware
of materials that give off dust, as dust particles can ignite with just a spark.
 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 209

Figure 12.6 Trains are used

to transport materials to numer-
ous companies in the process
industries.
CREDIT: Richard Thornton/Shutterstock.

Loading and unloading operations of tank cars are potentially dangerous, mainly due
to fire and explosion hazards. Always follow proper grounding procedures. Rail cars are
typically moved into a loading or unloading facility, where product is loaded or unloaded
one car at a time. Two basic types of loading and unloading systems are used:
• Closed, when products have toxic or flammable vapors (for loading operations, some
facilities use a vapor recovery system).
• Simple (open), when products have low volatility and no vapor hazard.

While most rail tank cars look similar on the outside, their internal designs can differ
greatly depending on the type of products they carry. Like tanker trucks, tanker cars come
in a variety of sizes and can be modified to hold a range of products. A general-purpose tank
car can carry about 20,000 gallons (75.7 cubic meters) of liquid, while an LPG tank car can
hold about 33,500 gallons (about 127 cubic meters) of liquefied gas.
Tank cars must be monitored through their operating life and inspected regularly by
the railroads that operate the cars. Along with a general safety inspection, the tank pressure
rating and valves must be checked. Tank car safety has been improved by the addition of
couplers less likely to disengage during derailments, head shields on each end of the car to
add protection against punctures, and special steel jackets or coatings to provide thermal
protection.
When working around trains, always follow these general safety precautions:

• Take extra precautions when working on multiple tracks and be aware that the sound
of one train can hide the sounds of another train on different tracks.
• Watch out for uncoupled rail cars, as they can unexpectedly roll.
• Cross tracks carefully, taking notice of any potential fall hazards.
• Allow clearance between yourself and a moving train, keeping in mind that a train can:
• Extend as much as 3 feet (about 1 meter) on either side of the tracks
• Appear to be traveling more slowly than it actually is.
• Exercise care when working near tank cars, as they can contain hazardous fumes and
gases.
• Do not cross between cars because the train can move or shift while you are between
the cars.

Watercraft
In many cases, process technicians do not work around watercraft. The type of industry, the
location of the facility, and the job description determine whether a process technician will
be involved with watercraft as part of their duties.
210 Chapter 12

Some common watercraft in the process industries include the following:

• Tankers—ships designed to carry petroleum products across large bodies of water. There
are many different types of tankers, based on the products they carry (e.g., chemical
tankers, liquefied gas tankers).
• Barges—flat-bottomed boats designed to transport cargo on inland waterways. Barges
are typically connected in a long string.
• Supply boats—vessels used to carry materials to offshore platforms.

Process technicians dealing with watercraft will be involved primarily with loading and
unloading operations (Figure 12.7). Potential hazards include falls, drowning, dangerous
materials, confined spaces, fire, explosions, and spills. Watercraft workers must have marine
safety training, which includes water survival, along with general safety training.

Figure 12.7 Process techni-

cians dealing with watercraft will
primarily be involved with loading
and unloading operations.
CREDIT: Unkas Photo/Shutterstock.

Pipelines
Pipelines are a feasible, cost-effective way to transport large quantities of fluids (e.g., oil and
gas) through onshore or offshore systems (Figure 12.8). Compared to other transportation
methods, pipelines are more efficient, create less pollution, and are one of the safest methods
of transportation. However, like other transportation methods, pipelines do pose hazards
to workers. Potential pipeline hazards include ruptures, explosions, fires, and leaks, all of
which can result in injuries, loss of life, and property damage.

Figure 12.8 A. Pipelines are

used to move liquids and gases
through onshore or offshore
­systems. B. Offshore pipeline
under construction.
CREDIT: A. Noomcpk/Shutterstock.
B. Leonid Eremeychuk/Shutterstock.

A. B.

The two most common threats to pipelines are corrosion and third-party incidents
(­digging onshore or marine accidents offshore). Corrosion is the primary problem for pipe-
lines, as most pipeline leaks occur due to corrosion. Periodic m
­ onitoring, inspection, main-
tenance, and leak detection are crucial safety-related tasks. Pipeline materials are selected
based on safety and integrity, as well as the type of product being transported.
 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 211

The second major concern for underground pipelines is damage due to the activities of
third parties, such as construction or excavation crews digging and inadvertently causing
accidental ruptures. In addition, marine vessel hulls, fishing nets, anchors, and other gear
have caused serious damage to offshore pipelines. To minimize risk, pipelines are usually
well marked, and the industry constantly attempts to educate the public to “call before you
dig.” However, be aware that some older lines are not properly marked.
Safety, health, and environmental requirements for pipelines are similar to other
­petrochemical-related jobs and tasks and include the following:

• Personal protective equipment

• Fall protection
• Walking and working surfaces
• Hearing protection
• Equipment hazards (e.g., rotating equipment such as pumps and compressors)
• Grounding
• Radiation (from inspection equipment)
• Hot work
• Lockout/tagout
• Electrical hazards
• Fire safety
• Crane safety (during construction or maintenance)

Helicopters
Except for helicopters, most process technicians will not encounter any type of aircraft as
part of their jobs. Any other types of aircraft and safety-related procedures are outside the
scope of this book. If the facility is located offshore or in an isolated region, workers might
be shuttled to and from the site on helicopters. See Figure 12.9.

Figure 12.9 Helicopters are

frequently used to carry process
technicians to offshore platforms.
CREDIT: Tom Buysse/Shutterstock.

The greatest threats from helicopters are the turning rotor blades (main rotor and tail
rotor). Coming into contact with one of these blades can result in injury or death. Turbulence,
mechanical failures, and contact with trees or power lines can cause hazardous conditions
or crashes.
Following are some safety procedures to follow around helicopters:

• Always enter or exit the helicopter in a crouched position from the front or side of the
helicopter, taking care to ensure the pilot can see you.
212 Chapter 12

• Do not walk toward the rear of the helicopter unless unloading a baggage compartment
and only if the pilot is aware of what you are doing.
• Never cross underneath the tail boom when the engine is operating.
• Watch out for flying debris.
• Listen carefully to all safety briefings and obey all instructions from the pilot.
• Never distract the pilot or touch the flight controls.
• If a safety belt is available, make sure it is adjusted properly and securely fastened. Keep
it on until the pilot indicates that you can remove it.
• Wear hearing protection.
• Never smoke while in or near a helicopter.
• Always wear appropriate gear (e.g., cold weather survival gear for flights over northern
or Arctic waters).
• If flying over water, make sure you know the location of flotation devices and how to
use them.
• Make sure you know how to open the emergency exit, use a fire extinguisher, locate the
first aid kit, use the headset and microphone, and other similar tasks. You may be asked
to perform any one (or more) of these tasks.

Company Vehicle Safety

Process technicians may be required to drive a company vehicle. Company vehicles can be
used to transport workers, haul materials, or move equipment (Figure 12.10).

Figure 12.10 Company

vehicles can be used to transport
workers, haul materials, or move
equipment.
CREDIT: Grigvovan/Shutterstock.

It is important that you know your company’s driving policies. For example, many poli-
cies state where you can and cannot drive the vehicle or what to do during an emergency or
alarm (e.g., stop the vehicle, turn off the engine due to a potential spark hazard, and leave
the keys in the ignition). Many companies even require their employees to earn a “company
driving permit” by completing a short course and passing a quiz.
Following are some general safety regulations for company vehicles:

• Always watch for and obey posted speed or traffic signs (Figure 12.11).
• Do not park in fire zones.
• Always wear your safety belt and ensure that passengers wear them as well.
• Watch for potential hazards, including pedestrian traffic, bicycles and utility cart traffic,
forklifts, and cranes.
• Be aware of the changing work environment, where hazards can appear quickly.
 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 213

Figure 12.11 Process techni-

cians driving within a process
facility should always obey traffic
signs and posted speed limits.
CREDIT: Bhathaway/Shutterstock.

• Always remain alert, as sight lines and visibility can be compromised at a facility.
• Do not get distracted while driving.
• Because most facilities have a lot of pedestrian traffic, always be aware of the people
around you. Remember that pedestrians always have the right-of-way.
• Make sure you are familiar with the facility’s emergency procedures. As mentioned,
you may be required to leave the keys in the vehicle, in case it must be moved during
an emergency.
• Do not talk, text, or otherwise use a cell phone while driving. Cell phone use while
­driving is generally NOT allowed.

Personal Vehicle Safety

Each process facility sets its own driving regulations and personal vehicle safety require-
ments. Most facilities require drivers to park their vehicle outside the plant, and then walk
into the plant.
In cases where personal vehicles are allowed into a plant, obey all traffic signs and speed
limits. Follow the safety recommendations outlined in the company vehicle safety section.
Do not text or make phone calls while driving a company or personal vehicle while doing
company business.

Bicycles and Carts

Some facilities also provide bicycles or utility carts for workers to use, especially at large,
spread-out complexes (Figure 12.12). Carts can be electrical or fuel driven; most have four
wheels, although some have three.

Figure 12.12 Some facilities

use bicycles or utility carts for
workers to get around, especially
in large, spread-out complexes.
CREDIT: Horiyan/Shutterstock.
214 Chapter 12

Workers using bicycles or carts to get around a facility must be aware of the dangers
presented by other vehicles such as forklifts, cranes, and trucks. Pedestrians always have the
right of way with bicycles or carts, as they do with cars.
Following are some safety procedures for operating bikes and carts:

• Follow the same regulations and signs that are posted for automobiles, along with all
other facility-specific rules about bike and cart use.
• Always be alert for hazards; you do not have the same protection on a bicycle as in an
automobile.
• Only ride or drive in approved driving areas.
• Make sure the bike or cart is properly maintained before use.
• Never give rides to others; only one person should be on a bike.
• Be aware of hazardous riding or driving conditions, such as wet or slick roads or uneven
surfaces, and adjust your speed accordingly.
• Slow down when approaching areas with heavy traffic, either vehicular or pedestrian,
or blind spots.
• Do not engage in other activities while riding or driving, such as using a walkie-talkie
or eating.
• Never park a bicycle or cart in an area that blocks emergency exits, fire lanes, fire
hydrants, stairs, doors, or sidewalks.
• For a cart, make sure all safety equipment works (lights, horn, backup signal, flashing
lights).
• Familiarize yourself with the cart manufacturer’s recommended use and safety practices.
• Only charge electric carts in designated areas.
• Do not overload a cart with cargo or people.
• Do not let toolboxes or cargo obscure your vision in a cart.
• Keep your arms and legs inside a cart, unless using an arm to signal a turn.
• Do not act recklessly or engage in horseplay.

12.2 Government Regulations

The following are various government regulations relating to vehicle and transportation-
related hazards:

• OSHA General Industry Standards

• Subpart F: Powered Platforms, Manlifts, and Vehicle-Mounted Work Platforms
• 1910.66 Powered Platforms
• 1910.67 Vehicle-Mounted Elevating and Rotating Work Platforms
• Subpart H: Hazardous Materials
• Subpart N: Materials Handling and Storage
• 1910.176 Handling Materials—General
• 1910.178 Powered Industrial Trucks
• 1910.179 Overhead and Gantry Cranes
• 1910.183 Helicopters
Vehicles are regulated by different government agencies, based on type:

• The Department of Transportation (DOT) regulates all types of vehicles, including trucks
and trains.
 Vehicle and Transportation Hazards 215

• The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates aircraft, including helicopters.

Coast Guard regulations can also apply if the helicopter flies over bodies of water.
• The United States Coast Guard (USCG) regulates watercraft.

A range of federal government agencies and their regulations impact pipelines:

• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• Department of Transportation (DOT)
• United States Coast Guard (USCG)
• Minerals Management Service (MMS)

Summary
The process industries are extremely busy mobile work envi- by untrained personnel. Technicians operating cranes must
ronments. Many different types of vehicles and equipment always secure the load properly and must never exceed the
are used to move materials into, around, and out of a facility, lift limit.
including forklifts, cranes, trucks, railcars, tankers, barges, and Process technicians loading and unloading flammable
pipelines. Each of these vehicles poses a unique set of safety liquids from trucks, ships, trains, pipelines, or other vessels
hazards. It is important for process technicians to be aware of must be familiar with the substances they are working with
these hazards and know how to prevent them. (e.g., know the flashpoint, toxicity, and reactivity levels). They
For example, forklifts are one of the most commonly used must also make sure that equipment is properly grounded to
industrial vehicles in the process industries. Forklifts can pro- prevent static electricity from igniting flammable vapors.
duce fumes that could be hazardous if operated indoors. They Process technicians who work around helicopters (e.g.,
can also pose safety issues if used improperly, such as to lift a those on offshore oil rigs) should be extremely cautious
load that is too heavy. around the turning rotor blades. Technicians should always
Powered platforms are used to lift employees to work obey the pilot and follow all safety rules associated with the
areas above ground level. The height of these work areas can air craft. When flying over water, technicians must also know
range from near to the ground to high in the air. When ­working how to locate and use survival gear and flotation devices in
at elevations, technicians must always be aware of possible the event of an emergency.
hazards (e.g., power lines overhead), wear proper personal Individuals required to drive company vehicles must
protective equipment, and be familiar with ­operational and always obey posted speed limits, follow proper safety precau-
safety procedures. tions, and watch for pedestrians. Likewise, pedestrians and
Cranes are used for lifting heavy loads. Operating cranes bicycle riders must watch for other vehicles and hazards they
requires extensive training and should not be performed might encounter.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 3. List at least four forklift safety recommendations.
a. Bonding 4. Powered platforms should be properly maintained and
b. Grounding inspected every ____ days.
c. Powered industrial truck a. 10
d. Powered platform b. 30
e. Working load limit c. 60
2. What are the two factors that can contribute to d. 90
runovers?
216 Chapter 12

5. A vital task with crane operation is ____________ the c. It is permissible to use the walkie-talkie while
load. driving.
a. certifying d. Do not act recklessly or engage in horseplay.
b. limiting e. Never stick your arms or legs outside a cart unless
c. rigging signaling a turn.
d. working 10. What is a major concern for pipeline safety?
6. What are two basic types of tank car loading and a. Fugitive emissions
unloading systems? b. Accidental damage from third parties
a. Closed and complex c. Fall protection
b. Open and shut d. PPE
c. Closed and simple 11. What OSHA subpart covers powered platforms?
d. Simple and complex a. Subpart B
7. Name and describe three types of watercraft that b. Subpart F
­process technicians could encounter on the job. c. Subpart H
8. List at least five safety procedures to follow around d. Subpart N
helicopters.
9. Which of the following are correct statements about cart
safety? (Select all that apply.)
a. Carts may be banned from certain areas.
b. Honk repeatedly to get a pedestrian to move out of
the way.

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Use the internet to research grounding and bonding 3. Use the internet to research recent accidents involving
­procedures, including the hazards of static electricity heavy equipment, powered industrial trucks and/or
and stray electrical current and how the bonding or cranes. Share the incident with your fellow students.
grounding system works. Discuss the findings with
your fellow students. 4. Identify the location of pipelines in your community and
verify that the “Call Before You Dig” hotline ­telephone
2. Walk around your campus, work area, or neighborhood contact information is posted.
and notice all potential hazards relating to vehicles,
bicycles, and pedestrians. Make a list of the hazards, and
then think about how you would react to each hazard.
Chapter 13
Natural Disasters and
Inclement Weather
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of natural disasters and inclement weather in the
process industries, which can affect people, facilities, and resources.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
13.1 Name specific hazards associated with natural disasters that could
impact the process industries:
Hurricanes
Tornadoes
Floods, lightning, hail, rain storms
Extreme temperatures
Earthquakes. (NAPTA Safety, Natural Disasters 1*) p. 218
13.2 Describe how emergency preparedness plans address natural
­disasters. (NAPTA Safety, Natural Disasters 2) p. 235

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure that
Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become ­entry-level
employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
­abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, NAPTA Safety, Natural Disasters 1)” means
that this chapter’s objective 1 relates to objective 1 of the NAPTA curriculum about safety
related to natural disasters and inclement weather.

Key Terms
Earthquake—a shaking and moving of the earth resulting from a sudden shift of rock
beneath the surface (geologic stress), p. 233.
Flooding—the rising of water to cover normally dry land, p. 225.
Hurricane—an intense, low-pressure tropical (warm area) weather system with
sustained winds of 74 miles per hour (119 kilometers per hour) or more.
Hurricanes can rotate clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on their location
of origin, p. 220.

217
218 Chapter 13

Storm surge—danger created by hurricane force winds which push water toward the
shoreline. As a storm surge advances on a shoreline, it can create a wall of water
15 feet (4.6 meters) or more above normal water levels, p. 221.
Tornado—a destructive, localized windstorm. Tornadoes are produced by severe
thunderstorms. A funnel cloud may or may not occur during a tornado, p. 221.
Warning—a weather advisory issued when certain weather conditions
(e.g., thunderstorm, hurricane, flash flood) are expected in the specified area, p. 219.
Watch—a weather advisory issued when certain weather conditions (e.g., thunderstorm,
hurricane, flash flood) are possible in the specified area, p. 219.

13.1 Introduction
Process facilities operate around the clock all year long, through all types of weather.
­Process technicians must work in good or bad weather. They are expected to work despite
rain, wind, ice, heat, storms, or other fairly common weather conditions. Process facili-
ties have plans to deal with various weather conditions, including extreme weather and
natural disasters.
The process industries provide vital products and services to meet a variety of critical
needs for everyday life:

• Electrical generation and nuclear power

• Food manufacturing
• Oil and gas production
• Chemical manufacturing
• Water treatment
• Pharmaceuticals

Because of the critical nature of these products and services, facilities operate
24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a year. This means process technicians must
work in all weather conditions to ensure the production of these products and services.
Working in ­different weather conditions can range from being somewhat unpleasant to
being d
­ angerous and life threatening. Process technicians must also assist their com-
panies during natural disasters, as emergency plans are put into action for continuing
production, shutting down, stabilizing, or resuming operations. Natural disasters can
take many forms:
• Hurricanes
• Floods
• Tornadoes
• Extreme temperatures
• Earthquakes

Additional natural disasters can include wildfires, volcanic activity, and solar storms.
Because both geography (e.g., mountains and valleys vs. flatlands) and plant life (e.g., forests
vs. prairies vs. marshes) vary tremendously from one place to the next, no overall ­guidelines
are provided here. Technicians must be aware of and follow safety guidelines that help
­protect against dangers such as wildfires. They are responsible for knowing and ­following
their ­facility’s emergency procedures for disasters such as wildfires, volcanic ­activity, or
solar storms.
Natural disasters and inclement weather (e.g., extreme heat or cold and rain) affect
process operations, as the different weather conditions may impact equipment, utilities,
processes, or the entire facility. For example, humidity affects some equipment and processes
(humid days can affect cooling tower capability). Hot weather can break down insulation
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 219

on wiring and strain water cooling systems. Ice can coat power lines, and the resulting extra
weight can make them fall.
Freezing conditions can cause lines to freeze and crack, or the frozen material can plug
the line. Flooding can cause water damage to equipment. It can also make parts of the plant
difficult to access. Standing water from floods can lead to mosquito infestations. Lightning
can damage electrical equipment or cause flammable liquids to ignite. High winds can b ­ uffet
towers and columns.

Emergency Plans
Emergency plans analyze potential vulnerabilities combined with threats. Vulnerability is a
weakness in a defense or a possibility of being threatened or damaged. A threat is an event
that could harm people or property, such as a natural disaster or accident.
Companies create emergency plans to address vulnerabilities and threats. A c­ ompany’s
emergency plans address what responses and actions will need to occur in a wide range of
crisis situations. These plans help facilities deal with potential natural disasters, ­accidents,
personnel safety, communications, evacuation, process shutdown and startup, and other
deviations from normal operations. Drills and training help process technicians ­understand
what to do during an emergency. Continuity and resumption plans define the steps
a ­company should take to reduce the impact of a crisis or emergency, ensuring that the
­business continues normal operations or resumes as quickly as possible.
The process technician must understand the hazards of natural disasters and inclement
weather and must be prepared to work safely in these conditions. The following are some
general tips relating to natural disasters and inclement weather:

• Actively participate in drills to familiarize yourself with your facility’s emergency plans
for specific natural disasters and inclement weather conditions. You might also need to
refer to unit-specific plans in addition to facility plans.
• Understand that weather can prevent a shift change from occurring. This can cause
fatigue in workers, which could result in errors that cause safety issues. If you work
during a natural disaster or inclement weather, make sure you eat properly, drink plenty
of water, and rest when possible.
• If you are not at work, check with the facility. You might be called in to work. ­Personnel
deemed as critical can be required to work even on days off or vacation days. Some
facilities use an emergency notification plan (e.g., a notification pyramid, in which one
person contacts two people, those people each contact two people, and so on).
• Regularly check and maintain emergency equipment, such as emergency power sources
(e.g., generators, uninterrupted power supplies, sump pumps, and lighting).
• Verify that emergency radios are in place and working properly; control rooms and other
areas should have weather radios that automatically come on when weather alerts are
issued.
• Check communications equipment periodically (e.g., ensure radios are charged and
operating).
• Practice good housekeeping in your work environment to ensure that the area is clean
and secure. Watch a weather advisory issued
when certain weather conditions
• Make sure to use intrinsically safe flashlights (ones that are not powered by an ignition (e.g., thunderstorm, hurricane, flash
source), in case of ruptured gas lines or the release of flammable materials. flood) are possible in the specified
area.
• Government agencies, assistance organizations, and the media can provide further
­information about how to prepare. These groups will usually provide a watch or a Warning a weather advisory issued
warning to ensure that the public is aware of potential threats. when certain weather conditions
(e.g., thunderstorm, hurricane, flash
• Process technicians should have their own emergency preparedness plans and be flood) are expected in the specified
­familiar with their company’s emergency plans. area.
220 Chapter 13

In the following sections, hazards and typical safeguards will be presented for each
natural disaster and inclement weather situation. Remember that your facility will have
specific policies and procedures that you should be aware of and be prepared to institute at
a moment’s notice.

Rain- and Wind-Related Disasters

Hurricane an intense, low-pressure Hurricanes
tropical (warm area) weather system
with sustained winds of 74 miles Hurricanes are an extremely destructive force of nature. A hurricane is an intense, low-
per hour (119 kilometers per hour) pressure tropical (warm area) weather system, featuring a well-defined counter-clockwise
or more. Hurricanes can rotate (in the Northern Hemisphere) circulation (spiral) around a calm center (or eye) and sustained
clockwise or counter-clockwise,
depending on their location of origin. winds of 74 miles per hour (119 kilometers per hour or kph) or more (Figure 13.1).

Figure 13.1 A. Infrared aerial

view of a hurricane. B. Hurricanes
can be very destructive, hurling
debris and turning objects into
potentially harmful projectiles.
CREDIT: A. Trong Nguyen/Shutterstock.
B. Ken Schulze/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Hurricanes can be accompanied by rain, lightning and thunder, and tornadoes. Areas
around the United States that have experienced hurricanes include the Atlantic Coast states
and the Gulf of Mexico states. Hurricanes also occur in nearby regions off the west coast of
Mexico and the Caribbean Sea and can affect offshore drilling rig operations in these areas.
Hurricanes in other parts of the world can be referred to as typhoons or cyclones.
Process industries in coastal areas prone to hurricanes can experience extensive
­devastation from their occurrence. Processes must be shut down before the hurricane
arrives, and then started back up after the hurricanes passes. Water and wind damage from
a ­hurricane can affect the startup of a facility after the storm.
The National Weather Service issues hurricane watches and warnings for the United
States. A hurricane watch is issued when hurricane conditions are possible in the specified
area, usually within the next 36 hours. A hurricane warning is issued when hurricane is
expected to reach the specified area, usually within the next 24 hours.
Hurricanes are ranked using a scale (called the Saffir-Simpson scale), based on s­ ustained
wind speed (Table 13.1). A Category 4 storm could create up to 100 times the damage of a
Category 1 storm. Massive evacuation of areas may be required for higher-category storms.
However, lower-category storms can still cause extensive damage. Intensity of threat
­determines the level of planning.

Table 13.1 Saffir-Simpson Scale for Hurricane Wind Speed

Category Wind Speed
Tropical storm 39–73 mph (62.8–116 kph)
Category 1 hurricane 74–95 mph (119–153 kph); storm surge usually 4–5 feet (1.2–1.5 m) above normal
Category 2 hurricane 96–110 mph (29.3–33.5 kph) storm surge usually 6–8 feet (1.8–2.4 m) above normal
Category 3 hurricane 111–130 mph (33.8–39.6 kph); storm surge usually 9–12 feet (2.7–3.6 m) above normal
Category 4 hurricane 131–155 mph (39.9–47.2 kph); storm surge usually 13–18 feet (about 4–5.5 m) above normal
Category 5 hurricane 156 mph (47.5 kph) and up; storm surge usually greater than 18 feet (5.5 m) above normal
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 221

Hurricane Hazards
Following are some of the hazards of hurricanes:

• High winds
• Storm surge
• Rain and flooding
• Tornadoes
• Lightning
• Loss of services (power, water, phone, and internet)

Winds can do the following:

• Hurl debris, turning objects into potentially harmful projectiles

• Knock over small buildings
• Damage roofs
• Break windows
• Blow down trees and poles
• Rip off parts of buildings and damage process equipment (sway)
The type and amount of damage can vary with wind speed. People outside in high
winds are at risk of being hit by falling objects and trees, or wind-driven debris (see
Figure 13.1B).
Rain can reduce visibility, create hazardous driving or working conditions, and cause
flooding (both coastal and inland). Water can damage electrical components and sensitive
equipment.
Hurricanes produce storm surges and rain, which result in land erosion and flooding.
Storm surge danger created by
Storm surges and flooding cause the most deaths of any weather-related disasters. They
hurricane force winds which push
can cause water damage to equipment, sensitive electronic components, buildings, and water toward the shoreline. As a
more. As a storm surge approaches the coast, it can create a wall of water 15 feet (4.6 meters) storm surge advances on a shoreline,
or more above normal levels and pound the shoreline, destroying many structures in its it can create a wall of water 15 feet
(4.6 meters) or more above normal
path. Flooding also presents a hazard as it sweeps debris, which can potentially damage water levels.
or destroy anything in its path. The hazards of flooding are covered in greater detail in a
later section.
Hurricanes can also spawn tornadoes. Tornadoes are localized windstorms, one of Tornado a destructive, localized
the most violent and destructive weather events, with winds reaching over 300 mph windstorm. Tornadoes are produced
by severe thunderstorms. A funnel
(483 kph). Tornadoes can resemble a funnel-shaped cloud extending toward or touching cloud may or may not occur during a
the ground, but such a cloud may not necessarily appear. Some hurricanes produce no tornado.
tornadoes, while others can produce multiples. Tornadoes produced by a hurricane are
most likely to occur on the northeast (right front) side of the hurricane, and can occur
anytime of the day or night. Tornadoes can also form in the bands of rain hurricanes
produce. Hail and lightning do not accompany hurricane-generated tornadoes to the
same degree as in other tornadoes. Tornadoes can occur for several days after the
­hurricane passes over land. Tornadoes and their hazards are discussed more thoroughly
later in this chapter.
Lightning can be generated during a hurricane. Lightning is an electrical discharge in
Earth’s atmosphere, either from cloud-to-cloud or cloud-to-ground. Lightning results in a
brilliant flash and heat, up to 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit (27,760 degrees Celsius) (five times
hotter than the sun). As lightning heats the surrounding air, the associated sound of thunder
is created. Lightning presents a variety of hazards, such as damaging electronic equipment,
starting fires, and electrocuting people, resulting in severe injuries or death. The section on
lightning and rainstorms discusses lightning in more depth.
The combined hazards of hurricanes (wind, rain, tornadoes, flooding, and lightning) can
result in great devastation, including deaths, injuries, property damage, and financial loss.
222 Chapter 13

Hurricanes also can cause a general disruption of important services, including the
following:

• Power generation
• Clean water supply
• Food delivery
• Telephone and communications
• Fuel distribution
• Emergency response
• Medical treatment
• Transportation and delivery (raw materials, parts, finished products)

As mentioned previously, the process industries are responsible for providing many
products and services we depend on for daily life. A later section in this chapter on e­ mergency
planning describes how companies can prepare for business continuation and resumption
during and after disasters.

Hurricane Preparedness
Process technicians working in areas where a hurricane can potentially hit should have
their own emergency preparation plans and be familiar with their company’s plans. These
plans include shutdown procedures before the storm and startup procedures after the storm
(including damage inspection and safety review). The following are some important tips
about hurricane preparedness:

• First and foremost, learn about the company’s disaster plan, including a primary
­evacuation route and an alternate route. Be sure this is communicated with all c­ oworkers
(Figure 13.2).
• Follow the advice of local officials about preparations or evacuation plans.
• Check weather reports for updated storm information (TV, weather radio, radio,
internet).
• Make sure any loose objects that could be picked up by the wind are secured.
• Make sure vehicle fuel tanks are filled.
• Windows should be covered with storm shutters or plywood. Tape will not prevent a
window from breaking.
• Battery-operated flashlights and radios are critical items to have, along with fresh
batteries.
• If your area is not evacuated, stay inside and away from windows. Avoid travel.

Figure 13.2 Individuals on

the coast should always have
a ­disaster plan that includes
­primary and alternate evacuation
routes.
CREDIT: Tad Denson/Shutterstock.
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 223

• Be alert for tornadoes and flooding. An interior closet or bathroom without windows
is a good place to remain if a tornado strikes. Get to high ground in case of flooding.
• Do not travel to damaged areas.

Process technicians might need to perform these tasks at the process facility:

• Secure any loose objects (e.g., bolts, tools) that could be picked up by the wind.
• Tie down any materials or objects that could be blown away.
• Make sure the rigging is secure on any tall objects that use guy wires.
• Certain areas might need to be sandbagged or reinforced from flooding.
• Check that drains and grating are clean and unobstructed (to facilitate the drainage of
rising waters).
• Shut down noncritical processes and systems as required. Shutdowns should be
­determined based on the proximity of the storm (i.e., more critical procedures are shut
down the closer a storm gets).
• Process levels should be lowered and tanks and vessels might need to be partially
drained. However, a certain amount of liquid must be left in tanks and vessels to p
­ revent
them from floating off their foundations in flood conditions.
• As required, make sure the unit is totally secure (which can include a maintenance-type
shutdown and process block-in).

Tornadoes and High Winds

As mentioned previously, tornadoes are destructive, localized windstorms (Figure 13.3).
Tornadoes are produced by severe thunderstorms and contain swirling winds that can reach
over 300 mph (483 kph) and leave a devastating path of destruction. A funnel cloud may or
may not be visible during a tornado.

Figure 13.3 A. Tornadoes are

extremely destructive, ­localized
windstorms with swirling winds
that can exceed 300 mph
(483 kph). B. Tornadoes can leave
a devastating path of destruction
and provide far less warning than
hurricanes.
CREDIT: A. Minerva Studio/Shutterstock.
B. Alexey Stiop/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Tornadoes can form anywhere in the world, but the United States has more tornadoes
per year than any other country. A good number of those occur in the Midwest and South,
a region that has earned the nickname “Tornado Alley.”
A tornado watch is issued when tornado conditions are possible in the specified area.
A tornado warning is issued when a tornado has been spotted or appears on radar in a
specified area. If a tornado warning is issued for your area, be prepared to follow emergency
procedures at a moment’s notice.
Tornadoes generally occur on the trailing edge of thunderstorms. The following are
some potential signs of a tornado:

• A sound like a freight train may be heard.

• Hail and lightning may be present.
224 Chapter 13

• A cloud of debris can show where a tornado is, even if no funnel cloud is visible.
• Winds may die down and the air become still before a tornado hits.

Tornadoes are measured using a scale such as the Operational Enhanced Fujita (EF)
scale. Damage is used to determine a tornado’s wind speed (Table 13.2).

Table 13.2 Operational Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale of Tornado Damage

OPERATIONAL EF SCALE

EF Number 3-Second Gust (mph)*

0 65–85
1 86–110
2 111–135
3 136–165
4 166–200
5 Over 200
*IMPORTANT NOTE ABOUT ENHANCED F-SCALE WINDS: The Enhanced F-scale still is a set of wind
estimates (not ­measurements) based on damage.
It uses 3-second gusts estimated at the point of damage based on a judgment
of 8 levels of ­damage to 28 indicators. These estimates vary with height and exposure. Important: The
3-second gust is not the same wind as in standard
surface observations. Standard measurements are taken by weather stations
in open exposures, using a directly measured, “one-minute mile” speed.

Tornadoes include the following hazards:

• Extremely high winds

• Large debris flying through the air
• Hail
• Rain
• Lightning

Hail rarely kills people, but it can cause injury and property damage. Hail is a frozen
raindrop produced by an intense thunderstorm. Most hail is small, less than 2 inches
(5 centimeters) across, but it can still cause damage because of the speed it reaches as it falls.

Tornado Preparedness
Tornado watches and warnings are issued on a county or parish basis. Tornadoes give far
fewer warning signs than hurricanes. However, new advances in weather radar provide
more indications of conditions that could produce tornadoes. When a tornado is coming,
a person has only a short time to make critical decisions. Advanced planning, preparation,
drills, and rapid response are keys to safely surviving a tornado (see Figure 13.3B).
The following are some general tips on preparedness:

• Follow the advice of local officials about preparations.

• Check local weather reports for updated storm information (e.g., TV, radio, internet).
• Make sure any loose objects that could be picked up by the wind are secured.
• Make sure vehicle fuel tanks are filled.
• Be alert to current weather conditions. Watch for the potential signs listed in the p
­ revious
section.
• Make sure emergency supplies are well stocked. Battery-operated flashlights and radios
are critical items to have, along with fresh batteries.
• Avoid being outside during tornado watches and warnings if possible.
• An interior closet or bathroom without windows is a good place to remain if a tornado
strikes.
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 225

• Do not travel to damaged areas.

• Keep blinds or shades drawn over windows to keep glass from flying in if a window
gets broken due to wind.
• If you are outside or in a vehicle, hurry to the closest sturdy building. If one is not
­available, lie flat in a ditch or low area.
• Watch for fallen power lines.

Tornadoes are hard to predict, and often little or no warning is available. For process
technicians, it is vital to know the location of the closest secure building to which you can
go. Remember it is your responsibility to know and follow your facility’s emergency plans
for tornadoes.

Flooding
Flooding can occur when water overflows its natural or artificial boundaries, such as levees Flooding the rising of water to
or dams, or a body of water (e.g., stream, river, lake, and ocean). Flooding can also occur cover normally dry land.
when drainage systems cannot remove the water fast enough from roadways (Figure 13.4).
Flooding is responsible for the most weather-related deaths.

Figure 13.4 Flooding can

occur when water overflows
­natural or artificial boundaries.
CREDIT: MDay Photography/Shutterstock.

Different events can produce flooding:

• Heavy rains (most common)

• Melting snow
• Storm surge (water pushed up onto land, such as from a hurricane)
• Underwater earthquake or volcanic activity (creating a tsunami)
• Barrier failure (e.g., dam break)

Every state in the United States can experience flood conditions. Factors that affect
flooding are:

• Already soaked ground (when the ground is already saturated with water, usually from
recent heavy rainfalls)
• Type(s) of soil in surrounding land (e.g., sandy soil compared to clay)
• The geography of surrounding land (e.g., low-lying terrain)
• Proximity and size of bodies of water
• Frequent storms and heavier-than-normal rainfall.

River flooding is natural, typically happening on a seasonal basis with spring or winter
rains, or melting ice and snow. Coastal flooding can occur when winds from tropical storms,
hurricanes, or low-pressure systems drive ocean water inland. Coastal flooding can also
226 Chapter 13

be caused by giant tidal waves (tsunamis), produced by earthquakes or volcanic activity.

Another type of coastal flooding happens when land upstream has received a lot of water;
it flows down the rivers and can eventually end up at the coast.
Urban flooding occurs when water is moved from its natural state to roads, parking
lots, and buildings, usually because the land loses its ability to absorb rainfall, and drainage
systems have not been adequately designed to compensate. Runoff from heavy rains can
turn streets into rivers and can fill low-lying areas with water.
A flash flood is flooding that rises rapidly, but can fall quickly. Flash floods can occur
with little or no warning. Most flood-related deaths are caused by flash floods. The main
factors that contribute to flash floods are the rate (intensity) of rainfall and how long it lasts
(duration). Soil conditions, lay of the land (topography), and ground cover and vegeta-
tion also affect flash flooding. Flash floods usually happen within just a few minutes of an
­excessive rainfall, or because a barrier, either man-made or natural (e.g., levee, dam, ice), fails.
Flash floods can carry debris such as trees, rocks, and other items in its path, causing
much destruction. If debris builds up, it can create a barrier that holds back the water and
allows it to build up. The resulting barrier can then break and unleash a large amount of
water, creating even more dangerous flash flooding. Flash floods can also cause landslides,
which are discussed later in this chapter.
Flash flooding is a relatively short event, while other flooding can last for several days
or longer. Flood or flash flood watches are issued if flooding is possible in the specified area.
Flood or flash flood warnings are issued if flooding has been reported or is imminent in the
specified area. Urban or small stream advisories can be issued about flooding of streets,
low-lying areas, or streams.
The following are some signs that point to potential flooding:

• Thunder from approaching storms

• Weather reports of heavy rainfall or thunderstorms in the area, even upstream
• Reports of an approaching hurricane
• Heavy rainfall
• Saturated ground from previous rainfall
• Flood history of the area
• Rapidly rising water

Flooding Hazards
Floods can produce the following hazards:

• Drowning
• Water damage to structures
• Swiftly moving water (even 6 inches [15 centimeters] of fast-moving water can knock
people off their feet, and 2 feet [61 centimeters] of water can float a car)
• Damage from debris
• Contaminated water
• Landslides
• Animals and insects in the water (e.g., snakes, fire ants, and mosquitoes)

Flood Preparedness
Prepare for a flood by following these suggestions:

• Know your area’s flood risk.

• Follow the advice of local officials about preparations and evacuations.
• Check local weather reports for updated storm information (e.g., TV, radio, internet).
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 227

• Take only essential items if you evacuate from the plant.

• Make sure vehicle fuel tanks are filled.
• Be especially careful at night, since it is more difficult to recognize flood dangers.
• Do not drive on flooded roads or in flooded areas of the plant. If your vehicle stalls,
leave it immediately and seek higher ground. Even a couple of inches of water may be
enough to sweep your vehicle away.
• Make sure emergency supplies are well stocked. Battery-operated flashlights and radios
are critical items to have, along with fresh batteries.
• Make sure drains and storm sewer gratings are cleared.
• Go to higher ground if floodwaters are rising.
• Be careful of dangers under the water, for example, submerged power lines.
• Do not travel to damaged areas.
• Check electrical equipment before trying to use it.

Lightning and Rainstorms

Lightning is a naturally occurring electric current created when atmospheric electricity is
discharged, either from one cloud to another, or from a cloud to the ground. Lightning is
an extremely destructive force of nature, generating high voltage and current along with
heat up to 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit (27,760 degrees Celsius) —temporarily hotter than the
surface of the sun. See Chapter 5, Equipment and Energy Hazards for more information on
lightning.
The following clues indicate that lightning might be nearby:

• A rise in wind speed

• Darkening skies
• Towering clouds
• Static on AM radio stations
• Thunder
• Flashes of light in the distance

If you can hear thunder, you are potentially close enough to the storm to be struck by
lightning. If you see lightning, you can estimate its distance from you. Since light travels
faster than sound, you can see the flash of lightning before hearing the resulting thunder.
Count the number of seconds between the flash of lightning and the next sound of thun-
der. Divide this number by five to get the distance in miles. So, for example, if you see a
­lightning flash and 10 seconds later you hear thunder, the lightning is 2 miles away from
you. Follow the procedures in the section on lightning and rainstorm preparedness for safety
information.
Lightning occurs during thunderstorms, generally on the trailing edge of the storm.
A thunderstorm is a potentially severe weather condition characterized by heavy rainfall,
lightning, winds, and possible hail. Thunderstorms can form the basis of various severe
weather conditions, including tornadoes, hail storms, flash flooding, and hurricanes. Because
of this, weather forecasting prominently addresses thunderstorms.
A thunderstorm is classified as severe when winds go over 57 mph (91.7 kph) and/or
when it produces hail the size of a dime or larger. Thunderstorms can last less than 30 ­minutes
or form long-lasting bands (called squall lines). Some thunderstorms grow ­powerful, last
for hours, and spawn numerous tornadoes. These are called supercells. Approximately
10 percent of the thunderstorms in the United States become severe, causing most of the
damage, injuries, and death. Every state in the United States is prone to thunderstorms.
A severe thunderstorm watch is issued when conditions are favorable for developing
into a severe storm. Watches are issued before actual storms are sighted or indicated by
228 Chapter 13

weather radar. Watches typically cover a large area and can last for several hours. A severe
thunderstorm warning is issued when a thunderstorm has the characteristics to become
severe. Warnings are issued for a county or parish, or parts of that area. A warning is issued
when a sighted thunderstorm is about to enter or has entered a region. Warnings are usually
in effect for a short period of time (the estimated time it will take the storm to move through
the county).
Rainstorms occur when droplets of water fall from clouds. Rain can range from light to
heavy, and last for varying periods of time. Rain is one type of precipitation, or water that
comes from the sky as part of the weather. Other types include snow, sleet, freezing rain, hail,
and dew. Rainfall is typically measured in inches, using a rain gauge. Although many use
the terms rainstorm and thunderstorm interchangeably, the difference between a rainstorm
and a thunderstorm is whether lightning is present.

Lightning and Rainstorm Hazards

Lightning can be extremely destructive, creating the following hazards:

• Electrocution, including severe injury or death

• Fires
• Explosions
• Equipment and property damage
• Damage to electronic components and electrical systems

Rainstorms can produce winds, lightning, hail, flooding, tornadoes, and landslides or
mudslides. Along with the hazards associated with these weather events, rainstorms create
other hazards such as the following:

• Reduced visibility and poor driving conditions

• Unsafe working conditions
• Water damage

Landslides can be a major hazard, taking place in almost every state in the United States.
Landslides cause much destruction, injury, and death. Landslides can occur during intense
rainfall or fast melting snow (Figure 13.5). They generally start on steep hillsides, and then
accelerate to 10–35 mph (16–56 kph). Depending on their force, landslides carry mud and
debris ranging in size from small rocks to large boulders and trees. Sloped areas with burned
or damaged vegetation can be prone to landslides, especially if a lot of water has soaked
into the ground.

Figure 13.5 Landslides,

which carry mud and debris
from the size of small rocks to
large boulders and trees, can
occur during intense rainfall or
­fast-melting snow.
CREDIT: (left) Trekandshoot/Shutterstock.
(right) Lucky Team Studio/Shutterstock.

Lightning and Rainstorm Preparedness

Process facilities take great care to protect against lightning strikes, installing special rods,
masts, and other equipment to reduce the hazards.
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 229

Observe these instructions for your own personal safety:

• Follow the advice of local officials about preparations.

• Check local weather reports for updated storm information (e.g., TV, radio, internet).
• Be alert to current weather conditions. Watch for the potential signs mentioned in the
lightning and rainstorms section.
• Do not use landline phones.
• Stay away from windows.
• Check with the appropriate personnel about whether you should stop using electrical
equipment and/or computers.
If you are outdoors, observe the following precautions:

• Find shelter in a building or vehicle.

• Stay low.
• Put down any metal objects you are carrying (e.g., umbrellas).
• Avoid trees, tall objects, power lines, metal (including fences), and water.
• Find a low-lying area, but watch out for flooding.
• If you are in a group, spread out.
• If you feel your hair standing on end or a tingling sensation, lightning may be about to
strike. Make yourself as small a target as possible, and minimize your contact with the
ground. Drop to your knees, bend forward, and put your head between your knees.
Place your hands on your legs or head. DO NOT ever lie flat.
The following tips can protect you during rainstorms:

• Wear proper protective gear.

• Be careful walking, since surfaces may become slippery.
• Be aware of potential submerged hazards (such as power lines).
• Watch for lightning.
• Avoid working at heights.

Practice these tips to remain safe when driving during rainstorms (refer to Chapter 12,
Vehicle and Transportation Hazards, for more details):

• If you are in a car, remain in the car until the storm passes.
• Do not touch any metal objects in the car, if possible.
• Keep the car windows closed.
• Use extra caution and reduce your speed.
• If visibility is severely reduced, pull off the road to a safe distance, making sure you do
not stop near tall objects such as trees or poles that can blow down or attract lightning.
• Avoid driving on roads covered by water. Water can be deeper than anticipated or hide
potholes and other hazards.
• If spray from an oncoming vehicle blinds you, hold the wheel firmly and do not brake.
Be prepared to brake when the windshield clears.
• Remember that the roads will be slick because of the rain.

Following are tasks that process technicians might need to perform at the process facility:

• Maintain lightning arresters.

• Be prepared for power outages.
• Check for water buildup in critical areas such as dikes or containment walls.
• Make sure there are no rainwater leaks in facility roofs and coverings.
230 Chapter 13

• In sustained, heavy rains, you might need to place certain equipment controls in manual
mode as per procedure; instrumentation can be affected and give false readings.
• Some facilities require that drums be stored on their side to prevent water accumulation
during heavy rains.

Extreme Temperature Events

Process technicians must often work in extreme temperatures, either very hot or very cold.
Both pose dangers not only to people, but also equipment and facilities (Figure 13.6).

Figure 13.6 Extreme tempera-

tures pose dangers to people,
equipment, and facilities.
CREDIT: (left) Maciej Bledowski/Shutter-
stock. (right) Evgenii mitroshin/Shutterstock.

Hot Weather
Hot weather is characterized by high temperatures (often over 100 degrees Fahrenheit
[37.8 degrees Celsius]). Some areas experience high humidity (moisture in the air) along
with heat. Lack of rainfall can produce drought conditions and periods of low humidity.
A heat wave is a prolonged period of extremely hot temperatures and high humidity. The
heat index, given in degrees Fahrenheit, indicates how hot it feels when relative humidity
is combined with the air temperature. If a person is exposed to full sunlight, the heat index
can increase by as much as 15 degrees Fahrenheit (8.3 degrees Celsius).
The human body keeps cool by sweating. High humidity can reduce the amount of
sweat evaporation. This makes working outdoors dangerous, because it is harder for the
body to cool itself in humid conditions. Overheating can result in harmful conditions such
as heat cramps, fainting, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke. Chapter 7, Pressure, Temperature,
and Radiation Hazards, covers these conditions in more detail.

Hot Weather Preparedness

Several important tips, when practiced, can protect you during hot weather:

• Wear protective sunglasses.

• When working outdoors, pace yourself.
• Stay indoors if possible, or if working outdoors take frequent breaks inside.
• Use a fan to help your body remove sweat.
• Avoid becoming dehydrated.
• Drink plenty of water. Drink regularly and often, even if you do not feel thirst.
• Water is best to drink. If you are working outside and sweating a lot, or if the
­temperature and heat index are elevated, you can also drink a sports drink. Avoid
caffeinated drinks.
• Eat small meals, and eat more often.
• Avoid foods high in protein.
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 231

• Do not use salt tablets unless directed to by medical personnel.

• Use sunscreen to protect against sunburn and skin cancer.
• Make sure equipment is properly maintained to prevent overheating. Check for wear
from heat or sunlight.
• Be careful when driving (heat on the road can cause tire problems).

Processes and equipment also can be affected by hot weather:

• Equipment can easily reach its engineering limitations.

• Humidity and evaporation can affect equipment and processes.
• Cooling towers, fans, and other similar devices might not be as efficient.
• It can be difficult to maintain proper pressures.
• Metal parts can swell and equipment can expand.
• Blocked-in lines and vessels can rupture.

Snowstorms and Cold Weather

Snow, like rain, is a form of precipitation. Snow is water falling from clouds in the form of
ice crystals joined together as snowflakes. A snowstorm combines snow and/or sleet with
cold temperatures and winds. Cold weather can involve temperatures at or below freezing,
ice, snow, winds, and freezing rain.
Wind chill is the combined effect of wind and temperature. Wind chill is important to
know, especially its effect on exposed skin. When wind chill is a factor, make sure to wear
the proper clothing and limit your time in the weather, if possible.
A blizzard is a dangerous snowstorm (Figure 13.7), with the following conditions:

• Low temperatures
• Winds blowing over 35 mph (56.3 kph)
• Visibility of one-quarter mile or less
• A duration of three hours or more
• Heavy snowfall
• Blowing snow

Figure 13.7 Blizzards can

produce avalanches and other
dangerous conditions.
CREDIT: NaniP/Shuttersock.

A winter storm watch is issued if a winter storm is possible in the specified area. A bliz-
zard warning is issued when strong winds, blinding wind-driven snow, and dangerous wind
chill are headed for the specified area.
232 Chapter 13

Snowstorm and Cold Weather Hazards

The following hazards can be produced by snowstorms and cold weather:

• Exposure, or hypothermia, in which the body fails to maintain heat

• Frostbite, an extreme condition in which flesh freezes
• Snow depth (drifts or banks of deep snow)
• Snow weight (piled up on objects, potentially causing damage)
• Wet conditions
• Dangerous driving conditions
• Ice
• Winds

See Chapter 7, Pressure, Temperature, and Radiation Hazards, for hypothermia and frostbite.

Snowstorm and Cold Weather Preparedness

Be aware of the following hazardous working conditions that may occur during freezing
weather:

• Icing of platforms and stairways

• Icicles forming on equipment
• Skin contact with frozen metal
• Water and steam leaks due to damaged equipment
• Plugging of piping or equipment by frozen liquids

Practice these tips to help you prepare for snowstorms and cold weather:

• Follow the advice of local officials about preparations

• Check local weather reports for updated storm information (e.g., TV, radio, internet)
• Make sure vehicle fuel tanks are filled
• Be alert to current weather conditions
• Make sure emergency supplies are well stocked. A supply of blankets is important.
­Battery-operated flashlights and radios are critical items to have, along with fresh
batteries
• Do not travel to damaged areas

If working outdoors, observe the following precautions:

• Avoid overexertion.
• Wear appropriate clothing and minimize the exposure of skin. Several layers of
­lightweight clothing are better than one single heavy coat.
• Gloves and a hat are vital.
• Cover your mouth to protect your lungs.
• Move to stay warm.
• Keep clothing dry. Wet clothing can transfer heat away from the body 240 times faster
than dry clothing.
• Walk carefully to avoid slipping and falling.

These tasks may be necessary at the process facility:

• Keep snow and ice from accumulating on equipment.

• Make sure equipment is properly maintained to prevent freezing.
• Check that process fluids (e.g., heating oil) do not solidify at lower temperatures.
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 233

• Block, drain, and blind unused water lines.

• Check steam traps and service lines.
• Drain rod pumps and other equipment.
• Drain out-of-service steam lines and equipment, and remove condensation.
• Block off instrument leads for equipment that is to be steam-purged, then check for
condensation.
• Use bypass lines or open drains for adequate flow of water lines in service (but be aware
that even a flowing line can freeze).

Earthquake
An earthquake occurs when the earth trembles and moves, resulting from a sudden Earthquake a shaking and moving
of the earth resulting from a sudden
­movement of rock beneath the surface (geologic stress) (Figure 13.8). Earthquakes can cause shift of rock beneath the surface
damage through ground motion (shaking), ground failure (landslides), fires, ruptured dams, (geologic stress).
damaged pipes, tsunamis, and so on. Ground motion is the most dominant force and causes
widespread damage.

PLATE MOVEMENT
Figure 13.8 A. Earthquakes
Transform
occur when the earth trembles
and shifts because of sudden
movements in the rock beneath
the surface. B. Debris from 2011
Fukushima Japan earthquake and
tsunami.
Divergent
CREDIT: A. Designua/Shutterstock.
B. Smallcreative/Shutterstock.

Convergent

A. B.

The point where an earthquake starts is called the epicenter. The intensity of the ground
shaking diminishes as it radiates out from the epicenter through the earth. Earthquakes
can be followed by smaller ones, called aftershocks, after the main quake. In a few cases,
­foreshocks occur before the main quake.
Earthquakes occur around the world on a daily basis, but most can be felt only by
measurement instrumentation (called a seismometer or seismograph). In the United States,
California and Alaska have experienced numerous earthquakes, although the incidence of
earthquakes in other states has been increasing. The size of an earthquake is referred to as
its magnitude, measured using the Richter scale (Table 13.3).

Table 13.3 Richter Scale Values for Earthquakes

Magnitude Potential Effect
2.5 or less May not be felt, but can be recorded by a seismometer
2.5 to 5.4 May be felt, but results in only minor damage
5.5 to 6.0 Can cause slight damage to property
6.1 to 6.9 Can cause damage in populated areas
7.0 to 7.9 Serious damage (major earthquake)
8.0 or greater Major destruction (great earthquake)
234 Chapter 13

For each whole-number increase on the scale, the amount of ground motion goes up by
a factor of 10. A magnitude 5 earthquake results in 10 times the amount of ground motion
caused by a magnitude 4 earthquake, while a magnitude 7 earthquake is 1000 times more
motion than a magnitude 4.

Earthquake Hazards
Earthquakes create a variety of hazards:

• Damage to equipment and buildings

• Falling debris
• Cracks in the earth
• Landslides and mudslides
• Destruction of roadways and railways
• Damaged pipes (e.g., gas, water)
• Downed power lines
• Fires and explosions
• Tidal waves (tsunamis)
• Ruptured dams

Earthquake Preparedness
Scientists study where earthquakes are likely to occur, but there is no reliable way to predict
when one will occur at a specific location. The following tips will help you prepare for an
earthquake:

• Follow the instructions of local officials about preparations.

• Check local reports for updated earthquake information (e.g., TV, radio, internet).
• Make sure emergency supplies are well stocked. Battery-operated flashlights and radios
are critical items to have, along with fresh batteries.
• Identify a place in your various work areas you can use to protect yourself, such as
under a sturdy table or desk, or against an inside wall. You should never be more than
a few steps from cover.
• Remember “Drop, Cover, and Hold On.” During an earthquake, drop under a sturdy
desk or table, hold on, and protect your eyes by pressing your face against your arm.
If there is no desk or table, sit on the floor against an interior wall away from windows,
loose items, and tall objects that can fall on you.
• If you are outdoors, go to a spot away from buildings, trees, power lines, and tall objects.
Drop to the ground.
• If you are in a vehicle, make sure to stop in a clear area (see above) and remain in the
car until the shaking stops.
• Use the telephone only to report major emergencies.
• Use flashlights instead of candles or open flames, in case of ruptured gas lines.
• Do not travel to damaged areas.
• Be aware that pipelines can rupture.

Earthquakes can affect processes and equipment in the following ways:

• Process fluids can slosh, and their flow can be interrupted during the quake.
• Incorrect instrumentation readings can occur (e.g., levels, gauges, vibration monitors)
due to the seismic activity.
• Towers can sway.
 Natural Disasters and Inclement Weather 235

• Equipment can topple.

• Materials can shift and fall.

13.2 Government Agencies and Aid

Organizations
The OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) 1910.119 regulation addresses emergency
planning and response. For process facilities, emergency planning and response can include
natural disaster plans.
A number of government agencies and aid organizations address natural disaster,
inclement weather, and preparedness planning:

• National Weather Service (NWS)

• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
• United States Geological Survey (USGS)
• OSHA
• American Red Cross
• State and local emergency management agencies

You can also find weather-related information from local news stations (e.g., TV and
radio), publications, and the internet.

Summary
Process facilities operate around the clock all year long, through extreme temperatures. Process technicians must be familiar
all types of weather. Process technicians in those facilities are with the hazards that each of these situations may pose to the
expected to work in all weather conditions, whether good specific unit and to the facility. When a weather-related watch
or bad. Despite cold or hot temperatures, during inclement or warning has been declared locally, weather conditions
weather conditions such as rain, wind, ice, or storms such as should be monitored to ensure safety of staff and equipment.
hurricanes and tornadoes, process technicians have a responsi- Process technicians are responsible to be conscientious
bility to be prepared to follow the procedures for their facility learners during initial safety training at their facility and to
to keep it running as efficiently and safely as possible. know who should be contacted with questions, whether it be
Some of the more serious conditions a process technician an immediate superior or a safety officer at the site. Process
may encounter include hurricanes, tornadoes, high winds, technicians must stay current with changes in procedures at
hail, heavy rains, lightning, flooding, earthquakes, and their site, and always: “Be prepared.”

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 2. A tropical storm is upgraded to a hurricane when its
a. Earthquake sustained winds reach _______ mph or higher.
b. Flood 3. When is a hurricane warning issued?
c. Hurricane a. When hurricane conditions are possible within the
d. Storm surge next 36 hours
e. Tornado b. When hurricane conditions are possible within the
next 24 hours
f. Warning
c. When a hurricane is expected within the next 36 hours
g. Watch
d. When a hurricane is expected within the next 24 hours
236 Chapter 13

4. What part of the world experiences the most tornadoes? 10. To determine the distance you are from lightning, count
a. Asia the number of seconds between the flash of lightning
and when you hear the sound of thunder, then divide
b. California
this number by ____ to get the distance in miles.
c. Canada
a. 2
d. The United States
b. 1
5. What is the top wind speed listed for an F5 tornado? c. 60
a. 74 mph (119 kph) d. 5
b. 260 mph (418.4 kph)
11. List four conditions of a blizzard.
c. 318 mph (511.8 kph)
12. Earthquakes are measured in magnitude, using the
d. There is no top speed.
_______ scale.
6. List four factors that affect flooding. a. Fujita
7. How many feet/meters of flood water does it take to b. Richter
float a car? c. Seismic
a. At least 5 feet (1.5 meters) d. Bernoulli
b. At least 3 feet (0.9 meters)
13. Tidal waves (tsunamis) can be generated from what
c. At least 2 feet (0.6 meters) natural phenomenon?
d. At least 4 feet (1.2 meters) a. Mudslide
8. Lightning can generate heat up to ___________ degrees b. Earthquake
Fahrenheit. c. Flash flood
9. Hearing thunder can be a warning for what type of d. Avalanche
­life-threatening hazard?
14. What is the name of the regulation that addresses
a. Rain ­emergency planning and response?
b. Lightning
c. Sleet
d. Flooding

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. In small groups, watch different disaster videos and 3. Role play with a group of fellow students, discussing
make a report to the class on what you saw. The report how you would prepare emergency plans for the XYZ
should include a description of the cause of the disaster, Corp. to either continue operations during, or resume
the effects of the disaster, and what preparation might operations after, a hurricane.
have been done for each disaster.

2. Make a list of potential disasters and weather-related

hazards in your area. Create a set of emergency
­preparedness plans for each one.
Chapter 14
Physical Security
and Cybersecurity
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of physical security and cybersecurity in the process
industries, which can affect people, facilities, resources, information, and computers.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
14.1 Identify physical and cybersecurity vulnerabilities in the process
industries:
Terrorist organizations and hostile nation-states
Insiders
Criminal elements. (NAPTA Safety, Security 1*) p. 238
14.2 Describe the nature of threats to physical security and cybersecurity:
Terrorist threats and acts
Workplace violence
Criminal acts
Industrial espionage. (NAPTA Safety, 1) p. 241
14.3 Describe the activities involved with maintaining physical security in
these areas:
Access and perimeter
Site security plan
Protecting access badges
Transportation workers’ identification credentials (TWIC) operations
Communications
Personnel. (NAPTA Safety, Security 2) p. 246
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here
in abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Security 1)” means that this chapter’s
objective 1 relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety with regard to physical
security and cybersecurity.

237
238 Chapter 14

14.4 Describe the tasks associated with protecting electronic information

through sound cybersecurity practices, including the following:
Password protection
Malicious software or malware. (NAPTA Safety, Security 3) p. 250
14.5 Describe the government regulations that address physical security
and cybersecurity. (NAPTA Safety, Site Security 4) p. 256

Key Terms
Cyber—relating to computers and computing items, such as data, the internet, and
computer networks, p. 238.
Cyber attack—an attack against information, computers, and communication
systems, to cause harm, steal information, disrupt productivity, or take control
of a computer system, p. 245.
Hostile nation-state—a country that poses a threat to other countries, p. 241.
Insider—a person inside a company who causes harm, either intentionally or
unintentionally, p. 241.
Malware—computer programs developed to cause intentional harm, p. 254.
Networked—linked together, as in two or more computers sharing data, programs,
and resources such as printers and scanners, p. 251.
Program—computer software (sometimes called an application), p. 254.
Risk—a combination of vulnerabilities and threats, p. 246.
Terrorist—a radical person who uses terror as a weapon to control others, p. 241.
Threat—a potential event that could result in harm to either people or property; an
individual or a group that will harm people or property, p. 241.
Vulnerability—a weakness, or “hole” in a defense system, p. 246.

14.1 Introduction
The process industries face external and internal threats to physical security (e.g., p
­ eople,
facilities) and cybersecurity (e.g., information, computers). Process technicians must
­understand the nature of these threats, recognize them, and understand the impact on
­themselves and the plant or facility for which they work.

Physical Security and Cybersecurity

Overview
The process industries face a wide range of threats to security, many that have become
prominent only within recent years (e.g., terrorism and computer hacking). These threats
are called security hazards and include a hazard or threat from a person or group seeking to
intentionally harm people, computer resources, or other vital assets. Threats can take many
forms, but they typically fall into one of two categories:

• Physical security threats, such as those to people, equipment, products, and facilities
(e.g., pipelines, control centers, and other vital areas).
• Cybersecurity threats, such as those to information, computer, and communication
Cyber relating to computers and
computing items, such as data, the resources. Cyber is a term that relates to computing and computing-related items, such
internet, and computer networks. as data, computer networks, and the internet.
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 239

The process industries provide vital products and services to meet a variety of critical
needs for everyday life, such as:

• Electricity generation and nuclear power

• Food manufacturing
• Oil and gas production
• Chemical manufacturing
• Water treatment
• Pharmaceuticals.

If the production of these products or services was severely interrupted, such as in the
event of a terrorist attack, a country could be critically debilitated.
Many companies in the process industries are viewed as high-profile o ­ rganizations,
meaning the general populace recognizes their name, image, and reputation. Thus, c­ ompanies
in the process industries are prime targets from threats such as terrorists, h
­ ackers, hijackers,
blackmailers, and more.
Companies must take steps to protect themselves from threats, both external and i­ nternal,
using physical security and cybersecurity measures to safeguard assets and workers.

DDDRRR
There is a five-step process recommended by the DHS to determine vulnerabilities of a
­facility for physical and cybersecurity attacks. The five-step process uses these concepts that
have the abbreviation DDDRRR.
DDDRRR—Deterrence, Detection, Delay, Response, Recovery, and Re-evaluation.

• Deterrence—provides countermeasures such as policies, procedures, and devices to

­control and defend against attacks.
• Detection—early detection minimizes or prevents damage the attack is intended to cause.
• Delay—systems are put in place to slow down attacks giving time to bring resources to
bear to prevent or minimize damage.
• Response—this requires human involvement in the earliest possible stage of an attack.
This concept is partnered with Detection and Delay and is intended to cause the exact
resources needed to be brought to bear at the earliest moment of an attack.
• Recovery and Re-evaluation
■■ Recovery—this concept is based on redundant systems, multiple production l­ ocations
and multiple sources of supply for physical assets. Cyber asset recovery is based
on multiple data storage sites, limited access to sensitive software and intellectual
property, and the “piece-meal” storage of sensitive data so not all the “treasure” is
available at one place and at one time.
■■ Re-evaluation—no protective system can be “perfect” or as close to perfection as
­possible without exercising it. Drills highlight shortcomings. Also, real attacks, how-
ever damaging, must be reviewed in the context of how well precautions succeeded in
thwarting the attack and what improvements are evident because of the attack.

STEP ONE. DETERRENCE—MODEL A SECURE FACILITY The perfect secure facility is

able to conduct business without compromising any aspect of the business (quality, on-time
delivery, competitive pricing, etc.) while being secure enough to thwart any type of attack.
Secure facilities have these attributes in common:

• Employees know who is supposed to be in their workplace and are trained to challenge
anyone who does not appear to belong in their workplace. That is, employees are taught
to take ownership of their surroundings and guard it as if their jobs and lives depends
upon it (because they do).
240 Chapter 14

• PPPP (Prescreening Prevents Problem Personnel)—A rigorous hiring procedure is

­followed, the purpose of which is to hire only people who have nothing in their back-
ground that is suspect and are fully educated to learn quickly what they need to know
to accomplish the daily tasks assigned to them. These employees are taught to be proud
of their workplace and “own it” in the sense that they guard it by challenging those who
do not appear to belong in their workplace.
• “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket”—Secure facilities can make the same product
at multiple sites and have multiple sources of the same raw materials. This concept
­prevents one successful attack at one site from destroying the company’s ability to
­provide a product for any extended period of time.
• Ensure that employees are trained to keep their ID badges safe and to question the
­presence of anyone in their work area who is a stranger to them. For example, g
­ uardhouse
employees should be trained to recognize a forged or falsified Transportation Worker
Identification Credential, also known as TWIC®, in order to prevent entry to the plant
by unauthorized persons. The TWIC® card is required by the Maritime Transportation
Security Act for workers who need access to secure areas of maritime facilities and
vessels.
• “Inventory is not necessarily bad”—The concept of minimizing inventory and thus
­reducing costs has become tempered with the knowledge that interruption of ­production,
coupled with low inventory, can lead customers to look elsewhere for more dependable
suppliers. Inventory stored off-site, sufficient to supply key customers for 4 to 6 weeks
in the event of a successful attack, has become a concept of secure facilities.
• Cyber attacks cannot succeed if no significant quantity of information can be destroyed
or accessed at one place and at one time. Secure companies do not keep all their
resources—technology, recipes, customer lists, customer specifications, quality tests,
key employee names, and financial data—in one location.

STEP TWO. DETECTION—GAP ANALYSIS After step one is completed, assess the f­ acility
to determine where it does not match the secure facility model from step one. Create a
timetable with assigned responsibilities to resolve shortcomings. Ensure those assigned
responsibility for resolution of shortcomings have the resources and authority to resolve
the shortcomings in a reasonable time period.

STEP THREE. DELAY—GAP CLOSURE This is the “drill” step. Conduct table top drills
with a likely threat scenario and exercise the preventive measures put into place from step
two. The best table top drill is managed by an independent third party who is familiar
with threats, physical and cyber, and who has been given the facility’s preventive measures
intended to prevent threats. Shortcomings from this exercise are resolved in the same m
­ anner
as described in step two.
The next drill should be a staged actual attempt to breach physical and cyber barriers
by an independent third party. This step is similar to a “war game” exercise “played” in the
military. Shortcomings from this exercise are resolved as described in step two.

STEP FOUR. RESPONSE—ONGOING MANAGEMENT OF THE FACILITY’S SITE

­SECURITY PLAN This step maintains safeguards and periodically exercises these
­safeguards by one or more drills as described in step three.

STEP FIVE. RECOVERY/RE-EVALUATION—PLAN REVISIONS AND UPDATES This

step recognizes the fact that key personnel change, customers come and go, and that
­technology becomes obsolete and is replaced with new technology. Periodically, the
facility’s ­security plan must be reviewed to ensure (1) personnel are trained in the plan,
(2) the plan is ­protecting what it should be protecting, and (3) protective measures are not
obsolete.
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 241

Threats to Process Industries

Different individuals and groups of individuals can pose threats to the process industries.
A lone person can bring a gun to work and start shooting. A hacker can access and steal
sensitive information. A terrorist group can plant a bomb or release biological agents.
An unknown person can extort a company by tampering with products.
The following are some general descriptions of individuals or groups that can threaten
the physical security or cybersecurity of a company in the process industries:

• Terrorists and/or terrorist organizations—radicals that use terror as a weapon. They Terrorist a radical person who uses
use force and violence, typically against civilians and property, to achieve political or terror as a weapon to control others.
ideological objectives. Terrorists aim to create fear and panic, trying to intimidate or
threaten the public and seeking publicity for their cause. They attempt to convince the
public that their government is powerless to prevent terrorism.
• Hostile nation-states—a nation-state is a sovereign territory in which most of the Hostile nation-state a country
­citizens are united by common language, ideology, or descent. A hostile nation-state is that poses a threat to other countries.
one that is belligerent (hostile) to other countries near it or around the world, posing a
threat to the general peace.
• Insiders—persons working within a company whose actions cause harm to that Insider a person inside a company
­company, its people, and its resources. These actions can be intentional or u ­ nintentional. who causes harm, either intentionally
or unintentionally.
Such actions can include spying, workplace violence, carrying out terrorist-related
­activities (e.g., gathering information for a terrorist group), leaking sensitive i­ nformation,
or even accidentally allowing outsiders access to a facility or resources.
• Criminal elements—a person or groups that break local, state, and/or federal laws for
profit or other reasons. Extortionists and hackers can be considered criminal
elements.

14.2 The Nature of Threats to Physical

Security and Cybersecurity
Along with the understanding that individuals or groups of individuals can pose threats,
process technicians should also recognize the nature of these threats. A threat is a potential Threat a perceived or suggested
event that could result in harm to either people or property (e.g., equipment, computers, and feeling or communication of intended
harm; an individual or a group that
information). For example, the threat could be a terrorist attack, criminal act, or workplace will harm people or property.
violence. A threat is often meant to exploit a known vulnerability.
A threat can be deliberate or accidental. A deliberate threat has a purpose behind it,
while an accidental threat is unintended. A kidnapping is a deliberate event, while someone
inadvertently erasing vital information from a computer is accidental.
The typical goals behind deliberate threats include the following:

• Harm to the safety and security of people

• Destruction or damage of critical facilities, resources, or equipment
• Theft or damage of vital equipment, important materials, or sensitive information, such
as intellectual property
• Demands (e.g., money, release of prisoners)
• Delivering a message or creating adverse publicity

Threats can take the form of a message from an individual or group, indicating intent to
inflict harm on people or property. The threat can be real or false. For example, someone may
phone in a bomb threat to a company, even though no bomb exists. Or a terrorist group can
announce an intended attack through a TV broadcast. Such threats can also include demands
to be met to avoid the threat being carried out.
242 Chapter 14

In broad terms, even bad weather can be a threat to physical security and ­cybersecurity.
For example, flooding can disrupt operations or lightning can damage computers with
­sensitive information. For more details on natural disasters, refer to Chapter 13, Natural
Disasters and Inclement Weather.
The following sections briefly describe a wide range of potential threats, but by no
means provide a complete list of all possible threats to the process industries.

Terrorist Attacks
Terrorism aims to maximize the fear produced by an attack. A terrorist attack could include
multiple coordinated threats such as biological, chemical, or nuclear attacks.

Biological Attack
A release of a biological agent, such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins (see Chapter 4, Recogniz-
ing Biological Hazards for more details), can injure or kill people, animals (e.g., livestock), or
crops. Anthrax and smallpox are two biological agents. Biological agents can be dispersed
in the following ways:

• Aerosols, or spraying them in the air as a fine mist, or releasing spores (that may look
like a dust) that can potentially drift for miles. Inhaling the biological agent can cause
disease in people or animals. Crops can also be affected.
• Animals, by turning loose infected animals that can carry the disease to humans.
­Animals such as mice, fleas, and mosquitoes can be potential carriers of diseases.
• Person-to-person, if an infected person deliberately exposes himself or herself to other
people. People can spread diseases such as smallpox and the plague.
• Contamination of food and/or water, by placing a biological agent in food or water
supplies, causing harm to anyone ingesting them.
• Packages with biological agents sent through the mail.

Chemical Attack
A chemical attack can release poisonous materials in solid, liquid, or gas form, causing toxic
effects on people, animals, or plants (see Chapter 3, Recognizing Chemical Hazards for more
details). Hazardous chemicals can be dispersed in a variety of ways, including bombs, sprays
from aircraft or other vehicles, or as released liquids. Chemical agents may have no taste or
odor. Toxic effects can be immediate (within seconds) or delayed (over several days). Even
though chemical agents are potentially deadly, they are hard to deliver in lethal concentra-
tions and difficult to produce.
Chemical hazards come in different forms:

• Pulmonary agents (lung-damaging) such as phosgene

• Blistering agents, such as mustard gas
• Nerve agents, such as sarin or VX
• Riot-control agents, such as tear gas

Some chemical agents also cause incapacitation, induce vomiting, or affect the blood.
Chemical agents can potentially be sent through the mail.

Nuclear or Radiological Attack

With more countries building nuclear weapons than ever before, there is a possibility that a
terrorist group or hostile nation-state can use a nuclear weapon. Nuclear explosions cause
extensive devastation by generating an extensive blast, blinding light, extreme heat, radia-
tion and fallout, shockwaves, and fires. Fallout can be carried on air currents for hundreds
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 243

Did You Know?

Anthrax is a serious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis,
a bacterium that forms tiny spores that can be ingested,
inhaled, or injected. After the attack on the World Trade
Center on September 11, 2001, terrorist organizations
waged a biological attack and began mailing these spores
to key public officials with the intent of ­incapacitating or
killing the recipient.
CREDIT: Inked Pixels/Shutterstock.

of miles. Terrorists would favor using a smaller-sized nuclear bomb, called a “suitcase”
weapon, because of its compact size.
A more likely scenario than a nuclear explosion is the use of a radiological ­dispersion
device (or “dirty bomb”), built by combining conventional explosives with radioactive
materials. Such a device would be easier for a terrorist group to construct than obtaining a
nuclear weapon. The explosion of such a device would scatter radioactive particles into the
air currents, dispersing them over a large area (Figure 14.1). Factors that affect the success
of such a device are the amount of radioactive materials used and wind conditions. A ter-
rorist group could also target radioactive materials, used in various forms throughout most
process industries, for theft.

Figure 14.1 Radioactive

damage can close a facility
permanently.
CREDIT: Brad Sauter/Shutterstock.

Nuclear weapons detonated in the atmosphere also create an effect called an

e­ lectromagnetic pulse (EMP) that is a high-density electrical field. An EMP can damage
­electronic devices connected to power sources or antennas, such as computers, c­ ommunication
­systems, electrical appliances, vehicle ignition systems, and other similar devices.

Explosions and Bombings

A person or a group can plant explosives to harm people, buildings, and equipment. A bomb
is an explosive device; it typically consists of a container filled with an explosive material
and is designed to cause damage. Bombs are typically triggered by a clock, remote control,
or sensor (e.g., contact, pressure) (Figure 14.2). Bombs can be any of the following types:

• Conventional—uses chemical explosives to cause destruction.

• Dispersive—uses explosives to spread materials such as chemicals or radioactive
­substances, or shrapnel.
• Nuclear—creates an atomic explosion and radioactive fallout.
244 Chapter 14

Figure 14.2 A bomb is

an explosive device (typically
­triggered by a clock, remote
­control, or sensor) designed to
cause damage.
CREDIT: Fer Gregory/Shutterstock.

Bombs are a central part of a terrorist’s arsenal. Terrorists usually build custom-made
bombs, using different designs and explosives to maximize the terror caused.
The most likely event to occur in a process industries setting is a bomb threat. All bomb
threats must be treated seriously and appropriate actions taken. Bombs can potentially be
sent through the mail.

Kidnapping
Kidnapping involves an individual or group taking a person against that person’s will. The
person is held captive, either for ransom (money or other demands) or to make a political or
ideological statement. A person could also be forced to reveal sensitive information, such as
trade secrets, for use in committing another crime.

Hijacking
Hijacking involves an individual or group stopping a vehicle in transit, and taking control
of it by force. All types of vehicles (e.g., trucks, cars, boats, and aircraft) have been hijacking
targets. The hijacking can be for criminal or terrorist purposes. For example, a truck can be
hijacked so that its cargo can be stolen. Or, a helicopter could be hijacked and forced to fly
terrorists to an offshore oil facility (Figure 14.3).

Figure 14.3 Hijacking is the

act of taking control of a vehicle
by force.
CREDIT: Mark and Anna Photography/
Shutterstock.
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 245

Cyber Attack
A cyber attack is when an individual or group targets computer or communication systems Cyber attack an attack against
to gain sensitive information or cause damage. Targets of cyber attacks can include critical information, computers, and
communication systems, to cause
infrastructures for power systems, financial systems, process control systems, or confidential harm, steal information, disrupt
information. productivity, or take control of a
computer system.

Assassination
Assassination involves killing an important person, which is most often a political figure.
The assassination can be related to ideological or political reasons, or for money (Figure 14.4).

Figure 14.4 Assassination

involves the killing of an impor-
tant person.
CREDIT: Rattanapon Ninlapoom/
Shutterstock.

Other Threats
Workplace Violence
Workplace violence is a rapidly growing crime. Workplace violence can take many forms,
including assault with a weapon (typically a gun) or physical violence (i.e., no weapon
is involved). It can have many motivations. Workplace violence, often due to despair or
depression, can be triggered by downsizing, termination, conflict with a boss or coworker,
or personal problems.
Gunfire—One or more individuals can shoot at people or property with guns
(e.g., ­pistols, rifles, shotguns, or automatic weapons). The most likely cause of a shooting
in a process industries setting is workplace violence (Figure 14.5). A laid-off or distraught
worker can bring a gun to work to cause damage to property or to individuals. A terrorist
attack on a facility, although not likely, could result in gunfire.

Figure 14.5 The most likely

cause of a shooting in a process
industries setting is workplace
violence.
CREDIT: Nata-Lia/Shutterstock.
246 Chapter 14

Companies can use metal detectors, security guards, controlled entries, and other such
methods for reducing gunfire hazards. Companies can also implement policies that prohibit
weapons from being brought onto company property.

Industrial Espionage
Industrial espionage is spying, done for commercial reasons instead of national security
purposes. An individual, group, or even a government can be seeking proprietary informa-
tion from a company, such as trade secrets, inventions, stock-related information, or b
­ usiness
processes. Information can fall into one of three types: public, private, and confidential.
Industrial espionage typically targets confidential information. A variety of methods are
used to obtain information: computer hacking, coercing a person who has been trusted with
the information, or breaking into secured areas and stealing it. Companies often implement
policies that require their employees to sign a nondisclosure agreement.

Extortion and Blackmail

An individual or a group can threaten to inflict harm on a person or company, unless a
demand is met (e.g., for money, goods, services, behavior, or action). This is called extortion
or blackmail. The threatened harm could be against a person or people, property, or even
­reputation. For example, a person could threaten to tamper with a company’s products unless
given money. Or a group could threaten to detonate a bomb unless prisoners are released.

Sabotage
Sabotage involves the deliberate damage, or even destruction, of equipment or systems, in
order to limit or halt operations of a facility. The facility’s operations usually perform a vital
task, such as provide power or water, create chemicals or oil products, supply food, and
so on. For the most effective results, sabotage usually involves explosives, but not always.
A facility can be the target of an attack; even something as simple as a threat can at least
temporarily disrupt operations.

14.3 Countering Threats

Risk a combination of vulnerabilities Security, whether it is physical or cyber, is about managing risk. Risk is a combination of
and threats. vulnerability plus threat. Vulnerability is a weakness, or “hole” in a defense. A threat is an
Vulnerability a weakness, or “hole” individual or a group that could harm people or property. A threat could also be a natural
in a defense system. threat, such as a disaster or accident. For example, a vulnerability might be a computer
system without adequate security, and the threat could be a hacker looking to steal
­confidential information. Or another type of vulnerability is a facility with an unsecured
perimeter that allows unrestricted access, for which the threat could be a terrorist group
planning an attack.
Companies address security issues by minimizing risk, which means reducing
­vulnerabilities and countering threats. Companies analyze their vulnerabilities and potential
threats, then typically develop threat response plans to counter any physical or cybersecurity
issues. Threat response plans assess the level of risk and describe the processes and proce-
dures for reducing or eliminating threat.
A company’s emergency plans address what responses and actions will need to occur
in a wide range of crisis situations. Continuity and resumption plans define the steps
a ­company should take to reduce the impact of a crisis or emergency, ensuring that the
­business resumes normal operations as soon as possible. Your company will notify you
of these plans, including emergency communication information, and train you on vital
­elements of the plans as necessary.
In response to coordinated terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, a system for alerting
the public about terrorist threats was established. It was a color-coded system (green, blue,
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 247

yellow, orange, red), in which green indicated a very low risk of terrorist attack and red
indicated a severe risk of terrorist attack. This system did not prove effective. There were so
many reports of “yellow” alert that the public soon began to pay no attention to the system.
In 2011 the Department of Homeland Security replaced the color-coded alerts of the HSAS
with the National Terrorism Advisory System (NTAS). The NTAS now uses a series of bul-
letins and alerts to inform the public. It provides specific and detailed information using
multiple delivery methods, such as mainstream media (television, radio) and the internet
(email, text messaging, etc.). Information about the NTAS can be found at the Department
of Homeland Security website.

Signs of Potential Terrorist Activity

Following are the seven signs of potential terrorist activity:

• Surveillance—monitoring or recording activities at potential targets

• Elicitation—gathering information, usually from people “in the know,” about operations,
capabilities, and people
• Tests of security—attempting to measure reaction times to security breaches, and assess-
ing strengths and weaknesses
• Acquiring supplies—buying or stealing explosives, weapons, uniforms, badges, access
cards and other necessary materials
• Suspicious persons—people that do not seem to belong (“out of place”) in the environ-
ment they are in
• Trial run—holding a “run-through” of the plan without actually committing the attack
• Deploying assets—placing people and supplies in place to commit the attack; this is the
last chance to alert authorities before the attack happens

Physical Security
Physical security involves putting measures in place that will safeguard personnel and
­others (e.g., the surrounding community). Physical security also aims to protect a company’s
critical resources, such as equipment and materials, from unauthorized access, to prevent
these resources from being harmed or stolen (Figure 14.6).

Figure 14.6 Physical security

is used to protect a company’s
critical resources. A. Fencing is
a routine but important means
of protecting a facility. B. Barrier
gates and guardhouses are an
additional layer of security for a
plant.
CREDIT: A. J.D.S/Shutterstock.
B. Ken stocker/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Physical security monitors and protects resources through the following means:

• Access barriers (gates, fences, doors)

• Alarm and monitoring devices (sensors, cameras, motion detectors)
• Security forces (guard posts, patrols)
• Pass-protected door entries and gates
248 Chapter 14

Companies analyze vulnerabilities and threats to determine what must be protected,

how it must be protected, and to what level. Based on this analysis, physical security policies
and procedures are implemented to address the following five areas:

• Deterrence—discouraging or preventing access to a facility and certain areas within it.

Examples include fences, lighting, signs, and patrols.
• Detection—identifying threats to security. Examples include alarms, motion detectors,
and camera systems.
• Assessment—determining the nature of a threat and the potential threat level. Security
personnel usually review the threat and assess whether it is minor or major.
• Communications—informing appropriate personnel that a threat exists. Examples
include communications such as a process technician reporting a suspicious person to
security, an alarm going off, or a security guard monitoring a camera system.
• Response—acting on the threat. Examples include security guards responding, local
police being called, or evacuating a facility.

Physical security applies these four types of procedures to the following areas:

• Access and perimeter control

• Operations and procedures
• Communications
• Personnel

Access and Perimeter Control

The aim of access and perimeter control is to deny access to unauthorized people while
monitoring those authorized for access (Figure 14.7). The perimeter (surrounding property)
of a facility is typically secured. Fencing and gates can be used to restrict access to the facility,
with a limited number of access points (entry or exit). Barriers can be placed across roadways
to slow or stop incoming vehicles. Warning signs can be placed around the perimeter and
the facility.

Figure 14.7 Access and

perimeter controls are used to
deny access to unauthorized
people.
CREDIT: (Left to right) GOLFX/Shutter-
stock; Khongtham/Shutterstock; Lightkite/
Shutterstock.

Adequate lighting is important for good security and perimeter control. Alarms can
be used to monitor unauthorized access. Cameras, recorders, and other devices also can be
used to monitor a facility. Some critical areas might also have independent alarm systems to
monitor entry, including silent alarms.
Access points can be staffed with security personnel. Security personnel can monitor
access, making sure authorized people can enter or exit the facility while unauthorized
people are denied access. A facility could have measures such as photos IDs, access cards,
or passes to process and identify personnel, contractors, and visitors while on the property.
Additionally, workers might need keys or key cards to gain access to the facility or specific
areas in it.
Security personnel, using cameras, patrols and guard stations, can also conduct
­surveillance of the perimeter and facility to make sure no unauthorized people have entered
the facility.
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 249

Operations and Procedures

Physical security and cybersecurity affect a company’s operations. Monitoring is a key
­component of security that affects operations. It is vital that all employees be alert for any signs
of threats or suspicious behavior, and immediately report incidents to the proper personnel.
Physical security and cybersecurity measures can also affect operations by hampering
productivity. Lax security exposes vulnerabilities to threats and increases risk, but overly
tight security can impact operations through restricted access, excessive security policies and
procedures, and uneasy working conditions.
Threat response plans and emergency plans are also part of a company’s operations. Any
threats or potential disasters trigger the appropriate plan, and employees will be instructed
on specific actions to take. Certain employees may be asked to participate in threat response
planning and emergency planning as part of their job. Operations can also include drills
and training.

Communications
Communications are a vital element to both physical security and cybersecurity. U ­ p-to-date,
accurate information about threat situations must be communicated between different
­personnel. Process technicians must help security personnel by watching for potential threats
and reporting them through proper channels immediately (Figure 14.8). Their work can take
them all over a facility, letting them provide additional “eyes and ears” to identify potential
threats. Every process technician must diligently watch for threats, take any threat seriously,
and report threats immediately.

Figure 14.8 Process

t­echnicians must help ­security
personnel by watching for
potential threats and reporting
them through proper channels
immediately.
CREDIT: SeventyFour/Shutterstock.

Decision makers must analyze and determine identified threats. Management must
communicate threat responses and emergency plans to personnel. Communication systems
such as alarms, radios, phones, and other devices can keep all involved personnel updated
on threats and how to respond.

Personnel
People applying for jobs in the process industries may be subjected to a thorough ­background
check before being employed. This background screening can involve a variety of checks
(drug testing, criminal history, references, past employment, and credit history) to make sure
that only trustworthy and reliable people are hired.
Pre employment background checks are a vital element of physical security and
­cybersecurity measures. Such a screening can mitigate the threat from insiders. Insiders
can pose a high threat, since most physical and cybersecurity measures aim to prevent
­unauthorized access from outsiders, not authorized personnel.
250 Chapter 14

Disgruntled employees can be a source of damage to equipment and programs in

­process industries. Good management and supervision has a direct impact on this concern.

Practicing Good Physical Security

Process technicians must be constantly aware of their surroundings. The very nature of any
kind of attack depends upon surprise. There may be little or no warning before an attack.
All threats should be presumed real and reported immediately.
Process technicians must also be watchful for individuals behaving suspiciously around
the facility. A process technician should immediately report anyone observed acting in a
strange way. If the person seems to be out of place, it is better to report the individual than
run the risk of failing to stop a potential attack.
Anyone that is conducting surveillance must be reported. The person will appear to be
recording or monitoring activity around the facility. The person could be doing any of the
following:

• Taking notes
• Taking pictures
• Using binoculars, telescopes, or other similar objects
• Shooting video
• Drawing diagrams
• Marking a map, or counting off steps
• Loitering near the facility
• Observing people and vehicles come in and out of the facility

Someone might try to get vital information from the process technician that could be
used to plan an attack. This person could contact the process technician in person, over the
phone, via e-mail, and so on. The process technician must also report any stolen or missing
items, such as badges, uniforms, access cards, or parking passes. Someone could try to use
these to gain access to a facility.
Process technicians must know how to report potential threats and suspicious persons.
Immediate reporting is critical. Process technicians should be aware of the location of the
nearest communication device (e.g., radio and phone).
Process technicians should also know where emergency exits are located in relation
to where they are working. If working in an unfamiliar area, exits should be noted before
starting work.
During a threat situation or emergency, process technicians should follow all ­instructions
immediately, and remain calm.

14.4 Cybersecurity
Process technicians must understand that information, computing systems, and
­communications systems can be targets for attack as well as people and facilities. These
attacks are called cyber attacks. Cyber attacks can take different forms. Individuals or groups
can hack in and steal sensitive information, unleash a dangerous computer virus, take control
of a computer system, or affect the performance of a computer system (Figure 14.9). Criminal
elements can seek to profit from cyber attacks by selling or using confidential information.
Terrorists can use cyber attacks to damage critical resources such as power generation and
oil and gas production. Disgruntled employees can cause harm to important information
by altering or deleting it.
Cyber attacks can take different forms, such as the following:

• A direct attack from an outside source through a network (“hacking”)

• A physical attack against a computing or communication system
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 251

Figure 14.9 Cyber attacks

can destroy important electronic
equipment and data.
CREDIT: GlebSStock/Shutterstock.

• An attack from inside, from a person (or persons) trusted with access to the computing
or communication system (either intentional or accidental)

Many analysts believe that cyber attacks will become a new form of terrorist attack and
a new type of warfare that hostile nation-states can unleash Cyber attacks target the follow-
ing aspects of process facilities:

• Information
• Productivity and capability
• Control

Information
Information is a valuable asset for a company. Information can take many forms:

• Trade secrets
• Proprietary information
• Inventions and patent applications
• Employee records
• Financial data
• Forecasts
• Customer lists
• E-mail messages

In a company’s computer system, computers are usually networked, or linked together. Networked linked together, as in
The computer system can also be linked to the internet (and thus, the outside world). two or more computers sharing data,
programs, and resources such as
­Networked computers and internet access create an environment that allows external threats printers and scanners.
(e.g., hackers) to potentially access and misuse this information. Even insiders can cause
harm, whether maliciously or unintentionally.
It is critical that a company protect proprietary or sensitive information from u
­ nauthorized
access. A company must ensure that those with authorized access are t­ rustworthy. Computer
access and usage must also be monitored to ensure that information and the computer system
are not compromised.

Productivity and Capability

Cyber attacks can impact productivity by unleashing malicious software that causes c­ omputers
to behave erratically, important data to be erased, and computer networks to ­perform slowly.
This can significantly impact a company’s productivity and affect its ­capability to do business.
252 Chapter 14

Control
A cyber attack can impact physical security as well. Although most computer-based control
systems are isolated from access by the outside world (i.e., through the internet), some are
connected to an internal computer network that is connected to the outside world through
the internet. Potentially, a hacker could gain access to a facility’s critical control systems, then
shut down or modify process operations.

Cybersecurity Practices
Cybersecurity involves protecting information, computing systems, and communications
systems from unauthorized access, modification, or destruction.
Cybersecurity involves the following:

• Preventing unauthorized computer access (e.g., through passwords, computer

“fire walls”)
• Making sure those with access are trustworthy
• Monitoring computer access and usage
• Preventing physical threats (e.g., direct access to sensitive information and computer
networks)
• Safeguarding communication (e.g., cell phone and PDA protection)
• Keeping groups or individuals from using sensitive information and computer networks
to carry out physical threats (e.g., hacking into a pipeline monitoring network and t­ aking
control of the system)

Cybersecurity seeks to protect valuable information (e.g., trade secrets, financial data)
and capabilities (e.g., internet access, e-mail) from unauthorized access, either from e­ xternal
or internal sources. Cybersecurity also aims to protect information from unauthorized
changes or deletions. Cybersecurity policies and procedures allow a company to protect its
valuable information, computer systems, and communications systems.
Each company establishes its own policies and procedures for cybersecurity. However,
everyone in the company, including process technicians, are responsible for cybersecurity.
The actions of one person not following the company’s cybersecurity practices can jeopardize
the entire computer system. For example, the system can be compromised when a user does
not log off a computer or gives a password to a coworker.
Cybersecurity practices typically fall into one of the following four categories:

• Confidentiality—preventing unauthorized access to information

• Integrity—preventing unauthorized modification of information
• Availability—allowing authorized individuals to access information
• Accountability—establishing a record or trail of who accessed or modified information

Hackers can use spyware and other tools to intercept sensitive data sent over the internet
(e.g., through e-mail). Another hacker tool allows them to crack and steal passwords.
A variety of practices can be used to improve cybersecurity:

• Encryption—using special software that creates a code for disguising information

• Account lockout—locking out a user after a certain number of incorrect attempts to log
in to a network
• Password practices—creating strong, complicated passwords
• Network monitoring—checking user activity on their computers (e.g., visiting websites,
using e-mail, accessing files).
• Access devices—requiring someone to use a special device (called an access token) to
log in to a computer
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 253

• Biometrics—using fingerprints or retinal scans to identify a user (although not widely in

use by the process industries, companies can use them to control access to sensitive areas)
• Information classification—applying labels to information, such as “confidential” and
“sensitive”
• Backups—storing crucial data on removable media that can be placed in a safe
location

Cybersecurity threats can come from inside a company as well. Even coworkers should
not be trusted with your password. A disgruntled coworker who has access to your pass-
word can cause harm but make it look like your doing. A malicious insider can also be
looking to steal information or cause damage to vital data. An insider can attempt to sell
information, steal financial or customer records, or publicize confidential data. Some insiders
cause harm accidentally, meaning they did not intend to do anything wrong. For example,
they can accidentally delete or damage files, misuse equipment, spill drinks on computer
hardware, and so on.

The Internet
The internet is not anonymous, and a user’s activity can be traced. Also, remember that
e-mails and sensitive information can be intercepted. Malicious software can be hidden on
files that you download from the internet. Also, a company can monitor and log internet
activity as well as e-mail usage. An individual’s right to privacy does not apply if ­company
resources (e.g., computers, internet access, e-mail system, network) are used to send or
receive information.

Passwords
Many process technicians are required to use a computer as part of the job. You will most
likely need a user login and password to access the network. Protect your login and ­password.
If a hacker or coworker uses your password to access the network, he or she could harm
information, view inappropriate material over the internet, or send e-mails; computer usage
logs or records would make it appear that you did those things.
Following are some tips for protecting your password:

• Do not give your password to anyone.

• Do not write your password down.
• Do not use personal information as your password.
• Change your password often.
• Do not reply to e-mails that ask you to send your user name and password.

If you are allowed to set your own password, create a strong, complicated password
(see the recommendations below).
Hackers can use a tool called a password cracker to figure out passwords. Computer
users can make it easy on hackers by creating short, simple passwords with names, words
from the dictionary, no numbers, and so on. The password cracker can easily figure out such
passwords. A hacker who figures out a password can spy on the computer network, steal
other passwords, monitor activities, download important data, or erase files.
To create a strong, complicated password (and make it harder for a password cracker
to figure out) follow these tips:

• Use a combination of alphanumeric characters (letters and numbers).

• Do not use words from a dictionary, in any language.
• Use upper and lower case letters.
• Use at least 8 characters.
254 Chapter 14

• Use special characters and punctuation, such as #!.

• Substitute actual numbers for words, such as 2 for to or too, or 4 for four.
• Do not create a password consisting of only numbers.
• Check with your company’s IT area for rules about passwords.

Follow your company’s procedures for passwords. If allowed to create your own
­ assword, the best way to create a password is to use the “Phrase” method. Come up with a
p
phrase that has letters and numbers in it, along with upper or lower case, punctuation, and
special characters. Then, take the first letter of each word along with the numbers or special
characters or punctuation to create the password.
For example:

The phrase “Texas is one really great state!” becomes the password Ti1rgs!
The phrase “Kailey Alex is one password for me.” becomes the password KAi1pfm.
The phrase “A strong password helps me to be secure.” becomes the password Asphm2bs.
Once you have created a password phrase, do not remember the password, just the
phrase.

Viruses, Worms, and Other Malware

Malware computer programs Computer viruses, worms, and other types of malware (software developed to cause harm) are
developed to cause intentional harm.
a huge problem. Millions of dollars have been lost due to the destruction and data loss cause by
malware (Figure 14.10). Malware can damage files, e-mail or transmit itself to other computers,
make computers shut down or work improperly, install spyware, steal ­passwords, and cause
computer networks to not perform properly. The following are the different types of malware:
Program computer software • Virus—a computer program that can cause harm to other files or programs (­computer
(sometimes called an application).
software, sometimes called applications). Viruses can be hidden in all different types of
seemingly innocent files, but like real viruses can cause harm. Viruses commonly spread
through e-mail, and require user action to spread (e.g., by opening an infected e-mail).
• Worm—a computer program that can change or damage files and other programs.
Worms are like viruses, but more dangerous. A worm can spread without user
­interaction, can spread quickly, and can send itself to other computers automatically.
• Trojan horse—a computer program that can collect, destroy, falsify, or exploit data.
Trojan horses trick users into installing a harmful program onto a computer by hiding
inside interesting-looking software (like animation or games).
• Spyware—software that monitors computer usage, allowing hackers to steal passwords
or even take control of the computer.

Figure 14.10 Computer

viruses, worms, and other types
of malware cost companies
­millions of dollars each year.
CREDIT: Carlos Amarillo/Shutterstock.
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 255

Process technicians must be careful about bringing computer files and media from home
for use at work. Many companies do not allow this practice, nor do they allow workers to
take electronic media home from work.

Practicing Good Cybersecurity

Following are some tips for practicing good cybersecurity:

• Understand your company’s security and privacy policies about computers and the
network.
• Never give your password to anyone else, even if they claim to be a technical support
person (unless you are talking with a trusted source).
• Use your work computer only for approved tasks and work-related purposes.
• Report suspicious behavior to the proper personnel at your company.
• Always log off your computer anytime you leave it unattended.
• Do not open e-mails from unknown senders.
• Only use legal software (properly licensed); do not make copies of work software for
use at home.
• Do not open e-mails from known senders if the subject line seems suspicious and there
is an attachment.
• Use up-to-date virus software and a firewall at home (most companies will have
­antivirus programs and firewalls installed). A firewall is a computer program or
­
hardware that protects the resources of a computer or computer network from access
by outsiders.
• Scan all files with antivirus software before copying them to your computer.
• Download files over the internet only from trusted sources.
• Shred any documents containing sensitive or confidential information.
• Never give out information to anyone except a trusted authority.
• Never discuss sensitive or confidential information over a cell phone, or view such
information on a laptop or similar device in public.
• Make sure that any devices such as laptops, cell phones, and computer storage devices
are properly secured and cannot be easily stolen.
• Wipe data off any media (e.g., flash drive or hard drives) and destroy CDs before
­throwing them away.
• Never divulge cybersecurity procedures to anyone outside your company.
• Remember that radio communications may not be secure. Someone can electronically
eavesdrop.
• Most companies do not allow cameras, recording devices, or cell phones with cameras
to be brought into a facility. Some do not allow cell phones at all. Know what your
­company’s policy is and follow it.

Physical Security Aspects of Cybersecurity

Critical computing resources can be protected using physical security as well as
­cybersecurity. Some computers and related components can be secured in locked rooms
with limited access. Portable devices, such as laptops can be locked up when not in
use. Media with critical data should be secured in areas safe from theft or damage from
disasters.
256 Chapter 14

14.5 Government Regulations Affecting

Physical Security and Cybersecurity
The following are some government regulations and information that relate to physical
security and cybersecurity:

• Patriot Act, to deter and punish terrorist acts

• National Terrorism Advisory System, to provide threat condition levels
• Maritime Security (MARSEC), to provide maritime threat condition levels
• National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace, to protect information and computing resources
from attack
• Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, to protect against unauthorized computer access for
the purposes of fraud or damage
• Electronic Communications Privacy Act, to protect against interceptions of wire, spoken,
or electronic communications during transmission or storage
• Copyright Act, to protect intellectual property

Some government agencies involved in physical security and/or cybersecurity include

the following:

• Department of Homeland Security

• National Security Agency
• FBI
• Nuclear Regulatory Commission
• Department of Transportation
• OSHA

Summary
The process industries face a wide range of security threats. Threats can come from a variety of sources, including
These threats include hazards or threats from individuals terrorist groups, hostile nation-states, company insiders, and
or groups seeking to intentionally harm people, computer outside criminals. Threats can take many forms.
resources, or other vital assets. Threats can take many forms, Some of the most serious threats a person may face
but they typically fall into one of two categories: physical include biological, chemical, nuclear, or terrorist attacks. It is
­security or cybersecurity. ­important for process technicians to understand the nature
Physical security threats are threats to people, e­ quipment, of these threats, be able to recognize them, understand the
products, and facilities (e.g., pipelines, control centers, and impact on themselves and the plant or facility where they
other vital areas). Cybersecurity threats are directed toward work, and be familiar with ways to prevent them.
data and information, computer resources, and c­ ommunication
resources.
 Physical Security and Cybersecurity 257

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 10. Which DHS level of security would be declared when
a. Cyber there is a general risk of a terrorist attack?
b. Cyber attack a. Green
c. Hostile nation-state b. Blue
d. Insider c. Yellow
e. Malware d. Orange
f. Networked e. Red
g. Program 11. List the seven signs of potential terrorist activity.
h. Risk 12. List the five areas of physical security?
i. Terrorist
13. (True or False) Process technicians do not need to watch
j. Threat for potential threats; watching is the job of security
k. Vulnerability personnel.
2. (True or False) Cybersecurity involves protecting people 14. (Choose the best answer) Cyber attacks target:
and facilities from harm. a. Information
3. What are the components of the DHS five-step process? b. Power generation only
4. __________________________ aim to create fear and c. Key personnel
panic in order to achieve political or ideological d. Government agencies only
objectives.
15. Name the four categories of cybersecurity practices.
a. Insiders
16. Which of the following is the strongest password?
b. Terrorists
a. billyh
c. Criminals
b. JD3i1gp!
d. Hackers
c. 5823145
5. Which of the following describes a threat? (Select all that
d. rocketman
apply.)
a. Vulnerable 17. What type of malware can collect, destroy, falsify or
exploit data?
b. Deliberate
a. Virus
c. Inadvertent
b. Worm
d. Accidental
c. Trojan horse
6. A(n) __________________________ attack involves the
d. Spyware
release of bacteria, viruses, or toxins.
18. Which of the following is a good cybersecurity practice?
7. List four forms of chemical hazards.
a. Give your password to a coworker, in case you ­
8. What type of bomb uses explosives to spread forget it.
­radioactive substances?
b. Always log off your computer anytime you walk
a. Dispersive away from it.
b. Conventional c. Open e-mails from unknown senders.
c. Nuclear d. Write down your password.
d. Traditional
19. What government regulation was established to deter
9. (Choose the best answer) Security is about managing: and punish terrorist acts?
a. Insiders
b. Sabotage
c. Bomb threats
d. Risk

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

258 Chapter 14

Student Activities
1. Go to the Department of Homeland Security ­website computer, learn what your institution’s computer
and research workplace security incidents, with ­security policies and procedures are for ­computers
­emphasis on what employees can personally do to ­available for student use. Compare them to the
­prepare or do to prevent the incident. Discuss in class. ­information in this text and make a list of how they
are similar or different.
2. Based on the cybersecurity discussion in this text,
evaluate the degree to which your home computer 3. Research the topic of workplace violence. Find ­several
or personal device is secure. Make a list of ways you sources that discuss what it is and how to protect
can improve its security. If you do not have a home against it. Write a report to share with the class.
Chapter 15
Recognizing Ergonomic
Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of ergonomic hazards found in the process
industries.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
15.1 Name certain activities performed in the process industries and
­discuss the potential ergonomic hazards posed by these activities:
Lifting and handling materials
Working at heights
Working in confined spaces
Using repetitive motions. (NAPTA Safety, Ergonomic Hazards 1*) p. 260
15.2 Demonstrate proper lifting techniques. (NAPTA Safety, Ergonomic
Hazards 2) p. 262
15.3 Demonstrate proper ergonomics for repetitive motion. (NAPTA Safety,
Ergonomic Hazards 3) p. 264
15.4 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
ergonomic hazards. (NAPTA Safety, Ergonomic Hazards 4) p. 269
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Ergonomic Hazards 1)” means that this
chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on ergonomic hazards.

Key Terms
Ergonomics—the study of how people interact with their work environment, p. 260.
Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD)—a health condition characterized by damage to
muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, joints, etc, p. 261.
Repetitive motion injury (RMI)—an injury caused by repeating the same
motion, p. 264.

259
260 Chapter 15

Vertigo—a sensation or illusion of movement in which a person feels as if revolving

in space (called subjective vertigo) or senses the surrounding environment to be
spinning (called objective vertigo), p. 267.

15.1 Introduction
Ergonomics the study of how Ergonomics has been used as an official term since the 1950s, but it can be traced back to
people interact with their work several articles written by a Polish professor in 1857. OSHA describes ergonomics as “the
environment.
science of designing the job to fit the worker, rather than physically forcing the worker’s
body to fit the job.”
The goal of ergonomics is to minimize accidents and illnesses due to chronic physical
and psychological stresses while maximizing productivity, quality, and efficiency.

Did You Know?

The term ergonomics comes from two Greek words: “ergon,” meaning
human work and strength, and “nomos,” meaning law or rule.

CREDIT: SpinyAnt/
Shutterstock.

The National Science Council, based on work produced by the Swedish Work Environ-
ment Fund, described pairs of factors that can affect physical stress that occurs on the job
and can lead to ergonomic hazard. See Table 15.1 for a comparison of physical stress factors.

Table 15.1 Comparison of Physical Stress Factors

Factor #1 Factor #2
Sitting Standing
Sitting is better than standing, but sitting can cause Standing, especially for extended periods in one posi-
stress (incorrect posture, improperly adjusted chair, tion, can produce stress on the back, legs, and feet.
nonergonomic chair design).
Stationary task Mobile task
Tasks that require a worker to move infrequently cre- Tasks that require constant motion cause stress on a
ate less stress than tasks that require constant motion variety of body parts.
(e.g., hauling, climbing, and turning).
Small demand for strength and power Large demand for strength and power
Tasks that require little strength and power cause less Tasks that require strength and power, whether lifting
stress than tasks that require more strength and power. heavy objects occasionally or lighter objects frequently,
cause stress on the back, arms, hands, legs, and feet.
Good horizontal work areas Bad horizontal work areas
Properly designed horizontal work areas (such as desks Improperly designed horizontal work areas require con-
or workstations) require little side-to-side motion (e.g., stant side-to-side motion by the worker, causing stress
twisting) by the worker. on the neck, back, arms, hands, legs, and feet.
Good vertical work areas Bad vertical work areas
Properly designed vertical work areas require little up or Improperly designed vertical work areas require con-
down (e.g., bending, reaching over the head) motion by stant up or down motion by the worker, causing stress
the worker. on the neck, back, arms, hands, legs, and feet.
Nonrepetitive motions Repetitive motions
Tasks that do not require frequent repetitive motions Tasks that require frequent repetitive motions cause
cause less stress than tasks that require ongoing repeti- stress on the wrists, arms, back, legs, and feet.
tive motions (e.g., turning valves, climbing ladders).
 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 261

Factor #1 Factor #2
Low contact High surface contact
Tasks that do not require the worker to make contact Tasks that require more contact between a worker and
with an object’s surface (e.g., tools, equipment) cause an object’s surface, such as using a tool, cause stress
less stress than tasks that require more contact. to a variety of body parts such as hands, wrists, shoul-
ders, neck, and back.
Few negative environmental factors More negative environmental factors
Work areas with few negative environmental factors In work areas with a number of negative environmental
(e.g., hazardous environments, heat or cold, humidity, factors, workers must wear many different types of per-
pollution) cause less stress than areas with more nega- sonal protective equipment (PPE). Although PPE forms
tive factors. a protective barrier against chemical, physical, and/or
biological hazards, it can contribute to physical stress.

Ergonomic Hazards
Ergonomic hazards can occur when workstations, equipment, or tools are not engineered to
match the needs of the workers who will use them. Ergonomic hazards can lead to
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which are conditions that affect the muscles, nerves, Musculoskeletal disorder
tendons, ligaments, and/or joints. MSDs usually develop gradually from exposure to a vari- (MSD) a health condition
characterized by damage to
ety of risk factors, as opposed to a single risk factor or event. A common MSD is carpal tunnel muscles, nerves, tendons,
syndrome, a painful and potentially disabling condition affecting the wrists. ligaments, joints, etc.
Process technicians may encounter several types of ergonomic hazards within the
workplace:

• Lifting and material handling—moving heavy or bulky objects; adding quantities of

product to a container
• Repetitive motions—frequently using tools such as screwdrivers, turning valves, or
climbing stairs or ladders
• Poor posture—placing the body in awkward positions or moving incorrectly
• Improper use of tools—using the wrong tool for a particular task or incorrectly using
the right tool for a task
• Extended workstation or computer use—sitting at a distributed control system (DCS)
workstation or computer and frequently using the keyboard and mouse
• Working at heights—performing tasks at elevations while on ladders, platforms, tanks,
tall equipment, and other similar locations
• Working in confined spaces—performing permit work in a confined space

Even hazards such as confined spaces, heights, noise, and vibration can contribute to ergo-
nomic stress. In light of all the types of tasks that process technicians must perform on a daily
basis that produce physical stress, it is vital that technicians understand the importance of
ergonomics. Your company can help you with information and training on how to reduce
ergonomic hazards.

Did You Know? Branches of the

median nerve
Carpal tunnel syndrome is the most well-known of a class
of disorders called repetitive strain disorders, a type of
musculoskeletal disorder. In carpal tunnel syndrome,
the median nerve is compressed at the wrist, causing Median nerve
symptoms like tingling, pain, coldness, and sometimes Transverse carpal
weakness in parts of the hand (specifically the thumb, ligament
index, and middle fingers).
Site of compression
on median nerve

CREDIT: Blamb/Shutterstock.
262 Chapter 15

Impact of Physical Stress

Physical stress can lead to short- and long-term health problems. It can also affect a person
emotionally and mentally. The following can result from physical stress:

• Accidents
• Unsafe working conditions
• Poor product quality
• Absenteeism
• High worker turnover
• Worker complaints

The following are some general tips that can help reduce physical stress:

• Get proper exercise.

• Get sufficient sleep.
• Eat properly and drink enough water.
• Take breaks.
• Learn how to stretch and limber up.
• Start strenuous tasks slowly, and then build up the pace.
• Avoid using wrist splints, if possible (they can cause muscle decline).

15.2 Lifting and Material Handling

Activities involving lifting and material handling are common sources of ergonomic stress.
To fulfill their job requirements, process technicians are required to do a fair amount of lift-
ing, carrying, pushing or shoving, and pulling. For example, a process technician may need
to move a 55-gallon drum from one area to another, or may need to lift, carry, and dump a
bag of a chemical into a process vessel.
Back injuries, which are one of the most frequently occurring work-related injuries, can
result from any one of these activities. Other symptoms of ergonomic stress resulting from
improper lifting or materials handling may include knee pain and shoulder pain. To reduce
the risk of injury associated with these activities, employers typically require a physical fit-
ness test and demonstration as a condition of employment.
Ergonomic stress from improper lifting or material handling can be caused by any of
the following activities:

• Lifting from the floor (Figure 15.1)

• Lifting while twisting
• Lifting objects that are too heavy
• Lifting objects of odd shapes
• Repetitive lifting
• Lifting from shoulder height
• Lifting while seated
• Pushing or pulling loads without assistance
• Bending while moving
 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 263

Figure 15.1 Process techni-

cians should use proper lifting
techniques when moving heavy
objects. A. Improper techniques
lead to back, neck, hip, or
shoulder stress and possible
injury. B. Proper lifting technique
for lifting a heavy object. Notice
how the large muscles of the legs
do the lifting and how the spine is
A. IMPROPER METHOD OF LIFTING
kept in alignment throughout the
lifting process.
CREDIT: A. (left) Africa Studio/Shutterstock.
(right) PHOVOIR/Alamy Stock Photo.
B. (left) Tommaso79/Shutterstock. (right)
Hero Images Inc./Alamy Stock Photo.

B. PROPER METHOD OF LIFTING

Preventing Ergonomic Stress when Lifting or

Handling Materials
To prevent exposure to the ergonomic stress associated with improper lifting or improper
material handling, a process technician should remember the following rules:

• Use proper lifting, pushing, and pulling techniques, regardless of the weight or size of
the material.
• Use tools and mechanical aids (e.g., carts, dollies, lift tables, rollers) when necessary.
• Make sure the area where you will be walking is clean and free of obstacles.
• Check that the walking surface is dry and not slippery.

PROPER LIFTING TECHNIQUES When lifting items, use the following lifting techniques:

• Plan for your lift to help avoid making awkward movements while you are holding
something heavy. Have a path already cleared before you begin.
• Get help if needed, or if you think you might need it. If an object is too heavy or shaped
awkwardly, ask someone else to help you lift. If you are lifting with someone else, make
sure you both agree on the lifting plan before you begin.
• Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart to help give you a more solid base.
• Place your feet close to the object and center your body over it.
• Bend your knees and keep your back straight.
• Tighten your abdominal muscles to hold your back in a good lifting position and prevent
excessive force on the spine.
• Lift with your legs rather than your back. (Your legs are many times stronger than your
back muscles.)
• Lift the object in a smooth motion; avoid jerking upward.
264 Chapter 15

• Lift close to your body. This will give you a stronger, more stable lift. Make sure you
have a firm hold on the object and keep it close to your body.
• Take short steps if walking with the object.
• Avoid twisting; keep your torso facing forward.
• Set the object down in its new position slowly and smoothly, and then release it. Keep
your back straight and knees bent (if necessary) while setting the object down.
• Wear a back belt or back support while lifting heavy items, as required by your com-
pany’s policy.

MOVING OBJECTS When moving objects, remember that pushing is better than pull-
ing. Pulling places more strain on the back than pushing. Whenever possible, use a tool or
mechanical aid, such as a handcart or rollers.

15.3 Repetitive Motions

Repetitive motion injury (RMI) an Repetitive motion injuries (RMIs) are the result of repeated overuse of body joints. The
injury caused by repeating the same connective tissues become sore and can become unusable when exposed to repeated trauma.
motion.
The symptoms often occur over a long period, sometimes causing people to ignore the condi-
tion until the symptoms are more pronounced and/or a permanent injury occurs. Not all
joint pain results in a long-term condition. Sometimes, muscle pain develops after overexer-
tion; however, muscles can heal quickly if properly managed. Early detection of RMI helps
ensure that the problem can be corrected.

Proper Ergonomics for Repetitive Motion

Proper ergonomics for repetitive motion can help prevent injury. The best method for pre-
venting RMI is to limit the amount of time spent performing repetitive motions. Process
technicians tend to develop RMI from performing tasks that require awkward postures and
excessive force to operate tools. Work practices to help reduce RMI include the following:

• Take rest breaks as needed to prevent or relieve fatigue.

• Ask for assistance when possible; two or three workers performing a repetitive task
reduces the stress on individual workers.
• Rotate the tasks performed to involve different movements.
• Stretch every few hours to relieve tension and body aches.
• Use the proper tools for the task being performed.
• Lift using the legs and arms rather than the back.
• Avoid twisting while lifting.

PROPER POSTURE Process technicians frequently must perform tasks that involve an
awkward or unnatural posture or motions that can result in physical stress (Figure 15.2).
Following are some examples of tasks that process technicians frequently perform:

• Reaching over their heads

• Performing repetitive motions (e.g., turning a valve or torqueing a bolt)
• Twisting their wrists repeatedly
• Using tools
• Bending down
• Twisting their torso (trunk of the body)
• Climbing ladders
 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 265

Figure 15.2 Poor posture (left

and center images) puts unnec-
essary stress on the joints and
bones in the body. Proper posture
(right image) relieves strain and
allows joints and muscles to be in
a more relaxed state.
CREDIT: Africa Studio/Shutterstock.

• Leaning on equipment or surfaces

• Exerting force with their hands, arms, and legs
• Maintaining a static (stationary) position

Following are some tips to help alleviate physical stress in these situations:

• Always use proper ergonomic techniques.

• Maintain good body position with shoulders back and head aligned over shoulders (not
jutting forward).
• Wear proper footwear.
• Ask for assistance.
• Maintain proper balance.
• Use the proper tool for the task.
• Keep a firm grip on tools.
• Eliminate any unnecessary motions (actions not directly affecting the task).
• Do not overextend your reach; limit reaching over your head or far from your body (use
a ladder or reposition your body).
• Keep your elbows close to your body.
• Keep your arms straight or slightly inclined upward.
• Minimize forearm rotation and wrist-twisting motion.
• Avoid twisting your body. Reposition yourself as necessary.
• Squat down instead of bending over.
• Take regular breaks.
• Change positions when standing for extended periods (e.g., try to prop one leg up, and
then the other).

PROPER USE OF TOOLS One of the most important ways to reduce ergonomic stress is
to select the proper tool for the task. Use an ergonomically designed tool when available. To
minimize your risk of injury, select the following:

• Well-maintained tools
• Power tools when possible
• Tools with firm grips (avoid sharp, hard, or slippery grips)
• An ambidextrous (left or right hand) tool, so you can switch hands if you start to lose
hand strength. If one is not available, select a tool designed for your dominant hand
266 Chapter 15

• A tool with a handle or grip that extends across the fleshy part of your hand (this
distributes the pressure of gripping the tool)
• The proper size tool at the lightest weight
• For tools with triggers, a trigger that depresses easily using two or more fingers
• Power or pneumatic tools with the least vibration

Note: This list only takes into consideration the ergonomic factors of tool use; it does not
consider specific tools or tasks.
It is important that you know how to use tools properly. Manufacturers often provide
instructions on the proper use of the tool, or your company might provide information and
training.

Extended Workstation or Computer Use

Many process technicians spend a significant amount of their workday in front of a process
control workstation (e.g., distributed control system, or DCS) or computers. Therefore, office-
related ergonomics are important and include the following factors:

• Chair adjustment, height, and positioning

• Workstation or desk height
• Keyboard position and placement
• Mouse placement and grip
• Monitor placement (some DCS monitors are fixed, however)
• Distance between the worker’s eyes and the monitor
• A light touch while typing on the keyboard or using a mouse

Refer to company information and manufacturer recommendations for correct position-

ing and use of office furniture and computer/DCS equipment. Table 15.2 provides some
general recommendations.
To achieve the proper positions, you might be required to adjust one or more of the
following:

• Chair
• Desk or work surface
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Monitor

Table 15.2 Recommended Body Positions for Extended Workstation or Computer Use
Body Part Position
Head Positioned directly over your shoulders, without tilting forward
Eyes About an arm’s length from the monitor
Shoulders and neck Relaxed; do not slouch
Back Straight or leaning slightly forward (keep your back in the same position as when
standing)
Elbows Relaxed and at an upward angle
Wrist Relaxed and straight, not angled
Knees Lower than your hips
Feet Placed firmly on the floor
 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 267

Following are some additional recommendations:

• Make sure the monitor screen is clean.

• Minimize glare on the monitor.
• Reduce the lighting around the monitor, if possible, to increase the contrast.
• Do not cradle a phone between your shoulder and cheek.
• Take a break during extensive typing or mouse use.

Using a computer or DCS can also result in repetitive motions. To minimize your risk of
injury, follow the recommendations presented in the Repetitive Motions section.

Working at Heights
Another common activity that can lead to ergonomic stress is working at heights (Figure 15.3).
Process technicians may be required to:

• Climb scaffolding
• Climb tall equipment (e.g., distillation towers, furnaces)
• Work on top of large storage vessels
• Load or unload rail cars, trailer trucks, tanker trucks, or barges
• Use powered platforms.

Ergonomic stress from working at heights can be caused by any of the following:

• Repetitive movement
• Falls
• Sore muscles and joints
Vertigo a sensation or illusion of
• Strains
movement in which a person feels as
Symptoms of ergonomic stress resulting from the activities listed above include back, if revolving in space (called subjective
vertigo) or senses the surrounding
knee, shoulder, foot, or wrist pain or injury. They can include bruising or swelling, sweating, environment to be spinning (called
nausea, or vertigo (a sensation or illusion of movement or falling). Anxiety also occurs some- objective vertigo).
times as a result of ergonomic stress.

Figure 15.3 Process techni-

cians must use fall protection
if working at heights without
­adequate guarding.
CREDIT: Henryk Sadura/Shutterstock.
268 Chapter 15

Preventing Ergonomic Stress when Working at Heights

To prevent exposure to the ergonomic stress associated with working at heights, a process
technician should do the following:

• Stay in good physical condition.

• Use fall protection if working at heights without adequate guarding.
• Inform a supervisor about any fear or concerns of working at heights.

Working in Confined Spaces

Many process technicians are occasionally required to work in confined spaces (Figure 15.4).
Working in confined spaces may include entry into a voided storage tank, drained rail car,
or empty reaction vessel to perform a variety of tasks.
Ergonomic stress from working in confined spaces can be caused by any of the follow-
ing activities:

• Repetitive movement
• Exposure to oxygen-deficient atmospheres
• Exposure to toxic atmospheres
• Fear of small, tight spaces

Symptoms of ergonomic stress resulting from working in confined spaces include physi-
cal symptoms such as muscle or joint pain. There can also be dizziness, vertigo, sweating,
nausea, and anxiety. More severe symptoms that may appear are inability to think logically,
inability to communicate, and loss of consciousness.
To prevent exposure to the ergonomic stress associated with working in confined spaces,
a process technician should do the following:

• Stay in good physical condition.

• Use proper personal protective equipment (PPE) for the job and the possible hazards
in the space.
• Inform a supervisor of any fear or concerns of working in small, tight spaces.

Figure 15.4 Process techni-

cians must be aware of ergo-
nomic hazards when working in
confined spaces.
CREDIT: Noomcpk/Shutterstock.
 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 269

Vibrations
Vibrations are the periodic back-and-forth motion of an object (usually something rigid).
Vibrations are generally inaudible and can be experienced all over a body, such as from
operating heavy equipment or driving or riding in certain types of vehicles. These types of
vibrations present ergonomic hazards that can cause effects such as motion sickness and
even spinal injury.
Vibration experienced through the hands and arms can result in a condition called hand-
arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). This condition, which causes damage to nerves and blood
vessels, can result from using power tools that generate vibrations (e.g., pneumatic tools).
Some manufacturers now make lower-vibration power tools to reduce such hazards. Using
power tools in cold temperatures or while gripping too tightly can worsen the effects of
vibration-related hazards.
To minimize your risk of exposure to vibration hazards:

• Take breaks from tools or areas where vibration is present.

• Use vibration-absorbing devices, such as floor mats or vehicle seat covers.
• Maintain a firm yet loose grip when operating vibrating tools.
• Use thick gloves while operating vibration tools if your company policy or manufac-
turer’s recommendations permit them.
• Keep warm when using vibrating tools in cold environments.

Ergonomic Design
Many manufacturers consider ergonomics when designing new products, such as tools,
equipment, furniture, and workspaces. Even in a process industry environment, plant
designers consider factors such as valve placement, flange or bolt arrangement, equipment
spacing, pinch points, and other similar considerations.
Many process facilities use behavioral safety studies, where workers observe each oth-
er’s work habits and report anonymous data. This information is used to improve safety by
addressing hazards, including ergonomic hazards (e.g., by asking questions regarding proper
tool usage and proper lifting techniques). Some ergonomic hazards can be addressed with engi-
neering controls or administrative controls, so it is important that you report such situations.
Ergonomic products are specifically designed to reduce injuries associated with ergo-
nomic hazards. Examples of ergonomic products include:

• Tools
• Chairs, desks, and workstations
• Computer keyboards and mice
• Shoe inserts
• Floor mats
• Foot rails.

15.4 Government Regulations and

Industry Guidelines
OSHA developed guidelines for ergonomic design in the workplace in 2002. While these
guidelines do not directly apply to the process industries, they are a first step toward
addressing workplace ergonomics. Various organizations publish ergonomic guidelines. In
the process industries, industrial hygienists study work conditions and tasks to make sug-
gested improvements that can limit and/or prevent ergonomic injuries.
270 Chapter 15

Summary
Ergonomics is the study of how people interact with their work Many manufacturers consider ergonomics when design-
environment. The goal of ergonomics is to minimize accidents ing new products (e.g., tools, equipment, furniture, work-
and illnesses due to chronic physical and psychological stresses spaces). Even in a process industry environment, plant
while maximizing productivity, quality, and efficiency. designers consider factors such as valve placement, flange
There are many different types of ergonomic hazards (e.g., or bolt arrangement, equipment spacing, pinch points, and
improper lifting, repetitive motions, poor posture, improper more.
use of tools, extended workstation or computer use, working OSHA developed guidelines for ergonomic design in
at heights, and working in confined spaces). Many of these the workplace in 2002. While these guidelines do not directly
ergonomic hazards can cause physical stress or injury. The apply to the process industries, they are a first step toward
impacts of physical stress include accidents, unsafe working addressing workplace ergonomics.
conditions, poor product quality, absenteeism, high worker In the process industries, industrial hygienists study work
turnover, and worker complaints. conditions and tasks and make suggested improvements that
There are techniques process technicians can use to reduce can limit and/or prevent ergonomic injuries. Process techni-
physical stress. These include getting proper exercise, getting cians should always be aware of their work environment and
sufficient sleep, eating properly and drinking enough water, tak- immediately report any ergonomic issues whenever possible
ing breaks, learning how to stretch and warm up muscles, and so they can be addressed, as well as reporting any incidents,
starting strenuous tasks slowly and then building up the pace. accidents, or injuries.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: c. Use tools or mechanical aids
a. Ergonomics d. Use correct lifting techniques
b. Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) e. All of the above
c. Repetitive motion injury (RMI) 7. Lift with your ________ rather than your back.
d. Vertigo
8. What is the condition resulting from repeated overuse of
2. (True or False) The goal of ergonomics is to minimize body joints?
accidents and illnesses due to chronic illnesses caused a. Repetitive motion injuries
by chemical exposure.
b. Repetitious movement conditions
3. List five ergonomic hazards that a process technician c. Muscular degenerative syndrome
may encounter in the workplace.
d. Spinal and musculature deterioration
4. ________ injuries are one of the most frequent work-
9. Name three possible symptoms of ergonomic stress
related injuries.
from working at heights.
5. List five activities related to lifting and handling materi-
10. Who developed guidelines for ergonomic design in the
als that can cause ergonomic stress.
workplace in 2002?
6. Which of the following precautions should be taken to
11. List four things you can do to help reduce physical
prevent stress when lifting or handling materials?
stress
a. Reduce the load
12. List four products that can be specifically designed to
b. Ask for help
reduce ergonomic injuries.

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

 Recognizing Ergonomic Hazards 271

Student Activities
1. Use the internet or other resources to identify at least three 3. Demonstrate the proper technique for lifting a heavy
medical conditions caused by ergonomic stress in the work- object, such as a box or bag. Have a fellow student or
place. Describe each condition, its cause, and treatment. instructor observe your technique and make comments.

2. Observe processes at your work, school, or home that could 4. If available, practice opening and closing a manual
cause potential ergonomic stresses. Then, make a list of the valve, using a wrench to tighten a bolt, and other pro-
stresses you identified and describe possible solutions. cess technician tasks using correct body posture.
 Chapter 16
Recognizing
Environmental
Hazards
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of environmental hazards found in the process
industries.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
16.1 Identify specific categories of hazardous chemicals used in the process
industries. p. 273
16.2 Identify the various factors that can lead to leaks, spills, and releases.
(NAPTA Safety, Environmental Hazards 2*) p. 275
16.3 Describe the potential dangers of leaks, spills, and releases in the envi-
ronment and the community. (NAPTA Safety, Environmental Hazards
3) p. 279
16.4 Explain the EPA regulations that impact the process industries.
(NAPTA Safety, Environmental Hazards 1) p. 280
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Environmental Hazards 2)” means that
this chapter’s objective relates to objective 2 of the NAPTA curriculum on safety and envi-
ronmental hazards.

Key Terms
Corrosion—the eating away of materials by a chemical process (e.g., iron
rusting), p. 277.
Erosion—the wearing away (abrading) of materials by a physical process
(e.g., sand-blasting), p. 277.
Leak—a condition that occurs when a container or equipment is compromised,
allowing a material to escape, p. 275.

272
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 273

Release—a controlled or uncontrolled discharge of process materials into the

environment, p. 275.
Spill—an uncontrolled discharge of a liquid that usually involves more volume than
a leak, p. 275.
Superfund—a monetary fund that comes from tax dollars paid by the chemical
industry to pay for the cleanup of abandoned waste sites in the event no
responsible party can be found, p. 287.
Runoff—polluted groundwater from pollutants contained in landfills or other
industrial manufacturing or disposal sites where uncontrolled rainwater comes
into contact with toxic chemicals and then drains into rivers or underground water
supplies ultimately used as sources of drinking water, p. 283.

16.1 Introduction
Hazardous agents do not present a threat to the environment or to the average citizen in the
community unless they are released into the environment. This chapter reviews the types
of hazardous chemical categories, along with environmental regulations that impact the
process industries. Also, this chapter discusses the various factors and dangers associated
with leaks, spills, and releases.
The process technician must be familiar with the following:

• Pollutants and their sources

• Hazardous chemicals and their effects on the environment
• Factors behind leaks, spills, and releases
• Environmental controls
• Government regulations

Pollutants
The different types of pollution are covered in Chapter 2, Types of Hazards and Their Effects.
This section reviews some sources of pollution:

• Burning of fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas)

• SOx
• NOx
• Particulates
• CO2
• Unburned fuels and the evaporation of chemicals
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Pollutants formed in the air by combining VOCs, NOx, and sunlight
• Ozone
Following are some effects of pollution:

• The “greenhouse effect” from CO2

• Acid rain from SOx and NOx
• Ozone layer depletion from VOCs
• Ground-level health effects from ozone (e.g., shortness of breath and burning of the
eyes and nose)
• Dioxins and furans
274 Chapter 16

Hazardous Chemical Categories

Chemical Composition and Classification
Hazardous chemicals are often identified and grouped into categories on the basis of their
hazardous characteristics. Chemicals are identified as flammable, corrosive, and/or toxic
because their chemical composition causes them to exhibit these hazardous characteristics.
It is important for process technicians to understand the concept of categorization
because categorization provides a foundation for understanding other fundamentals of
material handling and storage, such as how materials should be labeled and used, and what
materials can or cannot be safely stored alongside others.
OSHA, DOT, and EPA may use similar terminology when discussing chemical haz-
ards, but the terms are not always interchangeable. OSHA’s terminology relates to employee
health and safety; DOT’s terminology relates to the safe transportation of materials or wastes;
and EPA’s terminology relates to the protection of the environment.

COMBUSTIBLE AND FLAMMABLE MATERIALS Combustible and flammable materials

(gases, liquids, and solids) present fire hazards. These materials are classified as follows:

• Combustible liquid is any liquid that has a flashpoint at or above 100 degrees Fahrenheit
(37.8 degrees Celsius) but below 200 degrees Fahrenheit (93.3 degrees Celsius).
• Flammable liquid is any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100 degrees Fahrenheit
(37.8 degrees Celsius).
• Flammable gas is any gas that at ambient temperature and pressure forms a flammable
mixture with air at a concentration of 10 percent or less by volume.
• Flammable solid is any solid, other than a blasting agent or explosive, which is liable
to cause fire through friction, absorption of moisture, spontaneous chemical change, or
retained heat from manufacturing or processing. It can also be ignited readily, and when
ignited burns so vigorously and persistently as to create a serious hazard.

Did You Know?

When gasoline burns, it is not actually the liquid that is burning,
but the vapors.

CREDIT: Vudhikrai/Shutterstock.

WATER-REACTIVE, PYROPHORIC, AND EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

• Water-reactive materials are chemicals that react with water to release a gas that is either
flammable or that presents a health hazard. For example, sodium reacts with water to
produce hydrogen, an extremely flammable gas (Figure 16.1).
• A pyrophoric material is a chemical that will ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature
of 130 degrees Fahrenheit (54.4 degrees Celsius) or below. Iron sulfide is one example of
a material that reacts with air to produce heat.
• An explosive is defined as a chemical that causes a sudden, almost instantaneous release
of pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to sudden shock, pressure, or high tempera-
ture (e.g., ammonium nitrate and blasting powder).
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 275

Figure 16.1 Water-reactive

materials release a gas that is
either flammable or toxic when
exposed to water. The reaction
shown here usually generates
enough heat to ignite the hydro-
gen that is produced in the reac-
tion. It can result in a powerful
explosion.
CREDIT: Sergey Merkulov/Shutterstock.

PEROXIDES AND OXIDIZERS

• A peroxide (e.g., hydrogen peroxide) is a compound that contains the bivalent

¬ O ¬ O ¬ structure. Peroxides may be considered to be structural derivatives of
hydrogen peroxide, where one or both of the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by an
organic radical.
• An oxidizer (e.g., oxygen and chlorine) is a chemical other than a blasting agent or
explosive that initiates or promotes combustion in other materials, thereby causing fire
either of itself or through the release of oxygen or other gases.

Peroxide and oxidizers produce “loose” oxygen in the atmosphere. This can lead to an
oxygen-rich environment that creates health and fire hazards. They can make objects burn that
would not normally burn. When exposed to heat, they can decompose with explosive force.

Did You Know?

Concentrated orange oil can burst into flames.

CREDIT: Strela Studio/Shutterstock.

16.2 Leaks, Spills, and Releases

When process fluids are not handled properly, they can create hazards for process techni-
cians. When toxic process fluids manage to escape the confines of their containers or equip- Leak a condition that occurs
ment, other dangerous situations are created. Process technicians need to understand the when a container or equipment is
compromised, allowing a material to
hazardous characteristics associated with process fluids and how process fluids become even escape.
more dangerous when they leak or spill or are released into the environment.
Spill an uncontrolled discharge of
Leaks, spills, and releases all involve the uncontrolled discharge of hazardous process
a liquid that usually involves more
fluids. A leak occurs when a container is compromised and allows a small amount of liquid volume than a leak.
to escape. A spill is similar to a leak in that it involves the uncontrolled discharge of a liquid,
Release a controlled or
but usually involves more volume than a leak (Figure 16.2). A release refers to the uncon- uncontrolled discharge of process
trolled discharge of a gas into the atmosphere. materials into the environment.
276 Chapter 16

Figure 16.2 A. A spill occurs

when a container is compromised
and the compromised area allows
a large quantity of liquid to escape.
B. Workers involved in cleaning an
oil spill.
CREDIT: A. Alexey Skiba/Shutterstock.
B. Tigergallery/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Factors Leading to Leaks, Spills, and Releases

There are a number of factors that can lead to leaks, spills, and releases:

• Human error
• Exceeding operating limits
• Corrosion and erosion
• Improperly designed or installed equipment
• Equipment failure
• Process changes
• Weather conditions
HUMAN ERROR Statistics indicate that many problems are created by human error
(Figure 16.3). Though we all make mistakes from time to time, it is very important to be aware
of your actions at all times because one minor mistake may injure or kill you and/or others
near you. The following is a partial list of factors that frequently contribute to human error:
• Skill level—Some equipment seems very simple to use and, as a result, sometimes
semi-skilled or unskilled operators are allowed to operate it. An experienced operator
will have a better chance of recognizing equipment malfunctions and how to properly
operate the equipment in a safe manner than a less-experienced operator.
• Attitude, judgment, and ability to concentrate—The psychological and physical status
of operators can dictate how well they can perform on the job. If an operator is facing too
many distractions, whether from personal or work-related issues or physical injuries,
the operator’s ability to concentrate on the job is compromised. Distractions of this sort
can lead to accidents or injuries.
• Operator fatigue—If operators become too tired to perform their job, then concentration
(as well as physical response) is compromised. Some situations that can lead to fatigue
include excessive pressure from multiple job assignments, boredom from monotonous
operations, awkward work motions or positions, and excessive overtime.
• Failure to follow procedures—Each facility is required to maintain procedures on how
to perform tasks correctly and safely. Unfortunately, not everyone follows the proce-
dures correctly. Failure to follow documented procedures can have serious repercussions
for the employee, the process equipment, the business, and the community.

Human error analysis (HEA) is a method used to identify and correct any potential
human errors that may arise on the job. HEAs are usually conducted in one of the two
following ways:

• By observing employees at work and noting any hazards or hazardous behavior. This
is often referred to as a job safety analysis (JSA).
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 277

Miscellaneous causes
Inadequate or improper inspections (2%) Figure 16.3 Statistics indicate
(5%) that many problems are created
Inadequate or by human error.
improper procedures
(11%)

Equipment and
design failures
(41%)
Operator and
maintenance errors
(41%)

• By having analysts perform the desired job task to gain first-hand knowledge of poten-
tial hazards. The analyst can then suggest realistic ways of performing the job that will
increase the probability of doing the job safely and correctly.

EXCEEDING OPERATING LIMITS All equipment has a specific procedure that must be
followed to operate it within proper operating limits. To understand the consequences of
deviating from the equipment’s operating limits and how to take corrective steps when
deviation occurs, process technicians need to consult the written operating procedures estab-
lished for the equipment.
The OSHA Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM 1910.119)
regulation recommends that the following be documented for equipment being used in a
process covered by the regulation:

• Pressure limits
• Temperature ranges
• Flow rates
• What to do when an upset condition occurs
• Alarms and instruments pertinent to an upset

No one set of limits applies to all equipment, processes, or environmental settings. Pro-
cess technicians must learn the rules that apply to their particular situations. They must
familiarize themselves with the documented operating procedures and follow these to the
letter in order to operate within specified safety limits.

CORROSION AND EROSION

• Corrosion occurs when materials are eaten away by a chemical process (e.g., iron rusting). Corrosion the eating away of
Corrosion can occur for a variety of reasons, whether it is from direct contact with chemicals materials by a chemical process
(e.g., iron rusting).
(e.g., acids, bases, and salts), temperature extremes, oxidation, or water exposures. Corro-
sion can have a catastrophic effect upon the integrity of pipelines, vessels, and equipment.
• Erosion occurs when materials are worn (abraded) away by a physical process (e.g., Erosion the wearing away
sandblasting). Erosion can be a problem in pipelines that transport fluids containing (abrading) of materials by a physical
process (e.g., sand-blasting).
particulate matter, such as sand and salt. Erosion can also occur when fluids are moved
through pipes at high velocities. Usually, erosion involves the degradation of the pipe
at the elbows and flanges. Figure 16.4 illustrates pipes with corrosion and erosion.

Corrosion and erosion may not always be visible. For example, piping and vessels cov-
ered with thermal insulation may have corrosion that is shielded from view, buried pipelines
are totally concealed from view, and erosion occurs on the inside of the equipment. These
factors have led to active inspection and maintenance programs as an industry practice.
When conducting an active inspection, technicians use nondestructive testing methods (e.g.,
sonic and x-ray) to determine pipe and vessel wall thickness.
278 Chapter 16

Figure 16.4 Corrosion and

erosion can seriously affect the
integrity of pipelines, vessels, and
equipment.
CREDIT: Paolo Querci/Shutterstock.

IMPROPERLY DESIGNED EQUIPMENT A major goal in equipment design is to reduce the

probability that the equipment can be used or configured incorrectly. However, various fac-
tors can result in improperly used equipment, such as installation, the nature of the process,
the work environment, and the workers.

EQUIPMENT FAILURE Equipment failure can be described as the unintended shutdown

of a piece of equipment due to a mechanical malfunction or process upset. There are several
factors that can lead to equipment failure. Following are some of the most common:

• Corrosion and/or erosion of vessels and piping

• Failed gaskets, leaking flanges, and pump seal failure
• Overfilling tanks
• Tank rupture
• Incorrect materials of construction
• Improper operation of boilers or furnaces
• Not following standard operating procedures (SOPs)
• Operating outside the equipment safety limits
• Improper operation of electrical equipment
• Using equipment for unintended purposes
• Overloading electrical equipment and/or circuits
• Using incorrect equipment in hazardous areas
• Interruption of process utilities (e.g., electrical power, steam, and cooling)

Problems such as those listed above, coupled with the lack of an effective inspection and
preventative maintenance program, can allow these factors to result in damage to equipment
or the creation of hazardous situations. Examples of these situations include the rupture or
explosion of vessels or equipment and electric motor burnout.
PROCESS CHANGES It is common for a plant’s process or processes to be changed
throughout its operating life. Sometimes the process changes can be minor, such as intro-
ducing a new piece of equipment or finding a new way to make the process slightly more
efficient. On other occasions, the process change can be a major redesign or retooling of the
process. Whether the change is minor or extensive in nature, the process changes must be
thoroughly documented according to the OSHA PSM standard (1910.119 Section I) unless it
is an exact replacement (“replacement in kind,” according to OSHA).
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 279

WEATHER CONDITIONS Severe weather is always a potential hazard. In the process

industries, severe weather such as hurricanes, floods, tornadoes, lightning, high winds, and
rain can cause extremely hazardous situations. When water freezes, it expands and exerts
pressure that can burst pipes or cause other problems. Flooding can result in wastewater
problems if dikes and other containment vessels are compromised. High winds can blow
out the flare flame, resulting in gas or vapor release.
Many chemicals that are normally liquid can suddenly become solids when the tem-
perature drops (e.g., diesel fuel). Excess moisture causes critical instrument failures, such as
when moisture condenses in the instrument air supply.

16.3 Potential Dangers to the Environment

The environment and the surrounding community can be harmed as a result of leaks, spills,
or releases in the following ways:

• Shock waves from explosions

• Hazardous emissions and heat from fire
• Other toxic vapor releases
• Inhalation, absorption, and ingestion hazards (e.g., chemicals or radiation)
• Leaks or spills seeping into offsite soil
• Leaks or spills into groundwater, rivers, and lakes

Environmental Controls
A variety of equipment and systems are used to control environmental hazards. Process tech-
nicians should be familiar with the functions, operations, and maintenance of environmental
control equipment and systems. (Further information is outside the scope of this textbook,
and is typically covered in Equipment and Systems textbooks and courses.) Examples of
environmental controls used in the process industries are:

• Clarifiers for primary water treatment

• Trickling filters for secondary water treatment
• Activated sludge digesters, dewater dryers, and incinerators for secondary water
treatment
• Baghouses
• Cyclone separators
• Electrostatic precipitators
• Wet scrubbers
• Carbon absorbers
• Packed towers
• Dikes and containment walls.

Process Technician Responsibilities

Process technician duties that are directly or indirectly related to the environment include
the following:

• Familiarizing themselves with the hazardous chemicals and materials they work with,
their potential hazards to the environment, along with worker safety and health
• Monitoring and sampling air, water, and soil
• Promptly responding to potential leaks, spills, and releases
280 Chapter 16

• Operating processes at optimum performance

• Maintaining equipment
• Troubleshooting process problems
• Performing general housekeeping
• Reporting any potential issues
• Complying with federal, state, local, and company regulations

16.4 Environmental Regulations: Air

Clean Air Act
The Clean Air Act was established to regulate air emissions from a variety of sources (area,
stationary, and mobile). The act authorized the EPA to establish National Ambient Air Qual-
ity Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and the environment by requiring every
state to comply with NAAQS by 1975. As with many of the EPA programs, federal efforts
to control air pollution have gone through several phases. The first federal legislation to
address air pollution, the Air Pollution Control Act, was passed in 1955. Since 1955, air
pollution control legislation has been amended many times to address new or changing air
pollution issues.
The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first federal legislation covering air pollu-
tion. Federal funds were appropriated to conduct air pollution research. In 1966, the passage
of the Clean Air Act placed more emphasis on air pollution control. The program established
by the Clean Air Act placed emphasis on identifying techniques for monitoring and control-
ling air pollution.
In 1967, the Air Quality Act expanded the federal government’s role from air pollu-
tion research, monitoring, and control to include enforcement. However, the government’s
enforcement activities were limited to air issues dealing only with interstate pollution.
The enactment of the Clean Air Act of 1970 shifted the federal government’s role
again. This act authorized the development of federal and state regulations that would
place limits on stationary (industrial) and mobile sources of pollutant emissions (e.g., cars,
trucks, and trains). The Clean Air Act of 1970 brought about the establishment of four key
regulatory programs:

• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

• State Implementation Plans (SIPs)
• New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
• National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs)

CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1977 Significant changes were made to the federal
air pollution standards with the enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977. One
of these amendments provided for the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air
quality in attainment areas. The other significant amendment dealt with air quality issues in
nonattainment areas. Attainment areas are contiguous geographic locations that have met
the NAAQS goals, whereas nonattainment areas have not met their NAAQS goals. Key per-
mit review requirements were established by both of these regulations to further strengthen
the nation’s objective to reach and maintain attainment of the NAAQS.

CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1990 In 1990, a new group of amendments substan-
tially increased the power and responsibility of the EPA. Following were the most important
issues addressed by these amendments:

• Control of acid deposition (acid rain)

• Issuance of stationary source operating permits
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 281

• Incorporation of NESHAPs into an expanded program for controlling toxic air pollutants
• Control of stratospheric ozone
• Expansion of enforcement authority
• Growth of research programs

Titles I, III, IV, and V

The 1990 amendments organized the Clean Air Act into nine separate “titles.” The following
titles directly affect the process industries.

TITLE I—PROVISIONS FOR ATTAINMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF NATIONAL AMBI-

ENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS) It wasn’t until the enactment of the Clean Air
Act of 1970 that Congress delegated to the EPA the establishment of uniform National Ambi-
ent Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Two separate levels of compliance were established:
primary standards were set to protect health, and secondary standards were set (at slightly
higher levels) to protect crops and other community property.
The 1990 amendments identified six criteria pollutants: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and particulate matter.

TITLE I—STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS (SIPS) In 1970, each state became respon-
sible for developing plans to ensure that the NAAQS were implemented, maintained, and
enforced. These plans were referred to as State Implementation Plans (SIPs). Each plan had
to contain the following components:

• Detailed pollutant-source emission inventories

• Pollutant modeling and calculating data
• Pollutant-monitoring programs
• Strategies to reach the NAAQS within the designated timeframe
• A summary of the state’s legal authority to administer and enforce the plan

The amendments of 1990 also had a significant impact on the SIPs. Plans had to be
modified in order to address the increasing threat of ozone, particulate matter, and carbon
monoxide. These three pollutants have proven the most difficult to control due to the variety
of sources from which they are generated.

TITLE I—NEW SOURCE REVIEW (NSR) The 1977 amendments created the New Source
Review (NSR) program. The NSR program requires permits for all major new sources, or
substantially modified sources, in both nonattainment and attainment areas.
Acquiring a permit for major new sources in nonattainment areas is much more difficult
than obtaining a permit in an attainment area. Nonattainment areas have not yet reached
their NAAQS goals, whereas attainment areas have. It is difficult to secure permission to
add another source of air pollution to an area where emissions have not been brought into
compliance. It is also difficult to obtain these permits under the NSRP due to the requirement
that facilities must install control equipment to ensure the lowest achievable emission rate
(LAER) and must demonstrate offsets of their current pollutant emissions.

TITLE III—HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (HAPS) The control of HAPs was based
on the NESHAPs prior to 1990. NESHAPs regulated “noncriteria” pollutants while the
NAAQS regulated the localized emission sources. Only seven HAPs were regulated under
the NESHAPs program between 1970 and 1990. These seven consisted of beryllium, asbestos,
mercury, vinyl chloride, benzene, radionuclides, and inorganic arsenic.
The 1990 amendments greatly expanded the number of HAPS regulated under
NESHAPs. Under Title III, 189 compounds or groups of compounds were classified as
hazardous, including the original seven. The EPA adds and deletes compounds from the
NESHAP list as new data from research becomes available.
282 Chapter 16

TITLE IV—ACID DEPOSITION CONTROL The control of acid deposition, or acid rain,
was also addressed by the 1990 amendments. Research has proven that sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides are the primary precursors responsible for acid rain. Title IV was added to
the Clean Air Act in order to minimize the adverse effects of acid rain by reducing air emis-
sions of these two precursor compounds. The act limited the total amount of sulfur dioxide
emissions to 10 million tons per year and nitrogen dioxide emissions to 2 million tons per
year.
In order to accomplish this goal, owners and operators of stationary sources that gen-
erate these emissions must install continuous emission monitoring systems to track their
emission rates. These data must be reported to the EPA regularly. The EPA reviews the data
to confirm that the emissions are within the limits set forth for each facility.

TITLE V—THE OPERATING PERMIT PROGRAM Title V is a federal program that controls
and restricts the amount of emissions from a process facility. The details of this program are
extensive and outside the scope of this textbook.

Environmental Regulations: Water

Clean Water Act
The Clean Water Act and its amendments also have an enormous impact on the operations of
most process industry facilities. Some of the tasks that may be assigned to the process tech-
nician, such as wastewater sampling and treatment, are performed in order for facilities to
remain in compliance with the requirements of this regulation. As with air pollution control,
water pollution control legislation has gone through several phases. The first legislation to
address water pollution, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, was passed in 1948. Since
then, water pollution control legislation has been reauthorized and amended many times to
address new or changing water quality issues.
Today’s Clean Water Act consists of two major parts. One part, located in Titles II and
IV, authorizes federal financial assistance for the construction of municipal sewage treatment
facilities. Another part, found throughout the act, deals with the regulatory requirements
that apply to industrial and municipal dischargers.
This act has been termed a technology-forcing statute because of the rigorous demands
placed on those who are governed by it to achieve higher and higher levels of pollution
abatement. Industrial facilities were given until July 1, 1977, to install “best practicable con-
trol technology” (BPT) to clean up their wastewater streams. Municipal treatment plants
were required to satisfy a similar goal, termed “secondary treatment” by that same date. The
primary focus of BPT was controlling discharge of conventional (biodegradable) pollutants—
substances that can be broken down by bacteria. Such substances include suspended solids,
biochemical oxygen-demanding materials, fecal coliform and bacteria, and pH.
The act stipulated even tighter effluent standards to be achieved by 1989. These stan-
dards required industry to install the “best-available technology” (BAT) that was eco-
nomically achievable. BAT generally focuses on toxic substances, whereas BPT focuses on
conventional pollutants.
The act utilizes both water quality standards and technology-based effluent limitations
to protect water quality. Technology-based effluent limitations are established by the EPA,
placed on certain pollutants from certain sources, and applied to these sources through the
generators’ discharge permits. Water quality standards are for the overall water quality.
They designate how bodies of water can be used, such as for recreation, water supply, or
industrial purposes. Water quality standards also identify the maximum concentrations of
various pollutants for all bodies of water in the state.

WATER QUALITY ACT OF 1987 Prior to the 1987 amendments, programs in the Clean
Water Act were primarily directed at point-source pollution—wastes discharged from
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 283

discrete and identifiable sources, such as pipes and other outfalls. In contrast, little attention
had been given to nonpoint source pollution, such as storm water runoff, despite estimates Runoff polluted groundwater from
that runoff represents more than 50 percent of the nation’s remaining water pollution pollutants contained in landfills or
other industrial manufacturing or
problems. disposal sites where uncontrolled
The 1987 amendments directed states to develop and implement nonpoint source pol- rainwater comes into contact with
lution management programs. States were encouraged to pursue groundwater protection toxic chemicals and then drains into
rivers or underground water supplies
activities as part of their overall nonpoint pollution control efforts. ultimately used as sources of drinking
Under the Act, federal jurisdiction is broad. The EPA issues regulations containing BPT water.
and BAT effluent standards particular to categories of industrial sources, such as petroleum
refining and organic chemicals.
As with other environmental laws, certain responsibilities are delegated to the states.
Qualified states issue discharge permits and enforce the requirements of these permits. The
EPA issues discharge permits in states that have not been qualified to do so. This results in
a federal-state partnership philosophy, with the federal government setting the standards
and state governments carrying out implementation and enforcement.

TITLES II AND IV—MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT CONSTRUCTION Federal

law has authorized grants for the planning, design, and construction of municipal sewage
treatment facilities since 1956. Congress greatly expanded this grant program in 1972. Since
that time, Congress has authorized $65 billion and appropriated $69 billion to aid wastewater
treatment plant construction. Grants are allocated among the states according to population
and an estimate of treatment needs identified through surveys.

PERMITS Under the Clean Water Act, all discharges into the nation’s waters are unlawful
unless specifically authorized. Industrial and municipal dischargers must obtain permits
from the EPA or the municipal government before allowing any effluent to leave their prem-
ises. Penalties for permit violations can result in fines and/or criminal charges.

NATIONAL PRETREATMENT STANDARDS Federal pretreatment standards apply to

those who discharge water from any industrial source into a publicly owned water treat-
ment facility. The standards’ objectives are to protect local groundwater, improve the quality
of effluents and sludge so they can be used for beneficial purposes, and protect the treatment
plants from any threat posed by untreated industrial wastewater. In order to maintain pre-
treatment standards, the industrial facility must perform the following tasks:

• Report discharges.
• Sample discharge materials for standards compliance.
• Provide upset provisions.
• Allow for bypassing when sampling indicates inappropriate pollutant levels.

Environmental Regulations: General

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 controls the handling of solid
and hazardous waste. It actually amends earlier legislation and is very comprehensive in its
coverage. The act defines solid and hazardous waste, authorizes the EPA to set standards
for facilities that generate or manage hazardous wastes, and establishes a permit program
for hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities.
RCRA was last reauthorized by the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA)
of 1984. The amendments set deadlines for permit issuance, prohibited the land disposal of
many types of hazardous waste without prior treatment, required the use of specific tech-
nologies at land disposal facilities, and established a new program regulating underground
storage tanks.
284 Chapter 16

Subtitle C of RCRA created the hazardous waste management program. A waste is

considered hazardous if it is ignitable, corrosive, reactive, toxic, or appears on a list of about
100 industrial process waste streams or more than 500 discarded commercial products and
chemicals.
The 1976 law expanded the previous definition of solid waste to include “sludge and
other discarded material, including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous materi-
als.” This broadened definition is particularly important with respect to hazardous wastes, at
least 95 percent of which are liquids or sludges. Some wastes are specifically excluded, how-
ever, including irrigation return flows, industrial point source discharges regulated under
the Clean Water Act, and nuclear material covered by the Atomic Energy Act.
Under RCRA, hazardous waste generators must comply with regulations concerning
recordkeeping and reporting; the labeling of wastes; the use of appropriate containers; the
provision of information to transporters, treaters, and disposers on the waste’s general chem-
ical composition; and the use of a manifest system.
RCRA requires treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) facilities to have permits, to com-
ply with operating standards, to meet financial requirements in case of accidents, and to
close their facilities in accordance with EPA regulations when they decide to cease operation.
The 1984 amendments imposed several new requirements on TSD facilities to minimize
land disposal. Bulk or noncontainerized hazardous liquid wastes are prohibited from being
disposed of in any landfill. Severe restrictions are placed on the disposal of containerized
hazardous liquids, as well as on the disposal of nonhazardous liquids in hazardous waste
landfills.
The major nonhazardous solid waste provision in RCRA is the prohibition of open
dumps. The prohibition is implemented by the states, using EPA criteria to determine which
facilities qualify as sanitary landfills in order to remain open.
Underground storage tanks (USTs) are also monitored—the result of a growing nation-
wide problem surrounding leakage. To prevent future leaks, the regulation set technical
standards for tank design and installation and mandated corrective action and tank closure
when the situation necessitates such a response.
In 1984, significant amendments were made to RCRA. In addition to restrictions on land
disposal, the regulation of small-quantity generators, and the UST program, these amend-
ments also established very strict requirements for all aspects of treatment, storage, and
disposal facility operation. All TSD facilities must be inspected annually or every other year,
depending on the type of facility. Additional regulatory conditions specific to TSDs deal with
timetables for issuing and denying TSD permits, time limits for TSD permits, submittal of
information regarding the potential for public exposure to hazardous materials, and expand-
ing the EPA’s enforcement powers.

Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) regulates the creation and use of newly discovered
extremely hazardous substances or changes to existing manufacturing processes. This act
authorizes the EPA to screen existing and new chemicals used in manufacturing and com-
merce to identify potentially dangerous products or uses that should be subject to federal
control. As enacted, TSCA also included a provision requiring EPA to take specific measures
to control the risks from polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Subsequently, other sections of
the regulation have been added to address concerns about other specific toxic substances:
asbestos in 1986 and lead in 1992.
The EPA has the authority to require manufacturers and processors of chemicals to con-
duct tests and report results from research studies to determine the effects of potentially
dangerous chemicals on living things. Should the EPA determine that using these dangerous
chemicals does present an unreasonable risk to human health or the environment, the EPA can
regulate their use. Regulating the use of such a chemical can range from a total ban on pro-
duction, to additional training requirements, to proper product labeling at the point of sale.
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 285

Federal legislation to control toxic substances was originally proposed in 1971 by the
President’s Council on Environmental Quality. Its report, “Toxic Substances,” defined a need
for comprehensive legislation to identify and control chemicals whose manufacture, pro-
cessing, distribution, use and/or disposal was potentially dangerous and not adequately
controlled under other environmental statutes. The House and Senate each passed bills, but
controversy over these bills precluded enactment.

Did You Know?

Asbestos and PCB are the reason the Toxic Substances
Control Act was created.

CREDIT: Phuangphech/Shutterstock.

Then, many waterways became contaminated with PCBs. Chlorofluorocarbons began

to threaten the ozone layer. It wasn’t until these episodes of environmental contamination
occurred and more accurate estimates were made of the costs of imposing toxic substances
controls that the legislation was passed and enacted in 1976.
The TSCA directs the EPA to require manufacturers and processors to conduct tests for
existing chemicals if any of the following conditions exist:

• Their manufacture, distribution, processing, use, or disposal may present an unrea-

sonable risk of injury to the health or the environment; or they are to be produced in
substantial quantities and the potential for environmental release or human exposure
is substantial or significant.
• Existing data are insufficient to predict the effects of human exposure and environmental
releases.
• Testing is necessary to develop such data.

Manufacturers must also prevent future risks through premarket screening and regu-
latory tracking of new chemical products. They must control unreasonable risks already
known or as they are discovered for existing chemicals. Finally, manufacturers must gather
and disseminate information about chemical production, use, and possible adverse effects
to human health and the environment.

Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

(EPCRA)
The EPCRA was enacted in 1986, establishing state and local entities and assigning them the
responsibility to ready their communities to respond to a hazardous chemical release. Each
state created an emergency-response commission and then divided the state into emergency
planning districts, which in turn established local emergency planning committees. Local
firefighters, health officials, government representatives, and industry management serve
on these local committees.
The EPCRA also mandated that facilities that use or manufacture hazardous substances
must report their annual releases to the government. Facilities must also notify local authori-
ties should an accident at their plant present a potential threat to their industrial and com-
munity neighbors.
286 Chapter 16

The EPCRA’s main purpose is to protect the health, safety, and environment of our
communities. The major provisions for emergency planning and notification are as follows:

• The EPA established a list of “extremely hazardous substances” and established thresh-
old planning quantities for each substance.
• Facilities that handle these substances are required to have emergency response plans
and employee training programs for those called upon to respond to emergency
situations.
• The immediate report of any sudden release of these substances is required. In addition,
a release of any hazardous substance exceeding the reportable quantity must also be
reported to state, local, and federal officials.

Facilities are required to submit safety data sheets (SDSs) for each hazardous chemical
within the plant’s inventory to the agencies and the local fire department. In addition, an
inventory must be submitted to the same agencies and provide the following information:

• Estimates of the maximum amount of each inventoried chemical present at any time
throughout the year
• Estimates of the average daily amount of each inventoried chemical
• Location of each inventoried chemical

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,

and Liability Act (CERCLA) and Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
of 1980 created the Superfund hazardous substances cleanup program. It was enlarged and
reauthorized by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA).
The CERCLA authorizes the federal government to respond to spills and other releases
(or threatened releases) of hazardous substances, as well as to uncontrolled hazardous waste
dumps. Hazardous substances are identified under the Solid Waste Disposal Act, the Clean
Water Act, the Clean Air Act, and the Toxic Substances Control Act, or are designated by the
EPA. Response is also authorized for releases of “pollutants or contaminants,” which are
broadly defined to include virtually anything that can threaten the health of “any organism.”
Most nuclear materials and petroleum are excluded, except for those petroleum products
that are specifically designated as hazardous substances under one of the laws previously
mentioned.
The government classifies responses under two categories: short-term removals, where
emergency action is necessary, and long-term remedial action taken at sites on the National
Priority List (NPL). Removals are limited to a one-year effort with an expenditure of not
more than $2 million. Remedial actions are of a longer term, are more expensive, and fre-
quently involve extensive engineering at the sites.
The CERCLA and the SARA also provide for liability and financial responsibilities.
Waste generators, transporters who select disposal sites, and disposal facility owners and
operators are liable for response costs and for damage to natural resources. The acts do not
provide for victims of exposure to hazardous substances. Victims must seek restitution in
state court.
Potentially responsible parties (PRPs) are accountable for enforcement and cleanup
costs. There are no limits to the liability amount that can be assessed if the release is due
to misconduct; negligence; violation of any safety, construction, or operating standards or
regulations; or when cooperation and assistance requested by a public official in connec-
tion with response activities is denied. Should PRPs refuse to comply with a cleanup order,
they may be assessed punitive damages that can amount to three times the liability amount.
Because some waste sites are abandoned and/or the original owners or dumpers cannot
 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 287

be found, it may be difficult to determine a PRP. In these cases, a superfund is created. A

superfund is a monetary fund that comes from tax dollars paid by the chemical industry. Superfund a monetary fund that
When no PRP can be found, money from the superfund is used to fund cleanup of aban- comes from tax dollars paid by the
chemical industry to pay for the
doned waste sites. cleanup of abandoned waste sites
The SARA set deadlines in order to expedite cleanup progress. Deadlines were set in the event no responsible party can
through 1990 for the following: be found.

• Site inspections
• NPL listing and ranking
• Remedial investigations
• Feasibility studies
• Onsite work

This act stipulates that cleanups must assure the protection of health and the environ-
ment. Remediation must meet the standards of federal and state environmental laws, spe-
cifically the Safe Drinking Water Act’s recommended maximum contaminant levels and the
Clean Water Act’s water quality criteria.
Permanent remedies, such as incineration, rather than nonpermanent remedies are man-
dated. If a nonpermanent remedy, such as solidification and burial, is allowed under waiver,
the EPA must inspect the site every five years.

DIOXINS AND FURANS Dioxins and furans are some of the most toxic substances known.
They cause birth defects, cancer, and problems with mental development and behavior.
No one intentionally manufactures these substances, but they are produced as by-products
of the manufacture of certain pesticides, preservatives, disinfectants, and paper products.
When wastes from these manufacturing processes are burned (oxidized or combusted) at
low temperatures, dioxins and furans are formed. The presence of dioxins and furans in
groundwater from runoff of waste disposal sites has caused abandonment of entire com-
munities. The two most well-known sites in the United States are Times Beach, Missouri,
and Love Canal, New York.
Dioxins and furans can also be formed from halogenated compounds being oxidized
(burned). Halogens are these elements: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. The
most common halogens in natural habitats and in industrial manufacturing are fluorine and
chlorine. Chlorine is part of the compound chlorophyll, which makes leaves green. When
leafy plants are burned (in the Amazon forest, in forest fires anywhere, and in wood burned
as a source of heat), dioxins and furans are formed.
Industrial waste sites with improperly contained or treated rainwater runoff are also
sources. Dioxins and furans enter the food chain and affect the human population. For
example, corn or grass treated with herbicides or pesticides containing trace amounts of
dioxins and furans are eaten by livestock. The dioxins and furans build up in the fatty tissue
of livestock, and then the livestock are eaten by humans. Animal studies report that buildup
of dioxins and furans is associated with immune system suppression, fetal deformities, and
cancer. In humans, it is associated with changes in hormone levels and a skin condition
called chloracne.
Contamination of the environment, especially the food supply, by dioxins and furans
is a relatively new problem. Cores drilled from the bottom of the Great Lakes and from
a lake in Switzerland were analyzed for dioxins and furans. Like rings on a tree, these
cores can show changes that occur over time. In cores from these lakes, there were almost
undetectable amounts of dioxins and furans prior to 1940, when mass combustion of halo-
genated compounds was almost nonexistent. After 1940, pesticides, herbicides, leaded
gasoline, and other products that contain halogens—primarily fluorine and chlorine—
became prominent. The core samples called attention to contamination of the environ-
ment with dioxins and furans. Furan and dioxin contamination are now considered to be
a worldwide problem.
288 Chapter 16

Summary
Hazardous chemicals vary in their composition and are classi- recognize a discharge or a potential discharge, and know what
fied in a variety of categories. For example, substances can be actions to take to prevent or reduce a toxic discharge. In addi-
combustible, flammable, water-reactive, pyrophoric, explosive, tion, process technicians must be familiar with the substances
or oxidizing. These hazardous agents typically do not present they are working with and be aware of the environmental
a threat to the environment or to the average citizen in the com- regulations associated with those substances.
munity unless they are released from a controlled environment. Landfills with domestic and industrial wastes that catch
Leaks, spills, and releases all involve the uncontrolled dis- fire or are purposefully burned, as well as mass burning of
charge of hazardous process fluids. These types of discharge leafy forests like the Amazon and forest fires containing large
can be caused by any number of factors, including human amounts of leafy or evergreen trees, produce dioxins and
error, exceeding operating limits, corrosion and erosion, furans. Industrial waste sites with improperly contained or
improperly designed equipment, equipment failure, process treated rainwater runoff are also sources. Dioxins and furans
changes, and weather conditions. build up in fatty tissues and are associated with negative
Process technicians must be familiar with the ways haz- health consequences for animals and for humans.
ardous substances can enter the environment, know how to

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 5. Which of the following factors can lead to human error?
a. Corrosion (Select all that apply.)
b. Erosion a. Skill level
c. Leak b. Level of training
d. Release c. Operator fatigue
e. Spill d. Ability to concentrate
f. Superfund 6. List four examples of environmental controls used in the
g. Runoff process industries.

2. A flammable liquid is: 7. What was the first federal legislation covering air
pollution?
a. Any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100 degrees
Fahrenheit a. Clean Air Act
b. Any liquid that has a flashpoint above 200 degrees b. Air Quality Act
Fahrenheit c. Air Pollution Control Act
c. Any liquid that can easily be ignited d. National Ambient Air Act
d. Any liquid that has a flammability percentage over 8. Who established the technology-based effluent limita-
10 percent tions on certain pollutants?
3. What is the result of sodium reacting with water? 9. The Superfund site cleanup program was established
a. Hydrogen under:
b. Iron sulfide a. Comprehensive Environmental Response,
c. Oxygen ­Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
d. Pyrophoric material b. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
c. Clean Air Act (CAA)
4. List five factors that could lead to leaks, spills, and
releases. d. Water Quality Act (WQA)
10. What is the origin of dioxins and furans?

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

 Recognizing Environmental Hazards 289

Student Activities
1. Research one of the following topics and write a one- to regulation is implemented in your community. Discuss
two-page paper describing what you learned. your findings with your fellow classmates.

a. Clean Air Act (CAA)

4. Request facility hazardous chemical inventory forms for
b. Clean Water Act (CWA) any local facilities by contacting the Local Emergency
c. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Planning Commission (LEPC) or the public library.
d. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Review the forms to see what chemicals are listed.

e. Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-

5. Contact your local water authority and obtain the latest
Know Act (EPCRA)
tests on your drinking water. Report your findings (e.g.,
f. Comprehensive Environmental Response, water source, which substances are over the limits, and
­Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) which substances are close to the limits).
g. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
(SARA) 6. Research a superfund site (e.g., Love Canal). Write a
paper or create a presentation explaining the following:
2. Pick a pollutant (e.g., ozone). Develop a presentation
about its sources and/or how it is formed, its effects a. Where the site is located
on public health and the environment, and methods of
b. What happened
control.
c. How the site was remediated (cleaned up)
3. Attend a Local Emergency Planning Commission (LEPC) d. What the site is used for today
meeting to better understand how the Emergency
Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA)
 Chapter 17
Introduction to Hazard
Controls
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of hazard controls in the process industries, which
can affect the safety and health of workers.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
17.1 Describe the three major types of hazard controls:
Engineering
Administrative
PPE. (NAPTA Safety, Intro to Hazard Controls 1*) p. 291
17.2 Discuss why, when, and how these controls are applied. (NAPTA
Safety, Intro to Hazard Controls 2) p. 292

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Intro to Hazard Controls 1)” means that
this chapter’s objective 1 relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety regard-
ing hazard controls.

Key Terms
ABC model—a model used to provide observation and feedback on safety
performance to workers: (A) activators or events in an environment often direct
(B) behavior or performance, which is motivated by (C) the consequences that
people expect to avoid or receive, p. 295.
Audit—a review, typically conducted by people from the company, a hired third
party, regulatory agencies, or a combination of these groups, to determine
if a particular facility is complying with established safety, health, and/or
environmental programs, p. 295.
Hazard control—the recognition, evaluation, and elimination (or mitigation) of
hazards in the workplace, p. 291.

290
 Introduction to Hazard Controls 291

Inspection—a proactive activity conducted prior to a need for action by plant

personnel to ensure that safety, health, and environmental programs are being
followed, p. 295.
Monitoring—a process used to gather data to evaluate the work environment using
specialized equipment, p. 295.
Process hazard analysis (PHA)—an organized, systematic process used to identify
potential hazards that could result in accidents causing injury, death, property
damage, or environmental damage, p. 294.

17.1 Introduction
The process industries employ many different types of controls to ensure safety. These con-
trols include engineering controls, administrative controls, personal protective equipment,
and government regulations. Process technicians should be aware of the safety controls in
place in their facility and how to use them. This chapter describes the various efforts used
to reduce hazards in the process industries.

Hazard Controls Overview

As earlier chapters in this book have shown, the potential for a variety of hazards exists in
the process industries, such as exposure to chemicals, fire, biological agents, falls, noise,
pressure, and temperature extremes. Process technicians must understand the hazards they
might encounter, as well as the controls that companies put in place to eliminate or reduce
these hazards.
Hazard control involves the recognition, evaluation, and elimination (or minimization) Hazard control the recognition,
of hazards in the workplace. The best way to address a hazard is to eliminate it entirely or evaluation, and elimination (or
mitigation) of hazards in the
substitute a less hazardous alternative. Sometimes, a process can be redesigned to eliminate workplace.
a hazard completely, such as automating a process that previously exposed workers to
mechanical hazards or using nontoxic or less toxic raw materials in place of a more toxic
material.
Hazard control is addressed using one of three different methods, listed from most
preferable to least preferable:

• Engineering controls are physical changes that address the source of the hazard, and
then eliminate or reduce exposure to it. This can include equipment changes, process
changes, or material changes. For example, sound dampening materials could be
installed to reduce a noise hazard, or proper ventilation could be used to significantly
reduce a hazardous atmosphere. An engineering control is the preferred method of
hazard control; however, it can be expensive to implement.
• Administrative controls use policies, procedures, programs, training, and supervision
to establish rules and guidelines for workers to follow, thus reducing their exposure to
a hazard. Administrative controls reduce but do not always eliminate the hazard.
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) is special gear and equipment that workers can
use to create a physical barrier between themselves and hazards. For example, a hard hat
can reduce the hazard of falling objects. Respirators can keep workers from breathing
chemical vapor or particulates. These controls only reduce exposure to the hazard.

The following sections expand on these controls.

292 Chapter 17

17.2 Engineering Controls

Engineering controls vary widely, based on factors such as the following:

• Applicable government regulations (e.g., safety, health, and environmental)

• Type of industry
• Management decision
• Economics
• Type of process
• Required equipment
• Available materials
• Technology

Although engineering controls vary widely based on these factors, the following are
some general forms they can take (Figure 17.1):

Figure 17.1 Proper ventilation

is an engineering control used to
reduce hazardous environments.
CREDIT: Iamnoonmai/Shutterstock.

• Process containment
• Automation
• Noise abatement
• Sound dampening
• Heat shielding
• Radiation shielding
• Equipment layout
• Ventilation
• Detection systems
• Alarms
• Electrical grounding and bonding
• Automatic shutdown devices
• Machine guarding
• Guardrails
• Spill containment
• Work areas and working surfaces
• Fire suppression equipment
 Introduction to Hazard Controls 293

• Redundant (backup) systems

• Flares and pressure relief valves
• Interlocks (devices designed to prevent an action unless a certain condition is met)
• Improved equipment design (e.g., fails less, leaks less)
• Closed-loop sampling

Engineers, safety and health personnel, management, and purchasing are involved
in the process of identifying, evaluating, and implementing engineering controls. Process
technicians play a vital part in providing input about the need for and placement of engi-
neering controls, participating in safety committee reviews, and reporting any potential
problems. Chapter 18, Engineering Controls, in this book describes various engineering
controls in more detail.

Administrative Controls
If an engineering control cannot be used to control a safety, health, or environmental hazard,
then an administrative control can be sought. Administrative controls take a wide range of
forms (Figure 17.2):

Figure 17.2 Warning signs are

a type of administrative control
used to increase worker safety.
CREDIT: Mega Pixel/Shutterstock.

• Programs (e.g., hearing awareness week and fire prevention week)

• Procedures
• Policies
• Training
• Supervision
• Monitoring
• Permits
• Process hazard analysis
• Documentation
• Housekeeping
• Inspection and audits
• Safe work observations (watching selected work practices and providing feedback)
• Signs and signals (can be audio, visual, or both)
• Reward programs
• Work area changes (i.e., limiting workers’ exposure to a hazard by moving them to
another area temporarily)
294 Chapter 17

In general terms, administrative controls fall into two broad categories: programs and
activities. Programs are documented approaches for controlling a hazard, and activities are
the programs put into action. Program design and development are determined by require-
ments set by one or more of the following:

• Government (regulatory)
• Company
• Site- or plant-specific
• Unit- or department-specific
• Work environment (union versus nonunion)
• Community

Program elements include:

• Policies—guiding principles
• Procedures—step-by-step instructions for accomplishing a task
• Plans—methods prepared in advance for carrying out actions
• Principles—a set of standards or rules
• Rules—statements about what can and cannot be done, and may include possible
rewards or consequences
• Agreements—plans for coordinating activities between different organizations
• Systems—organized, interdependent sets of principles developed for industry-wide use

Following are some examples of common programs:

• Regulatory-mandated or those created in response to government regulations such as

OSHA and EPA standards. These programs interpret the laws and establish a compliance
plan using a written program (e.g., a hazard communication, or HAZCOM, program).
• Evacuation and emergency plans, or established responses outlining required emer-
gency actions (e.g., communications, designated safety officials, evacuation routes).
• Mutual aid agreements, or agreements between a facility and the nearby emergency
response unit or local government, for rendering community aid in the event of an
emergency.
• Incident management system (IMS) (formerly the incident command system [ICS]) or
methods for assigned command and control during an incident.

Training is a critical activity in the process industries. No matter what job process techni-
cians are assigned to do, they must receive some type of training to perform the job safely,
competently, and effectively. The importance of training has grown in recent years. A bet-
ter-trained workforce is required because of advances in the field of process technology,
increased quality standards, and the ever-present need for safety.
Companies create a system of permits to ensure safe work practices. Permits can be
required for confined space entry, lockout/tagout, hot work, and other potentially hazard-
ous practices. Safe work permits can include a list of steps required to complete a task, a
hazard assessment, instructions for eliminating or minimizing a hazard, and provisions for
maintaining safe working conditions until the task is complete. See Chapter 21, Permitting
Systems, in this book for details.
Process hazard analysis A process hazard analysis (PHA) is an organized, systematic process used to identify poten-
(PHA) an organized, systematic tial hazards that could result in accidents that could cause injury, death, property damage, or
process used to identify potential
environmental damage. Many different methodologies can be used to conduct a PHA. One
hazards that could result in accidents
causing injury, death, property methodology is called HAZOP, or hazards and operability study. A HAZOP identifies operations
damage, or environmental damage. problems and hazards to personnel, company property, and the environment. The benefits of a
properly done PHA are many; it can identify hazards, optimize productivity, mitigate legal lia-
bilities, reduce operating costs, improve employee morale, and shorten project schedules.
 Introduction to Hazard Controls 295

Monitoring is a process by which data are gathered to evaluate the work environment Monitoring a process used to
(Figure 17.3). Industrial health monitoring involves sampling various elements in the work gather data to evaluate the work
environment using specialized
environment to determine if hazards exist and to what level. Specialized equipment is used equipment.
to assist the monitoring process, such as the following:

• A decibel meter to measure noise levels

• Absorbing materials (in the form of badges or sorbent tubes) to capture and measure
chemical exposure
• A dosimeter to measure radiation exposure
• A “sniffer” to detect hazardous atmospheres

Figure 17.3 Monitoring is

a process by which data are
gathered to evaluate the work
environment.
CREDIT: Branislavpudar/Shutterstock.

The data are recorded and tracked to show historical perspective. These data are ana-
lyzed and compared to published standards (e.g., OSHA’s hearing conservation program
or OSHA’s air contaminant standard). Industrial health monitoring is usually designed to
determine workers’ exposure to hazardous agents and often requires workers to wear moni-
toring equipment over a period of time.
Safe work observations provide observation and feedback to workers on safety perfor-
mance, including safe behaviors or at-risk behaviors. This process involves the basic ABC ABC model a model used to
model: the idea that (A) activators direct (B) behavior and are motivated by (C) consequences. provide observation and feedback
on safety performance to workers:
In other words, events (activators) in an environment often direct performance (behavior), (A) activators or events in an
but people most likely do what they do because of the consequences they expect to avoid or environment often direct (B) behavior
receive. Often, employees observe each other at work and then provide one-on-one coaching or performance, which is motivated
by (C) the consequences that people
to each other. The aim is to make this process part of the work culture. expect to avoid or receive.
Housekeeping, or keeping work areas neat and orderly, is also important for maintain-
ing a safe environment. Process technicians must assist with housekeeping tasks; it is a Inspection a proactive activity
part of the job description. Good housekeeping can prevent accidents, save money, increase conducted prior to a need for action
productivity, and improve morale. by plant personnel to ensure that
safety, health, and environmental
Inspections and audits are activities that involve conducting regular safety, health, and programs are being followed.
environmental checks. These activities are proactive, meaning that they are conducted prior
to a need for action. Inspections are usually conducted by plant personnel to ensure that safety,
Audit a review, typically conducted
health, and environmental programs are being followed. Inspections can be conducted on a by people from the company, a hired
regularly timed basis, or can be unannounced (such as a spot check). Process technicians may third party, regulatory agencies, or
be asked to participate with an inspection team. Audits are examinations typically conducted a combination of these groups, to
determine if a particular facility is
to determine if a particular facility is complying with established programs. The group con-
complying with established safety,
ducting the audit can be comprised of people from the company, regulatory agencies, a hired health, and/or environmental
third party, or a combination. Audits are performed less frequently than inspections. programs.
296 Chapter 17

Incident Investigation
Investigations occur in reaction to an incident (either an accident or a near miss). A team
usually performs an investigation. The team can be made up of individuals with different
skills, experience, and viewpoints. Investigations can accomplish the following:

• Decide which problem will be addressed.

• Describe the problem.
• Develop a thorough understanding of the problem.
• Examine the problem.
• Agree on basic causes of the problem.
• Develop an effective solution.
• Implement corrective action.

Process technicians can be required to participate on an investigation team or provide

information to a team.
Chapter 20, Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices, describes various administra-
tive controls in more detail.

Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) helps form a protective barrier between workers and a
hazard if engineering and/or administrative controls do not sufficiently reduce or eliminate
the hazard (see Figure 17.4).

Figure 17.4 PPE helps form

a protective barrier between
workers and a hazard.
CREDIT: Bannasak Krodkeaw/Shutterstock.

PPE comes in a wide variety of forms:

• Footwear
• Gloves
• Coveralls, lab coats, aprons, and other protective clothing
• Safety goggles or glasses
• Hearing protection (e.g., ear plugs, ear muffs)
• Respirators
• Headgear and hard hats
• Face shields
 Introduction to Hazard Controls 297

Selecting the proper PPE for the hazard, then making sure the PPE fits properly, is the
key to ensure a worker’s safety. For PPE, process technicians must understand the follow-
ing tasks:

• Selection—choosing the right PPE (or combination of PPE) to address the hazard
• Fit—adjusting the PPE to meet the needs and be as comfortable as possible (called fit
testing)
• Inspection—checking the PPE for wear and damage
• Wear—donning the PPE before performing the task associated with the hazard
• Maintenance—caring for (cleaning, repair) the PPE
• Storage—properly putting away the PPE

It is crucial that process technicians wear PPE at all times when they are working around
potential hazards. Removing a piece of PPE, even for a moment, can expose a worker to the
hazard. Workers must know the limitations of PPE and understand that hazards still exist
and not become complacent. Employers are required to train workers on PPE and provide
appropriate PPE. Check with your company’s safety and/or health professionals for proper
selection, fit, use, and maintenance.
Chapter 22, Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid, in this book describes this control
in more detail.

Summary
The process industries employ many different types of con- a hazard. Administrative controls reduce but do not always
trols to ensure safety. These include engineering controls, eliminate the hazard.
administrative controls, personal protective equipment, and Personal protective equipment (PPE) is special gear and
government regulations. equipment that workers can use as a physical protective bar-
Engineering controls are physical elements (e.g., heat rier between themselves and hazards (e.g., a hard hat can
shielding, guardrails, alarms, and shutdown devices) that reduce the hazard of falling objects, and respirators can keep
address the source of the hazard and then eliminate or reduce workers from breathing chemical vapors or particulates). PPE
exposure to it. does not eliminate a hazard; it simply reduces exposure to the
Administrative controls use policies, procedures, pro- hazard if used properly.
grams, training, and supervision to establish rules and guide- Process technicians should be aware of the safety controls
lines for workers to follow, thus reducing their exposure to in place in their facility and how to use them.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 2. Which of the following is the first you should consider
a. ABC model to control a hazard?
b. Audit a. Administrative
c. Hazard control b. Elimination
d. Inspection c. PPE
e. Monitoring d. Engineering
f. Personal protective equipment (PPE)
298 Chapter 17

3. ______ controls are physical changes that address the 6. List at least five elements included under administrative
source of the hazard and then eliminate or reduce expo- controls.
sure to it.
7. What is a PHA?
4. List at least seven forms that engineering controls can
8. List the elements of the ABC model.
take.
9. What does PPE stand for?
5. What are two broad categories of administrative controls?
a. PPE and engineering plans 10. List the six tasks associated with PPE.
b. Training and documentation
c. Behavior and observation
d. Programs and activities

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Meet with your fellow students to discuss various prod- 4. Think about engineering controls in everyday life (e.g., a
ucts or equipment that you have used which presented lawn mower’s blade brake) that improve safety. Discuss
some type of hazard. Come up with different engineer- your ideas with your fellow students.
ing solutions for controlling the hazard, and have the
group vote on the best solution. 5. What administrative controls do you use at home to pre-
vent accidents (e.g., turning off a breaker before fixing a
2. Think of a potential hazard for a situation, such as switch or installing a light fixture, and ensuring ladders
replacing a car battery, and write a procedure for how to have good footing)? Make a list of the tasks.
safely complete the task.
6. Make a list of PPE that you wear at home when doing
3. Choose a type of PPE. Research the requirements for repairs, yardwork, housework, or other similar tasks.
selecting, fitting, wearing, and maintaining the PPE.
Write a paper describing the PPE, the types of hazards
the PPE addresses, how to properly fit the PPE, and how
to clean and maintain it.
Chapter 18
Engineering Controls:
Alarms and Indicator
Systems
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of engineering controls relating to alarm and
indication systems.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
18.1 Describe the role of alarms in providing a warning of conditions that
can lead to emergencies, leaks, spills, and releases, and discuss the
dangers of improper responses or failures of alarms. (NAPTA
Engineering Controls, Alarms 1, 4*) p. 300
18.2 Identify various engineering controls, specifically alarm and indicator
systems, used by the process industries to minimize and/or eliminate
threats to health, safety, and the environment:
Fire alarms and detection systems
Toxic gas alarms and detection systems
Process alarms (high level, high pressure, deviation, etc.)
Redundant alarm and shutdown devices
Automatic shutdown devices
Interlocks. (NAPTA Engineering Controls, Alarms 2) p. 301
18.3 Discuss actions required by process technicians when alarms occur.
(NAPTA Engineering Controls, Alarms 3) p. 309

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Engineering Controls: Alarms 1, 4)” means that
this chapter’s objective 1 relates to objectives 1 and 4 of the NAPTA curriculum about alarms
and indicator systems.

299
300 Chapter 18

Key Terms
Alarm—a device, such as a horn, flashing light, whistle, or bell, that provides visual
and/or audible cues of conditions outside the normal operating range, p. 302.
Annunciator—a device that displays alarm conditions through the use of flashing
and continuously lit panels, p. 302.
Audible alarm—an alarm that uses sound to warn workers of a particular condition
or hazard, p. 302.
Detection device—equipment designed to sense a particular condition (e.g., smoke,
vapors, flame) and send a signal to an alarm system if the condition exceeds a
preset limit, p. 301.
Indicator device—a generic term for a type of equipment that indicates process
variables; may be visual (e.g., light), audible (e.g., horn), or both, p. 302.
Interlock—a type of hardware or software that does not allow an action to occur if
certain conditions are not met, p. 306.
Permissive interlock—a type of interlock that allows a process or equipment to start
up once certain conditions are met, p. 306.
Pressure switch—a mechanical device that uses electrical contacts to complete an
electric circuit and generate an alarm signal, p. 302.
Redundant system—a system that provides a backup in the event the primary system
fails, p. 305.
Visible alarm—an alarm that uses visual means (e.g., lights, motion, color) to warn
workers of a particular condition or hazard, p. 302.

18.1 Introduction
Alarms and indicators are designed to alert workers if something should go wrong and/
or notify responsible personnel that a potentially dangerous situation exists that requires
attention. These systems are crucial to maintaining the safety and health of workers and
protecting the community and the environment. Alarms are also used to maintain peak
operating efficiency as well as ensure product quality.
This chapter provides an overview of detection devices, alarms and indicators, and
automatic responses. The process technician must understand how these systems detect
hazardous or unusual conditions and generate alerts or automatic responses.
Note: The role of alarms and indicators is to provide operators with a “snapshot” of what is
occurring in the process at the moment they are viewing the alarm or indicator. An alarm is
in reality an indicator showing that a measured parameter of the process is above or below
its normal operating range. Alarms indicate one or both of these two facts:

• Product quality is being compromised or harmed.

• There is a dangerous condition apparent due to one or more parameters being out of
normal operating range.

Alarm Principle: Operators must manage the process, NOT the alarms of the process. This
principle is discussed in detail in the section “Rationale for Alarms.”

Hazardous and Emergency Situations

A wide range of potential hazards exist in the process industries, such as fires, explosions,
and releases. Dangerous or hazardous situations can occur, threatening workers, equipment,
the facility, and the surrounding community and environment.
Hazardous situations can include any of the following:

• Fires
• Explosions
 Engineering Controls: Alarms and Indicator Systems 301

• Spills
• Leaks
• Releases
• Terrorist attacks

Process conditions in a facility must be constantly monitored for changes. If these

changes are not detected early, they can rapidly escalate into hazardous situations or emer-
gencies that can result in injuries, loss of life, damage to equipment and facilities, and envi-
ronmental damage.
Once a hazardous change or situation is detected, it must be communicated to workers
using an alarm and indicator system. Finally, workers must know how to properly respond
to the alarm.

18.2 Alarms and Indicator Systems

Detection Devices and Alarms
Detection devices (Figure 18.1) are pieces of equipment used to monitor a process, Detection device equipment
equipment, condition, or area for changes that could lead to potentially hazardous situations. designed to sense a particular
condition (e.g., smoke, vapors, flame)
Devices can be designed to detect for various conditions, such as the following: and send a signal to an alarm system
if the condition exceeds a preset limit.
• Smoke
• Fire
• Explosive atmosphere
• Hazardous atmosphere
• Intrusion (unauthorized entry)
• Vibration
• Radiation
• Noise
• Low or high:
• Fluid levels
• Pressures
• Temperatures
• Flow
• Speed or velocity
• Chemical composition
• Access to restricted areas

Figure 18.1 Detection devices

monitor for changes that could
lead to potentially hazardous
situations.
CREDIT: Roman Sotola/Shutterstock.

ALERT SMOKE

CO
302 Chapter 18

A condition can be measured in simple yes or no terms or when a predetermined setting

Indicator device a generic term is reached (e.g., when a concentration of vapor exceeds a set amount). When a device detects
for a type of equipment that indicates
process variables; may be visual (e.g., a condition, it sends a signal that indicates to the system that a condition has been reached.
light), audible (e.g., horn), or both. Indicator devices may be visual (e.g., light), audible (e.g., horn), or both.
Alarms (Figure 18.2) are signals that indicate the existence of an unusual or potentially
Alarm a device, such as a horn,
flashing light, whistle, or bell, that hazardous situation. Alarms warn workers when a hazard or dangerous condition is about
provides visual and/or audible cues to happen, could potentially happen, or is currently happening. For example, a filtration
of conditions outside the normal system can use an alarm to warn when a filter must be replaced to avoid equipment damage.
operating range.
Or, a smoke alarm can warn of a potential fire hazard.

Figure 18.2 Alarms alert

personnel to the existence of an
unusual or potentially hazardous
situation.
CREDIT: Aleksandar Solomun/Shutterstock.

Audible alarm an alarm that uses An audible alarm uses sound to warn workers of a particular condition or hazard,
sound to warn workers of a particular
whereas a visible alarm may use lights, motion, or color to alert workers. An annunciator
condition or hazard.
is a device that displays alarm conditions through the use of flashing or continuously lit
Visible alarm an alarm that uses panels. When an alarm goes off, it is called annunciation.
visual means (e.g., lights, motion, Some alarms can be activated manually. Others have a pressure switch that uses electri-
color) to warn workers of a particular cal contacts to complete an electric circuit and generate an alarm signal. Alarms are used to
condition or hazard.
warn of hazards, dangerous conditions, and/or emergencies such as the following:

Annunciator a device that displays • Fires

alarm conditions through the use of
flashing and continuously lit panels.
• Natural disasters (e.g., tornadoes)
• Evacuations
Pressure switch a mechanical
• Spills
device that uses electrical contacts
to complete an electric circuit and • General states of emergency.
generate an alarm signal.
Alarms can create an audible signal (can be heard), visible signal (can be seen), or a
combination of both. In a noisy plant environment, most alarms produce both audible and
visual signals.
Alarms are coded with certain meanings that are specific to each facility (e.g., red flash-
ing lights may indicate a hazard or a chemical release). A facility-wide alarm can use a
sounder (horn) to generate tones in predetermined sequences and or pitches (frequencies)
that indicate the type of hazard. For example, two long blasts of a horn followed by one short
blast could mean a hazardous leak has occurred. Speakers can also be placed throughout a
facility so verbal instructions can be provided to workers. It is vital that process technicians
learn all the alarm signals, systems, and meanings for their facility. They must also know
how to respond to each type of alarm.
In some situations, closed-circuit TV is used to allow remote monitoring of areas where
detectors and alarms are used but workers are not usually present. A camera is set up in the
area so it can transmit video or images back to a central location. TV monitors display the
video feed or images so workers can monitor these areas.
 Engineering Controls: Alarms and Indicator Systems 303

Alarm systems can be tied to plant instrumentation and the facility’s process control
system, typically called a distributed control system (DCS). In simple terms, a DCS is a com-
puterized control system that links to various sensors and detection devices that monitor
aspects of a process, called process variables. The DCS allows process technicians to view
the real-time status of process variables and operating statistics using computer monitors.
The DCS also has a control interface that allows process technicians to control or respond to
process variables automatically, making corrective changes as necessary.
Although process control and DCS details are outside the scope of this book, the process
technician must understand the role of the DCS in an alarm system.
Detectors can link to the DCS, providing updates on the potentially hazardous con-
ditions that they monitor. If a change occurs, the DCS will display an alarm condition
(Figure 18.3). The process technician must acknowledge the alarm and then perform
an appropriate response. Typical DCS alarms are prioritized using one of the following
designations:

• High high
• High
• Low
• Low low

H Figure 18.3 High and low level

High level alarms on a tank.
alarm LA

L
Low level
LA
alarm

Keep in mind that other designations can be used. Each facility is responsible for priori-
tizing, categorizing, and naming its alarm conditions.
Alarm systems can also be tied to process upset control systems (e.g., flares, relief
valves), automatic shutdown devices, firefighting systems, explosion suppression systems,
deluge systems, ventilation, and other similar engineering controls.
Alarm system failure can result in an extremely dangerous situation. Some alarm systems
perform self-checks and diagnostics to ensure that they are still working. However, all alarms
must be manually tested on a regular basis to make sure they function properly. Alarm
system reliability is imperative for the safe operation of the plant or facility, so redundant
(backup) systems are often used.
Detection equipment, by its nature, is often delicate and sensitive to its environment.
Potential factors that can cause damage or false readings include the following:

• Dust
• Temperature
• Moisture and humidity
• Corrosive atmospheres
• Mechanical damage
• Chemicals with properties similar to the substance being monitored
304 Chapter 18

Detectors and alarm systems must be tested and maintained regularly to ensure they
function properly for both normal and abnormal situations.

Fire Alarms and Detection Systems

Fire and/or explosive atmosphere detectors can be installed throughout a facility. Fire
detection devices include the following:

• Smoke detectors
• Flame detectors
• Temperature switches
• Carbon monoxide detectors
• Explosive gas detectors

Each is activated when a predetermined level, such as high temperature, an abundance

of smoke particles, or an excessive amount of carbon monoxide, is reached. This triggers the
fire alarm automatically, providing audible, and sometimes visual, warnings to workers.
Because a worker might see flames before a detector can sense them, fire alarms can also be
set off manually.
Fire alarms and explosive atmosphere alarms can be tied to a deluge system, which
rapidly dumps water or a fire- or explosion-suppression substance (Figure 18.4). Firefight-
ing systems can use water sprinklers, halon systems, carbon dioxide systems, foam, or other
systems based on the type of fire that must be suppressed. Water is used to extinguish fires
and cool down hot equipment. Halon is used around computer systems, telephone switch
rooms, and other electrically sensitive equipment. Carbon dioxide is used for fires involv-
ing electrical and electronic equipment. See Chapter 24, Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response
Equipment, for more details.

Figure 18.4 Fire alarms and

explosive atmosphere alarms can
be tied to a deluge system, which
rapidly dumps water or a fire- or
explosion-suppression substance.
CREDIT: Kolonko/Shutterstock.

It is possible to prevent the buildup of an explosive atmosphere by deluging the

area with foam or dry powder suppression agents. In areas where explosions are poten-
tial hazards, other engineering controls can be used to minimize or contain the explosion
(e.g., special walls or building design to contain an explosion and prevent it from doing
damage to other areas).

Toxic Gas Alarms and Detection Systems

Toxic gas alarms and detection systems (Figure 18.5) are used for processes that handle toxic
materials, which can produce fumes, vapor, or other hazardous atmospheres (e.g., hydrogen
sulfide, cyanide).
 Engineering Controls: Alarms and Indicator Systems 305

Figure 18.5 When toxic gases

Area monitor are detected by an area monitor,
water or foam may be automati-
cally dispensed to suppress and/
or disperse the gas.

Compressor

Water reservoir

Toxic gas detection devices are installed throughout the process area to detect a release
regardless of wind conditions. Sniffers (sensors configured to detect certain toxic gases) con-
tinually sample the ambient air for traces of a specific toxic substance. When the sensor
detects a predetermined concentration of the substance, it will trigger an alarm.
The sniffer devices are located in enough locations in the area that a leak will be detected
no matter which direction air is moving. In certain circumstances, a water or foam deluge
system can be activated automatically upon alarm conditions to suppress or disperse the
toxic gas.
Devices can be mounted permanently or be portable for use in areas such as a confined
space that is not normally occupied. Operators may also be required to wear personal moni-
tors, as a standard operating procedure, while in a unit that has a toxic gas such as cyanide.

Redundant Alarm Systems

Many critical processes and equipment have two or more alarm systems linked to them,
which provide a backup in case the primary system fails. The need for a redundant system Redundant system a system that
(backup system) is based not just on how critical a process is, but also on how devastating a provides a backup in the event the
primary system fails.
major accident resulting from the hazardous condition could be. For most critical alarms, at
least two separate and totally independent sets of detection devices and alarms are used.
Some systems use two or more different power sources, such as the main electrical system
and a battery backup.

Automatic Shutdown and Response Devices

Some systems link detection devices and alarms to an automatic shutdown or response
device. These devices ensure that processes and equipment are maintained in a safe state
during failures or hazardous conditions.
When a detection device senses a potentially hazardous condition, an alarm will gen-
erate a signal to another device, which initiates a process shutdown and/or automatic
response. The following are some examples:

• A smoke detector shuts down a compressor and initiates a fire suppression system.
• A level detector shuts down a pump and liquid product is routed to a relief system to
prevent overflow.
• A blocked conveyor stops automatically.
• An automatic valve shuts down feed valves to block the reactor if conditions of runaway
reaction are met.

The following are some types of conditions that can be monitored and linked to an
automatic shutdown and response system:

• Temperature (e.g., high temperature in a reactor)

• Pressure (e.g., high pressure in a vessel)
306 Chapter 18

• Flow (e.g., high or low flow in a line)

• Level (e.g., high or low level in a storage tank)
• Hazardous atmospheres (e.g., oxygen-deficient, flammable materials present)
• High radiation (e.g., x-rays)
• Chemical leak (e.g., high hydrogen sulfide levels in the atmosphere)
• Flames, smoke, and explosion (e.g., fire)
• Jams, stoppages, or foreign objects (e.g., removal of a guard)
• Speed and/or velocity (e.g., overspeed trips on a turbine)
• Product quality (e.g., product off specifications)

Interlocks
Interlock a type of hardware or An interlock is a control system that does not allow an action or change unless a certain
software that does not allow an condition or conditions are met (e.g., in a car you can’t take a key out of the ignition unless
action to occur if certain conditions
are not met. the transmission is in park). Interlocks are used to ensure that a proper sequence is followed
or, if it is important enough, to shut down a process.
Additionally, when operating a furnace (Figure 18.6), certain conditions must be met
before the burners can be lit (e.g., fuel is at proper pressure, air flow is established through
Permissive interlock a type of the tubes, fan is running, and the damper is open). This is an example of a permissive
interlock that allows a process or interlock. Another example of an interlock is a sensor that detects a foreign object in a pro-
equipment to start up once certain
conditions are met. cess and sends a signal that causes an interlock to halt that process before the object can cause
damage. Equipment capable of generating radiation often contains interlocks to make sure
that the equipment cannot start until the appropriate conditions are met.

Figure 18.6 Furnace interlocks

ensure that the proper sequence Induced draft (ID) fan Damper
is followed and conditions are met
before the burners can be lit. Stack

Convection tubes Convection section

Shock bank
tubes

Firebox
Refractory lining
Bridge
Radiant section
wall
Radiant tubes

Flame
Fuel valve
Burners and
air registers
Fuel in
Air in

In the case of an interlock with two or more conditions, all conditions must be met before
the interlock will allow an action to proceed (e.g., starting up or shutting down a process).
Interlocks can also prevent two incompatible events from occurring at the same time. For
example, a reversible electric motor control can have an interlock that prevents the forward
and reverse contactors from operating at the same time.
Interlocks can be part of the software used in a process control system or a piece of
hardware or equipment (which typically use electrical relays). Hardwired and softwired
interlocks can be bypassed, but doing so removes a layer of safety protection. Hardwired and
 Engineering Controls: Alarms and Indicator Systems 307

softwired interlocks can operate independently of each other, or they can be used together
to provide redundancy.

Administrative Controls
The following are administrative controls that relate to alarm systems. Companies must
perform the following tasks:

• Develop emergency action plans (many are required by regulating agencies like OSHA).
• Train workers how to respond to alarms.
• Conduct regular drills and critiques.
• Establish monitoring procedures.
• Provide personal protective equipment (PPE) and train workers in its use.
• Mark evacuation routes.

Rationale for Alarms

Alarms should always have an underlying rationale; that is, the reason a parameter is
alarmed when it exceeds an upper or lower limit. Importance of alarm points for a particu-
lar parameter are not constant for a process. Rather, they depend on the parameter that is
in an alarm condition, how long it has been in an alarm condition, other parameters (if any)
that are in an alarm condition, and most importantly, how far the parameter has exceeded
its upper or lower limit causing the alarm.
A combination of alarms or parameters that are in alarm can result in catastrophic events
to a process containing reactive or flammable substances. In general, the principle that is to be
followed is that operators manage the process and not the alarms of the process. This principle
leads to investigating the “frequency of occurrence” for all alarms in the process. Frequency of
occurrence is defined as the number of times each alarm has activated within a given period of time
when the process was not being either started up or shut down, and the process was not in an upset
condition. This investigation results in each alarm having its own alarm history by frequency
of occurrence. The intent of this investigation of the frequency of alarms is to highlight what
portions of the process are operating at or near their alarm points during normal operation.
Alarms that occur most frequently are investigated further by asking these questions about
the portion of the process the alarm and its underlying parameter are intended to help control.
For a particular parameter and its associated alarm:

• Are alarms limits not low or high enough?

• What is the normal variation of this parameter?
• If normal variation exceeds the control range when the process is otherwise operating
normally thereby putting the parameter into an alarm condition, then ask yourself the
following:

• What can be done to lessen the variation of the parameter under normal conditions?
• Can the normal operating range be widened to lessen the occurrence of alarms with-
out compromise to safety or product quality?
• What other parameters can be controlled to a tighter degree that would cause the
parameter in question to operate with less variation?
• What modifications or additional equipment could lessen the frequency of the param-
eter being in an alarm condition?
• Are there changes to the standard operating procedures (SOPs) that would cause less
variation in the parameter and its alarm without causing other parameters to alarm
more frequently?
308 Chapter 18

Alarm Frequency Investigations Results

A parameter whose alarm has been judged by operators in concert with management to be
in an alarm condition too frequently when the process is supposed to be operating normally
is subjected to this analysis:
• Why is the parameter being measured? Is there another parameter with inherently less
variation that could address this parameter?
• What are the consequences of changing the upper and/or lower alarm points so that the
parameter would not be in an alarm condition under normal operation?
• Are there additional or different controls that can be placed on the parameter that would
tend to lessen its variation under normal operating conditions?
• Are there equipment changes that would allow the parameter to have a wider control
range without compromise to safety or product quality?
• Are there personnel changes that need to be made to ensure this parameter and its
related parameters receive more operator attention?
• Should measurement of another parameter be substituted for this parameter?
Four examples of an alarm frequency investigation being applied to specific parameters are
presented below.
• High level alarm on a tank: The natural (systemic) variation of the tank’s level causes the
high level alarm to be activated too often. Investigation into the alarm’s history shows
the production rate has increased but the tank is the same volume as when the produc-
tion rate was less than half of what it is now.
The solution is either an additional tank or larger tank to reduce the frequency of alarm occurrence
for this parameter.
• High temperature alarm in a reactor during summer: The reactor’s batch size and
corresponding heat release during the exothermic portion of the process comes within
3 degrees Fahrenheit (1.6 degrees Celsius) of the high temperature alarm during nine
months of the year. During summer months (June, July, and August), cooling water tem-
peratures do not provide sufficient cooling capacity to keep the reactor from exceeding
its high temperature setting.
There are two possible solutions that avoid compromise to safety and/or product quality:
(a) Rent a chiller during summer months to provide lower temperature cooling water.
(b) Reduce the batch size in the reactor to lessen the heat load on the cooling water system during
summer months.
Implementation of either of these solutions reduces the frequency of alarms during summer months
for this parameter.
• Low nitrogen pressure alarm: Nitrogen is used to “blanket” tank vapor space if flam-
mable liquid is being stored in the tank or if the tank’s contents cannot be exposed to
moisture and/or oxygen. Low nitrogen pressure and its corresponding alarm is usually
caused by nitrogen usage nearing the capacity of the nitrogen supply. Pressure begins
to drop in the nitrogen delivery pipeline whenever the demand for nitrogen exceeds or
comes close to the nitrogen’s supply capacity.
There are two possible solutions to this scenario:
(a) Investigate for leaks in the nitrogen supply pipeline and repair them, if they are apparent.
(b) Increase nitrogen supply capacity.
• pH of a solution is too high: The pH scale is logarithmic, which means a variation of 1 on
the pH scale is a 10-fold increase (or decrease) in the amount of hydrogen ion concentra-
tion in the solution. This means that by the time the alarm point is reached, the solution
could be 10 times the hydrogen ion concentration it should be for a change in pH value
of 1, either too much or too little.
 Engineering Controls: Alarms and Indicator Systems 309

Solution: If, instead of pH, another parameter was measured that would vary directly instead of loga-
rithmically (exponentially), the hydrogen ion concentration could be controlled in a narrower range and
not exceed the alarm point. An example of changing the measured parameter is presented in Figure 18.7.

pH vs. % KOH solution

Figure 18.7 The pH and spe-
14.00 cific gravity of aqueous solutions
13.80
13.60 of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
13.40 vs. weight percentage potassium
13.20 hydroxide.

pH
13.00
12.80
12.60
12.40
12.20
12.00

0.056
0.416
0.776
1.136
1.495
1.856
2.216
2.576
2.936
3.295
3.656
4.016
4.376
4.736
5.096
5.456
5.816
6.176
6.536
6.896
7.256
7.616
7.976
8.336
8.696
9.056
9.416
9.776
Sp. Gr. vs. % KOH solution
1.1000
Specific gravity(Sp. Gr.)

1.0800
1.0600
1.0400
1.0200
1.0000
0.9800
0.9600
0.056
0.416
0.776
1.136
1.495
1.856
2.216
2.576
2.936
3.295
3.656
4.016
4.376
4.736
5.096
5.456
5.816
6.176
6.536
6.896
7.256
7.616
7.976
8.336
8.696
9.056
9.416
9.776
% KOH solution

Note that pH does not increase above 14 so that weight % potassium hydroxide solutions above about
5.5% cannot be determined by measurement of pH. Alternatively, a better parameter to measure to
determine the weight % of potassium hydroxide would be specific gravity which has no upper limit
and is directly proportional to weight % instead of being logarithmic (exponential) like pH.

18.3 Process Technician Requirements

Alarm Handling
When alarms are actuated, process technicians should follow company specified procedures
according to their training (Figure 18.8). Each company writes procedures to address
emergencies as required by PSM 1910.119.

Figure 18.8 When alarms are

FIRE ACTION
IF YOU DISCOVER A FIRE, THINGS YOU MUST DO
actuated, process technicians
should follow company specified
procedures according to their
training.
DO NOT PANIC DO NOT USE THE
ELEVATOR USE THE CREDIT: Haryadi CH/Shutterstock.
PRESS THE ALARM BUTTON
EMERGENCY
ALARM
STAIRWAY

IF POSSIBLE, REPORT TO YOUR

CALL THE FIRE BRIGADE ASSEMBLY POINT SOON
CALL ASSEMBLY
FIRE BRIGADE POINT

LEAVE THE BUILDING DO NOT RETURN TO THE BUILDING

BY NEAREST EMERGENCY EXIT UNTIL AUTHORIZED TO DO SO
FIRE EXIT

DO NOT STOP TO COLLECT FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTION

PERSONAL BELONGINGS AT ASSEMBLY POINT
INSTRUCTION
310 Chapter 18

Some alarms can go off even though no problem exists; this is called a false positive
response. Or, sometimes alarms do not go off when there is an actual hazard; this is called a
false negative response. False negatives are obviously dangerous, because workers are not
alerted to the threat. Hazardous conditions can build, with no advance warning of impend-
ing disaster. False positives are also problematic because they waste resources (e.g., firefight-
ers responding to a false alarm) and may cause workers to ignore alarm signals even when
an actual emergency exists.
If a process upset occurs, process technicians can be faced with an “alarm flood,” or
numerous alarms going off at the same time. Disasters in the process industries have demon-
strated how alarm flood can overwhelm workers and produce catastrophic results. An alarm
management system can help reduce the alarm flood and allow workers to handle alarms
effectively and efficiently, potentially averting disaster. A well-designed alarm management
system aims to alert, inform, and guide workers in normal and abnormal conditions.
It is essential that workers follow plant emergency procedures. Because alarms can cause
a variety of emotional and physical responses in workers, many facilities require operators
to know emergency procedures from memory, without referring to manuals.
Alarm management takes into account human factors (i.e., how people interact and
respond), such as the following:

• Does the alarm get the attention of workers? (Note: Alarms that go off too frequently
are often ignored.)
• Is the alarm message clear?
• Does the worker have the necessary information to respond appropriately?
• Are alarms presented at a proper rate (not too fast or too slow)?
• Can workers take action in a sufficient amount of time?
• Is it easy to make a mistake?

Some alarms must allow workers to acknowledge them so that more important alarms
can take precedence. For example, if a worker shuts down a pump, a low level alarm for a
tank might go off. The worker must be able to acknowledge the low level alarm, indicating
an awareness of what caused the condition.
Facilities set policies, procedures, and standards for their alarms. Each alarm must have
a well-defined and planned response, including roles and responsibilities of workers to
address normal and abnormal conditions.
Using such an approach, alarms should meet the following standards:

• Clearly communicated (effectively enunciated with clear meaning)

• Prioritized based on order of importance and urgency
• Organized (categorized into logical groupings)
• Presented in a timely way

Following are some recommendations that process technicians should follow when
dealing with detection and alarm systems (Figure 18.9):

• Always pay attention to alarms, even if one goes off regularly.

• Remain calm and logical.
• Understand what the facility’s various alarms mean.
• Be familiar with emergency plans and operations associated with various alarms.
• Know the evacuation route for your area and meeting or check-in locations.
• Be alert to conditions around you (e.g., wind direction or air current, which determines
the direction a hazardous atmosphere might travel).
• Report alarms; do not be deterred by panic or the consequences of a false alarm.
• Know which alarms are not functioning and the backup plan for each alarm.
 Engineering Controls: Alarms and Indicator Systems 311

Figure 18.9 Process techni-

cians should know emergency
evacuation routes and participate
in emergency drills.
CREDIT: Feliks Kogan/Shutterstock.

• Know what backup plans exist if alarm systems fail.

• Participate in emergency drills.
• Never tamper with or disable an alarm.
• If an alarm seems to go off inadvertently or too often, inform your supervisor.
• Know how to troubleshoot alarm conditions and how to determine the root cause.
• Participate in regular testing processes, including backup systems.
• Assist with any alarm system repairs.
• Be able to locate emergency PPE quickly and use it properly.
• Perform housekeeping tasks regularly to keep a work area clean and make sure evacu-
ation routes are uncluttered.

Summary

Various potential hazards exist in the process industries, such Alarm, detection, and indicator systems are used to warn
as fires, leaks, spills, explosions, and releases. Dangerous or workers about emergencies or abnormal situations. Alarms
hazardous situations can occur, threatening workers, equip- can be audible or visible. Process technicians must understand
ment, the facility, and the surrounding community and how these systems detect hazardous or unusual conditions
environment. Because of this, process conditions in a facility and generate alerts or automatic responses. They must also
must be monitored for changes constantly. If these changes know what each alarm means and how to respond to it.
are not detected early, they can rapidly escalate into hazard- In addition to alarms, some systems contain automatic
ous situations or emergencies that can result in injuries, loss shutdown devices or interlocks. These devices are engineered
of life, damage to equipment and facilities, and environmental to protect workers and equipment and should not be tampered
damage. with or overridden.
312 Chapter 18

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 7. Name five different conditions that can be monitored by
a. Alarm an automatic shutdown system.
b. Annunciator 8. Describe what an interlock does.
c. Audible alarm
9. A(n) _____ interlock does not allow a process to start
d. Detection device until certain conditions are met.
e. Indicator device a. Prohibitive
f. Interlock
b. Permissive
g. Permissive
c. Negator
h. Pressure switch
d. Hardware
i. Redundant system
j. Visible alarm 10. What is it called when an alarm goes off and no problem
exists?
2. List the two fact that alarms can indicate.
11. List six recommendations that process technicians
3. An alarm can be audible, _____, or both. should follow when dealing with alarm and detection
a. Virtual systems.
b. Variable 12. What is the purpose of investigating the frequency of
c. Vital occurrence of alarms and their underlying parameters?
d. Visible a. To identify the alarms that are triggered the most
4. Name at least three environmental factors that can dam- b. To identify administrative controls to prevent the
age detection equipment. high frequency of occurrence
5. Which of the following is used for fires involving electri- c. To highlight portions of the process that are operating
cal equipment? at or near their alarm points
a. Halon d. To establish processes and emergency plans when an
alarm is triggered.
b. Water
c. Foam 13. List four questions that should be considered when
d. Carbon dioxide alarm frequency results determine that the alarm
conditions are too frequent.
6. Toxic gas detectors _____ the air to detect toxic
substances.
a. Sniff
b. Moisten
c. Recirculate
d. Heat

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Check your workplace, school, home, and car for detectors, with your fellow students the process and equipment,
alarms, and indicators. Make a list of the alarms you find, the hazard it presents, and how an interlock could lessen
what they detect, how they detect (if you know), and what the hazard.
type of alarm they generate (audible, visible, or both).
4. Choose a monitor and demonstrate how the monitor
2. Research detectors and alarms on the internet, using works and is calibrated.
manufacturer sites or safety organizations. Write a two-
page paper about why detectors and alarms are impor- 5. Research process safety or environmental incidents
tant, their various uses and limitations, how to test and using the internet or newspaper archives and find an
maintain them, or other related topics. example of an incident in which alarms were involved.
3. Think of a process or equipment that you are familiar Describe how the alarm system helped mitigate the
with that could benefit from an interlock device. Discuss hazard or why it did not.
Chapter 19
Engineering Controls:
Process Containment
and Process Upset
Controls
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of engineering controls used to contain process
materials and control process upsets.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
19.1 Identify various engineering controls, specifically process
containment and control systems, used by the process industries
to minimize and/or eliminate threats to health, safety, and the
environment. (NAPTA Engineering Controls, Containment 1*) p. 314
19.2 Describe various engineering controls, specifically process upset
control systems, used by the process industries to minimize and/
or eliminate threats to health, safety, and the environment. (NAPTA
Engineering Controls, Containment 2) p. 320
19.3 List common process fluids used in the process industries and describe
the potential safety and health hazards posed by these materials.
(NAPTA Engineering Controls, Containment 1) p. 321

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become
entry-level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named
here in abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Engineering Controls: Containment 1)”
means that this chapter’s objective relates to objective 1 of the NAPTA curriculum about
process containment and process upset controls.

313
314 Chapter 19

Key Terms
Closed environment drain system—a system of devices such as pumps, piping,
and scrubbers to prevent the release of liquids, gases, and vapor to the
atmosphere, p. 315.
Effluent—liquid wastewater discharge from a process facility, p. 316.
Flare—an environmentally approved device that burns waste gases collected from
various process sources to reduce pressure, p. 319.
Fugitive emission—an intentional or unintentional release of a gas, p. 314.
Ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)—a safety device that detects the flow of
current to ground and opens the circuit to interrupt the flow, p. 318.
Permissive devices—a device or series of codes that requires one or more specific
conditions to be met (sometimes sequentially) before a piece of equipment or
process can be started safely, p. 321.
Positive pressure control—a system used to keep external air, which may contain
airborne toxic substances, from entering the building, p. 316.
Pressure relief valve—a safety valve that automatically opens at a set pressure to
protect process vessels or piping from excessive pressure, p. 319.
Process fluid—any material that flows in a pipe that supports or hinders a process
in a plant or refinery; it can be either liquid or gas. When under pressure, both
gases and liquids transmit force equally. Process gases are compressible; liquids
are not, p. 321.

19.1 Introduction
When working with hazardous and flammable substances, leaks and spills are always a
concern. The process industries use a number of process containment controls and process
upset control systems to minimize or eliminate threats to health, safety, and the environment.
In addition to hazardous chemicals, process fluids such as air, nitrogen, steam, and water
have the potential to cause serious injury.

Process Containment and Control Systems

Fugitive emission an intentional or A fugitive emission is a leak or release that occurs when containment controls fail. Sources
unintentional release of a gas. of fugitive emissions include pump and compressor seals, storage and processing vessels,
loading facilities, flow control and pressure relief valves (including valve packing), flange
gaskets, and pipelines carrying materials from one process to another.
Fugitive emissions are monitored at potential leak points in the plant. Although a spe-
cific leak point level might be low, all the small amounts around the facility can result in a
significant total emission. These emissions must be monitored to determine if hazardous
agents are present at unacceptable levels set by the EPA. Inline sensors (part of the process)
or portable detection equipment can be used. See Chapter 23, Monitoring Equipment for more
details.
This section describes examples of engineering measures and devices used to control
common sources of fugitive emissions in the following:

• Closed systems
• Closed loop sampling
• Floating roof tanks
• Ventilation
 Engineering Controls: Process Containment and Process Upset Controls 315

• Effluent control
• Waste treatment
• Noise abatement devices
• Safeguards against electrical shock

Closed Systems
A major concern of the process industries is how to contain or dispose of waste by-products.
In the past, chemical sewers were used to drain and collect hazardous waste by-products.
However, these sewers sent toxic fumes to the atmosphere. To help minimize exposure to
toxic fumes, plants now implement closed environment drain systems. These systems use Closed environment drain
devices such as pumps, piping, and scrubbers to prevent the release of liquids, gases, and system a system of devices such
as pumps, piping, and scrubbers to
vapor into the atmosphere. prevent the release of liquids, gases,
and vapor to the atmosphere.
Closed Loop Sampling
Closed loop sampling (Figure 19.1) is a method for controlling fugitive emissions from
the material being sampled. Closed loop sampling systems help reduce liquid waste and
air emissions by using inline sampling containers, such as sample bombs or small draw-
off points.

Flow
Figure 19.1 Closed loop
sampling.

Sampling drum

The loop is first purged or flushed with the material being conveyed. The valve drain to
the container is then opened and the sample is collected. To prevent sample contamination,
the drain-valve connection to the sampling loop is short and the amount of “dead” space
is small.
After the sample analysis is complete, the sample stream is returned to the process via
piping to eliminate the release of waste or vapor into the atmosphere. The purged material
required to get an accurate sample is then recovered.
The safest way to collect a sample from a toxic stream is to use an inline automatic ana-
lyzer sampling system. Although not entirely free of fugitive emissions, this method greatly
reduces potential exposure problems posed by manual sampling.

Floating Roof Tanks

A floating roof tank is an atmospheric tank (one at ambient temperature and pressure),
equipped with a roof that floats on the surface of the liquid stored in the tank. The floating
roof and the seal between the roof and the sides of the tank prevent vapor from being emit-
ted into the atmosphere.
An external fixed roof tank has an external fixed roof and an internal floating roof. The
internal floating roof helps prevent hazardous vapor from leaking into the vapor space.
The design helps eliminate toxic vapor from being released into the atmosphere. The vapor
space can be equipped with a nitrogen blanket system so that, when the tank does vent,
only nitrogen is released to the atmosphere. Figure 19.2 illustrates a floating roof tank and
its components.
316 Chapter 19

Floating roof
Figure 19.2 Floating roof tank. Seal around perimeter

Articulated roof
drain

Outside
shell

Bottom

Roof drain guides

Ventilation
Ventilation systems are installed in plants to protect employees from airborne contaminants,
such as vapor and dust (Figure 19.3). These systems can include air movers, such as electric
fans, forced air fans, intake fans, and exhaust fans, as well as filters (e.g., bag filters).
Vent hoods are used in process and laboratory settings. They allow technicians to work
in a controlled environment around vapor, fumes, and/or dust. Vent hoods work by drawing
hazardous materials into the ventilation system and away from personnel. These materials
are then removed from the exhaust air before it is discharged to the environment.
Positive pressure control a Positive pressure control is used to keep external air, which may contain toxic airborne
system used to keep external air, substances, from entering the building. Positive pressure is achieved by maintaining the air
which may contain airborne toxic
substances, from entering the
pressure within a building at a slightly higher pressure than ambient pressure.
building.

Figure 19.3 Ventilation

systems protect employees from
airborne contaminants.
CREDIT: Nick Starichenko/Shutterstock.

Effluent Control
Effluent liquid wastewater Process plants use effluent control to ensure that wastewater leaving the facility complies
discharge from a process facility. with the requirements of any type of discharge permit under which the facility operates.
Effluent control can involve monitoring, analysis, and adjustment of the wastewater stream.
Wastewater streams can be monitored continuously by the use of inline analytical instru-
ments and/or by manual monitoring and analysis by process technicians.
 Engineering Controls: Process Containment and Process Upset Controls 317

Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment is the process of removing contaminants from a plant’s process sewer
prior to discharging the effluent. Depending on the type of discharge permit the facility has,
all or some of the following types of treatment can be required:

• Oil and solid separation

• Biological treatment
• Chemical treatment
• pH control
• Waste sludge removal (e.g., incineration, landfill disposal)
• Additional treatment as required

Noise Abatement Devices

There are many sources of noise in a process unit (e.g., fluid flow, atmospheric venting,
equipment, and machinery) that can contribute to noise pollution and cause hearing damage.
To help reduce the noise level associated with process units, plants employ noise abatement
devices (Figure 19.4).
Noise abatement methods reduce the level of noise. They include use of acoustical
insulation or reducing the flow velocity of fluids. Equipment mufflers and noise insulation
between walls and within doors are examples of noise abatement devices.

Figure 19.4 Noise abatement

walls are used to reduce the level
of noise.
CREDIT: DuxX/Shutterstock.

Safeguards Against Electrical Shock

Electricity takes the path of least resistance in order to ground itself, including going through
a human body or a piece of equipment that happens to be in its path. The resulting shock
may cripple or kill. Safeguards to prevent such an occurrence employ the principles of
grounding and bonding.

GROUNDING AND BONDING MECHANISMS Grounding involves connecting an object

to the earth using metal in order to provide a path for the electricity to travel (Figure 19.5).
The metal is usually a piece of copper wire connected to a grounding rod or underground
water piping (grounding mechanisms). This path allows electricity to dissipate harmlessly
into the ground.
318 Chapter 19

Figure 19.5 Grounding and

bonding are used to prevent
electrical shock.
CREDIT: Leonid Eremeychuk/Fotolia.

Bonding wire

Motor
ground
wires

Bonding involves connecting two objects together, usually with a copper wire. An
ungrounded object is grounded by bonding it to a grounded object. Care must be taken so
equipment is not unintentionally bonded, causing an unexpected electrical hazard.
Static dissipation devices are permanent wiring systems used for grounding process
equipment.

Ground-fault circuit interrupter GROUND-FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTERS A ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)
(GFCI) a safety device that detects is a device that protects personnel from the possibility of electrical shock when using
the flow of current to ground and
opens the circuit to interrupt the flow.
electrical tools. The GFCI device automatically shuts off the power when a small amount of
current to ground is detected.

PROCESS UPSET CONTROL SYSTEMS Engineering controls can be implemented to help

prevent any process upsets from turning into a hazardous situation.
Process upset controls come in a variety of forms, some of which include the following:

• Flare systems
• Pressure relief valves
• Deluge systems
• Explosion suppression systems
• Explosion proof designs (control rooms)
• Spill containment

Did You Know?

Flares are environmentally approved and regulated devices that burn
waste gases collected from various process sources via a piping system.
Flares have exclusionary zones where people are not permitted, due to
the intense heat generated there.

CREDIT: Nightman1965/
Shutterstock.
 Engineering Controls: Process Containment and Process Upset Controls 319

Flare Systems
Flares are environmentally approved devices that burn waste gases collected from various Flare an environmentally approved
process sources via a piping system. Sometimes, a process can generate excess pressure. device that burns waste gases
collected from various process
Gases are released to reduce pressure but, instead of releasing to the atmosphere, the gases sources to reduce pressure.
are piped into a flare system. The gases are burned and released into the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide, thereby controlling the process upset. Some flare systems include methods
for trapping entrained liquids before gases are sent to the flare.
A common type of flare on a process unit is elevated on a tower several hundred feet
in the air to disperse the fumes and heat that can be generated. Flares must be designed to
provide smokeless burning of flammable gases. This is usually accomplished with the addi-
tion of steam or nitrogen to the flare header or manifold; this also prevents fires or explosions
from occurring inside the flare header. Flares are designed to destroy (oxidize) 98 percent
or more of flammable gases.

Pressure Relief Valves

Pressure relief valves (PRVs) are safety valves that open automatically at a set pressure to Pressure relief valve a safety
protect process vessels or piping from overpressurization (Figure 19.6). These valves do not valve that automatically opens at
a set pressure to protect process
rely on external sensing devices; instead, they rely on spring tension settings adjusted to a vessels or piping from excessive
set pressure and are inherently very reliable. pressure.
The rated capacity of a PRV means that the PRV will begin to open at 90 percent of rated
capacity, and it will be 100 percent open at its rated capacity. For example, a PRV rated at
150 PSIG will begin to open at 135 PSIG (90% of 150 PSIG) and be completely open at 150 PSIG.
Note: Sometimes rupture discs are used to isolate the PRV from the process under normal
operations but allow it to function should the preset pressure limit be exceeded.

Figure 19.6 Pressure relief

Manual Adjustment valves are safety valves that open
handle screw automatically at a set pressure to
protect process vessels or piping
from overpressurization.
Spring
CREDIT: AlexanderZam/Shutterstock.

Stem

Disc Outlet

Body

Inlet

For example, the spring tension of a relief valve may be set at 50 PSI. If the pressure
in the process exceeds 50 PSI, the valve will open automatically. When the pressure drops
below 50 PSI, the valve will close.
The material being released through the relief valve may be piped to discharge to a flare
system or to the atmosphere, depending on the substance involved. For highly toxic materi-
als, relief valves typically discharge to a closed vent system, either to the flare system or to
emission control equipment.
A rupture disc can be installed upstream of the pressure relief valve to minimize fugi-
tive emission. A rupture disc is a thin metal disc designed to burst at a specified pressure. It
separates the process fluid from the safety relief valve to prevent leakage through the valve.
A pressure gauge can be provided between the rupture disc and the relief valve. Sometimes
rupture discs are used to isolate the PRV from the process under normal operations but allow
the PRV to function should the preset pressure limit be exceeded.
320 Chapter 19

Deluge and Explosion Suppression

and Detection Systems
Deluge systems dump or spray an extinguishing agent to suppress a fire, a toxic release, or
a hydrocarbon spill. They may be automated or require manual activation.
Explosive gas alarms and detectors operate in a similar manner to toxic gas alarms and
detectors but are designed specifically to detect explosive gas. In addition to an alarm, they
may also provide automatic activation of a deluge system.
Explosion suppression systems are walls erected to contain an explosion. The walls
can be erected around a particular process area, or an entire building (e.g., a process control
room) can be constructed with explosion suppression capability.

Spill Containment
Spill containment is designed to contain hazardous materials that have escaped the con-
trolled environment of their vessels (Figure 19.7). When spills are contained, large areas are
protected from pollution and the spills can be cleaned up and disposed of easily. Dikes and
containment basins are used around storage tanks and are sized to contain the full contents
of the tanks within their enclosure. They also prevent contaminated rainwater from entering
public waterways. Curbs are used for process units and usually drain into a chemical sewer.

Figure 19.7 Dikes and con-

tainment walls are designed to
contain hazardous materials that
have escaped their vessels.
CREDIT: Travelview/Shutterstock.

Containment wall

Process technicians are responsible for securing the area around a spill (marking it off
using barricading, tape, or rope). They can also help contain the spill using absorbent pads,
sandbags, booms, and other devices.
Environmental regulatory requirements state that for most flammable/toxic liquids con-
tained in storage tanks, secondary containment, such as a dike, must have a volume equal to
the largest tank in the diked area. A dike surrounding a single tank must be able to handle
the volume of the tank it surrounds.

19.2 Instrumentation and Process Upsets

Instrumentation and other devices such as alarms, permissive devices, interlocks, and
emergency shutdown devices (ESDs) are important engineering features to ensure safe and
environmentally sound operation of potentially hazardous equipment and processes. Such
devices must never be bypassed without operations and safety management approval and
appropriate permits.
Instrumentation senses critical process or equipment variables such as temperature,
pressure, flow, levels, analyticals, motion, and vibration. If these variables approach or exceed
predetermined limits, an alarm is generated. The predetermined limits can be associated
 Engineering Controls: Process Containment and Process Upset Controls 321

with quality control, safe operation, or both. Alarms typically continue until acknowledged
by the process technician and safe, proper control conditions are regained. In some instru-
mentation systems, alarm signals can indicate that an action was automatically taken (see
Chapter 18, Engineering Controls: Alarms and Indicator Systems).
Permissive devices require that one or more specific conditions be met before a piece of Permissive device a device or
equipment or process can be started safely. These conditions can be sequential. For example, series of codes that requires one or
more specific conditions to be met
igniting a furnace requires the following sequence before operation: (sometimes sequentially) before a
piece of equipment or process can
1. The flow of process fluid is heated first.
be started safely.
2. An analytical check is conducted via instrumentation to ensure that explosive conditions
do not exist in the furnace.
3. The system then checks that fuel feed pressure is above a minimum.
4. Air flow must be at startup level.
5. If any of the conditions 1 through 4 are not true, an alarm alerts the operator which
condition(s) exist that will not allow the furnace to ignite.

Interlock devices monitor critical process variables and provide logic that permits auto-
matic adjustments or overrides of the primary controls. The out-of-control critical parameter
is either corrected or the equipment or process is safely shut down. For example, a distil-
lation column pressure that exceeds safe limits can override the steam flow control to the
column reboiler until the pressure returns to a normal range. Low lubricant pressure to a
compressor bearing can shut down the compressor, preventing a buildup of heat and major
damage to the equipment.
Emergency shutdown devices (ESDs) are used to secure equipment and processes in an
orderly and safe manner when a critical condition occurs that cannot otherwise be corrected.
An ESD system includes the following:

• Sensors for critical variables

• Safe shutdown logic
• Interlock controls
• Process energy source interrupters (e.g., electric breakers, hydraulic fluid diverters, and
steam turbine trips)
• Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to the critical instrumentation and controls
• Environmental control systems activators

Alarms, permissives, interlocks, and ESDs are discussed in Chapter 18, Engineering Con-
trols: Alarms and Indicator Systems. Additional information about instrumentation is covered
in the Instrumentation textbook.

19.3 Process Fluids

Process fluids, even fairly inert fluids such as water, can be hazardous in certain industrial Process fluid any material that
situations. Process fluids can be deemed hazardous because they are toxic or flammable, or flows in a pipe that supports or
hinders a process in a plant or
because they are under high pressure or used at extreme temperatures. Process fluids become refinery; it can be either liquid or gas.
even more hazardous when they escape from their containers in an uncontrolled manner. When under pressure, both gases
Leaks, spills, and releases are examples of such uncontrolled discharges. and liquids transmit force equally.
Process gases are compressible;
The following (Figure 19.8) are common process fluids:
liquids are not.
• Air
• Nitrogen
• Steam
• Condensate
• Water
322 Chapter 19

Figure 19.8 Utility drops

supply process technicians with
substances such as air, water,
steam, and nitrogen.

Nitrogen
Steam
Water
Air

Air
Air is used for powering pneumatic equipment and instrumentation, along with pressure
testing. Air can also be used as part of either waterblasting or sandblasting cleaning pro-
cesses for vessels and equipment, although this type of task is often handled by outside
contractors. Process technicians should be aware of the hazards of air. Within a process plant,
air is typically used in a compressed state (under pressure). Often, the air pressure can reach
between 100 and 175 PSI. High pressure air can generate flying debris, which could puncture
or be pushed into the eyes and skin. If air is inadvertently introduced into a process line and
mixed with hydrocarbons, an explosive mixture could be created.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is often used to purge or sweep vessels and to serve as a backup for compressor air.
Nitrogen can be found at medium to high pressure (30 to 1,500 PSI) in the process industries.
Nitrogen is hazardous to the process technician because it displaces oxygen. If nitrogen
is introduced into a confined space, an oxygen-deficient atmosphere can be created. Process
technicians working in oxygen-deficient atmospheres must use an air-supplied respirator.
When exposed to pure nitrogen, a person passes out, can stop breathing, and may even
die. As the human body takes in oxygen, it uses the oxygen and creates carbon dioxide. The
brain senses the buildup of carbon dioxide, which triggers the need to breathe. It is the excess
of carbon dioxide, not the lack of oxygen, which causes a person to breathe. An excess of
nitrogen displaces the oxygen in the body, so no carbon dioxide is formed.

Steam
When heat and water combine, steam is created. Steam is water in vapor form. In the process
industries, steam is used to drive steam powered engines (turbines); to heat other process
fluids; to clean equipment; to power pumps and turbines; to heat reboilers, kettles, tanks,
and buildings; to purge air or hydrocarbons from lines and equipment; to blanket containers
to prevent flammable conditions; and to snuff fires.
One pound of water will expand 1,600 times when converted to steam. In the process
industries, steam is found at high temperatures (212 degrees Fahrenheit [100 degrees Celsius]
and higher) and high pressures (600 to 1,500 PSI). As pressure is increased, the temperature
elevates. For example, at 100 PSI, the steam temperature is 338 degrees Fahrenheit
(170 degrees Celsius), while at 600 PSI, steam temperature is 488 degrees Fahrenheit
(253 degrees Celsius).
Hazards associated with steam are its temperature and expansion ratio, which, if
uncontrolled, can result in the following:
 Engineering Controls: Process Containment and Process Upset Controls 323

• Severe burns
• Severe cuts from a high pressure jet of steam
• Thermal expansion
• Thermal shock
• Water hammer, which occurs when steam is introduced into a unit too rapidly
• Ruptured equipment

Condensate
Condensate is condensed steam that becomes extremely hot water. Condensate is usually
found in vessels that have been steam cleaned but have not yet been purged with air. It can
also be found in steam traps and condensate drains; some facilities collect condensate and
return it as a source of boiler feedwater. Condensate can cause severe burns.
Condensate can also be used as a seal flush. Use caution around pumps using hot con-
densate as a seal flush.
If steam condenses in a closed container (e.g., vessel) not rated for vacuum service, it
will create a vacuum because steam condenses at a significantly reduced volume when it
returns to the water phase. This can result in the container collapsing. The same effect can
also potentially damage turbines, compressors, pumps, and other equipment.

Water
In the process industries water is used for cooling, purging, firefighting, cleaning, decon-
taminating, and as a raw material for many end products. If water is under pressure and
then rapidly vaporized, it can cause vessels to rupture. If water freezes, it can rupture pipes
or create other hazardous working conditions.
There are many different types of water used in the process industries. These include
process water, fire water, drinking water, potable water, deionized water, and wastewater.
Table 19.1 compares the different types of water:

Table 19.1 Types of Water

Type of Water Description
Process water Water that serves in any level of the manufacturing process of certain products

Fire water Water that is used to extinguish a fire

Drinking water Water which is intended for human use and consumption and considered to be free of
harmful chemicals and disease causing bacteria, cysts, viruses, or other microorganisms

Potable water Water that is safe for human consumption

Deionized water Water which has been specifically treated to remove minerals

Wastewater Any water which has been used at least once and cannot be used again without being
treated

Cooling water Cooling water is circulated throughout the heat exchangers at the site in a continuous
loop centered on a cooling tower. The cooling tower will cool the water to approximately
10°F (5.6°C) above the wet bulb temperature of the air. Cooling water contains chemicals
to prevent bacteria, algae, and corrosion from occurring in the cooling water system.
Failure to adequately treat cooling water can lead to hazardous airborne bacteria, such as
bacteria that causes Legionnaires’ disease.

In the pharmaceutical industry there are other types of specialized water that are not
found in other industries. These include purified water, water for injection, sterile purified
water, sterile water for injection, sterile bacteriostatic water for injection, sterile water for inha-
lation, and sterile water for irrigation. The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) sets the qualifica-
tions for sterility and packaging methods that delineate between these various types of water.
324 Chapter 19

Summary
When working with hazardous and flammable substances, Process upset controls come in a variety of forms, such as flare
leaks and spills are always a concern. The process industries systems, pressure relief valves, deluge systems, explosion sup-
use a number of process containment controls and process pression systems, explosive proof building design, and spill
upset control systems to minimize or eliminate threats to containment devices.
health, safety, and the environment. In addition to hazardous chemicals, process fluids such as
Process containment and control systems include a vari- air, nitrogen, steam, condensate, and water have the potential
ety of engineering measures and devices used to control com- to cause serious injury. Process fluids become even more haz-
mon sources of fugitive emissions. These engineering controls ardous when they escape from their containers in an uncon-
include closed systems, closed loop sampling, floating roof trolled manner. Process fluids can be deemed hazardous
tanks, ventilation systems, effluent control, waste treatment, because they are toxic or flammable, or because they are under
noise abatement, static dissipation devices, ground-fault cir- high pressure or used at extreme temperatures. For example,
cuit interrupters, and grounding mechanisms. steam at high pressure and high temperature can cause severe
Occasionally something will go wrong during a pro- burns or cuts. And, because nitrogen displaces oxygen, it can
cess. Engineering controls are implemented to help prevent create an oxygen-deficient atmosphere in which a technician
any process upsets from turning into a hazardous situation. without an air-supplied respirator could suffocate.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 6. Name three types of wastewater treatments.
a. Closed environment drain system 7. List three types of noise abatement methods or devices.
b. Effluent
8. What type of metal is typically used for grounding?
c. Flare
9. What does a GFCI do when a small amount of current to
d. Fugitive emissions
ground is detected?
e. Pressure relief valve
10. Name at least three process upset control systems.
f. Process fluid
11. Flares are designed to destroy ____ percent or more of
2. __________ emissions are leaks or releases that occur
flammable gases.
when containment controls fail.
12. A(n) ________ disc is a thin metal disc designed to burst
3. Sample bombs or small draw-off points are used for:
at a specified pressure.
a. Closed systems
13. Name four items included in an emergency shutdown
b. Open loop sampling
system.
c. Closed loop sampling
14. What gas is often used to purge or sweep vessels and
d. Inline loop controls
often serves as a backup for compressor air?
4. (True or False) The safest way to collect a sample from a a. Helium
toxic stream is to use an inline automatic analyzer sam-
b. Hydrogen
pling system.
c. Nitrogen
5. What type of control is used to keep external air from
d. Methane
entering a building?
a. Positive pressure 15. Name at least four hazards associated with steam.
b. Negative pressure 16. There are seven types of “water” in a refinery or
c. Mixed pressure chemical plant; what are they?
d. Low pressure 17. What airborne illness can be caused from inadequate
treatment of cooling water?
NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.
 Engineering Controls: Process Containment and Process Upset Controls 325

Student Activities
1. Think of process containment and control systems that 3. Obtain a safety data sheet (SDS) for a chemical, and
are part of everyday life. Make a list of those systems then create a sample spill using water as a substitute
and describe how they keep people safe. for the chemical. DO NOT ACTUALLY USE THE
CHEMICAL. Use the SDS to respond to the spill and
2. Using the internet or other resources, research different properly clean it up.
types of flare systems. Write a three-page report on the
different types of flares, including a description of each
and how it is used.
 Chapter 20
Administrative
Controls: Programs
and Practices
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of administrative controls found in the process
industries.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
20.1 Describe various administrative controls, in the way of specific
company SHE programs, used by the process industries to eliminate
and/or minimize threats to safety, health, and the environment,
including housekeeping and permits in auditing. (NAPTA
Administrative Controls, Programs 1; Audits 1*) p. 327
20.2 Produce a site safety inspection and/or audit to identify potential
workplace hazards. (NAPTA Administrative Controls, Programs 3;
Audits 2) p. 330
20.3 Complete a safe work observation and provide feedback to coworkers
on safe and potentially unsafe work practices. (NAPTA Administrative
Controls, Programs 2) p. 332
20.4 Discuss the impact of government regulations and industry
organization guidelines. (NAPTA Administrative Controls,
Programs 4, 5) p. 337
*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure
that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Administrative Controls, Programs 2)” means that
this chapter’s objective 2 relates to objective 2 of the NAPTA curriculum about administrative
controls in regard to programs.

326
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 327

Key Terms
Agreement—a plan for coordinating activities between different organizations, p. 328.
Corrective and preventive action (CAPA)—action taken to resolve or prevent
shortcomings discovered during an audit, inspection, or employee observation; by
comment or suggestion; or as the result of an accident/incident investigation, p. 335.
Industrial hygiene monitoring—monitoring the health and well-being of workers
exposed to chemical and physical agents in their work environment, p. 332.
Near miss—an unsafe act that does not result in an incident or accident but had the
potential to do so, p. 331.
Plan—a method, prepared in advance, for carrying out an action, p. 328.
Policy—a guiding principle, p. 327.
Principle—a set of rules or standards, p. 328.
Proactive—a preventive activity conducted prior to a need for action, p. 330.
Procedure—a step-by-step set of instructions for accomplishing a task, p. 327.
Reactive—a corrective activity conducted in response to a need, p. 330.
Rule—a statement describing how to do something or stating what may or may not
be done, p. 328.
System—an organized, interdependent set of related principles or rules, p. 328.

20.1 Introduction
According to the hazard control hierarchy, when elimination, substitution, and engineering
controls cannot completely protect the process technician from possible exposure to haz-
ardous agents, administrative controls are then employed. Administrative controls can be
broken down into two broad categories: programs and activities. This chapter introduces
process technicians to the various types of administrative controls (programs and activities)
used in the process industries.

Common Administrative Programs

Administrative hazard control programs can consist of any combination of the following:

• Policy or policies Policy a guiding principle.

• Procedure (Figure 20.1) Procedure a step-by-step set of
instructions for accomplishing a task.

Figure 20.1 Procedures are

step-by-step instructions for
accomplishing a task.
CREDIT: Designer491/Shutterstock.
328 Chapter 20

Plan a method, prepared in • Plan

advance, for carrying out an action.
• Principle
Principle a set of rules or
• Rule
standards.
• Agreement
Rule a statement describing how to • System
do something or stating what may or
may not be done. Exactly what is included in a written program depends upon regulatory require-
ments, company-specific requirements, site- or plant-specific requirements, and unit- or
Agreement a plan for coordinating department-specific requirements.
activities between different
Regulatory mandated programs are those created in response to government regula-
organizations.
tions. Most of the EPA regulations and OSHA standards that affect the process industries
require industrial facilities to capture their interpretation of the law and their plans for
System an organized,
interdependent set of related complying with the law in a written program. An example of such a program would be a
principles or rules. facility’s Hazard Communication Program.
Evacuation and accountability plans are established procedures that outline evacuation
routes and assembly areas designed to evacuate and account for all on-site personnel in the
event of an emergency.
Mutual aid agreements are agreements between industrial facilities, local government-
directed emergency responders, and other outside emergency response teams to render aid
to industrial neighbors in the event of a release or other hazardous situation (Figure 20.2).
Incident command systems (ICS) concepts are preestablished methods, documented in
writing, for assigning command and control of any incident.
Employee suggestion program (ESP)—a program implemented, in part, to comply with
the employee participation requirement of the PSM Rule (29 CFR 1910.119). There are other
methods of complying with this requirement, but ESP can (and should) be a portion of the
overall effort to fulfill this requirement.

Figure 20.2 Mutual aid

agreements are agreements
between industrial facilities, local
government-directed emergency
responders, and other outside
emergency response teams.
CREDIT: Ben Carlson/Shutterstock.

Common Administrative Activities

Recall that programs are written documents that explain how hazards are to be controlled.
Activities are the programs put into action. Administrative hazard control activities can
consist of any combination of the following:

• Documentation and shipping papers—listing all required product and shipment

information
• Training—providing instruction on job tasks or concepts
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 329

• Permits—preparing a job site to ensure that conditions are safe for work to begin
• Inspections and audits—conducting regular, scheduled checks to ensure a safe and healthy
workplace
• Investigations—taking action to determine the cause or causes of an incident or accident
• HAZOPs—conducting a study to identify possible hazards in a system
• Monitoring—taking samples to determine if toxic or hazardous substances are present
in the workplace
• Safe work observations—looking at selected work practices and providing feedback on
the safe and potentially unsafe behaviors observed
• Housekeeping—maintaining a clean, neat, and orderly workplace
• Community awareness—implementing policies and procedures to inform the surrounding
community about the nature of the process and operations (“Right to Know” law)

DOCUMENTATION AND SHIPPING PAPERS Documentation is required to identify haz-

ardous materials (Figure 20.3). This documentation includes safety data sheets (SDSs) as well
as paperwork for shipping hazardous materials. By identifying the materials as hazardous,
employees and community members can better understand the hazards associated with
the materials as well as appropriate emergency response for the material in the event of an
incident or accident.

Figure 20.3 Appropriate

documentation is required when
shipping hazardous materials.
CREDIT: Mark Winfrey/Shutterstock.

Shipping papers for hazardous materials must include the following:

• Description of the materials

• Emergency response telephone numbers and other information
• Number of pages if there is more than one
• Shipper’s signed certification indicating that the shipment was prepared according to
rules

TRAINING Training is one of the most critical activities that occur in the process indus-
tries. No matter what job a process technician is assigned to do, some type of training will
be required in order to acquire the knowledge and skill to do the job competently and safely.
Training has always been important in the process industries, but it has grown even
more important in recent years. Advances in the field of process technology, the height-
ened demand for quality, the increasing necessity for safe behavior in the workplace, and
increased government regulations have brought about the need for a better trained work-
force. Regulations now stipulate that process technicians must be trained and qualified to
perform their jobs.
330 Chapter 20

PERMITS Safe work permits are used in the process industries to ensure that appropriate
precautions are taken to prevent possible harm to workers when they will be engaging in
potentially dangerous activities (Figure 20.4). Issuing safe work permits involves several
phases:

Figure 20.4 Safe work permits

are used in the process industries
to ensure that appropriate
precautions are taken to prevent
possible harm to workers.
CREDIT: Lemau Studio/Shutterstock.

• A listing of all steps required to complete the task

• An assessment of each step to determine any possible threat to worker safety
• Elimination or minimization of each threat
• Provision for maintaining safe working conditions until the task is complete

The following activities commonly require safe work permits:

• Lockout/tagout
• Hot work
• Confined space
• Line opening and blinding
• Activity with exposure to radiation
• Critical lifts
• Scaffold tags

For more information on permit systems and how they work, refer to Chapter 21,
Permitting Systems.

20.2 Inspections and Audits

Proactive a preventive activity Inspections and audits are similar in that both activities involve conducting regular safety,
conducted prior to a need for action. health, and environmental checks. These activities are proactive in nature, which means that
they are conducted prior to a need for action. Investigations, which will be discussed next,
Reactive a corrective activity are considered reactive because they are conducted in response to a need. Inspections and
conducted in response to a need. audits differ in the following ways:

• Inspections are usually conducted locally by plant personnel to ensure that safety, health,
and environmental procedures are being followed. Inspections tend to be conducted on
a regular and frequent schedule, such as daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or yearly.
• Audits are typically conducted by outside personnel to determine whether the plant is
in compliance with company and regulatory requirements. Corporate audits are usually
performed according to a schedule but tend to be done less frequently than
inspections.

Process technicians are often required to conduct inspections and/or audits within their
unit or plant.
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 331

Investigations
In order for an investigation to take place, an incident, an accident, or a near miss (an unsafe Near miss an unsafe act that does
act that did not result in an incident or accident but might have) must have occurred not result in an incident or accident
but had the potential to do so.
(Figure 20.5). A team of individuals often performs an investigation so that people with
varying viewpoints and areas of expertise can look at the same problem and bring different
insights to the situation.

Figure 20.5 Investigations

are conducted when an incident,
accident, or near miss occurs.
CREDIT: Zenstock/Shutterstock.

Investigations are conducted the same way that one would approach solving a problem:

1. Decide which problem will be addressed.

2. Arrive at a statement that describes the problem (e.g., what happened, when it hap-
pened, and the extent of the problem).
3. Develop a complete picture of all the possible causes of the problem.
4. Agree on the basic causes of the problem.
5. Develop an effective solution that can be implemented to prevent recurrence.
6. Create an action plan.
7. Implement the solution.
8. Inspect the process to determine if the solution eliminated the initial problem.

Process technicians often participate in investigations. They may be called upon to par-
ticipate because they were directly involved in the incident or because someone with their
expertise is needed on the team.

HAZOP
A process hazard analysis (PHA) is an organized and systematic process used to identify
potential hazards that could result in accidents causing injury, property or environmental
damage, production loss, and/or third-party liability.
Many different methodologies can be used to conduct a PHA, depending on the goals of
the study, the stage in a facility’s life cycle, and the time available. One of the most compre-
hensive PHA methodologies that can be used at any stage in a facility’s life cycle is a hazards
and operability study, commonly called HAZOP.
A HAZOP identifies operability problems as well as hazards to personnel, company
property, and the environment. The benefits of using a HAZOP include the identification
of hazards, the optimization of productivity and profitability, improvement of employee
morale, and reduction of project schedules.

MONITORING Two types of monitoring activities conducted in the process industries are
industrial hygiene monitoring and fugitive emissions monitoring (see Chapter 23, Monitor-
ing Equipment).
332 Chapter 20

Industrial hygiene Industrial hygiene monitoring is conducted by an industrial hygienist. It involves sam-
monitoring monitoring the health pling the working environment to determine if any hazardous agents are present at unac-
and well-being of workers exposed to
chemical and physical agents in their ceptable OSHA levels (Figure 20.6). Industrial hygienists use a variety of tools to capture
work environment. data on workplace hazards. They then analyze these data and compare them to published
standards. Common industrial hygiene sampling activities include noise monitoring, toxic
substances sampling, and ergonomic studies.

Figure 20.6 Industrial hygiene

monitoring involves the sampling
of a work environment to
determine if any hazardous agents
are present.
CREDIT: Wisit Tongma/Shutterstock.

Fugitive emissions monitoring is very similar to industrial hygiene monitoring in that

samples are taken, analyzed, and compared to government or company standards. However,
fugitive emissions monitoring involves a sampling of the working environment to determine
if any hazardous agents are present at unacceptable EPA levels. Also, emissions monitoring
can be done either by inline sensors or manually with detection devices. For more informa-
tion on monitoring equipment, refer to Chapter 23, Monitoring Equipment.

20.3 Safe Work Observations

A behavior-based observation and feedback process provides visibility and control over
upstream indicators of safety performance—namely safe and at-risk behaviors. Most behavior-
based observation and feedback systems follow the ABC model of behavior change, which
reflects the following basic principle:

• (A) Antecedents (or activators) direct

• (B) Behavior, which is motivated by
• (C) Consequences.

In other words, stimuli or events in the environment often direct performance, but
people do what they do because of the consequences they expect to receive or avoid. Using
simple but effective observation techniques, employees observe each other and then give
appropriate one-on-one coaching about the observed behavior. As employees become
more comfortable with the informal observation process, they begin to observe and coach
informally, and the process becomes a natural part of the work culture.
A common question asked about safe work observations is, how many observations
should occur over a given period of time, and how many observations are too many? There
can be too few and too many observations conducted, and there is a formula for determining
the correct number range. In order to prevent too many or too few observations from occur-
ring, the contact rate (CR) calculation has been developed. CR is the number of observations
of a group of employees conducted by another group of employees over a given period
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 333

of time. Experience has shown that in a mature, safe work observation work site, that is, a
work site where the safe work observation program is fully implemented, the CR should be
between 0.85 and 1.1. If the CR is below 0.85, there are not enough observations being made.
If the contact rate is above 1.1, there are too many observations being made, and the quality of
the observations will suffer, as well as participant willingness to observe and to be observed.
In the following example, the CR is calculated for one month for a maintenance department.
Example:
Number of employees in the maintenance department = 24
Number of observations conducted in the maintenance department in one month = 26

# observations in one month 26

CR = = = 1.08
# employees 24
CR is actually the odds of being observed doing a routine job over a given period of
time (one month in this example). A CR of 1.08 means that if the observations are completely
random across the maintenance department, a maintenance employee has a 100 percent
probability of being observed one time during the month and an 8 percent probability of
being observed more than one time during the month doing a routine job.

Housekeeping
Housekeeping in a process plant is basically the same as housekeeping in the home. In
order to maintain a safe, orderly environment, workers must keep their work areas tidy and
uncluttered.
Good housekeeping accomplishes the following goals:

• Prevents accidents
• Saves money
• Increases productivity
• Improves worker morale

Housekeeping is more than “cleanliness.” Work areas must have “a place for everything
and everything in its place” unless the item is in use. For example, a broom and dust bin
must be hanging where they are supposed to be hanging unless an employee is using them to
sweep up dirt and debris. Floors must be clean, not slippery, with no trip hazards. Means of
egress (getting out in an emergency) must be visible at all times and from all places within the
building. This means emergency lighting must be currently inspected so that in the event of a
power outage the means of egress is still clearly seen. Fire extinguishers, safety showers, and
eyewash stations must be currently inspected, clearly visible, clean, and unblocked at all times.
Having a mature housekeeping program means it is routine to keep the area clean, neat,
and orderly. When customers or senior management arrives to tour the work site, nothing
special needs to occur because it is always clean, neat, and orderly. A mature housekeeping
work site has these commonalities:

• There is zero tolerance by employees for anyone not wearing proper PPE, including
customers and senior management.
• There is zero tolerance by employees for anyone not leaving their portion of the work
site clean, neat, and orderly when the job is complete.
• All alarms work and are tagged.
• No alarms are tripped without need or too often.
• Correct PPE is always available.
• There are clear signs, perhaps with pictures, that show or state how an area is to be left
when the job is complete.
• There are daily safety meetings that occur within the first 15 minutes of the shift that
answer these 10 questions (in no particular order).
334 Chapter 20

1. Who is here?
2. Who is not here but should be?
3. Have all workers been trained in what they are supposed to do during the shift?
4. Are there any contractors or maintenance employees in the work area who are not
normally present?
5. Is there any equipment or instruments in need of repair or that have been tagged
out and if so, for what reason?
6. Are there any special jobs, new jobs, or jobs not routinely conducted that are planned
during the shift?
7. Are there weather conditions expected that might prevent certain jobs from occur-
ring or that might delay or speed up the time when the job is planned to occur?
8. Are there any meetings planned during the shift that may occupy some or all of the
employees? If so, how will jobs be performed, or will they be delayed until another
shift?
9. Is there any area of the work site where “a place for everything and everything is
in its place” is not a true statement? If so, who will make it true, and when will it
be made true?
10. Who is working overtime who may need to be relieved prior to the beginning of
the next shift?

In a mature housekeeping work site, all of these questions are adequately addressed
continuously during every shift.
There is actually a direct correlation between a housekeeping and inspection program
and the OSHA Recordable Injury Rate (Table 20.1). In fact, an experienced safety professional
can walk around a work site and accurately guess the 12-month OSHA Recordable Injury
Rate just by observing the level of housekeeping.

Table 20.1 OSHA Recordable Injury Rate vs. Level of Housekeeping Observed
12-month OSHA Recordable
Injury Rate Level of Housekeeping Observed
6 1.0 Nothing out of place; all PPE worn at all times.
1.1 to 2.0 Work areas left untidy and unattended, but some areas are clean; PPE is
worn properly.
2.1 to 3.0 PPE is not worn properly; area is not clean, neat, and orderly, but there
is nothing really bad looking.
3.1 to 4.0 Nothing is clean, neat, and orderly except the product. There is no
apparent interest in following standard operating procedures (SOPs) or
wearing PPE correctly; some areas look really bad.
7 4.0 No one asks the 10 safety questions listed above, and not even the
product is clean and orderly; PPE is not worn or available, and most
areas look really bad.

HOW THE OSHA RECORDABLE INJURY RATE IS CALCULATED OSHA provides a

formula for calculating the recordable injury rate for different plants or industries.

1. The number of hours 100 employees will work in a year, working 40 hours per week for
50 weeks is 200,000 (40 * 50 = 200,000).
2. The number of manhours worked at a company will be the number of
employees * 40 hours * 50 weeks.
3. To find the rate of OSHA recordable injuries, multiply the number of OSHA recordable
injuries * 200,000 and divide the answer by the number of manhours.
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 335

Example: For a 12-month period, 160 employees worked 332,736 manhours, and there were
11 OSHA recordable injuries over the same 12-month period.

11 * 200,000
OSHA recordable rate = = 6.61
332,736

OSHA uses this formula so that sites of different sizes have a fair basis of comparison.
For example, if an 80-employee site had the same 11 OSHA recordable injuries over a
12-month period, the rate would be about 13.2, twice the rate of the 160-employee site
in the calculation.

HOUSEKEEPING INSPECTION Good housekeeping directly minimizes the likelihood and

severity of occurrence of these workplace hazards and problems:

• Accidents and their underlying causes

• Fires and their underlying causes
• Exposure to hazardous materials
• Poor ergonomics, including correct tools
• Presence of unused or obsolete equipment
• Poor employee morale

An example of a daily or weekly housekeeping inspection form is presented in Figure 20.7.

Corrective and preventive actions (CAPAs) are generated as findings from audits, Corrective and preventive action
inspections, suggestions, and accidents/incidents. If the workplace has no such form or (CAPA) action taken to resolve or
prevent shortcomings discovered
housekeeping program, it is not a mature housekeeping workplace, and the injury rate during an audit, inspection, or
is higher than it should be. It also means that management does not know how to mini- employee observation; by comment
mize work site injuries or does not care enough to do so. This workplace is unlikely to or suggestion; or as the result of an
accident/incident investigation.
pass an audit successfully.

Community Awareness
Community awareness programs are established in order to build relationships between
industrial sites and surrounding communities. A partnership is established to show that
industry is committed to operating in a safe and responsible manner. Many companies will
encourage and support employee participation in community volunteer efforts and contrib-
ute to local organizations that focus on education and environmental programs.
Companies can work with local authorities to address emergency response and plan-
ning issues, along with Right To Know information (part of an EPA regulation), through
an American Chemical Council (ACC) program called Community Awareness Emer-
gency Response (CAER). See Chapter 16, Recognizing Environmental Hazards for more
details on Community Right-To-Know Act. See also the section on “Responsible Care”
in this chapter for more information.

Safe Material Handling

Regulations and administrative programs are not enough to protect workers from
exposure to hazardous agents. Process technicians must share in this responsibility.
To do this, they must be able to recognize hazardous agents within the facility in which they
work.
Employees must always avoid unsafe acts while on the job. An unsafe act is any behav-
ior within the unit, such as smoking, that might increase the likelihood of a worker experi-
encing an accident or injury.
Process technicians are expected to follow all safe operating policies and procedures
and wear the appropriate personal protective equipment for the tasks being performed. Safe
handling is discussed further in the following section.
(Text continues on page 338. )
336 Chapter 20

Figure 20.7 A sample housekeeping inspection form. A “No” answer requires a comment
on the right side of the form.

Housekeeping Inspection Form

✓ — place under “Yes” or “No” as appropriate (all “No” ✓ must have a comment)
Person Performing Inspection: Date of Inspection: _____________

Comment (all “No” ✓ must have a

Inspection Area Yes No comment)
Floors and General Areas
Are floors clean and clear?
Are signs posted, clean, and readable?
Are floors in good condition?
Are antislip mats in place and clean?
Are mops, buckets, brooms, soap, and water available to maintain area?
Are areas well lighted?
Are congestion spots (corners, alleys, etc.) marked with signs and/or mirrors?
Aisles and Stairways
Are they unobstructed with clear view?
Are mirrors installed at blind corners?
Are they lighted well (no bulbs burned out)?
Are antislip mats in place and clean?
Are mops, buckets, brooms, soap, and water available to maintain area?
Are aisles or stairways in good working order?
Spill Control
Is spill containment equipment available, clearly marked, and unblocked?
Is the area free of any spill cleaned up?
Are any leaks under repair?
Is there spill containment equipment readily available where it may be required?
Equipment and Machinery
Is it in good working order?
Is it leak free?
Are all guards in place?
Is any equipment that needs it properly LOTO?
Are drip pans, where appropriate, in good condition?
Are all drip pans drained as needed?
Waste and Debris Disposal
Are containers adequate for the waste?
Are waste containers clearly marked and up-to-date?
Is the area free of any evidence of spills cleaned up?
Are containers emptied as needed?
Is area clean, neat, and tidy?
Tools for Housekeeping, Production, and Maintenance
Are housekeeping brooms, rags, brushes, dust pans, etc., in good condition and stored
properly when not in use?
Are production and maintenance tools in good condition and adequate for intended use?
Are tools professionally made (not homemade)?
Are tools available and being used as they are intended?
Is there a place for every tool in use?
Are storage areas for tools near enough to the usage area?
Is there adequate lighting for all areas of tool use when they are in use?
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 337

Housekeeping Inspection Form

✓ — place under “Yes” or “No” as appropriate (all “No” ✓ must have a comment)
Person Performing Inspection: Date of Inspection: _____________

Comment (all “No” ✓ must have a

Inspection Area Yes No comment)
Storage Areas
Are storage areas adequate?
Is lighting adequate?
Are areas clearly labeled with contents?
Are flammable storage areas and containers, grounded, vented, and clearly marked with
contents and warnings?
Are the means of egress into and out of areas adequate, clearly marked, and lighted, even
during a power failure?
Are lists of incompatible materials apparent and being followed?
Are spill containment materials present and adequate for potential use?
Are dikes and related barriers free of debris and in good condition?
Is the means of contacting help in an emergency apparent and in working order?
Fire Prevention and Firefighting
Are fire extinguishers currently inspected and in good condition?
Are fire extinguishers hung properly, clearly marked, and unblocked?
Does each area have access to sufficient fire extinguishers?
Are monitor nozzles in good condition, unblocked, and currently inspected?
Are fire blankets clearly marked, currently inspected, and unblocked?
Do all places that need a nearby fire blanket have access?
Hazardous Materials Preventive Measures
Are safety showers and eyewash stations currently inspected, clearly marked, and
unblocked?
Are safety showers and/or eyewash stations in any area that needs them?
Are SDSs current and available 24/7?
Are all chemical containers clearly labeled with contents and hazards?
Is spill containment equipment adequate, clearly marked, currently inspected, and
unblocked?
Personal Protective Equipment
Is PPE in good condition for all employees?
Is everyone wearing proper PPE and wearing it correctly?
Is spare PPE available?
Date of last inspection: ___________________________
When was the last inspection supposed to occur? ___________________________
If the date of last inspection did not occur on time, comment about why. ____________________________________________________________________________

20.4 Government Regulations and

Industry Organization Guidelines
There are a number of regulations and guidelines that process industries companies follow
as part of their administrative controls. The major regulations and guidelines include the
following:

• Process Safety Management

• HAZWOPER
• Responsible Care®
338 Chapter 20

• ISO 14000
• DOT Hazardous Materials Handling: Loading and Unloading
• DOT Hazardous Materials Packaging and Marking
• NFPA Hazardous Materials Storage Requirements

Process Safety Management (PSM)

OSHA’s PSM requirements, implemented in 1993, apply to companies that process certain
hazardous chemicals. PSM regulations are in place to prevent or minimize the consequences
of catastrophic releases of toxic, reactive, flammable, or explosive chemicals. In order to
remain in compliance, these companies are required to have the following elements:

• Written operating procedures: Employers must provide clear instructions for safely con-
ducting activities within the covered process area. The procedures must include steps
for each operating phase and, must include (or reference as appropriate) methods to
mitigate hazards and risk for operating limits, safety and health considerations, and
safety systems and their functions. Written procedures, which may also be maintained
electronically, must be accessible by all employees who work on or maintain a covered
process. The procedures must be reviewed as often as necessary to ensure they reflect
current operating practice. They must also include safe work practices where needed
to provide for special circumstances, such as lockout/tagout and confined space entry.
• Employee and contractor training (two elements combined): Employers must provide
training on all covered processes to ensure employees are trained on an overview of
the process, all required operating procedures, safety and health hazards, emergency
operations, and safe work practices. Employees receive initial training and certification
and then must receive periodic refresher training. Contract employers are also required
to train their employees to safely perform their jobs around highly hazardous chemicals
and to document that employees received and understood training. In addition, they are
responsible for ensuring that contract employees know about potential process hazards
and the work site employer’s emergency action plan.
• Prestartup safety review: Employers are required to perform a safety review of new
or modified equipment or facilities prior to starting up operations. This helps ensure
that equipment is constructed to meet the design specifications, procedures are devel-
oped and are in place, training is completed, and all required PHAs are performed and
changes implemented.
• Hot work permits: Hot work permits must be issued for hot work operations conducted
on or near a process covered under the PSM standard. Hot work operations include
electric or gas cutting or welding, brazing or soldering, grinding, hot tar projects, any
portable gas procedures, and steam-generating work.
• Mechanical integrity: Employers are required to establish and implement written pro-
cedures to ensure the ongoing integrity of process equipment that contains and/or con-
trols a process covered under the PSM standard. This section of the standard does not
apply to contract employers; however, contract employees are required to follow the
written procedures.
• Management of change (MOC) process: This ensures that when changes are made to a
process, those changes will provide employees with the same protection from highly
hazardous chemicals as the original equipment or process. Employers are required to
provide training to all onsite employees prior to starting up the renovated process or
equipment. Contract employers must train their own contract personnel on the new
procedures. Management of change (MOC) also ensures that process safety information
and operating procedures are updated correctly as needed. Changes to procedures will
have adequate review and approval by subject matter experts. These changes are then
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 339

documented and implemented into the existing or new procedures, and employees are
trained on the changes.
• Incident investigations: The PSM standard requires employers to investigate as soon
as possible, but no later than 48 hours, after an incident. Covered incidents include
those that either resulted in or could have resulted in a catastrophic release of covered
chemicals. The standard requires that an investigation team, which includes at least
one person knowledgeable in the process and others with knowledge and experience
in investigations and analysis of incidents, work together to develop a written incident
report. These reports must be kept by the employer for five years.
• Emergency planning and response: Employers must develop and implement an emer-
gency action plan. This plan must include procedures for handling small releases of
highly hazardous chemicals. Employees must be trained to follow these procedures and
the procedures must be accessible to all employees who may be affected.
• Compliance audits: Internal audits are required every three years in facilities with cov-
ered processes. These audits must certify that employers have evaluated their compli-
ance with process safety requirements. Employers are required to respond promptly to
audit findings and must document how deficiencies were corrected. Employers must
retain the most recent internal audit.
• Process safety information: Safety data sheets (SDSs), process flow diagrams (PFDs),
block flow diagrams (BFDs), and piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs) must be made
available to those charged with designing, operating, and maintaining a process cov-
ered by the PSM rule. There must also be adequate resources for continuously updating
process safety information when changes to existing processes or new processes occur.
• HAZOP: Hazard and operability studies must be conducted for new and revised pro-
cesses covered by the PSM rule. HAZOP team members must include: someone familiar
with the process, someone who has operated (or will operate) the process, someone who
has maintained (or will maintain) the process, and someone who has been trained in
how to conduct a HAZOP. Team members can fulfill more than one role. For example, a
team member can be the person familiar with the process and the person who has been
trained how to conduct the HAZOP.
• Written employee involvement plan: There must be a written plan about how the com-
pany involves employees in management and execution of the PSM rule.
• Trade secret exclusion: There must be a statement in the overall PSM implementation
plan about trade secrets and what safety-related elements are included in training. Trade
secrets safety-related issues cannot be withheld from anyone potentially affected by the
PSM covered process.

HAZWOPER
OSHA’s HAZWOPER standard applies to any facility that has employees involved in the
following:

• Cleanup operations involving hazardous substances

• Cleanup operations at sites covered by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA)
• Voluntary cleanup operations at sites recognized by governmental agencies as uncon-
trolled hazardous waste sites
• Operations involving hazardous wastes that are conducted at treatment, storage, and
disposal facilities licensed under RCRA
• Emergency response operations for release, or substantial threat of release, of hazard-
ous substances
340 Chapter 20

The following requirements apply to these sites:

Safety and health program: The program must be designed to identify, evaluate, and
control safety and health hazards. It must also provide a documented plan for emer-
gency response in the event of a release of the hazardous materials.
Site-control program: This program must include a site map, site work zones, site com-
munications, safe work practices, and identification of the nearest medical assistance.
Employers are also required to implement a buddy system as a protective measure in
particularly hazardous situations. This would allow one employee to keep watch on
another to ensure quick aid could be provided if needed.
Employee training: There are two levels of HAZWOPER training. For example, employ-
ees involved in hazardous waste cleanup are required to have more intensive training
than an equipment operator with little potential for hazardous waste exposure. Most
sites require initial training and periodic refresher training on hazardous waste opera-
tions and emergency responses.
Medical surveillance: This is required for all employees exposed to any hazardous
substance at or above established exposure levels. It is also required for those who wear
approved respirators for more than 30 days on site in a year and for workers exposed by
unexpected or emergency releases. In addition to annual medical checks, these employ-
ees must have a medical check at the termination of their employment.
Reduction of exposure levels: Engineering controls, work practices, personal protec-
tive equipment, or a combination of all three must be implemented to reduce exposure
to below established levels for any hazardous substances. In other words, employers
must make all possible efforts to reduce exposure levels to acceptable levels to protect
their employees.
Air monitoring: Onsite air monitoring is required to identify and quantify levels of
hazardous substances. This monitoring must be performed periodically to ensure the
personal protective equipment is used on site.
Information program: Employers must provide the names of key personnel responsible
for site safety and health, names of alternate personnel responsible for site safety and
health, and a listing of the HAZWOPER standard requirements.
Decontaminating procedures: Employees and equipment must be decontaminated
before leaving an area where they may have been exposed to hazardous materials.
These operating procedures must minimize exposure through contact with exposed
equipment, other employees, or used clothing. Showers and changing rooms must be
provided where needed.
Emergency response plans: Plans are required for handling possible onsite emergen-
cies as well as offsite emergencies. These plans are often performed as drills and may
involve nonemployees, such as emergency response technicians, firefighters, and medi-
cal personnel.

Responsible Care® Guiding Principles

The American Chemical Council provides Responsible Care® guiding principles to respond
to public concerns about the manufacture and use of chemicals. Through Responsible Care®,
member chemical companies are committed to support the continuing effort to improve the
industry’s responsible management of chemicals.
Some guiding principles are listed below:

• Recognize and respond to community concerns about chemicals and operations.

• Develop and produce chemicals that can be manufactured, transported, used, and dis-
posed of safely.
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 341

• Make health, safety, and environmental considerations a priority in planning for all
existing and new products and processes.
• Promptly report information on chemical-related health or environmental hazards and
recommended protective measures to officials, employees, customers, and the public.
• Counsel customers on the safe use, transportation, and disposal of chemical products.
• Operate plants and facilities in a manner that protects the environment and the health
and safety of employees and the public.

ISO 14000
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the ISO 14000 standards for
environmental management. ISO-registered organizations are required to do the following:

• Minimize harmful effects on the environment caused by activities

• Achieve continual improvement of environmental performance

DOT Hazardous Materials Handling: Loading and

Unloading
The Hazardous Materials Transportation Act was created to improve the Secretary of Trans-
portation’s regulatory and enforcement authority and thereby protect all citizens against
risks associated with the commercial transport of hazardous materials. This regulation places
specific requirements on the activities of loading and unloading hazardous materials, and in
some cases, tracking of those materials.

DOT Hazardous Materials Packaging and Marking

DOT requires that hazardous materials that are being transported be packaged and labeled
in such a way as to clearly identify them as hazardous. Labels and placards are required to
clearly identify the container contents as hazardous. Labels must be attached directly to the
container. If the materials are then placed inside freight containers or tanks, larger placards
must be attached to both ends of the larger containers. The labels and placards identify the
material and its hazard class, a four-digit identification number.

NFPA Hazardous Materials Storage Requirements

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has requirements about how hazardous
materials can be stored. Following are the major requirements:

• Ensure the compatibility of materials being stored in the same area.

• Ensure proper ventilation within the storage container as well as in the immediate area.
• Allow adequate traffic routes and escape routes.
• Ensure that heat or ignition sources are not in the area.
• Ensure proper labeling of hazardous materials.
• Maintain SDSs for all chemicals at the facility.
342 Chapter 20

Summary
According to the hazard control hierarchy, when elimi- Common administrative activities include documenta-
nation, substitution, and engineering controls cannot tion and shipping papers, training, permits, inspections and
completely protect the process technician from possible audits, investigations, monitoring, safe work observations,
exposure to hazardous agents, administrative controls are housekeeping, and community awareness.
then employed. Administrative controls are used in the process industries
Administrative controls are policies, procedures, pro- to help keep employees safe while on the job. They also help
grams, training, and supervision to establish rules and guide- protect the environment and the community by ensuring that
lines for workers to follow in order to reduce the risk of hazardous materials are handled in as safe a manner as possi-
exposure to a hazard. Administrative controls can be broken ble. Process technicians should be familiar with the government
down into two broad categories: programs and activities. regulations that pertain to the various administrative controls.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 5. Inspections and audits are considered ________ activities.
a. Agreements a. reactive
b. Corrective and preventative action (CAPA) b. proactive
c. Industrial hygiene monitoring c. spontaneous
d. Near miss d. automatic
e. Plan 6. What do the initials PHA mean?
f. Policy a. Protection Hazard Assessment
g. Principle b. Process Hazard Analysis
h. Proactive c. Preventive Hazard Action
i. Procedure d. Process Hazardous Acquisition
j. Reactive
7. Name two types of monitoring activities
k. Rule
8. Name three benefits of good housekeeping in the work
l. System
environment.
2. Procedures are defined as:
9. Calculate the OSHA recordable injury rate for a
a. Sets of rules or standards. company who has 120 employees working 40 hours per
b. Organized, interdependent sets of related principles week for 50 weeks. The 12-month manhours worked
or rules. are 350,000 and the company had 13 OSHA recordable
c. Methods, prepared in advance, for carrying out ­injuries over a 12-month period.
actions. 10. Which of the following is required by OSHA’s PSM
d. Step-by-step instructions for accomplishing management of change (MOC) process to remain
a task. ­compliant? (Select all that apply.)
3. _________________ mandated programs are those a. Employee and contractor training
­created in response to government regulations. b. Post-shutdown safety review
4. Name at least five common administrative hazard c. Hot work permits
­control activities. d. Incident investigations within 72 hours after an incident
 Administrative Controls: Programs and Practices 343

11. (True or False) Decontamination procedures are part of 14. List at least four NFPA hazardous material storage
the OSHA Process Safety Management regulation. requirements.
12. Who provides the Responsible Care® program? 15. List at least six elements of the PSM Rule (29 CFR
1910.119).
13. Which ISO standard addresses environmental
management?
a. 9000
b. 9001
c. 1910.119
d. 14000

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Select one of the following topics: ISO 14000, DOT 2. Brainstorm a list of tasks that might fall under house-
hazardous material handling, or NFPA hazardous keeping duties in the process industries. Share the list
material storage requirements. Using the internet or with your fellow students.
other resources, research the topic and write a paper
describing the topic and how it relates to safety, 3. Perform a process hazard analysis (PHA) on an activity
health, and the environment. or task that you do at school, work, or home (e.g., mowing
the lawn, using a hand tool, or cleaning at heights).
 Chapter 21
Permitting Systems
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of permitting systems found in the process
industries.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
21.1 Describe the function and purpose of permitting systems found in
local plants. (NAPTA Safety, Permitting 1*) p. 345
21.2 Use locks, tags, and blinds to isolate a piece of equipment.
(NAPTA Safety, Permitting 3) p. 351
21.3 Complete a job safety analysis and complete a safe work permit
to ensure the work environment is safe prior to beginning a job.
(NAPTA Safety, Permitting 2) p. 353
21.4 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
permitting. (NAPTA Safety, Permitting 4) p. 353

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Permitting 1)” means that this c­ hapter’s
objective relates to objective 1 of NAPTA’s course content on safety regarding work
­permitting systems.

Key Terms
Affected and other employees—employees who are responsible for recognizing
when the energy control procedure is used and who understand the purpose of the
procedure and the importance of not starting up locked/tagged equipment, p. 352.
Authorized employees—employees who are responsible for implementing the
energy control procedures and performing service or maintenance work. They
receive the most detailed training on procedures, p. 352.
Cold work—any work performed in an area that contains bulk quantities of
combustible or flammable liquids or gases or bulk quantities of liquids, gases, or
solids that are toxic, corrosive, or irritating, p. 349.
Critical lift—any lift that could result in death, injury, health impacts, property
damage, or project delay if there is an accident, p. 350.
344
 Permitting Systems 345

Fire watch—a trained employee who monitors the conditions of an area for a specified
time during and after hot work to ensure that no fire danger is present, p. 349.
Hot work—any fire or spark-producing operation (e.g., welding, burning, riveting),
p. 349.
Job safety analyses (JSAs)—procedures which analyze how a job is performed in
order to identify and correct undesirable conditions, p. 353.
Lockout device—a device placed on an energy source, in accordance with an
established procedure, that ensures the energy is isolated and the equipment
cannot be operated until the device is removed, p. 351.
Opening/blinding permit—a permit used to help ensure that accidental leaking from
pipes does not occur, p. 349.
Safe work permit—a permit used to ensure the area is safe for work to be performed
and for communicating that information, p. 349.
Scaffold tags—tags used to label the status of a scaffold clearly and to communicate
its approved use, p. 351.

21.1 Introduction
Permit-to-work systems are used in the process industries to control hazardous conditions in
the workplace. Employers are required to maintain written procedures for work duties that
may place an employee in a hazardous situation. Permits protect employees from hazards
and potential hazards. They provide written authority for an employee to complete work
for a nonroutine task, such as maintenance on a specific piece of equipment.
Written permits normally indicate the task to be performed, the potential hazards
­associated with performing that task, and the protective controls to be used while the task
is performed. The permits are approved by appropriate personnel for a specified duration
in accordance with company procedure.
Permits communicate information between the issuer and the recipient about a
­potentially hazardous work assignment. The permit signifies that both the issuer and the
recipient have recognized their responsibilities to ensure a safe work environment. The
responsibilities of each person are identified in the list that follows. The permit issuer
­performs the ­following tasks:

• Tests the area for hazardous conditions

• Frees the area of hazards
• Informs the recipient of potential hazards that exist
• Communicates the job responsibilities to the recipient
• Identifies safety equipment that is near the work site

The permit recipient performs the following tasks:

• Checks the work area, following all permit procedures

• Shares all details with the work crew
• Notifies the issuer if the scope of work changes
• Monitors the work site for hazards
• Cleans up the area after completing the job duties
• Returns the signed permit to the issuer after the work is complete

Permits become invalid when conditions become unsafe, an emergency alarm sounds,
an accident occurs at the work site, the scope of work changes, or the work exceeds the
­expiration date and time of the permit.
OSHA requires sites where the PSM Rule applies (29 CFR 1910.119) to have p ­ ermit
attendants formally trained. Sites where the PSM Rule applies are manufacturing
346 Chapter 21

industries—particularly those pertaining to chemicals, transportation equipment, and

­fabricated metal products. Other affected sectors include natural gas liquids; farm ­product
warehousing; electric, gas, and sanitary services; and wholesale trade. It also applies to
pyrotechnics and explosives manufacturers covered under other OSHA rules, and it has
­special provisions for contractors working in covered facilities. PSM applies to those
­companies that deal with any of more than 130 specific toxic and reactive chemicals in
listed quantities; it also includes flammable liquids and gases in quantities of 10,000 pounds
(4,536 kg) or more.

Permit Procedures
Typically, a permit process involves multiple employees and possibly multiple departments.
Regardless of the type of permit being obtained, the basic steps of the permit process are
generally the same.

1. The need for the permit is identified, and permit needs are discussed with a supervisor
or other authorized person.
2. The type of permit to be issued is determined.
3. The permit is completed, and the precautions are noted.
4. The permit is reviewed with all workers who will be affected by or involved in the work.
5. The authorized person and the employee completing the work sign the permit. The
supervisor maintains the original, and the employee completing the work maintains
the copy.
6. The job is completed or the permit becomes invalid or expires.

Types of Permits
Several types of permits are commonly used in the process industries. They include the
following:

• Confined space
• Lockout/tagout
• Hot work
• Cold work
• Opening/blinding
• Radiation
• Critical lifting
• Scaffold tags
• Safe work

Confined Space Permits

Confined spaces are work areas not designed for continuous employee occupancy; they
restrict the activities of employees who enter, work inside, and exit the area; and they provide
a limited means of egress. There is typically a limited amount of oxygen and/or air flow in
these spaces. These spaces may have open tops but restrict the movement of air, or they may
be enclosed and have limited entry openings. In the process industries, it may be necessary
to enter these confined spaces for nonroutine activities such as inspection, repair, cleaning,
and painting. When these types of nonroutine activities are necessary, confined space permits
are required. Figure 21.1 shows an example of a confined space permit.
 Permitting Systems 347

CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PERMIT Figure 21.1 Confined space

permit form.
Confined Space Location/Description/ID Number               Date:
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Purpose of Entry

Time In: _____________    Permit Canceled Time:___________________________________________

Time Out: ____________    Reason Permit Canceled:__________________________________________

Supervisor: __________________________________________________________________________________

Rescue and Emergency Services

Hazards of Confined Space Yes No Special Requirements Yes No

Oxygen deficiency Hot work permit required
Combustible gas/vapor Lockout/tagout
Combustible dust Lines broken, capped, or blanked
Carbon monoxide Purge—flush and vent
Hydrogen sulfide Secure area—post and flag
Toxic gas/vapor Ventilation
Toxic fumes Other—list
Skin—chemical hazards Special Equipment
Electrical hazard Breathing apparatus—respirator
Mechanical hazard Escape harness required
Engulfment hazard Tripod emergency escape unit
Entrapment hazard Lifelines
Thermal hazard Lighting (explosion proof, low voltage)
Slip or fall hazard PPE—goggles, gloves, clothing, etc.
Fire extinguisher
Communication Procedures:

DO NOT ENTER IF PERMISSIBLE ENTRY Test Start and Stop Time:

LEVELS ARE EXCEEDED Start Stop
Permissible Entry Level
% of Oxygen 19.5% to 23.5%
% of LEL Less than 10%
Carbon monoxide 35 PPM (8 hr.)
Hydrogen sulfide 10 PPM (8 hr.)
Other
Name(s) or person(s) testing: ___________________________________________________________________

Test instrument(s) used—Include name, model, serial number, and date last calibrated:
CFM—ventilation Size—cubic feet Pre-entry time ❒ Central notified Time notified:
before entrance
❒ Central notified Time notified:
after entrance

Authorized Entrants Authorized Attendants

_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________

PERMIT AUTHORIZATION
I certify that all actions and conditions necessary for safe entry have been performed.
Name—(print):
Signature:
Date: Time:
348 Chapter 21

Did You Know? Confined Space Fatalities

According to the National Insti-

tute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH), more than 60% of
confined space f­atalities occur Worker in confined space
among would-be rescuers. P­ rocess 40% 60%
technicians should never attempt Would-be rescuer
a ­confined space rescue without
proper training, equipment, and
authorization.

An area qualifies for a permit if at least one of the following characteristics is present:

• The area contains or could potentially contain a hazardous atmosphere.

• The area contains material that could potentially engulf an entrant.
• The area has an internal design that could trap or cave in on an entrant.
• The area contains any other serious safety or health hazard.

Mechanical equipment can directly or indirectly cause hazards within a confined

space. If a possible equipment startup could cause injury, the equipment must be isolated to
­prevent an accidental startup while the workers are in the confined space. If the mechanical
­equipment could cause flammable vapor or gases, or a buildup of static charge, it is also
necessary to isolate the equipment. This type of isolation is completed through a lockout/
tagout permit, discussed later in this chapter.
When using a confined space permit, it is essential for the vessel attendant (sometimes
referred to as “standby watch,” “fire standby,” or “hole watch”) to remain in communication
with the worker inside the confined space. An injury could quickly become a fatality if there
is a lack of communication between the worker and the standby watch whose primary duty
is to guard the safety of the worker. It is also crucial to ensure that entry areas are accessible
if a rescue is required.
Additional hazards may be present as a result of working in the confined space area.
These hazards include thermal effects (heat and cold), noise, vibration, and radiation. Some
of these hazards are difficult to control. For the sake of the worker, proper personal protective
equipment must be used to limit the exposure to the hazard.
Confined space permits may vary from business to business, but the following informa-
tion is generally required on the permit:

• Test results
• Tester’s signature
• Supervisor’s name and signature
• Identification of the space to be entered, employees authorized to enter the space, and
authorized supervisors
• Purpose of entry and known hazards
• Precautions taken to isolate the space and control hazards
• Emergency response name and telephone numbers
• Date and length of entry
• Acceptable entry conditions
• Communication equipment required and communication procedures to be followed
• Additional required permits for work to be performed
• Special procedures for required equipment
• Other information to ensure safe working conditions
 Permitting Systems 349

Hot Work Permits

Hot work is any fire-operation producing fire or sparks, including welding, riveting, and Hot work any fire or spark-
flame cutting. Because of the potential for fire hazards, hot work requires the issuance of a producing operation (e.g., welding,
burning, riveting).
permit to ensure the hazards are controlled. Many employers use a fire watch for a specified
time during and after hot work to ensure that a fire does not begin as a result of the hot work Fire watch a trained employee
who monitors the conditions of an
that was performed. Figure 21.2 shows an example of a hot work permit. area for a specified time during and
after hot work to ensure that no fire
danger is present.

Figure 21.2 Sample hot work

permit.
CREDIT: Opsormen/Shutterstock.

Safe Work Permits

Safe work permits are permits acquired to do cold work, which is work that does not produce Cold work any work performed in
any fire but that utilizes spaces containing bulk quantities of combustible or flammable liq- an area that contains bulk quantities
of combustible or flammable liquids
uids or gases, or bulk quantities of liquids, gases, or solids that are toxic, corrosive, or irritat- or gases, or bulk quantities of liquids,
ing. Safe work permits may cover jobs from a pump seal replacement to painting a handrail. gases, or solids that are toxic,
They are used to ensure that the area is safe for work to be performed and for communicating corrosive, or irritating.
the work being done to other personnel. Cold work requirements state the following: Safe work permit a permit used
to ensure the area is safe for work to
• Liquid residue of hazardous materials be removed from workspaces as completely as be performed and for communicating
possible before cold work operations are started. that information.

• Testing must be conducted to determine the concentration of flammable, combustible,

toxic, corrosive, or irritant vapor prior to conducting cold work.
• Continuous ventilation must be provided to keep flammable and toxic vapor at acceptable
levels.
• The environment must be tested to ensure that air concentrations are safe.
• Spills must be cleaned up as work progresses.
• No ignition sources must be present.

Opening/Blinding Permits
Piping can also present a hazard due to pressurized or toxic fluids. To help ensure that
­accidental leakage from pipes does not occur, permits for opening and blinding are used. Opening/blinding permit a permit
OSHA defines blanking or blinding as, “the absolute closure of a pipe, line, or duct by the used to help ensure that accidental
leaking from pipes does not occur.
fastening of a solid plate (e.g., a spectacle blind or a skillet blind) that completely covers the
bore and that is capable of withstanding the maximum pressure of the pipe, line, or duct
with no leakage beyond the plate” (29 CFR 1910.147). Figure 21.3 illustrates a sample blind-
ing permit.
350 Chapter 21

Figure 21.3 Sample blinding

permit form. No. 59314

OPENING OR BLINDING PERMIT

Date Issued Time

Permit Expires: Time

Location:

Equipment:

Description of Work:

Blind Number:

Could work cause remote alarm or shutdown?

Yes No N/A

Have remote shutdowns been disabled?

Yes No N/A

Special Precautions:

Required PPE:
Breathing Air Face Shield
Acid Suit Goggles
Other:

Signature Phone/Radio/Pager #
Unit Operator Signed

Person Doing Work/Company

Signed
Responsible Supervisor Approval
Name:

Job Completed Maintenance Signature

Yes No

Have bypassed systems been returned to normal?

Yes No N/A

Radiation Permits
Ionizing radiation is an extreme hazard and is usually confined to restricted areas. To work
with or near radioactive materials, employees must follow strict guidelines. The s­ tandard
practice is to keep exposure to ionizing radiation as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
This is achieved through radiation permits that require continuous personal monitoring and
time limits for exposure to certain grades of ionizing radiation (Figure 21.4).

Figure 21.4 Radioactive

­warning symbol.
CREDIT: Brad Sauter/Shutterstock.

Critical Lifting Permits

Critical lift any lift that could result Critical lifts are those that could result in death, injury, health impacts, property damage,
in death, injury, health impacts,
property damage, or project delay if or project delay if there is an accident. Critical lift plans are necessary to ensure the lift is
there is an accident. planned in such a way as to prevent an accident (Figure 21.5). These plans, implemented by
 Permitting Systems 351

Figure 21.5 Critical lifts

require a lifting permit and a
lift plan.
CREDIT: Roman023_photography/
Shutterstock.

trained personnel, effectively help identify potentially unsafe conditions that could lead to
accidents.
The person in charge of the lift typically prepares a prelift plan. Within the plan, the
items being lifted are identified, the operating equipment is described, rigging sketches
(as appropriate) are created to serve as a guide, and operating procedures are identified.
It is essential that experienced, trained operators and signalers be assigned to operate
the equipment and give required signals. The required equipment must be used, and the lift
must be completed as identified in the plan. Those involved in the lift typically participate
in a prelift meeting to review the plan and get answers to any questions.

Scaffold Tags
Scaffold tags are used in the process industries to provide clear indication of the status of a Scaffold tags tags used to label
scaffold. Some tags indicate that the scaffold has not been inspected and should not be used. the status of a scaffold clearly and to
communicate its approved use.
Others indicate that it has been inspected and is considered safe to use. Still others commu-
nicate that while the scaffold has passed inspection, specific fall protection should be used
by the workers.

21.2 Lockout/Tagout Procedures

Lockout/tagout procedures are used in the process industries to isolate energy sources from
a piece of equipment. Lockout/tagout procedures help protect employees from hazardous
energy when they are performing maintenance on equipment. In addition to isolating the
energy source, they prevent accidental startup of machinery with rotating equipment that
could also harm the employee. Whenever there is a potential for exposure to energy, stored
energy, or the point of operation of a machine that could place an employee in a hazardous
situation, lockout and tagout devices are required.
The lockout device can be a key or combination-type lock, a cable tie, or some other Lockout device a device placed
positive means for isolating energy from the equipment. A blank flange or bolted slip blind on an energy source, in accordance
with an established procedure, that
can also be considered a lockout device. Figure 21.6A illustrates an example of a lockout ensures the energy is isolated and the
device. equipment cannot be operated until
The tagout device provides warning to all that the equipment is not to be operated the device is removed.
until the tagout device is removed through the proper energy control procedure steps.
­Figure 21.6B illustrates an example of a tagout device.
OSHA has various requirements for the lockout/tagout devices. These devices must
be durable and able to withstand the environments in which they are used. If they will be
exposed to corrosive materials, they must be constructed and printed in a way that will
not deteriorate or become illegible. The devices must also be standardized by color, shape,
352 Chapter 21

Figure 21.6 A. Lockout device

with tag. B. Tagout device.
CREDIT: A. SocoXbreed/Shutterstock.
B. King Ropes Access/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Authorized employees employees and size. They must be substantial enough to minimize early or accidental removal. Locks
who are responsible for implementing must be strong enough that they cannot be removed without substantial force or special
the energy control procedures and
performing service or maintenance tools. Finally, the tags must identify the name of the employee who applied them and must
work. They receive the most detailed indicate warnings such as “DO NOT OPERATE.”
training on procedures. Authorized employees are responsible for implementing the energy control procedures
Affected and other employees and performing the service or maintenance work. They receive the most detailed training
employees who are responsible on the procedures. Affected and other employees are those responsible for recognizing
for recognizing when the energy
when the energy control procedure is used and for understanding the purpose of the
control procedure is used and who
understand the purpose of the ­procedure and the importance of not starting up locked or tagged equipment.
procedure and the importance of not The following procedure provides a guideline of the major activities involved in i­ solating
starting up locked/tagged equipment. equipment during lockout/tagout.

Placement of Lockout/Tagout Devices

1. Prior to shutdown, the authorized employee must have knowledge of:
• The type and magnitude of the energy (Note: Energy can be pressure, electrical, or
anything else that powers the equipment.)
• Hazards of the energy
• Methods or means of controlling the energy.
2. The machine or equipment must be shut down using the procedures established for
the equipment.
3. Equipment must be totally isolated from its energy sources with the necessary isolating
devices.
4. Lockout or tagout devices must be affixed to each energy-isolating device.
5. All potentially hazardous stored or residual energy must be relieved, disconnected,
restrained, and made safe.
6. Prior to work on equipment, the authorized employee must verify the isolation and
­de-energization of the equipment.

Removal of Lockout or Tagout Devices

1. The authorized employee must check the work area to ensure that nonessential items
have been removed and that equipment components are operationally intact.
2. The authorized employee must check to ensure that all employees have been posi-
tioned safely and must notify affected employees that lockout or tagout devices will
be removed.
3. Each lockout or tagout device must be removed in accordance with procedures.
 Permitting Systems 353

21.3 Job Safety Analyses

Job safety analyses (JSAs) are conducted to analyze the company’s performance in Job safety analyses (JSAs)
­identifying and correcting hazardous conditions that could result in a serious accident, procedures which analyze how a job
is performed in order to identify and
injury, or near miss. Within most companies, the first-line supervisors are primarily correct undesirable conditions.
­responsible for the development of JSAs because of their knowledge of the process and
experience in r­ ecognizing and eliminating hazards and potential hazards. They involve the
employees who perform the job in order to make the JSA as effective as possible.
A variety of methods are used in the process industries to perform a JSA. All of the
­commonly used methods, however, contain the same basic components:

1. Identify the specific steps performed to complete a job.

2. Identify hazards and potential hazards associated with performing the job.
3. Determine solutions for removing and/or minimizing the hazards and potential hazards.

Statistics show that employers with a strong JSA program are able to reduce the number
of accidents and incidents that occur at the location.

21.4 Government Regulations and

Industry Guidelines
OSHA Standards
OSHA’s standards for general industry and for the construction industry (29 CFR 1910)
specifically identify the requirements for employers in protecting their employees. In most
instances, OSHA requires written programs, thorough training for employees, and strict
adherence to the written programs.

CONFINED SPACE PERMIT PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS Employers are required to

develop and implement a written program for employee entrance into permit-required
­confined spaces. OSHA requires the following components to be included:

• Identifying and evaluating hazards before entering

• Testing conditions before entry; monitoring during entry
• Performing atmosphere, oxygen-combustible, and toxicity tests
• Establishing safe work practices and procedures to eliminate or control hazards
• Identifying employee job duties
• Providing proper personal protective equipment to perform the job
• Using a trained standby watch outside the space while the job is performed
• Coordinating activities of multiple employees in the space
• Implementing rescue and emergency procedures
• Implementing procedures for permit programs
• Performing an annual review of the permit program; revising the program as needed
to ensure employee safety

LOCKOUT/TAGOUT PERMIT PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS The written program

requirements for lockout/tagout include the following:

• Documented energy control procedures for shutting down and restarting equipment
• An employee training program on the control procedures
• Regular inspections of the use of the procedures
354 Chapter 21

• Correction and documentation of procedural limitations

• Employee retraining as needed to ensure procedural changes are followed

An energy control program ensures that whenever the possibility of unexpected equip-
ment startup or energization occurs or when the possibility of unexpected release of stored
energy could occur and cause injury, the equipment will be isolated from its energy source
and rendered inoperative.

Training
Employees are required by OSHA to undergo training on permit programs. Retraining may
be required if job performance, job duties, or permit processes change. Training must be
documented and records retained for at least three years.

FIRE WATCH ATTENDANT DUTIES The attendant duties associated with hot work
­ ermits are also called “fire watch” duties. Following are the requirements for a fire watch
p
attendant:

• Watch out for fires and hazards while others are performing hot work (flame, torch, or
welding operations).
• Ensure conditions required for the permit to be issued are maintained during the work.
• Ensure at all times that flammable materials are kept separated from sources of ignition.
This can extend to several hours after hot work is performed if the possibility exists that
sparks or residual heat could cause a fire after the hot work has been completed.
• In the event of a fire, summon emergency assistance and if appropriate (if you are trained
and have the equipment available), attempt to extinguish the fire.
• Stop operations if any condition becomes apparent that would prohibit the permit from
being issued.
• Ensure that you and all employees know where emergency equipment is located.
• Maintain constant communication with employees performing the hot work and with
employees who would be affected should a fire/explosion occur.
• Before and during each shift, when the permit is active, inspect the entire permitted area
to ensure that conditions that allowed the permit to be issued still exist. Look for poten-
tial releases of flammable vapor or liquids. Ensure the spark path (the path sparks take
from the point of generation to the ground) does not come near fuel sources. Remember,
work on an elevated area means the spark path can be several stories down.
• Be prepared to operate fire extinguishers, hydrants, fixed monitors, and hose
carts. It is a good idea to have a fire extinguisher next to you, ready to use, in some
instances.
• Never leave the permitted area while work is ongoing and there is no temporary replace-
ment attendant.
• Return all fire equipment that has been placed “at the ready” to its normal storage
position.

CONFINED SPACE ATTENDANT DUTIES

• Continuously monitor conditions that allowed the permit to be issued to ensure these
conditions still exist during the entry.
• Know the hazards that might occur during the entry.
• Monitor the weather to ensure conditions are not becoming severe or are severe enough
to stop the entry.
• Continuously communicate with employees who have entered the confined space to
ensure they are all right.
 Permitting Systems 355

• Always have the means of summoning emergency aid at hand (close by and i­ mmediately
available).
• Never leave the permitted area while work is ongoing and there is no temporary
­replacement attendant.
• Return all fire equipment that has been placed “at the ready” to its normal storage
position.

Summary
Permit-to-work systems are used in industry to control haz- Permits become invalid when safe conditions become
ardous conditions in the workplace. Employers are required unsafe, an emergency alarm sounds, an accident occurs at the
to maintain written procedures for work duties that may place work site, the scope of work changes, or the work exceeds the
an employee in a hazardous situation. Permits are used to expiration date and time of the permit.
protect employees from hazards and potential hazards. They Permit procedures are required by OSHA to safeguard
provide written authority for an employee to complete work employees from hazardous conditions that can be controlled.
for a nonroutine task, such as maintenance on a specific piece These permit programs must be written, and employees must
of equipment. be trained in how to follow the procedures. In addition, permit
Written permits indicate the task to be performed, the programs must be reviewed on an annual basis and retrain-
potential hazards associated with performing that task, and ing conducted as needed to ensure that proper procedures are
the protective controls to be used while the task is performed. followed.
The permits must be approved by appropriate personnel for Attendant duties for hot work permitted and confined
a specified duration in accordance with company procedure. space areas require constant attention and the means to sum-
Permits communicate information between the issuer mon and/or provide emergency assistance immediately. In
and the recipient about a potentially hazardous work assign- some instances of hot work, the fire watch period can extend
ment. The permit signifies that both the issuer and the recipi- many hours after the hot work has been completed to ensure
ent recognize their responsibilities to maintain a safe work remaining sources of fuel do not reignite after emergency
environment. responders have left the area.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: c. Potential hazards associated with the task
a. Cold work d. Information on safety equipment to be used
b. Critical lift
3. List five tasks of the permit issuer.
c. Fire watch
d. Hot work 4. (True or False) Permits become invalid if the scope of
e. Lockout device work changes, if conditions become unsafe, or if the
work exceeds the expiration date and time of the
f. Opening/blinding permits
permit.
g. Safe work permits
5. List the six basic steps of the permitting process.
h. Scaffold tag
2. Permits typically contain which of the following?
(Select all that apply.)
a. A description of the task to be performed
b. Standard operating procedures
356 Chapter 21

6. Match the permit type with the appropriate description. 7. Which of the following is considered a lockout device?
(Select all that apply.)
Permit Type Description
a. Combination lock
I. Confined space a. Required for work that could produce a
spark b. DO NOT USE tag
II. Lockout/tagout b. Used to isolate energy from a piece of c. Blank flange
equipment
d. Cable tie
III. Hot work c. Required for lifts that could cause health
impacts, injury, or property damage 8. Name the three components of a job safety analysis
IV. Safe work d. Used to prevent exposure to excessive (JSA).
amounts of radiation
V. Opening/blinding e. Required to ensure the area is safe for work 9. List five duties of a fire watch (hot work) attendant.
VI. Radiation f.  Used to prevent accidental leakage from 10. List four duties of a confined space entry attendant.
a pipe
VII. Critical lifts g. Used for work areas not designed for
continuous ­occupancy and provide limited
means of egress
VIII. Scaffold tags h. Used to provide clear indication of the
­status of a device

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Select one of the permit types discussed in this chapter. c. Emergency condition occurs outside of the confined
Research at least one incident, accident, or fatality that space.
could have been prevented if proper permitting proce- d. The attendant cannot for any reason fulfill his
dures had been followed. Write a one-page report that ­responsibilities and there is no immediate substitute.
explains your findings.
Give and discuss examples of each of these conditions.
2. There are four conditions that require an attendant to
evacuate the confined space: 3. OSHA statistic: There are an average of about two
a. Prohibited condition occurs. ­fatalities a week in the OSHA covered work sites related
to confined space entry. This statistic seems to remain
b. Entrant shows signs of physiological effects of
year to year. Why?
hazard(s) exposure.
Chapter 22
Personal Protective
Equipment and
First Aid
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
22.1 Describe basic first aid responses. (NAPTA Safety, PPE 1*) p. 358
22.2 Discuss the selection, function, and proper use of personal protective
equipment (PPE) in the process industries:
Respiratory protection
Eye protection
Hearing protection
Head protection
Hand protection
Foot protection
Skin protection. (NAPTA Safety, PPE 2, 4) p. 367
22.3 Describe the levels of protection of PPE. (NAPTA Safety, PPE 3) p. 382
22.4 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
medical and first aid responses and PPE:
OSHA 1910 Subpart K: Medical and First Aid
OSHA 1910.132–Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
OSHA 1910.133–PPE: Eye and Face Protection
OSHA 1910.134–PPE: Respiratory Protection
OSHA 1910.138–PPE: Hand Protection. (NAPTA Safety, PPE 5) p. 383

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, PPE 1)” means that this chapter’s objective
relates to objective 1 of the NAPTA curriculum on PPE and first aid.
357
358 Chapter 22

Key Terms
CPR—cardiopulmonary resuscitation, which is an emergency method to assist a
victim whose heart has stopped beating properly, p. 366.
First-degree burns—burns that affect only the outer layer of skin and cause pain,
redness, and swelling, p. 362.
Second-degree burns—burns that affect both the outer and the underlying layer of
skin, p. 362.
Third-degree burns—burns that affect deeper tissues and cause white or blackened,
charred skin that may be numb, p. 362.

22.1 Introduction
OSHA requires that employees be given a safe and healthy workplace that is reasonably free
of occupational hazards. However, process technicians can be exposed to chemical, ­biological,
physical, and ergonomic hazards inherent to working in a process facility. Although every
effort is made to prevent accidents and emergencies, they can still occur on the job, because
a process industry work site can pose a variety of potential hazards.
Company policies and procedures determine whether process technicians can ­provide
first aid to victims. Often, an emergency response team (or first responders) and/or a
­resident medical staff will handle emergencies and accidents, including first aid treatment.
At the very least, the process technician must promptly report emergencies and accidents to
the proper authorities. Your company will train you on how to report emergency situations
and accidents, along with other basic emergency procedures (potentially including first aid
training).
Note: This book is not intended to be a first aid or medical guide. Its goal is to inform
process technicians of potential emergencies and accidents they might encounter, so they
can report useful information to trained first responders or medical staff.
To prevent or minimize hazards, government and the process industries have imple-
mented engineering controls, administrative controls, and the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE). Process technicians must understand the proper selection, use, care, and
maintenance of PPE. This chapter describes different types of PPE, levels of PPE protection,
proper fit and use, and upkeep of PPE.

Potential Injuries and Basic First Aid

In a typical process facility, workers routinely perform tasks that, if not performed safely or
properly, might cause injuries. Physical hazards are common; they come from environmental
factors such as excessive levels of noise, temperature, pressure, vibration, radiation, elec-
tricity, or machinery. This chapter discusses some potential types of injuries that can occur,
although the nature and severity of an injury varies due to the hazard agent (the substance,
method, or action by which damage can happen to personnel) and site-specific conditions
(e.g., work environment, processes, materials, and equipment).
Often, injuries result in minor cuts, pinches, scrapes, bruises, burns, strains, or splinters
(Figure 22.1). However, in rare cases more serious injuries can occur. The following are some
types of injuries and emergency situations that can occur in the process industries:

• Eye injuries
• Lacerations, punctures, or other causes of bleeding
• Impact injuries (bruises, sprains, or fractures)
• Back injuries
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 359

• Burns
• Head injuries
• Electric shocks
• Breathing problems
• Injuries from contact with chemical or biological substances

Figure 22.1 Every facility has

materials for first aid. Some of
the most common injuries in the
process industries include cuts,
pinches, scrapes, bruises, burns,
strains, or splinters.
CREDIT: Omphoto/Shutterstock.

Regardless of the type of injury that you or a fellow worker sustain, you must f­ollow
your facility’s procedures for obtaining trained help and reporting the injury. (OSHA requires
certain types of injuries to be recorded.) Following are some general recommendations for
dealing with injuries in the workplace:

• Report the situation immediately to the proper authorities, as outlined in your ­company’s
policies and procedures. Provide as much accurate information as possible about the
location, situation, and victim’s status and symptoms.
• Make sure the scene is safe. Do not rush to help if doing so would put you or someone
else in danger (e.g., live electric wires in contact with the victim).
• If properly trained and company policies and procedures permit, administer first aid.
• Do not move a victim unless a critical situation threatens the victim (e.g., fire, threat of
explosion, hazardous atmosphere).
• Remember to use proper PPE and follow safety procedures while dealing with the
­situation, so you do not become a victim also.
• Remain calm and observant.
• Provide a full and accurate report on the situation and/or assist with any investigation.

The following are general descriptions of each type of injury. To learn more about these
injuries and their treatment, check with your employer about available first aid courses. The
American Red Cross and National Safety Council also offer courses to the public. For additional
training, you can enroll in an emergency medical technician (EMT) or paramedic program.

Eye Injuries
Eye injuries can occur when a foreign object or substance comes into contact with the eye.
Flying particles or falling objects, such as chips, metal shavings, dust, and other similar haz-
ards are common causes of injury, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Often, these
objects are tiny and are moving fast (e.g., being thrown by a moving equipment part). Sparks
(e.g., from tasks such as welding and grinding) can also strike the eye and cause damage.
Contact with chemicals and other hazardous substances (e.g., molten metal, biological
agents) is another common cause of eye injuries. Other accidents are caused by swinging
objects (e.g., ropes, chains) that strike the eye.
360 Chapter 22

The eyes can be protected from injury using PPE such as safety glasses, safety goggles,
or face shields (Figure 22.2). Eyewash stations (like drinking fountains, but with two streams)
can be used to help with eye injuries. See the PPE section in this chapter for details.

Figure 22.2 Safety glasses,

safety goggles, and face shields
protect the eyes from injury
caused by flying debris.
CREDIT: Mihai Daniel/Shutterstock.

Injuries That Cause Bleeding

Most bleeding occurs from minor cuts, scrapes, punctures, or gashes (Figure 22.3). Bleeding
can be mild or severe. The hands are a common place for injuries to occur. If you step on a
sharp object, your foot can be punctured. Thrown or falling objects can cause impact injuries
(bruises, fractures), sometimes accompanied by bleeding. Severe cuts (such as to an artery)
can cause a victim to bleed profusely, pass out, and even die.

Figure 22.3 Most bleeding

occurs from minor cuts, scrapes,
punctures, or gashes that can be
treated with first aid equipment.
CREDIT: Bmf-foto.de/Shutterstock.

A variety of hazards in the process industries can cause injuries that bleed: using tools,
coming into contact with moving equipment parts, getting hit by a thrown or fallen object,
or getting a body part caught between two hard surfaces.
The hands can be protected from injury by using gloves. Feet can be protected by wear-
ing safety footwear. Other body parts can be protected by other types of PPE. See the PPE
section in this chapter for details.

Impact Injuries
Impact can occur in a variety of ways. The worker may be hit by thrown or falling objects.
A worker might drop materials he or she is carrying (e.g., pipes, drums, and bags). Workers
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 361

can slip or trip or fall from a height. Workers might also be involved in a vehicle accident.
Impact can result in injuries such as the following:

• Bruises
• Bleeding
• Strains
• Fractures
• In extreme cases, death

Even a short fall of 3 to 4 feet (1–1.3 m) can cause a major injury or even death. Also, if
a person is working at heights and using fall protection, a fall can still cause impact injuries
(e.g., from the harness violently jerking against a body part) (Figure 22.4).

Figure 22.4 A. Safety harness. B. Process technicians should always wear proper PPE when working at heights.
CREDIT: A. Paulo Vilela/Shutterstock. B. Alessia Pierdomenico/Shutterstock.

A. B.

OSHA requires workers to be trained and wear fall protection in most cases when work-
ing at a height of 4 feet (1.3 m) or more unless handrails or similar barriers are present. Your
employer will provide and train you in proper use of fall protection equipment.
Various PPE can be used to protect workers against impact injuries. Such PPE include
hard hats, gloves, safety shoes, fall protection, and safety glasses, goggles, or face shields.
See the PPE section in this chapter for details.

Back Injuries
Back injuries can range from minor to serious. Some require rest and other simple treat-
ments, while severe ones can result in surgery, permanent disability, or death. Back injuries
can occur in any situation, whether the work environment is a process unit or an office
environment. They are not always caused by lifting heavy objects or performing laborious
tasks; even something as simple as bending over to pick up a dropped object can cause an
injury (Figure 22.5).
362 Chapter 22

Figure 22.5 Many back

i­njuries occur as a result of
improper lifting technique.
CREDIT: (left) PHOVOIR/Alamy Stock Photo.
(right) Hero Images Inc./Alamy Stock Photo.

INCORRECT LIFTING CORRECT LIFTING

The following are some situations that can potentially result in a back injury:

• Lifting or handling materials incorrectly

• Using tools improperly
• Slips, trips, and falls
• Falling from heights
• Impact (e.g., falling objects, getting caught between two hard surfaces)
• Twisting the body in an unnatural position
• Vehicle accidents
• Bending over

Although a back belt can be used, following proper ergonomic practices is the better
approach to prevent or minimize a back injury. See Chapter 15, Recognizing Ergonomic Haz-
ards for more details. Check your company’s policy on the use of back belts. Proper footwear
First-degree burns burns that
affect only the outer layer of skin and can help prevent slips and falls, while fall protection can minimize injuries due to falls from
cause pain, redness, and swelling. heights.

Second-degree burns burns

that affect both the outer and the
Burns
underlying layer of skin. There are three levels of burns. A first-degree burn affects only the outer layer of skin and
causes pain, redness, and swelling. A second-degree burn affects both the outer and the
Third-degree burns burns that underlying layer of skin. These burns cause pain, redness, swelling, and blistering.
affect deeper tissues and cause white
or blackened, charred skin that may A ­third-degree burn affects deeper tissues and causes white or blackened, charred skin that
be numb. may be numb (Figure 22.6).

SKIN BURN
Figure 22.6 There are three
levels of burns.
CREDIT: Designua/Shutterstock.
EPIDERMIS

DERMA

FAT

First-degree Second-degree Third-degree

burn burn burn
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 363

Burns can be caused by fire, hot steam or liquids, radiation, friction, heated objects, the
sun, electricity, or chemicals. Thermal burns are the most common type of burn in the process
industries. They occur when hot metals, liquids, steam, or flames come in contact with the
skin. Because there is a large amount of hot piping and steam release within a plant, thermal
burns occur frequently.
Various types of PPE can be used to prevent or minimize the hazards of burns, such as
the following:

• Flame resistant clothing (FRC)

• Specially cooled clothing
• Gloves
• Safety footwear
• Helmets or masks
• Tinted face shields, safety goggles, or safety glasses
• Protective (barrier) creams

Respiratory protection can provide a barrier against flame related hazards such as smoke
or vapor. See the PPE section in this chapter for details.

Head Injuries
Head injuries can occur in the plant due to situations such as the following:

• Impact (e.g., thrown or falling objects, getting caught between two hard surfaces)
• Slipping or tripping
• Falling from a height
• A vehicle accident

Head injuries can be minor or major, but even a minor head injury can result in a more
severe condition, such as concussion, blackout, or disorientation. Major head injuries can
result in permanent disability or death. Head injuries can also include neck or spine injuries.
All head injuries should be considered as major until a professional medical person can pro-
vide diagnosis and treatment. The most common type of PPE to prevent or minimize head
injuries is the hard hat. See the PPE section in this chapter for details.

Electrical Shocks
Electrical hazards can result from situations such as the following:

• Improper wiring or grounding

• Short circuits (Figure 22.7)

Figure 22.7 Electrical shorts

can produce fire and electrical
shock hazards.
CREDIT: Markik/Shutterstock.
364 Chapter 22

• Cracked, degraded, or wet insulation

• Surges and overloads
• Equipment failure
• Static electricity buildup
• Downed power lines
• Lightning strikes

An electrical shock occurs when a person is exposed to electric current. Electrical shock
and other electrical hazards occur when a person contacts a conductor carrying electricity
while also touching the ground or an object that has a conductive path to the ground. The
person completes the circuit as the current passes through his or her body. Following are
some symptoms of electrical shock:

• Unconsciousness
• Cessation of breathing
• Weakness
• Weak or absent pulse
• Stopped heart
• Burned skin
• Stiffness of muscles in the body

Besides burns, electrical shock can cause muscle damage, ventricular fibrillation (rapid,
irregular contractions of the heart), cardiac arrest, cessation of breathing, and death. If you
see a victim of an electrical shock, DO NOT touch the victim. Make sure the power source
is turned off immediately. DO NOT use wood, tree limbs, or plastic to push, pull, or roll the
victim away from the source of electricity. The moisture in the material can conduct electric-
ity and electrocute the rescuer. High voltage can arc or jump up to three feet (about a meter)
through the air, so make sure the power is off before attempting to help. PPE can prevent or
minimize the hazard of electrical shocks:

• Hard hats
• Insulated gloves
• Safety footwear (nonconductive)

See the PPE section in this chapter for details.

Breathing Problems
Breathing problems can result from a variety of causes, including exposure to hazard-
ous chemicals in the atmosphere, air pollution, allergens, extreme temperatures, pressure
changes, and overexertion.
Breathing troubles can result in the following conditions:

• Coughing and wheezing

• Sneezing
• Shortness of breath or gasping
• Gagging
• Vomiting
• Loss of consciousness
• Turning blue (a condition called cyanosis)
• Death
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 365

The following are some hazardous atmospheres the process technician might encounter:

• Smoke
• Airborne substances or chemicals (toxic or nontoxic)
• Oxygen-deficient environment
• Oxygen-enriched environment

Respiratory protection can provide a barrier between a worker and hazardous

­atmospheres or supply air at the correct oxygen level (Figure 22.8).

Figure 22.8 Respiratory

protection can provide a barrier
between a worker and hazardous
atmospheres.
CREDIT: Science photo/Shutterstock.

Contact with Chemical or Biological Substances

Workers handling chemicals and/or biological substances can come into contact with
these substances. The effects will vary, based on factors such as the type of substance, the
amount of the substance, the type of exposure (e.g., inhalation, absorption), and the length
of ­exposure. See Chapter 3, Recognizing Chemical Hazards and Chapter 4, Recognizing Biologi-
cal Hazards for more details.
Various types of PPE can be used to prevent or minimize exposure to these substances:
• Chemical suits, biohazard suits, or similar clothing and gear
• Respiratory protection
• Hard hats
• Gloves
• Safety footwear
• Face shields, safety goggles, or safety glasses

Eyewash stations can be used to remove any chemical or biological substances in or near
the eyes, while safety (deluge) showers can be used to remove such substances from the body.
See the PPE section in this chapter for details.

Other Injuries
The following are some other potential injuries and emergency situations:
• Cessation of breathing
• Stopped heartbeat
• Shock
• Choking
366 Chapter 22

CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation, Trained personnel can administer CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) to victims
which is an emergency method who have stopped breathing and/or have no heartbeat. Administering CPR properly and
to assist a victim whose heart has
stopped beating properly. promptly can make the difference between life and death. You can become CPR-certified
through your company’s program or other outside agency (e.g., Red Cross).
Shock is different from an electrical shock. This life-threatening medical emergency
results in bodily collapse or near collapse that comes from an inadequate delivery of ­oxygen
to the body’s systems. Shock victims require immediate medical attention, or permanent
disability or death can happen. Always be alert for signs of shock when dealing with any
injury. Shock can appear in a variety of ways:

• Weakness
• Pale, cold, and/or clammy skin
• Cyanosis (turning blue)
• Chills
• Vomiting
• Shallow or rapid breathing
• Change in body temperature (high or low)
• Change in heart rate (fast or slow)
• Chest pain
• Restlessness
• Personality change
• Mental confusion
• Coma

Choking is caused by food or an object blocking a person’s upper airway, which prevents
proper breathing. A first aid technique called the abdominal thrust or Heimlich maneuver
(­Figure 22.9) can be performed on a choking victim to dislodge the trapped object from
the airway.

Figure 22.9 Abdominal

thrusts (Heimlich maneuver) can
be performed on a choking victim
to dislodge a trapped object from
the airway.
CREDIT: SpeedKingz/Shutterstock.

Choking signs include the following:

• Inability to talk
• Clutching the throat with one or both hands (this is the universal choking sign)
• Wheezing or coughing
• Panic
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 367

• Wild gestures
• Turning blue
• Loss of consciousness

As stated previously, usually only trained personnel should attempt any first aid
t­reatment, including CPR or the Heimlich maneuver. CPR and first aid skills should be
updated regularly because treatment methods change, and technology provides better ways
to help people (e.g., automatic external defibrillators, or AED). There is a new technique for
the untrained rescuer, however. It is known as “compression only CPR.” It can be used if
there is no one available who knows proper first aid and if trained responders are delayed.
Push forcefully down on the nonbreathing victim’s chest in the center of the breastbone and
­compress the chest 2 to 2.4 inches (5-6 cm) deep. Compressions should be done at a rate of
100 to 120 pumps per minute. This can be very frightening to the person performing the
rescue, but taking action could save a life. Irreversible brain damage and death can result
from doing nothing when a person’s brain is deprived of oxygen.

22.2 Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is specialized clothing and equipment worn or used by
workers to minimize the risk of injury from exposure to various hazards in the workplace,
including chemical, physical, biological, and ergonomic hazards. In industry there are situ-
ations in which engineering controls (technological and engineering improvements used to
isolate, lessen, or remove a hazard) and administrative controls (e.g., policies, procedures,
and activities) do not effectively reduce the worker’s exposure down to acceptable levels. In
these situations, OSHA regulations require use of personal protective equipment to reduce
employee’s exposure to hazards. PPE is considered the last line of defense against workplace
hazards (see Figure 22.10).

Figure 22.10 Personal

­ rotective equipment minimizes
p
the risk of injury from exposure to
various hazards in the workplace.
CREDIT: Yustus/Shutterstock.

The following are different types of PPE that may be provided to the process technician:

• Respiratory protection: air-supplying respirators and air-purifying respirators

• Hearing protection: earmuffs, disposable earplugs, reusable molded earplugs, helmets
• Eye protection: safety glasses, safety goggles, face shields
• Face protection: face shields, helmets, masks
368 Chapter 22

• Head protection: hard hats, bump caps

• Body and skin protection: chemical suits, flame resistant clothing, aprons, slickers
• Hand protection: chemical- and liquid-resistant gloves, leather or canvas gloves,
­insulated gloves
• Foot protection: safety shoes or boots, rubber boots, nonconductive footwear

Two main groups are responsible for promoting standards that PPE must meet to
­provide proper protection:
• The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is a government
agency that carries out research and training and recommends new standards and
­criteria to OSHA. NIOSH standards are used for respirators.
• The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is an organization that develops and
promotes standards in a wide variety of areas, including PPE.

OSHA requires that many categories of PPE meet or be equivalent to ANSI

standards:

• Eye and Face Protection—ANSI Z87.1-1989

• Head Protection—ANSI Z89.1-1986
• Foot Protection—ANSI Z89.1-1991

No ANSI standards are available for hand protection, so gloves should be selected
based on the task to be performed and the glove’s performance and construction
characteristics.
When PPE is required, a PPE program should be implemented according to OSHA. (See
Chapter 3, Recognizing Chemical Hazards and Chapter 4, Recognizing Biological Hazards.) The
PPE program should cover the following:

• Hazards present
• Selection, maintenance, and use of PPE
• Training of employees
• Monitoring of the program to ensure its ongoing effectiveness

Employers perform a hazard assessment, evaluating potential hazards in the facility

based on basic categories such impact, penetration, compression, chemical hazards, heat or
cold, presence of harmful dust, light (optical) radiation, or biological hazards. The following
hazards are surveyed during the assessment:

• Electricity sources
• Motion sources
• High-temperature sources
• Radiation sources
• Harmful dust sources
• Types of chemicals used or present
• Types of biological materials used or present
• Sharp objects
• The potential for falling or dropped objects

Based on this assessment, employers determine the proper types of PPE required.
OSHA recommends that employers provide a level of protection greater than the minimum
required.
Companies provide PPE to workers, along with training on how to select, fit, use, and
maintain it. If a company does not provide certain types of PPE, they can reimburse the
employee for purchasing the appropriate items on their own (e.g., safety shoes, prescription
eye protection).
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 369

Proper Use and Care of PPE

OSHA mandates that employers check that workers demonstrate an understanding of PPE
training, along with the ability to properly wear and use the PPE. This must be done before
workers perform the task that requires the PPE.
The following are some general expectations of process technicians relating to PPE:

• Know when PPE is necessary.

• Select the proper PPE.
• Understand the limitations of PPE.
• Inspect PPE before use and make sure it fits.
• Use PPE properly, especially when using multiple types of PPE together.
• Take off PPE when done, and then inspect it again.
• Clean, maintain, and store the PPE.
• Report damaged PPE and replace it.

A wide range of PPE types, many of which are described in this chapter, are used to
protect process technicians from head to toe in a variety of situations and hazards. Because
the types of PPE vary and there are numerous PPE manufacturers, it is outside the scope of
this textbook to cover all possible PPE information.
OSHA regulations require employers to supply different types of PPE to workers. They
must then train workers on hazards, along with proper PPE selection, limitations, fit, use,
care, and maintenance. Process technicians must receive this training when they first join a
company and periodically throughout their employment.
This section will provide only general tips related to PPE:

• Understand the hazards in your workplace, including chemical, physical, biological, and
ergonomic. Consider the relationship hazards have with each other (e.g., fire hazards
with chemical hazards, hot weather with fired equipment). Hazards can change based
on materials used, equipment maintenance, new processes, environmental conditions,
or other factors. Keep updated on these hazards.
• Know what effects hazards can cause, and how they relate to you, your coworkers,
the facility, the local community, and the environment. For example, understand what
chemicals cause cancer, damage skin, or produce respiratory troubles.
• Follow all government regulations, company policies and procedures, and unit-­
specific requirements relating to safety, health, and the environment. Read and follow
documentation, safety data sheets (SDSs), labels, signs, and other important informa-
tion. Also, remember that common sense is a good tool for all workers when it comes
to safety.
• Choose the right PPE. Make sure it fits properly and comfortably. PPE must be used
­correctly and continuously to be effective. For example, if you remove hearing p
­ rotection
for even a moment, you can be exposed to damaging high noise levels. When finished
using PPE, make sure to inspect it for damage and repair or replace it as necessary.
Thoroughly clean PPE following manufacturer’s recommendations and company
­procedures. Then, store PPE so it is ready for its next use.
• Practice good personal hygiene (e.g., wash hands, shower, keep ears free of wax) and
grooming (no beard, long hair secured). Proper diet, exercise, and rest are vital also,
along with periodic medical examinations (e.g., health, vision, and hearing). Make sure
you are up to date on all vaccines (e.g., tetanus).

FIT AND COMFORT Workers are more likely to properly wear PPE that fits well and
is comfortable. Properly fitting PPE can mean the difference between being protected or
exposed. Make sure you select the proper-size PPE.
370 Chapter 22

Once PPE has been selected, remember the 3 Cs:

• Correct—adjust the PPE so it fits properly.

• Comfortable—make sure the PPE is comfortable and does not significantly hamper
normal motions.
• Compulsory—make sure you wear the PPE at all times during hazard exposure.

Often, multiple pieces of PPE are worn together. For example, a process technician might
need to wear earmuffs, a hard hat, safety goggles, gloves, safety footwear, and other PPE to
perform a task. Make sure that the PPE is compatible and does not cause problems when
worn together. All PPE must be adjusted to fit together, so that protection is not reduced or
compromised in any way. Once all PPE is adjusted, practice some common motions of work
tasks (e.g., squatting, lifting an arm, and walking) to get the feel of the PPE and see if any
additional adjustments are required.

LIMITATIONS It is crucial that process technicians understand not just the protection,
but also the ­limitations. Companies will provide training on specific limitations, but the
following is a general list:

• PPE can take time to put on correctly. This can be critical in emergency situations. The
process technician must understand how to put on and take off PPE quickly, especially
respirators. In fact, donning a respirator should be practiced.
• Wearing PPE can limit mobility and hinder the wearer, especially if multiple pieces are
worn at the same time. Gloves can reduce dexterity, full-face respirators can limit vision,
and full chemical suits can reduce arm and leg motion.
• Communications (speech and hearing) can be impaired when wearing a respirator or
hearing protection.
• The likelihood of heat stress increases when wearing PPE. Some body protective suits
do not “breathe” so heat and sweat is trapped inside the suit.
• PPE adds to the total weight of the wearer, making normal tasks harder and resulting
in increased exertion.
• Some PPE is limited in its use. The wearer can only be exposed to a hazard for a certain
amount of time before the risk of exposure increases (e.g., respirators with filters).
• PPE can be constrictive and cause the wearer psychological stress, especially in s­ ituations
such as confined space entry or working at heights.
• Improper fit and use can lead to exposure.
• The wearer can experience a feeling of overconfidence that results in lax safety habits
or not following safety procedures.

PPE can lose its effectiveness due to the following factors:

• Penetration—hazardous materials pass through the PPE barrier, due to an opening

caused by a tear, PPE slippage, incorrect fit, or some other factor.
• Permeation—hazardous material crosses through the PPE barrier. This depends on the
properties of the PPE, the nature of the hazard, and duration of exposure.
• Degradation—hazardous material or other forces (sunlight, heat, and moisture) break
down the PPE properties through contact over time.
• Contamination—the wearer is exposed to hazardous materials and the PPE is not thor-
oughly cleaned.

Types of PPE
The following is an illustration of different types of PPE, followed by specific descriptions
of each type.
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 371

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION Respirators protect workers from exposure to hazardous

atmospheres that can result in acute or chronic health hazards. Respirators fall into one of
the following two types:

• Air supplying—provides breathable air to the wearer through a mask and hose con-
nected to a clean air source (Figure 22.11). Examples include an air line, hose mask,
self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
• Air purifying—filters contaminants out of the air or neutralizes chemicals, protect-
ing the wearer from particles as small as 0.3 microns. They cannot be used in oxygen-
deficient atmospheres, those with less than 19.5 percent oxygen 1 O2 2 content. Examples
include a dust mask, half or full face mask, gas mask.

If you wear prescription glasses or contacts, check with your company about the impact
these have on respirator use. Special adjustments might need to be made for full-face respira-
tors (e.g., SCBA masks, air line masks). See Chapter 8, Hazardous Atmospheres and Respiratory
Hazards for details on respirator descriptions, selection, fit, use, and care.

Figure 22.11 Air-supplying

respirators provide breathable
air to the wearer through a mask
and hose connected to a clean air
source.
CREDIT: Nikitin Victor/Shutterstock.

HEARING PROTECTION Hearing protection is used when excessive noise is present in

the workplace. Following are factors that determine excessive noise:

• Loudness of the sound (in dB)

• Duration of worker’s exposure
• Whether the noise is generated by one or multiple sources
• If the worker moves between work areas with different noise levels

Hearing protection only reduces the amount of noise that reaches the ears; it does not
eliminate it entirely. Hearing protection has an associated noise reduction rating (NRR).
The main types of hearing protection are earplugs and earmuffs:

Earplugs–made of materials such as foam, rubber, waxed cotton, fiberglass wool, or

plastic, and inserted into the ear canal. Some types are preformed or molded (fitted
for a specific individual by a professional) while other types are self-forming (i.e., they
expand in the ear). Earplugs can be reusable or single-use.
372 Chapter 22

Earmuffs–cover the entire ear with a cushioned cup held in place with a headband.

Earplugs and earmuffs can reduce noise levels by up to 20–30 dBA. Earmuffs generally
have a higher noise reduction rating than earplugs. Worn together, they can reduce the noise
level up to an additional 5 dBA. (This is required if the worker is exposed to noise levels of
110 dBA or higher.)

Did You Know?

Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) can be caused by a
single loud impulse noise (e.g., an explosion) or by loud,
­continuous noise over time (e.g., noise generated in a
­woodworking shop). Hearing protection should always
be worn when w ­ orking in environments with sounds
louder than 80 dB (­normal conversation is around 60
dB). Other sounds that can cause NIHL include motor-
cycles, firecrackers, and firearms, all of which range from
120 to 140 dB.
CREDIT: Loco/Shutterstock.

In some cases, special helmets must be used that dampen (reduce) noise and protect
against vibrations. Some helmets also provide head protection, like a hard hat. These vary
by the type of hearing hazard and work situation.
Hearing protection is selected based on the following criteria, in order of importance:

1. Intensity of noise
2. Personal comfort
3. Availability

Fingers or cotton do not provide adequate protection against noise. Use proper hearing
protection.
Earplugs must be inserted properly in the ear canal to be effective. Consult your
­company’s procedures and/or manufacturer’s instructions to ensure a good fit. Clean
­reusable earplugs regularly, based on the manufacturer’s recommendations. Replace
­earplugs if they cannot be thoroughly cleaned. Dispose of single-use earplugs after use.
Make sure earmuffs fit snugly over your ears and form a perfect seal. Clean them
­thoroughly after use. Glasses, long hair, and facial movements (e.g., yawning or chewing)
can reduce the protective value of earmuffs. See Chapter 10, Hearing and Noise Hazards for
more details.

EYE PROTECTION Eye protection (see Figure 22.2) is PPE that reduces the risk of hazards
to the eyes from the following:

• Flying objects (e.g., metal chips, dust)

• Falling objects
• Extreme temperatures
• Chemical splashes (e.g., corrosive liquids)
• Irritating mists
• Hot fluid splashes (e.g., steam, molten metals)
• Glare
• Sparks
• Radiation burns
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 373

Eye protection PPE comes in a variety of types, based on the hazard:

• Safety glasses—protective eyewear with metal or plastic frames and impact-resistant

lenses. They are more shatter resistant than normal eyewear. They can come with or
without side shields.
• Safety goggles—tight-fitting protective eyewear that completely cover the eyes, eye
sockets, and face around the eyes. They protect your eyes from the front and sides
against impact, dust, and splashes.
• Face shields—a sheet of transparent plastic attached to a headband, which extends
from the eyebrows to below the chin and across the width of the face. Face shields
protect the face and front of the neck from flying particles, dust, sprays, or splashes.
They do not protect against impact. They can be worn with safety goggles or safety
glasses to provide extra protection. They can be clear or polarized (tinted) for glare
protection.
• Helmets and masks (e.g., welding shields)—these types of eye protection vary based
on the specific hazard.

Other types of specialized eye protection are available, depending on the hazard
(­radiation, laser light, and UV light). Your company will provide these.
All eye protection must meet or be equivalent to the ANSI standard (ANSI Z87.1-1989).
Eye protection should allow for air to circulate between the eye and the lens, and fit properly.
Your company can help you select the proper eye protection for the work situation. You must
understand how to use it, along with when and where to use it.
For people who wear corrective eyewear (prescription glasses or contacts), eye protec-
tion should either include the prescription in the design or properly fit and not interfere
with the prescription glasses or contacts (i.e., the worker’s vision must not be inhibited
or limited). Eyeglasses are never a substitute for proper eye protection. Contacts present
a hazard in that they can trap a hazardous substance (e.g., chemical, metal shaving, and
dust) between the wearer’s eye and the lens. Some companies have policies specifying
where tinted-lens glasses and/or sunglasses cannot be worn (e.g., indoors or in dimly
lit areas).
The following are some tips for using and maintaining eye protection:

• Follow company guidelines and manufacturer’s recommendations for cleaning eye

protection.
• When cleaning eye protection, never use harsh abrasives that could scratch the lenses
or remove any protective coatings.
• In cases where workers must share eye protection, it must be disinfected after
each use.
• Prescription eye protection should not be shared.

In case of accidental exposure to a hazard, eyewash stations are located around the
f­acility. Process technicians should know where the closest eyewash station is to their
work area.

FACE PROTECTION Face protection is used to reduce hazards to the face (including the
head and neck), such as impact, chemical or hot metal splashes, heat, radiation, and other
hazards.
Some typical types of face protection include the following:

• Face shields—protect the face and eyes from flying particles, dust, sprays, or splashes.
They do not protect against impact (Figure 22.12).
• Acid proof hoods—protect the head, face, and neck against splashes from corrosive
chemicals.
• Welding helmets—protect against splashes of molten metal and radiation burns.
374 Chapter 22

Figure 22.12 Face shields

protect the face and eyes from
flying particles, dust, sprays,
or splashes, but do not protect
against impact.
CREDIT: Reggie Lavoie/Shutterstock.

HEAD PROTECTION Head protection is used to protect against the following hazards:

• Impacts from falling objects or fixed objects (e.g., low-hanging beams or equipment
such as pipes)
• Penetration
• Electrical shock
• Burn hazards

Hard hats must be impact resistant and meet the ANSI standard (ANSI Z89.1-1986)
for protective headwear (Figure 22.13). A hard hat consists of a hard outer shell and a web
lining suspension system that absorbs and spreads the shock of an impact. Most hard hats
have a bill across the front, but some have a brim all around it, similar to a traditional safari
helmet.

Figure 22.13 Hard hats must

be impact resistant and meet
the ANSI standard for protective
headwear.
CREDIT: Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock.
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 375

Hard hats fall into one of the following three categories:

• Class A—provides impact and penetration resistance along with limited voltage protec-
tion (up to 2,200 volts).
• Class B—provides the highest level of protection against electrical hazards, with high
voltage shock and burn protection (up to 20,000 volts); this type also provides protection
from impact and penetration hazards by flying or falling objects.
• Class C—provides lightweight comfort and impact and penetration protection, but does
not protect against electrical hazards.

The following are some tips for properly using and maintaining a hard hat.

• Never modify the hard hat (e.g., add stickers, paint it, drill holes, or remove webbing).
• Make sure it is adjusted to fit on your head properly (refer to the manufacturer instruc-
tions with the hard hat):
• Adjust the headband to fit your head, while still allowing sufficient space between
the outer shell and the web lining.
• The hat should not bind, fall off, or irritate the skin.
• Wear your hard hat with the bill turned to the front (do not place it on your head
backward).
• If you have long hair, secure it tightly under the hard hat.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for cleaning. Some cleaning materials
might damage the shell and/or reduce electrical resistance.
• Store the hard hat out of direct sunlight and heat, which can weaken the shell.
• Replace the liner regularly (about once a year).
• Inspect the hard hat daily. Replace it when any of the following occur:
• You notice any cracks, holes, breaks, flaking, scratches, brittle spots, discoloration,
or loss of gloss.
• It receives a significant impact.
• The date stamp has expired (hard hat material can age and lose its integrity, especially
if exposed to harsh conditions frequently).

Some hard hats are designed for use with other PPE or optional accessories, such as ear-
muffs, safety glasses, face shields, and mounted lights. Accessories should not compromise
the safety elements of the hard hat.
Another type of protective headwear is called a bump hat or cap. These do not meet
ANSI standards, and are intended only to protect against bumping into an obstruction and
not against impact (e.g., a falling object).

BODY AND SKIN PROTECTION In some situations, workers must shield most or all of
their bodies against hazards in the workplace such as exposure to the following:

• Chemicals
• Hot metals
• Hot liquids
• Biological hazards
• Radiation
• Hazardous material or waste
• Impacts
• Cuts, abrasions
376 Chapter 22

Body and skin protection is used chiefly to protect most of the body (e.g., torso) or all
of it, including the arms, legs, and head. Skin provides a large surface area for chemicals to
penetrate or attack, so protecting it is vital. The torso includes major organs, including the
heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, and intestines, all of which must be protected from chemical
and biological hazards. Chemical hazards can come from a solid, liquid, or gas element,
compound, or mixture; biological hazards come from living or once-living organisms, such
as viruses, mosquitoes, or snakes.
Various materials are used to create body protection, including fire retardant wool and
cotton, plastic, rubber, leather, neoprene synthetics, paper-like fiber (typically for disposable
items) and other materials. Body and skin protection comes in various forms, depending
on the hazard:

• Chemical protective suit—protects the wearer from hazardous chemical spills and
splashes. Multiple layers of different materials can be used to increase the level of pro-
tection. These suits do not protect against all types of chemicals; the type of chemical
hazard will determine the type of chemical suit to use. They do not protect against heat
and flames. Chemical hats, hoods, gloves, and boot covers can be added to provide full
protection. Sometimes, tape is used to seal potential entry points (e.g., sleeves, cuffs).
• Totally encapsulating chemical protective (TECP) suit—provides the highest level of
protection from hazardous chemicals (e.g., spills, splashes, vapor), covering the wearer
from head to toe (full body suit); this suit is airtight and used with an air-supplying
respirator. There are various types available for specific chemicals and situations. A simi-
lar type of suit, commonly called a biohazard suit, protects against biological hazards.
Another type shields against radioactivity.
• Aprons and smocks—protect a major portion of the wearer against chemical splashes
and spills; gloves, face shield and goggles, boots, respirator, and other PPE can be added
to improve protection.
• Flame resistant clothing (FRC)—protects the wearer for a limited time against flames
or heat (Figure 22.14). It can also protect against sparks and bursts of electric arcs. These
types of garments use specially treated materials to provide protection that will resist
bursting into flames for a brief period of exposure. FRC does not protect against lengthy
exposure to flames or heat. It also does not provide protection from chemical exposure.

Figure 22.14 Flame resistant

clothing (FRC) helps protect the
wearer against flames and heat.
CREDIT: Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock.

• Slickers—protect workers from wet conditions; they consist of separate pants and a
jacket that can be worn over another garment. Slickers are typically not fire resistant.
They can provide limited protection against certain types of chemicals.
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 377

• Reflective clothing—protects against radiant heat. See the Special Types of PPE section
of this chapter for more details on temperature extremes.
• Barrier creams—provide skin protection from irritants; they are also called protective
ointments. They can be used in cases where gloves or other hand and arm protection
cannot be safely or effectively used. Some barrier creams (similar to sunscreen) can be
used to protect against certain heat or light exposure. Typically, they must be reapplied
periodically during a shift. Check with your company about barrier cream use. When
conditions allow for proper PPE use, barrier creams cannot be used as a substitute.

Other types of body and skin protection can be used in various forms (e.g., lab coats,
vests, jackets, coveralls, and full body suits). Your company will provide this PPE as the
hazard or situation requires.

HAND AND ARM PROTECTION For protection against chemicals, glove selection must
take into account the chemicals encountered, the chemical resistance, and the physical
­properties of the glove material.
Hand and arm protection is used to protect against hazards (Figure 22.15) such as the
following:

Figure 22.15 Gloves help

protect the hands from injury
and exposure to hazardous
substances.
CREDIT: Voronina Svetlana/Shutterstock.

• Chemical exposure
• Cuts, abrasions, and scratches
• Impact (fractures, bruises, strains)
• Penetration and punctures
• Burns (chemical or temperature)
• Hot or cold temperatures
• Electrical shock

Hand and arm protection comes in a variety of types:

• Gloves (extending to the wrists, mid-arm, or elbow)

• Hand pads
• Finger guards
• Wristlets
• Arm coverings or sleeves

To select the proper hand and arm protection, consider the following factors:

• Hazards present (chemical, physical, biological, ergonomic)

• Specific work activities planned
• Body part requiring protection (hand only, forearm, arm)
378 Chapter 22

• Grip requirements (dry, wet, oily conditions)

• Duration of contact with the hazard
• Glove performance characteristics
• Size and comfort

OSHA lists four broad categories of protective gloves:

• Leather, canvas, or metal mesh

• Fabric or coated fabric
• Chemical and liquid resistant
• Insulating rubber gloves

This section focuses on gloves, the primary type of hand and arm protection.
Leather, canvas, or metal mesh materials are used to create sturdy gloves that provide
protection against physical hazards, (e.g., punctures, cuts, abrasions, and burns). Leather or
canvas gloves also provide protection against sustained heat, sparks, and blows. Metal mesh
protects against knives and sharp objects. You should not use any of these types of gloves
when working with chemicals.
Fabric and coated fabric gloves are made of cotton or other fabrics. Fabric gloves protect
against dirt, chafing, abrasions, and slivers. They do not work well with rough or sharp
materials, or heavy materials. Coated fabric gloves typically combine cotton and plastic,
which provide some hand protection and offer slip resistant qualities.
For chemical and liquid protection, select hand and arm protection based on the c­ hemicals
or liquids to be handled, the nature of the contact (e.g., splash, immersion), and duration
of exposure. Consult company information (e.g., a safety data sheet and ­manufacturer’s
recommendations) for proper selection. The Department of Energy rates various protective
gloves for their effectiveness against specific chemicals in its Occupational Safety and Health
Technical Reference manual.
Chemical- and liquid-resistant gloves can be made of materials such as neoprene, butyl,
nitrile, latex, plastic, or combinations of materials. The following are descriptions of various
glove materials and their properties:

• Neoprene—synthetic rubber gloves provide good flexibility and permit dexterity, are
high density and tear resistant. OSHA states that neoprene can protect against alcohols,
organic acids, alkalis, gasoline, and hydraulic fluids. The chemical and wear-resistance
properties are better than natural rubber.
• Butyl—synthetic rubber gloves remain flexible at low temperatures and resist ­oxidation,
ozone corrosion, and abrasion. OSHA states that butyl protects against peroxide, rocket
fuels, highly corrosive acids (nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and red fuming
nitric acid), strong bases, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, and nitro compounds.
Butyl is not recommended for use with aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and
­halogenated solvents.
• Latex—natural rubber gloves are comfortable to wear, elastic, somewhat tempera-
ture resistant, and stretch well without breaking (tensile strength), can protect against
­abrasive tasks (e.g., grinding). OSHA states that latex protects against most water
­solutions of acids, alkalis, salts, and ketones. However, latex gloves can cause ­allergic
reactions (see Chapter 4, Recognizing Biological Hazards). For this reason, hypoallergenic
gloves, glove liners, and ­powderless gloves are generally used instead of latex.
• Nitrile—copolymer gloves permit dexterity and sensitivity, while standing up
to heavy use (even after exposure to substances that cause other glove ­materials
to ­d isintegrate). OSHA states that nitrile protects against chlorinated solvents
(e.g., ­trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene), oils, greases, acids, caustics, and
alcohols. Nitrile is not recommended for use with strong oxidizing agents, aromatic
solvents, ketones, or acetates.
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 379

Chemical- and liquid-resistant gloves must be long enough to prevent liquids from
entering the top. Generally, the thicker the gloves, the greater the chemical resistance. The
tradeoff is impaired grip and dexterity. Do not use these types of gloves when handling
rough or sharp objects.
Before using chemical- and liquid-resistant gloves, inspect them for tears, punctures,
discolorations, stiffness, or other damage or defects. One way to test a glove’s protection is
to fill it with water and then roll the top (cuff) toward the fingers to check for leaks. Reuse of
chemical-resistant gloves should be evaluated carefully, considering the absorptive quality,
toxicity of chemicals handled, duration of exposure, and glove storage temperature.
Insulating rubber gloves minimize exposure to electrical hazards. OSHA CFR 1910.137
details requirements for the selection, use, and care of these gloves.
Gloves for extreme temperatures (hot and cold) are discussed in the Special Types of
PPE section.
Check your company’s policies regarding whether gloves can be worn around rotating
equipment and/or power tools.

FOOT AND LEG PROTECTION Foot and leg protection is used to minimize hazards such
as the following:

• Impacts and/or crushing

• Falling or rolling objects
• Penetration by sharp objects
• Hot surfaces
• Exposure to hazardous substances (e.g., chemical, biological)
• Slippery surfaces

A variety of footwear and leg protection can be worn, based on the type of job or task.
For example, you might be required to wear safety shoes or boots, rubber boots, flat soled
shoes, high tops, or other types of protective footwear (Figure 22.16). Some types of footwear
are not permitted (e.g., open toed shoes, sandals, and high heels).

Figure 22.16 Safety shoes

and boots help prevent slipping,
impact injuries, and exposure to
hazardous substances.
CREDIT: BushAlex/Shutterstock.

Safety shoes or boots must meet ANSI minimum compression and impact performance
standards (Z41-1991). ANSI-approved safety footwear provides toe protection and impact
or compression protection. The type and amount of protection can vary. Shoe soles are
­typically nonslip and heat resistant. Some safety footwear includes steel toe boxes and/or
metal insoles to prevent penetration. Leather is a common material used for the upper parts
of safety shoes or boots.
Metatarsal guards, made of aluminum, steel, fiber, or plastic, can be strapped to the
outside of shoes to protect the instep area from impact and compression hazards.
380 Chapter 22

Toe guards also fit over the toes of shoes to provide protection from impact or compres-
sion. They can be made of aluminum, steel, or plastic.
Combination foot and shin guards protect the feet and lower legs. They can be used
along with toe guards to provide added protection.
Leggings, made of leather, aluminized rayon, or other materials, can provide leg protec-
tion against a variety of hazards (e.g., falling or rolling objects, molten metal, sharp objects,
hot surfaces).
The following are some other types of hazards and the proper footwear to use:

• Rubber or vinyl boots can provide protection against chemical splashes and spills.
• Proper footwear and shoe inserts can also protect against ergonomic hazards.
• Nonconductive footwear should be worn around electrical hazards. This type of safety
shoe can prevent the wearer’s feet from completing an electrical circuit to the ground. In
dry conditions, they can protect against open circuits of up to 600 volts (depending on
the type). These should be used along with other insulating PPE and additional precau-
tions. However, the insulating protection can be reduced if the shoes get wet, the soles
are worn down, or metal objects become embedded. And, following electrical safety
precautions, the worker must not touch conductive, grounded objects. Nonconductive
footwear must not be used in explosive or hazardous locations.
• Conductive footwear might be required in some situations to prevent the buildup of static
electricity. Foot powder should not be used with conductive footwear, because it provides
insulation and reduces the conductivity of the shoes. Socks made of nylon, wool, or silk
can produce static electricity and should not be worn with conductive f­ ootwear. If work-
ing around electrical hazards, you should never wear conductive footwear.

The following are some tips for using and maintaining protective footwear and leg
protection:

• Inspect them prior to each use, checking for wear and tear: cracks, holes, separation of
materials, discoloration, thin spots, broken buckles, and broken laces.
• Look over the soles of shoes for embedded metal objects or other items.
• Follow the manufacturers’ recommendations for cleaning and maintenance.

In some situations, chemical or biological substances can be spilled onto safety footwear.
These substances can be absorbed by the shoe material or leak inside the top of the shoe. Use
a safety shower to deluge yourself and the footwear.

Special Types of PPE

Special types of PPE can be required, based on the type of hazard and other conditions. The
following are some common types of special PPE.
Fall protection (or fall arrest) devices can be used to prevent injuries from falls of four
feet or greater. Fall protection consists of a full body harness, an anchor point, and a lanyard
connecting the two. The harness is designed to evenly distribute forces of a fall to strong
muscle groups that can better absorb these forces than other body parts. See Chapter 9,
Working Area and Height Hazards for more information about falls.
Temperature protection includes both hot and cold temperature gear. For high-­
temperature environments, PPE can include the following:

• Reflective clothing
• Insulated suits
• Aramid fiber gloves (protect against hot or cold, and are cut or abrasion resistant)
• Synthetic gloves (protect against hot or cold, are cut or abrasion resistant, and can handle
some diluted acids)
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 381

• Aluminized gloves (provide reflective and insulating protection)

• Tinted face shields
• Ice vests and cooling bandanas
• Water cooled garments
• Cooling inserts for hard hats

For low-temperature environments, PPE can include the following items:

• Polyester or polypropylene underwear

• Polypropylene liner socks
• Outer jackets that can be opened at the waist, neck, and wrists to control the release or
retention of heat; these can also include side vents and underarm vents
• Heated protective clothing
• Gloves or mittens
• Hard hat liners
• Leather upper boots with rubber bottoms and felt lining and insoles
• Eye protection fitted to prevent exhaled moisture from causing frost or fog on the eye
piece(s); eye protection can also be tinted to prevent glare

Safety Showers and Eyewashes

Eyewash stations and safety (or emergency) showers can provide on-the-spot decontami-
nation using a large quantity of water or other flushing fluid, serving as a backup to PPE
if hazardous material exposure occurs. An exposed worker can flush away the h ­ azardous
­substance using an approved fluid such as potable (drinking) water or treated water.
Remember that water does not neutralize any contaminants, but it does dilute and wash
them off the affected area.
Eyewash stations are either fixed units or portable and provide a stream of flushing
fluid directly to the eyes and face (Figure 22.17A). Some eyewash stations look like drinking
fountains with two streams, while others are containers filled with liquid. Safety showers
provide a high rate and high pressure flow of water to rinse away contaminants from the
face or body; they can also be used to put out clothing fires (Figure 22.17B).

Figure 22.17 Eyewash

s­ tations are used to flush
­hazardous substances from the
eyes. B. Safety showers are used
to wash hazardous substances off
the body.
CREDIT: A. Khamkhlai Thanet/Shutterstock.
B. Choksawatdikorn/Shutterstock.

A. B.

Both eyewash stations and showers are designed to turn on quickly and operate continu-
ously with little interaction from the worker. Some eyewash stations and safety showers are
a combined unit. Eyewash stations and safety showers can include an alarm to alert others
that the station or shower is in use.
382 Chapter 22

When a worker is exposed, time is critical. Eyewash and safety showers should be
located no more than 10 seconds from potential hazards. Locations of eyewash stations and
safety showers should be marked with signs and well lit. If used quickly and properly, eye-
washes and safety showers can greatly reduce the severity of a hazardous material exposure.
Workers must be familiar with the materials they are working with and read the appro-
priate safety data sheets (SDSs) before they are exposed. Some materials react with water
and should not be removed using an eyewash station or safety shower (e.g., sodium reacts
with water to produce hydrogen, which is an extremely flammable gas). Process technicians
must be familiar with the location and operation of eyewashes and safety showers in their
work area. Process technicians should locate eyewashes and safety showers as soon as they
enter the area. In an emergency, the worker may not be able to see well enough to find the
eyewash or safety shower.
A potential drawback to eyewash stations and safety showers that use potable water is
that the water can contain chemicals and other substances that interact with the contaminant
and aggravate the situation. Portable eyewash stations may not contain enough fluid to
properly flush the contaminant.
Another type of device is called a drench or deluge hose, which is typically attached to
a sink or faucet. These devices are not recommended for use as eyewash stations or safety
showers. However, if necessary they can be used to drench a worker’s head and body; they
should not be used on the eyes due to the high water pressure. They can also be used to spot
rinse an area or to assist a victim who cannot stand or is unconscious.
The following are some tips for eyewash stations and safety showers:

• Flush (or irrigate) the affected area for the recommended amount of time. Refer to
Table 22.1.
• If you wear contacts, wash your hands thoroughly and then remove the lenses to prevent
contaminants from being trapped between the eye and the lens.
• Avoid using a safety shower as an eye wash (the water pressure can damage the eyes).
• Seek medical evaluation after using an eyewash station or safety shower; they are not
a substitute for medical care.

ANSI has created a standard for emergency eyewash and shower equipment (ANSI
Z358.1-2004), and recommends that the affected body part be flushed immediately and thor-
oughly for at least 20 minutes using a lot of clean fluid (e.g., water). Flushing times can vary,
based on the chemical and its properties. Table 22.1 illustrates some recommended minimum
times, based on the type of contaminant.

Table 22.1 Minimum Recommended Flushing Times for Eyewash Stations and Safety
Showers

Contaminant Minimum Recommended Flushing Times

Mild chemical irritant 5 minutes
Unknown 20 minutes
Moderate to severe chemical irritant 20 minutes
Nonpenetrating corrosive chemical 20 minutes
Penetrating corrosive chemical 60 minutes

22.3 Levels of PPE Protection

OSHA and EPA regulations have determined four classes or levels of PPE protection
(Table 22.2) based on the type of work being performed and the probability of the worker
coming into contact with hazardous materials. Companies must identify the hazard(s) and
determine the concentration (typically parts per million, or PPM). Then appropriate PPE is
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 383

Table 22.2 Four Classes of PPE

Level Designation Probability of Contact Examples of PPE Used*
with ­Hazardous Materials
A Highest Highly probable Highest level of protection, usually level D plus
an air-supplying respirator (e.g., SCBA), totally
­encapsulating chemical protective (TECP) suit, rubber
boots, and chemical gloves
B Probable Added protection, usually level D plus a full chemical
protective suit, air-supplying respirator, face shield,
goggles (in place of safety glasses), and rubber boots
C Possible Added protection, usually level D plus PPE
(e.g., a face shield, chemical-resistant gloves, a
chemical protective jacket or slicker jacket, and
potentially a respirator)
D Lowest Low possibility Minimal protection. This is typically the daily work
uniform and PPE that process technicians must wear
(e.g., FRC, safety boots, hard hat, safety glasses, and
hearing protection)
*Company policy dictates the exact PPE requirements.

selected and a list is developed, including skin and respiratory protection, for specific tasks
and work areas. These lists are generally posted in appropriate areas around the facility and
included in standard operating procedures (SOPs).
Level A provides full protection of skin, the respiratory system, eyes, membranes, and
the entire body. It is used in situations where contact with hazardous materials (e.g., sulfuric
acid) is very likely, and inhalation and absorption hazards exist.
Level B provides protection in situations where contact with hazardous materials is
likely, and absorption of chemicals through the skin is the chief hazard. Level B provides the
same level of respiratory protection as Level A but less skin protection. It is used when IDLH
(immediately dangerous to life and health) concentrations of substances do not represent a
skin hazard and levels do not meet the criteria for air-purifying respirators, but a high level
of respiratory protection is still needed.
Level C PPE provides the same level of skin protection as level B, with a lower level of
respiratory protection. The potential absorption hazard is lower than levels A and B.
Level D typically provides minimum skin protection and no respiratory protection.

22.4 Government Regulations

The following are OSHA regulations relating to medical or first aid requirements and
­personal protective equipment.

OSHA 1910 Subpart K: Medical and First Aid and Related

Regulations
Employers are responsible for determining their own medical and first aid requirements.
They must develop a plan for handling the safety hazards to which their employees are
exposed on the job. These plans do not require approval by OSHA; however, during an
inspection, the plan is evaluated for accuracy.

RECOGNITION AND EVALUATION To determine their needs, employers must evaluate

the workplace for requirements. They must consider the following areas when determining
what those needs are:

• Location and availability of medical facilities and emergency services

• Availability of medical personnel to consult on occupational health issues
384 Chapter 22

• Types of accidents that could reasonably occur at the workplace

• Response time of external emergency services
• Number and locations of employees at the plant
• Corrosivity of materials used at the facility
• First aid supplies that should be available
• Level of training required for employees who will render first aid

MEDICAL AND FIRST AID PLAN After evaluating the workplace, employers must design
and implement a program that is tailored to the specific work site. Elements of the program
must include the availability of medical personnel for consultation with employees. Employ-
ers must provide the names and telephone numbers for the medical professionals with
whom the employer has agreements. Emergency telephone numbers must be conspicuously
located by each plant telephone. In addition, sufficient ambulance service must be available
to handle an emergency. This requires ensuring that ambulance services are familiar with
the plant location, access routes, and hospital locations.

FIRST AID RESPONDERS Employers are required to have at least one person trained in
first aid at the work site if serious or life-threatening injuries can be reasonably expected.
The trained personnel must be available within 15 minutes for serious injuries and within
4 minutes for life-threatening injuries.
Multiple individuals should be trained in order to provide coverage when other
responders are unavailable. The responder(s) should be designated and the other workers
should know who they are and how to contact them in an emergency. Trained responders
must have a current first aid certificate (Figure 22.18).

Figure 22.18 Process

t­echnicians should consider
becoming certified in CPR.
Prompt use of CPR in an
­emergency could save a life.
CREDIT: Sorn340 Images/Shutterstock.

BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS Bloodborne pathogens are microorganisms present in

human blood or bodily fluids that are capable of causing disease in humans. These patho-
gens include, but are not limited to, the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and the human immunode-
ficiency virus (HIV). In most process facilities, it is highly unlikely that employees will be
exposed to bloodborne pathogens while performing their normal job tasks. However, they
are at risk of exposure if they are in close proximity to an accident victim. Special training is
required when exposure is more likely, as is the case for a first aid provider. Various training
courses are required for different types of responders.
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 385

Employees who are exposed to waste treatment systems may require vaccinations
against infectious diseases, such as HBV. First aid kits typically include PPE to protect
responders from bloodborne pathogens. See Chapter 4, Recognizing Biological Hazards for
more information.

EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT First aid kits must be available at the work site. The contents
of the kits must be determined through direct consultation with a physician. The contents
will vary from facility to facility (or even in different parts of a facility, based on the types
of hazards at the facility or area). Eyewash stations and emergency showers are required in
locations where corrosive materials are used. The equipment must provide large amounts
of clean water and be pressure-controlled and clearly identified.

TRAINING AND RECORDKEEPING First aid training is recommended by OSHA during

initial job training and on an ongoing basis. The Red Cross and National Safety Council
provide first aid and CPR courses.
Employers are required to maintain first aid and medical treatment records for all
employees who receive treatment on the job. These records are subject to review in the
event of a workplace audit.

Personal Protective Equipment Regulations

OSHA 1910.132—PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE) The OSHA Personal
­ rotective Equipment (PPE)—29 CFR 1910.132 standard aims to prevent worker exposure
P
to potentially hazardous substances through the use of equipment that establishes a barrier
between the hazardous substance and the individual’s eyes, face, head, respiratory system,
and extremities.
This standard requires employers to assess workplace hazards to do the following:

• Determine what PPE is necessary.

• Provide required PPE to their employees.
• Train employees in the proper use and care of the PPE.
• Ensure that employees use the PPE appropriately.
• Determine the limitations of the PPE.

OSHA 1910.133—PPE: EYE AND FACE PROTECTION The OSHA Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE)—29 CFR 1910.133 standard is intended to prevent worker exposure to
potentially hazardous substances through the use of appropriate eye or face protection.
The PPE will establish a barrier between the hazardous substance and the individual’s eyes
and face.

OSHA 1910.134—PPE: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION The OSHA Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE)—29 CFR 1910.134 standard is intended to prevent worker exposure to
potentially hazardous substances through the use of appropriate respirators when they are
deemed necessary to protect the health of the worker.

OSHA 1910.138—PPE: HAND PROTECTION The OSHA Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE)—29 CFR 1910.138 standard is intended to prevent worker exposure to potentially
hazardous substances through the use of appropriate hand protection when workers’ hands
are exposed to hazards such as absorption of chemicals through the skin, punctures, chemical
burns, temperature extremes, and thermal burns.
386 Chapter 22

Summary
OSHA requires that employees be provided with a safe and including first aid treatment. At the very least, the process
healthy workplace that is reasonably free of occupational haz- technician is required to report emergencies and accidents in a
ards. However, process technicians can be exposed to chemical, timely way to the proper authorities. Your company will train
biological, physical, and ergonomic hazards inherent to working you on how to report emergency situations and accidents,
in a process facility. Although every effort is made to prevent acci- along with other basic emergency procedures (potentially
dents and emergencies, they can still occur on the job because a including first aid training).
process industry work site can pose a variety of potential hazards. To prevent or minimize hazards, government and the
Company policies and procedures determine whether process industries have implemented engineering controls,
process technicians can provide first aid to victims. Often, administrative controls, and the use of personal protective
an emergency response team (or first responders) and/or a equipment (PPE). Process technicians must understand the
resident medical staff will handle emergencies and accidents, proper selection, use, care, and maintenance of PPE.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 13. What class of hard hat provides impact and penetration
a. CPR resistance along with limited voltage protection (up to
2,200 volts)?
b. First-degree burns
a. A
c. Second-degree burns
b. B
d. Third-degree burns
c. C
2. List four general recommendations for dealing with
d. D
injuries in the workplace.
14. Define the acronym TECP.
3. Name two types of eye protection that can prevent eye
injuries. 15. List four types of chemical- and liquid-resistant glove
materials.
4. List three possible impact injuries.
16. (True or False) Safety shoes or boots must meet ANSI mini-
5. ____ resistant clothing can be worn to minimize the mum compression and impact performance standards.
­hazards of burns.
17. (True or False) Eyewash stations and showers can
6. Name at least three signs of electrical shock. ­provide on-the-spot decontamination using a large
7. List four types of PPE that can be used to minimize quantity of water or other flushing fluid.
exposure to chemical hazards. 18. Which of the following PPE levels provides the highest
8. Name the two main groups responsible for promoting amount of protection?
standards that PPE provide proper protection. a. A
9. What are the 3 Cs of proper fit for PPE? b. B

10. ____ occurs when hazardous materials or other c. C

forces (sunlight, heat, moisture) break down the PPE d. D
­properties through contact over time. 19. Employers are required to have ___ person trained in
a. Penetration first aid at the work site if serious or life-threatening
b. Contamination ­injuries can be reasonably expected.
c. Permeation 20. Which of the following is addressed by OSHA
­regulation 1910.132?
d. Degradation
a. Protective personal equipment
11. Describe the two main types of hearing protection.
b. Eye and face protection
12. (True or False) Safety glasses or goggles can be worn with c. Respiratory protection
a face shield.
d. Hand protection
NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.
 Personal Protective Equipment and First Aid 387

Student Activities
1. Research at least three different types of PPE that protect 3. Using at least three different types of PPE (e.g., safety
the body. Make a list, describing the PPE, limitations, glasses, hearing protection, and hard hat), correctly
proper fit, use, and care and maintenance requirements. adjust the PPE so it can be worn together comfortably.
Demonstrate the process to your fellow students.
2. Obtain at least three different types of liquid-resistant
gloves, then use them to perform various tasks. After 4. Attend a course and learn how to properly perform
repeated use, perform a leak test (place water in the CPR or first aid. Write a three-page paper describing the
glove, roll the top toward the fingers, and then check for value of your experience.
leaks). Did of the any gloves leak? If so, what were they
made of?
 Chapter 23
Monitoring Equipment
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of monitoring equipment found in the process
industries.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
23.1 Explain the function and purpose of testing equipment found in local
plants:
LEL>O2 meters
Gas detection equipment
Personal monitoring devices
Detector tubes. (NAPTA Safety, Monitoring 1, 2*) p. 389
23.2 Describe industry guidelines and government regulations that address
usage and permitting of monitoring equipment. (NAPTA Safety,
­Monitoring 3) p. 398

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Monitoring 1, 2)” means that this chapter’s
objective relates to objectives 1 and 2 of the NAPTA curriculum on monitoring equipment
used for safety.

Key Terms
Curb—a method of spill containment for process units. It is sloped to a sewer
collection system, p. 397.
Deluge system—a system of dumping or spraying water to extinguish a fire or
suppress a toxic release or hydrocarbon spill, p. 397.
Dike—a structure built around storage tanks to hold the contents of the tanks in the
event of a leak, p. 397.
Explosion suppression barrier—a wall or other device built around a specific process
area or the control room to suppress explosions, p. 397.
Fugitive emissions monitoring—measuring emissions from sources (e.g., flange
connection around packing) to determine if any hazardous agents are present at
unacceptable EPA levels, p. 398.
388
 Monitoring Equipment 389

Gas detection equipment—equipment that detects the components within a gaseous

atmosphere, p. 390.
Gas detector tube—an instrument that provides instant measurement of a specific
gas, usually indicated by a color change within the tube, p. 392.
LEL meter—lower explosive limit meter (or LEL); measures the combustible content
of an atmosphere, p. 389.
Personal monitoring device—an instrument that measures an individual’s exposure
to airborne contaminants, p. 392.
Process upset controls—devices and systems used in the process industries to
respond to control upsets, p. 395.
Relief valve—a safety device designed to open slowly as the pressure of a liquid in a
closed vessel exceeds a preset level; can be used in service where liquid expands to
create a gas, p. 396.
Shutdown devices—equipment that ensures that processes and/or equipment are
secured from failures that may result in hazardous conditions, p. 394.
Spill containment—a combination of procedures and devices designed to contain
spilled materials in the immediate area of the spill and to minimize the effects of a
spill on the environment, p. 397.
VOC meter—a testing device used to identify volatile organic compounds as well as
to test for carbon monoxide, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, and LEL (lower explosive
limits), p. 389.

23.1 Introduction
Testing equipment has a wide variety of applications in an operating facility. Detecting leaks,
determining the safety of a work environment, or personally measuring exposure to hazard-
ous chemicals are some of the practical ways in which testing equipment is used.
There are several types of testing equipment commonly used in most operating facilities.
They include the following:

• LEL>O2 meters
• Gas detection equipment
• Personal monitoring devices
• Detector tubes

Function and Purpose

of Testing Equipment
LEL Shutdown
LEL meters (lower explosive limit) measure the LEL of a gas in air. LELs are usually expressed LEL meter lower explosive
as a percentage. For example, a 10 percent LEL reading means the sample contains 10 percent limit meter (or LEL); measures
the combustible content of an
of the gas required for combustion. A 100 percent LEL reading means the sample contains atmosphere.
enough flammable gas for combustion. Table 23.1 lists some examples of upper and lower
explosive limits.
A VOC meter can be used to determine percent LEL if you know the LEL for a specific VOC meter a testing device used
gas. VOC meters are useful for a variety of applications, including industrial hygiene personal to identify volatile organic compounds
as well as to test for carbon
protection, multigas leak protection, and HAZMAT response. Vessel entry is usually con- monoxide, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide,
ducted at less than or equal to 10 percent of the LEL, so a VOC meter must register no more and LEL (lower explosive limits).
than 10 percent of the value in the LEL column below for a specific gas in order for the vessel
to be cleared for vessel entry. For example, the LEL meter reading of 10 percent of gasoline is
equal to a VOC reading of 0.14 percent. (LEL is 1.4%, so 10% of 1.4% is 0.14% or 1,400 ppm.)

0.14,
¢ ≤ 1 1,000,0002 = 1400 ppm
100
390 Chapter 23

Table 23.1 Examples of Lower and Upper Explosive Limits (LELs and UELs)
Substance Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
Acetone 3% 13%
Acetylene 2.5% 100%
Benzene 1.2% 7.8%
Butane 1.8% 8.4%
Ethanol 3% 19%
Ethylene 2.7% 36%
Diesel fuel 0.6% 7.5%
Gasoline 1.4% 7.6%
Hydrogen 4.1% 74.8%
Kerosene 0.6% 4.9%
Methane 5% 15%
Propane 2.1% 9.5%

LEL meters are used to detect leaks in work areas where flammable substances are pres-
ent. LEL monitors work by drawing a sample of the surrounding atmosphere, heating it, and
reading the heated sample to determine the LEL of the atmosphere.
These devices have two distinct components. The LEL portion of a monitor measures
the concentration of flammable gas in the sample by one of three methods:

• Oxidation—the detector measures readings based upon the heat that is released when
the combustible gas or vapor is burned.
• Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)—the detector absorbs the combustible gas, causing
a change in the electrical conductivity of the sensor, which produces a reading.
• Thermal conductivity—the detector measures readings due to a change in thermal
­conductivity of the atmosphere in the presence of a combustible gas.

O2 Meters
O2 meters measure the oxygen content of the atmosphere. Air normally contains 21 percent
oxygen. Oxygen levels below 19.5 percent can become dangerous, and an oxygen content
below 14.5 percent can be fatal.
O2 meters are used to monitor oxygen levels in work areas where flammable substances
are present and monitor oxygen levels in work areas where breathing air may be limited
(especially in confined space entry). The O2 section of a monitor measures the level of oxygen
in the sample. Following are the two most commonly used types of O2 detector cells:

• Colorimetric detectors use a colometric cell to measure oxygen. The colometric cell func-
tions by selectively allowing oxygen molecules to pass through it. When the s­ ample
passes through the cell, any contaminants that are present will produce a reaction that
creates an electric current. This current passes through an electrolyte between two
­electrodes, producing an oxygen measurement.
• Polarographic detectors are used to measure oxygen and carbon monoxide in
circulating air.

Gas Detection Equipment

Gas detection equipment Gas detection equipment detects the components within the gaseous atmosphere. The
equipment that detects the
components within a gaseous equipment can either be portable (e.g., a handheld device) or it can be stationary (e.g., at
atmosphere. remote monitoring stations). Even though stationary detectors are used at plants, portable
 Monitoring Equipment 391

handheld detectors are most commonly used in the process industries. Types of gas detection
equipment include the following:

• Mercury vapor monitors use either ultraviolet analyzers or direct reading instruments
to determine the amount of mercury vapor contamination in ambient air.
• Direct reading colometric tubes and badges change color due to a reaction with airborne
contaminants.
• Flame ionization detectors read ionized particles of chemical compounds when exposed
to an air or hydrogen flame. The detector collects the ionized particles and charges them
with a current to read the concentration of the contaminant.
• Photon ionization detectors (Figure 23.1) read particles of chemical compounds that
have been ionized due to exposure to ultraviolet light. The detector collects the ionized
particles and produces an electric current that the detector reads.

Figure 23.1 Photon ionization

detector.
CREDIT: Ra17/Shutterstock.

• Electron capture detectors read the current flowing from a chemical compound exposed
to a small dose of a radioactive element.
• Thermal conductivity detectors detect changes in thermal conductivity of the atmo-
sphere in the presence of a combustible gas to identify contaminants in the atmosphere.
• Infrared analyzers detect various gases and vapors based on the amount of infrared
radiation that they absorb.
• Photoacoustic spectrometers detect pressure changes in the instrumentation cell caused
by the heated expansion of gas contained within the spectrometer.
• Ultraviolet analyzers work in a similar manner to that of infrared analyzers but detect
chemicals that become charged by ultraviolet radiation absorption.
• Gas chromatographs (Figure 23.2) separate volatile organic compounds through a multi-
phased process. The separation is based on the behavior of the compounds within the
chromatograph.

Figure 23.2 Gas

chromatograph.
CREDIT: Rabbitmindphoto/Shutterstock.
392 Chapter 23

• Ion mobility spectrometers read particles of airborne contaminants ionized by exposure

to small doses of a radioactive element.
• Particulate monitors directly read aerosol concentrations or the behavior of charged
crystals, depending upon the type of particulate monitor.

Personal Monitoring Devices

Personal monitoring device A personal monitoring device, or dosimeter, is used to measure an individual’s exposure
an instrument that measures an to airborne contaminants over a short period of time (usually between 8 and 12 hours)
individual’s exposure to airborne
contaminants. (­Figure 23.3). The device is small so that it can be attached to the worker’s clothing within
the worker’s breathing zone. Usually, the dosimeter is attached to the lapel, where it is closest
to the nose and mouth. Following exposure, the monitoring device is sent to a lab for analysis
to determine the amount of contaminant collected.

Figure 23.3 Badge dosimeter

personal monitoring device.
CREDIT: Dario Lo Presti/Shutterstock.

Gas Detector Tubes

Gas detector tube an instrument Gas detector tubes (Figure 23.4) are easy to read and highly portable. Each tube is designed
that provides instant measurement of to detect a specific substance indicating the presence of the substance along with its specific
a specific gas, usually indicated by a
color change within the tube.
concentration. When exposed to the target substance, the tube produces a distinct color
change, indicating the presence of the substance and its concentration.

Figure 23.4 Gas detector

tubes.
 Monitoring Equipment 393

Alarm Systems and Indicators

Alarms and indicators are a vital part of plant safety. See Figure 23.5 for an example of an
alarm system that might be used in the process industries. These systems are designed to
alert everyone in the facility or work area should something go wrong and/or notify those
in control that a potentially dangerous situation exists that requires attention. Several types
of alarm systems and indicators are used in the process industries, including the following:

• Fire alarms and detection systems

• Toxic gas alarms and detection systems
• Redundant alarm and shutdown systems
• Automatic shutdown devices
• Interlocks

Figure 23.5 Alarm system

with annunciator.
CREDIT: Black Jack/Shutterstock.

Cameras

Computer displays camera views

Alarm light

Fire Alarms and Detection Systems

Fire alarms and detection systems are installed throughout manned process areas and in
buildings that are not normally staffed by individuals, such as those that house electrical or
computer equipment. These systems can sound audible alarms and provide alarm indication
in the control room to alert operations personnel.
In conjunction with an alarm system, other components that may also be activated d­ uring
an emergency include water sprinklers, deluge systems, halon systems, or carbon dioxide
systems. Water is used to extinguish standard fires and cool down hot equipment. Halon
is used around computer systems, telephone switch rooms, and other electrically sensitive
equipment. Carbon dioxide is used for fires involving electrical and electronic equipment.
Detection devices that are associated with fire alarms include smoke detectors, tempera-
ture switches, and LEL detectors. Each device is activated when a predetermined level, such
as a high temperature or excessive amount of carbon monoxide, is reached.

Did You Know?

Cameras are highly restricted in plants because of
proprietary information and the fact that the flash can
interfere with fire detection sensors or ignite hydro-
carbons. Because of this, process technicians should
always ask permission before bringing a camera into a
process facility or taking flash photography.

CREDIT: SeventyFour/Shutterstock.
394 Chapter 23

Toxic Gas Alarms and Detection Systems

Toxic gas alarms and detection systems are used for processes that involve toxic materials,
such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and cyanide. Toxic gas detection devices are
installed in strategic locations throughout the process area and sound when a p
­ redetermined
concentration of the toxic substance is detected. The devices are located in such a manner
that a leak will be detected no matter which direction the wind is blowing. Figure 23.6
­illustrates a toxic gas alarm gas detection zone. In some circumstances, a water or foam
deluge system will be activated in order to suppress the toxic gas.

Zone of alarm
Figure 23.6 Toxic gas alarm
gas detection zone.

Redundant Alarm and Shutdown Systems

Shutdown devices equipment Redundant devices are used to provide multiple means for warning. Shutdown devices
that ensures that processes and/ ensure that processes or equipment are secured from failures that may result in hazardous
or equipment are secured from
failures that may result in hazardous conditions.
conditions. The need for redundancy is based on the criticality of the process and how devastating a
major event would be to the process. Redundancy is provided through two or more separate
switches or detection devices and two or more separate alarms. The redundancy may consist
of wired electrical devices along with a computer control system that uses programming or
software to activate an alarm or warning. Often, relief devices are incorporated along with
shutdown devices in redundant systems.

Automatic Shutdown Devices

Automatic shutdown devices are used to protect equipment and/or personnel when process
variables exceed or drop below preset levels. Automatic shutdown devices may be activated
by variables such as the following:

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Flow
• Level
• Composition (online analyzers)

High level alarms shown in Figure 23.7A are triggered when a process variable,
such as fluid in a tank, rises above a predetermined high level. Low level alarms (shown
in Figure 23.7B) are triggered when a process variable drops below a predetermined
low level.
When levels exceed preset thresholds, shutdown devices may automatically close valves
in order to reduce the flow or shut down the system (e.g., shutting down a pump to prevent
the tank from overflowing). When levels drop below preset levels, a shutdown device may
automatically open valves to increase flow or shut down the system (e.g., automatically
shutting down a pump to prevent the pump from running dry).
 Monitoring Equipment 395

Figure 23.7 A. Tank high high

HH
(HH) alarm. B. Tank low low (LL)
LA alarm.

H 100%
LA
70%

20%
L
LA 10%
LL
LA
A. B.

Interlocks
Interlocks prevent an action unless a certain condition within the process is satisfied.
For example, an interlock could shut down or start up equipment to prevent equipment
damage or serious process upset.
There are usually two types of interlocks used in the process industries:

• Safety—This type of interlock circumvents a process. If a condition or requirement is

not satisfied, then the entire process is shut down (e.g., an interlock switch on the lid of
a washing machine prevents the machine from agitating if the lid is open).
• Process—This type of interlock is built into a process, meaning that if certain require-
ments in the process are not fulfilled, the process will not continue to the next step (e.g., a
washing machine will not begin the agitation step until the wash water has reached
a preset level).

Process Upset Controls

There are a number of process upset controls or devices or systems used in the process Process upset controls devices
industries to control upsets. These include the following: and systems used in the process
industries to respond to control
• Flares upsets.

• Pressure relief devices

• Deluge systems
• Explosive suppression systems
• Explosive gas alarms and detectors
• Spill Containment

Did You Know? Manual

handle
Adjustment
screw

Process technicians often use the slang term “pop valve” or

Spring
“pop-off valve” to refer to a safety valve. That is because they
open quickly or “pop off” once the pressure threshold has been Stem
exceeded (as opposed to relief valves that open slowly).

Disc Outlet
Body

Inlet
396 Chapter 23

FLARES Flares are environmentally approved devices which burn waste gases that have
been collected from various process sources via a piping system. During process upsets, the
process may generate pressure. Gases are released to reduce pressure, but instead of releas-
ing to the atmosphere, the gases are piped into a flare. The gases are burned and released
into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (or carbon dioxide and water), thereby controlling
the process upset.
A flare on a process unit is normally elevated on a tower several hundred feet in the air
due to the heat that can be generated. Flares must be designed to provide smokeless burn-
ing of the gases, which is usually accomplished with the use of steam addition during the
combustion process. Figure 23.8 illustrates a flare system with its components.

Figure 23.8 Flare system.

CREDIT: Ra17/Shutterstock.

PRESSURE RELIEF DEVICES Pressure relief valves are valves that automatically open at
a set pressure to protect vessels or piping from overpressuring. Pressure relief devices do
not rely on external sensing devices. Instead, they rely on spring tension settings adjusted
to a set pressure.
Pressure relief devices are inherently very reliable. For example, the spring tension of
a relief valve may be set at 50 PSI. If the pressure in the process exceeds 50 PSI, the valve
will automatically open to relieve the pressure. Once the pressure drops below 50 PSI, the
valve will close and the material being released may be vented to a flare system or to the
Relief valve a safety device atmosphere, depending on the type of material being vented.
designed to open slowly as the There are two types of pressure relief devices: relief valves (Figure 23.9) and safety
pressure of a liquid in a closed vessel valves. Relief and safety valves are both similar in their design. The difference, however, is
exceeds a preset level; can be used
in service where liquid expands to that relief valves are designed to open slowly if the pressure of a liquid exceeds a preset level,
create a gas. while safety valves are designed to open quickly and are used to vent gases.

Adjustment screw Protective cap

Figure 23.9 Relief valve.

Spring

Stem
Disc

Outlet Body

Inlet
 Monitoring Equipment 397

Rupture disks (sometime referred to as burst disks) are another type of pressure relief
device. Rupture disks are metal disks, held in place with a vented plug, that are designed to
rupture (pop out of their holder) if tank pressure is greatly exceeded.

DELUGE SYSTEMS Deluge systems (Figure 23.10) dump or spray large volumes of water Deluge system a system of
over a short period of time for the purpose of extinguishing a fire or suppressing a toxic dumping or spraying water to
extinguish a fire or suppress a toxic
release or a hydrocarbon spill. Deluge systems may be automatic or require manual release or hydrocarbon spill.
activation.

Figure 23.10 Deluge system.

A. External view of water and
foam deluge system. B. Interior
view of deluge system
CREDIT: A. Tanasan Sungkaew/Shutterstock.

A. B.

EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS An explosion suppression barrier includes walls Explosion suppression barrier
erected to contain an explosion. The walls may be erected around a particular process area, a wall or other device built around a
specific process area or the control
or the walls of a control room may be built for explosion suppression. room to suppress explosions.
An example of an explosion suppression barrier is a concrete blast wall around a high
pressure reactor. There may also be “safe havens” within a process facility (e.g., a control
room) that are designed to withstand the force of an explosion. Spill containment a combination
of procedures and devices designed
EXPLOSIVE GAS ALARMS AND DETECTORS Explosive gas alarms and detectors ­operate to contain spilled materials in the
similarly to toxic gas alarms and detectors, but are designed to detect explosive gas. They immediate area of the spill and to
will activate an alarm and may also automatically activate a deluge system. minimize the effects of a spill on the
environment.
SPILL CONTAINMENT Spill containment is designed to contain spilled materials in the
immediate area of the spill, prevent spread and contamination, and facilitate disposal. Dike a structure built around
Dikes are used around storage tanks and are sized to contain more than the full contents storage tanks to hold the contents of
the tanks in the event of a leak.
of the tanks within the enclosure. Curbs are used to provide containment for process units.
The containment area is sloped to a process sewer collection system. Other containment
Curb a method of spill containment
devices (e.g., sandbags to protect storm sewers) may also be used. Figure 23.11 illustrates a for process units. It is sloped to a
spill containment wall. sewer collection system.

Figure 23.11 Spill

­containment wall.
CREDIT: Travelview/Shutterstock.

Containment wall
398 Chapter 23

Industrial Hygiene Monitoring

Industrial hygiene monitoring, which is conducted by an industrial hygienist, involves
sampling the working environment to determine if any hazardous agents are present at
unacceptable OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) levels. Industrial
hygienists use a variety of tools to capture data on workplace hazards, and then analyze
these data and compare them to published standards. Some of the data that industrial
hygienists monitor are taken from personal monitoring equipment (e.g., badge or dosim-
eters). Hygienists use these data to determine how much exposure to a substance workers
have.
Common industrial hygiene sampling activities include the following:

• Noise monitoring
• Toxic substances sampling
• Ergonomic studies

Fugitive Emissions Monitoring

Fugitive emissions monitoring Fugitive emissions monitoring requires that samples be taken, analyzed, and compared
measuring emissions from sources to government or company standards. Fugitive emissions can occur at many scattered
(e.g., flange connection around
packing) to determine if any points (e.g., valve packing, pump seal, or a gasket on a flange) that are not caught by a
hazardous agents are present at capture ­system. However, emissions monitoring involves sampling of the atmosphere to
unacceptable EPA levels. determine if any hazardous agents are present at unacceptable EPA (Environmental
­Protection Agency) levels. Also, emissions monitoring can be performed either by inline
sensors or by people with detectors. You may be asked to participate in fugitive emissions
monitoring by being trained to operate a gas detection device and collect data or collect
readings from inline sensors.

23.2 Government Regulations and

Industry Guidelines
On-site air monitoring is required by OSHA’s air contaminant standard and standards
­specific to some chemicals (such as benzene, ethylene oxide, and asbestos) to identify and
quantify levels of hazardous substances. This monitoring is performed periodically to ensure
the proper personal protective equipment is used on site. For more information on the OSHA
standards, refer to their website at www.osha.gov.
The EPA requires monitoring of fugitive emissions through gas detection devices.
­Companies are required to monitor these emissions to ensure that hazardous agents are
detected and quantified to ensure they are within the acceptable levels. For more information
on the EPA requirements, refer to their website at www.epa.gov.

Air Emissions
EPA and their state counterparts require industry to limit emission of air toxics or HAPs
(hazardous air pollutants). Emissions limits vary because highly populated and/or industri-
alized areas need stricter emissions limits than rural areas with no industry and few people.
All areas within the United States must attempt to adhere to NAAQ (National Ambient
Air Quality) standards, found on the EPA website. Industrial site limits are defined by air
 Monitoring Equipment 399

operating permits (AOPs). AOPs can be Title V Permits, federal air quality permits which
control VOC emissions from refineries and petrochemical sites which emit large amounts
of air toxics or HAPs.
Title V permit thresholds are:

• 10 tons per year of a single HAP (hazardous air pollutant)

• 25 tons per year of a combination of HAPs
• 50 tons per year of total HAPs or NOx (oxides of nitrogen)

Sites with AOPs must track their emissions and submit or have available for inspection upon
agency request the amount of HAPs they emit over time.

Water and Waste Emissions

There are also requirements for industrial discharges to waterways and for disposal of
­industrial waste. Waterway discharges are regulated by the CWA (Clean Water Act) and
industrial waste is regulated by several federal acts, including the following:
CERCLA—Comprehensive Environmental Responsibility, Compensation and
Liability Act

• Provides broad Federal authority to respond directly to releases or threatened releases

of hazardous substances that may endanger public health or the environment.
• Enables revision of the National Contingency Plan, which provides the guidelines
and procedures needed to respond to releases and threatened releases of hazardous
­substances, pollutants, or contaminants.
• Directs the U.S. EPA to establish reporting quantities for all hazardous substances.

SARA—Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

Superfund is a federal government program designed to fund the cleanup of sites
­contaminated with hazardous substances and pollutants. Sites managed under this ­program
are referred to as “Superfund” sites. It was established as part of the Comprehensive
­Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA).

HAZWOPER—Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Act

HAZWOPER applies to five groups of employers and their employees. This includes
employees who are exposed (or potentially exposed) to hazardous substances (including
hazardous waste) and who are engaged in one of the following operations as specified by
OSHA regulations 1910.120(a)(1)(i–v) and 1926.65(a)(1)(i–v):

• Cleanup operations required by a governmental body (federal, state, local, or other)

involving hazardous substances conducted at uncontrolled hazardous waste sites
• Corrective actions involving cleanup operations at sites covered by the Resource
­Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) as amended (42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.)
• Voluntary cleanup operations at sites recognized by a federal, state, local, or other
­governmental body as uncontrolled hazardous waste sites
• Operations involving hazardous waste which are conducted at treatment, storage and
disposal facilities regulated by Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations, parts 264 and
265 pursuant to the RCRA, or by agencies under agreement with the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency to implement RCRA regulations
• Emergency response operations for releases of, or substantial threats of release of,
­hazardous substances (regardless of the hazard’s location).
400 Chapter 23

Summary
The very nature of the process industries involves the use to measure an individual’s exposure to airborne contaminants.
of hazardous materials. These materials must be monitored Alarm and indicator systems (e.g., fire and toxic gas alarms)
and controlled to ensure physical and environmental safety. are designed to alert everyone in the facility if something goes
­Monitoring equipment is used to identify unacceptable wrong and notify those in control that a potentially dangerous
­hazards so that these hazards can be mitigated or controlled situation exists. ­Automatic ­shutdown devices are used to protect
and employees can be alerted. equipment and/or p ­ ersonnel when process variables exceed or
There are many different types of monitoring equipment drop below p ­ reset levels. ­Automatic shutdown devices may be
and systems. These types include LEL meters, O2 meters, gas activated by ­variables such as ­temperature, pressure, flow, level,
detection equipment, personal monitoring devices, alarm and and ­composition (online ­analyzers). Process upset controls are
indicator systems, automatic shutdown devices, and process devices and ­systems used in industry to respond to and control
upset controls. upsets.
LEL meters measure the combustible content of a­ tmosphere. Process monitoring is essential for health and safety.
O2 meters measure the oxygen content of the atmosphere. Gas ­Monitoring of the process and its environment (industrial
detection equipment detects the components within a gaseous hygiene monitoring) is performed to ensure the workplace is
atmosphere. Personal monitoring devices (dosimeters) are used safe for employees and for the surrounding communities.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 3. List the two most commonly used oxygen detector cell
a. Curb types.
b. Deluge system 4. What device is used to measure an individual’s
c. Dike ­exposure to airborne contaminants over a short period
of time?
d. Explosion suppression barrier
a. Dosimeter
e. Fugitive emissions monitoring
b. Particulate monitors
f. Gas detection equipment
c. Ion mobility spectrometers
g. Gas detector tube
d. Electron capture detectors
h. LEL meter
i. Personal monitoring device 5. Which of the following fire suppression substances
might be used for fires involving computer systems and
j. VOC meter
other sensitive electronics?
2. What does an LEL reading of 20 percent mean? a. Halon
a. The sample contains no flammable gas. b. Water
b. The sample contains enough flammable gas for c. Carbon dioxide
combustion.
d. Nitrogen
c. The sample contains 20 percent flammable gas,
e. All of the above
enough for combustion.
d. The sample contains 80 percent flammable gas, 6. List the two factors that determine the need for
enough for combustion. redundancy.
 Monitoring Equipment 401

7. Match the process upset control device to the 8. List the three industrial hygiene sampling activities.
­appropriate description.
9. Define the following acronyms:
Process Control Device Description a. HAZWOPER
I. Deluge system a. A building or walls designed to con- b. CERCLA
II. Explosion suppression tain the impact of an explosion
system b. A flame-containing device used to
c. CWA
III. E xplosive gas detector burn waste gases during process d. CAA—Title V
and alarm upsets
c. A safety valve that automatically
e. HAP
IV. Flare
V. Pressure relief device
opens if the pressure of a vessel f. SARA
exceeds a preset threshold
VI. Spill containment device d. A system that delivers a high volume 10. According to Title V, permit thresholds allow up to ____
of water in order to extinguish a fire
or suppress a toxic gas leak
tons of a single HAP per year.
e. Dikes or curbs used to contain a 11. What does “Superfund” require?
spill and prevent it from spreading
f. Used to detect explosive gases and
may also trigger the activation of a
deluge system

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Given an LEL (lower explosive limit) monitor, determine 5. Given an O2 meter, determine the oxygen level in the air
the LEL or gas contents of the atmosphere around you. around the exhaust of a running car. (Caution: Carbon
monoxide is extremely hazardous; do not stand in or
2. On most washing machines, there is a switch that will
near the exhaust!)
only allow the tub to spin if the lid is closed. This is an
example of a safety interlock. Examine the world around 6. Observe how confined spaces can become oxygen-
you and identify five additional examples of commonly deficient environments by placing a piece of iron scrap
used interlocks. In a one-page report, list and describe metal and some leaves in a gallon jar. Add enough water
the function of each of these interlocks. to barely cover the leaves and the metal. Seal the jar and
leave it sealed for one week. At the end of that week, use
3. Write a one- to two-page report explaining the purpose
an O2 meter to monitor the oxygen level inside the jar.
and function of flares.
4. Given a bottle of ammonia and an ammonia detector
tube, sample the air near the mouth of the ammonia
bottle and then read the detector tube to determine the
concentration of ammonia in the air.
 Chapter 24
Fire, Rescue, and
Emergency Response
Equipment
Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of fire, rescue, and emergency response equipment
found in the process industries.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
24.1 Explain the function and purpose of fire, rescue, and emergency
response equipment typically found in the process industries:
Emergency response
Fires (different types)
Spills
Fire
Rescue/retrieval
Escape
Chemical exposure
Gas release. (NAPTA Safety, Emergency 1*) p. 404
24.2 Demonstrate the proper selection and use of fire and rescue
­equipment. (NAPTA Safety, Emergency 3) p. 405
24.3 Demonstrate the correct use of chemical and gas exposure equipment.
(NAPTA Safety, Emergency 2) p. 410

*North American Process Technology Alliance (NAPTA) developed curriculum to ensure

that Process Technology courses will produce knowledgeable graduates to become entry-
level employees in process technology. Objectives from that curriculum are named here in
abbreviated form. For example, “(NAPTA Safety, Emergency 1)” means that this chapter’s
objective relates to objective 1 of the NAPTA curriculum on fire, rescue, and emergency
response.

402
 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment 403

24.4 Participate in a tabletop drill in preparation for emergency response to

a fire, release, or spill. (NAPTA Safety, Emergency 4) p. 413
24.5 Describe government regulations and industry guidelines that address
fire protection and emergency response. (NAPTA Safety, Emergency
Response 5) p. 413

Key Terms
Ambulance—a standard vehicle of emergency medical service departments used to
treat injury victims at remote sites and transport them to other medical facilities as
needed, p. 407.
Backboard—a board used to immobilize injured victims to prevent damage to the
spinal cord while they are being moved, p. 409.
Chemical protective clothing (CPC)—clothing that provides protection to those who
work around chemicals. Four classifications of CPC allow employees to access the
proper level of protection for the chemicals to which they may be exposed, p. 412.
Class A fire—the classification given to ordinary combustible materials, such as
wood, paper, cloth, and rubber, p. 404.
Class B fire—the classification given to flammable liquids, such as grease, tar, oil, and
lacquer, p. 404.
Class C fire—the classification given to electrical equipment fires, p. 404.
Class D fire—the classification given to combustible metals, such as magnesium,
lithium, and sodium, p. 404.
Escape mask—protective gear that provides respiratory protection for a limited
period of time in the event of a suddenly occurring emergency, p. 410.
Extinguishing agent—the material in a fire extinguisher (e.g., water, dry chemical, or
foam); varies depending on the fire classification being fought, p. 408.
Eyewash station—used to flush the eyes of contamination from harmful chemicals,
p. 410.
Fire brigade—a private fire department or industrial fire department composed
of a group of employees who are knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in basic
firefighting operations, p. 405.
Fire engine—a vehicle that carries and pumps water, p. 407.
Fire hose—used to deliver large quantities of water when the fire is too large to be
controlled by a fire extinguisher or other means, p. 406.
Fire hydrant—a point of water supply for fire hoses; mounted on trucks or
free-standing and connected to a water main, p. 407.
Fire truck—an emergency response vehicle that does not carry or pump water, p. 407.
Handheld fire extinguisher—used to extinguish small fires; must be mounted,
located, and identified so it is easily accessible during an emergency, p. 408.
Incipient fire—a small fire that requires immediate attention to prevent it from
becoming larger and more serious, p. 404.
OSHA Fire Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.155)—intended to prevent and/or
minimize the consequences of fire within the workplace, p. 413.
Ropes and mechanical retrieval devices—equipment used to rescue workers from
a hazardous situation. Ropes are primarily used to lower rescuers into confined
spaces and to hoist injury victims out of those spaces. Mechanical retrieval devices
are set up on a tripod and use a winch or crank to lower and raise individuals with
the rescue rope, p. 409.
Safety shower—located throughout the plant; provides the ability to rinse the body
off in the event of a large exposure to a chemical spill, p. 411.
404 Chapter 24

SCBA—self-contained breathing apparatus used to provide breathing air when the

wearer needs to enter an area with an atmosphere that might be oxygen-deficient
or harmful if inhaled, p. 410.
Standpipe system—a system that provides hose stations with water supplied by a
main, fire pump, or tank; standpipes can be either wet (connected to a permanent
water supply and constantly filled with water) or dry (not connected to a
permanent water supply), p. 407.
Stretcher—a bed with wheels used to transport injured victims from one place to
another, p. 409.

24.1 Introduction
Regardless of the safety systems and equipment used in the process industries and the
amount of training that is provided for employees, emergencies sometimes occur. The
response to those emergencies can often mean the difference between a small incident or a
Incipient fire a small fire that major catastrophe; it can sometimes mean the difference between life and death. Therefore,
requires immediate attention to the response to emergencies must be efficient and timely.
prevent it from becoming larger and
There are several types of emergencies that require an efficient and timely response in
more serious.
the process industries. They include fires, leaks, spills, and releases.
Class A fire the classification given
to ordinary combustible materials,
such as wood, paper, cloth, and
Fires
rubber. Incipient fires can be classified as small fires that need immediate attention before they get
larger and more serious. Fires are classified by the types of materials or equipment involved.
Class B fire the classification given The four main classes of fires are A, B, C, and D. However, there is also a Class K, which is
to flammable liquids, such as grease,
tar, oil, and lacquer. specific to the food service and food preparation industries (Figure 24.1).

• Class A—ordinary combustibles (e.g., wood, paper, cloth, and rubber)

Class C fire the classification given
to electrical equipment fires. • Class B—combustible and flammable gases and liquids (e.g., oils, tars, and lacquers)
• Class C—electrical equipment
Class D fire the classification
• Class D—combustible metals (e.g., magnesium, lithium, and sodium)
given to combustible metals, such as
magnesium, lithium, and sodium. • Class K—cooking oil, fat, grease, or other kitchen fires

Figure 24.1 Five classes

of fire. A B C D K

Class A Class B Class C Class D Class K

Ordinary Flammable Fires involving Combustible Fires involving
combustibles liquids and electrical metals and cooking
gases equipment metal alloys materials

Leaks, Spills, and Releases

When process fluids are not handled properly, they can create dangerous situations for
the process technician. When toxic process fluids manage to escape the confines of their
­containers, other dangerous situations are created.
Leaks, spills, and releases all involve the uncontrolled discharge of hazardous process
fluids. A leak occurs when a container is compromised and the compromised area allows
 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment 405

a small amount of liquid to escape. A spill is similar to a leak in that it involves the uncon-
trolled liquid discharge, but a spill usually involves more volume than a leak (Figure 24.2).
A release refers to the uncontrolled discharge of process materials into the environment.
Unintended escape of gas from a process is often referred to as a release.

Figure 24.2 Soil pollution

caused by a spill.
CREDIT: Widi Design/Shutterstock.

Leaks, spills, and releases can cause adverse consequences for both the worker and the
environment. Workers can accidentally inhale toxic vapors, absorb toxic chemicals into their
body, or have other types of acute exposure to potentially lethal doses of toxic substances.
The environment can be harmed if toxic materials are released into the air, leak, spill, or
seep into the soil offsite or into groundwater. Because of this, leaks, spills, and releases
must be reported. The RQ is the reportable quantity listed for any substance having an
environmental, health, and safety (EHS) RQ or a Comprehensive Environmental Response,
­Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) RQ. This includes a loss to the environment
of 1 lb (0.5 kg) or more from a Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) storage
tank and associated piping within a 24-hour period. States also have their own individual
reporting requirements.

24.2 Fire and Rescue

Sometimes, fires become too large to be controlled by one or two individuals. When this
is the case, more experienced and highly trained firefighters are needed. Process industry
plants may rely on the city fire departments, internal fire brigades, or a combination of both.

Fire Brigades
Fire brigades are private fire departments or industrial fire departments composed of an Fire brigade a private fire
“organized group of employees who are knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in at least basic department or industrial fire
department composed of a group of
firefighting operations” (29 CFR 1910.155) (Figure 24.3). employees who are knowledgeable,
Employers who choose to form fire brigades are responsible for ensuring they select trained, and skilled in basic firefighting
competent members, train them, and provide them with the equipment and protective operations.
­clothing necessary to fight fires. Employers must select employees who are capable of
­performing the firefighting duties to which they are assigned. They may not select employees
with heart disease, epilepsy, emphysema, or other serious medical conditions to participate
in fire brigades. Once selected, employers must provide training commensurate with the
assigned duties of each fire brigade member. Training for general fire brigade members must
be ­provided annually, and employees may be required to pass a physical fitness test. Anyone
assigned to fight fires within a structure must receive quarterly training.
406 Chapter 24

Figure 24.3 Fire brigades

­ onsist of employees trained in
c
basic fire fighting operations.
CREDIT: Kaiskynet Studio/ Shutterstock.

Employers are required to inform fire brigade members about any special hazards to
which they may be exposed when responding to emergencies. The brigade members must
be trained on special actions required during emergencies to minimize hazards.
Employers must also provide, maintain, and inspect the firefighting equipment­
on-site. Protective clothing must include protection for the feet, legs, hands, body, eyes, face,
and head.
To help fight fires, fire brigades may use the following types of equipment:

• Fire hoses
• Standpipe systems
• Fire hydrants
• Emergency vehicles

Fire hose used to deliver large FIRE HOSES Fire hoses (Figure 24.4) are one of the most common firefighting devices used
quantities of water when the fire is
too large to be controlled by a fire to deliver large quantities of water when the fire is too large to be controlled by other means
extinguisher or other means. (e.g., fire extinguishers).

Figure 24.4 Fire hose.

CREDIT: Brian A Jackson/Shutterstock.

Fire hoses come in different diameters. The larger the hose, the greater the volume and
force the hose will deliver. Because large fire hoses deliver such huge amounts, they can be
very difficult to maneuver and control, and may require several people to operate them.
 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment 407

STANDPIPE SYSTEMS Standpipe systems provide hose stations with water supplied by Standpipe system a system that
a main, fire pump, or tank. There are three classifications of standpipes. provides hose stations with water
supplied by a main, fire pump, or
• Class 1 are for the largest hoses (21⁄2 inch [6 cm] outlets) and are used by trained tank; standpipes can be either wet
(connected to a permanent water
firefighters. supply and constantly filled with
• Class 2 are equipped with 11⁄2 inch [about 4 cm] outlets and are used primarily by the water) or dry (not connected to a
permanent water supply).
occupants of the plant until firefighters arrive.
• Class 3 provides a combination of Classes 1 and 2 standpipes.

There are two types of standpipe systems:

• Wet standpipes are connected to a permanent water supply and are constantly filled
with water.
• Dry standpipes are not connected to a permanent water supply.

FIRE HYDRANTS Fire hydrants serve as a point of water supply for fire hoses. Hydrants Fire hydrant a point of water
can be mounted on trucks or be freestanding and connected to a water main. supply for fire hoses; mounted
on trucks or free-standing and
Fire monitors are strategically located spray nozzles, attached to a hydrant or some connected to a water main.
other water supply. Fire monitors can be directed at a fire and locked in place so a technician
can exit the area while still fighting the fire and limiting its damage. Figure 24.5 shows an
example of a fire monitor.

Figure 24.5 Fire monitor

attached to a fire hydrant.
CREDIT: Zulkamalober/Shutterstock.

EMERGENCY VEHICLES There are several types of emergency vehicles used in plants.
These include fire engines as well as trucks and ambulances. Fire brigades and fire depart- Fire engine a vehicle that carries
and pumps water.
ments, for the most part, are equipped with fire engines and fire trucks. While they are
usually customized to the needs of the specific fire brigade or department, there are a variety
Fire truck an emergency response
of fire rescue vehicles that are utilized by fire brigades. The most common fire rescue vehicles vehicle that does not carry or pump
are pumper and ladder trucks. A fire engine is a vehicle that carries and pumps water, while water.
a fire truck does not carry or pump water.
Ambulances (Figure 24.6) are the standard vehicles for emergency medical service Ambulance a standard vehicle
departments. They function as mobile medical units to help treat injury victims at remote of emergency medical service
departments used to treat injury
sites and transport them to other medical facilities if needed. Ambulances are staffed by victims at remote sites and transport
trained emergency medical personnel and are well equipped to aid injured parties in the them to other medical facilities as
event of an emergency. needed.
408 Chapter 24

Figure 24.6 Ambulance.

CREDIT: Rob Wilson/Shutterstock.

Fire Extinguishers
Handheld fire extinguisher used Handheld fire extinguishers are primarily used to extinguish small incipient fires
to extinguish small fires; must be (­Figure 24.7). These must be regularly inspected, tested, and maintained, and employers are
mounted, located, and identified
so it is easily accessible during an required to train employees in their proper use. All portable fire extinguishers must be
emergency. mounted, located, and identified so that employees may easily access them when needed.
They must be maintained in a fully charged and operable condition and remain in their
designated place at all times except when in use.

Figure 24.7 Handheld fire

extinguisher.
CREDIT: John Kasawa/Shutterstock.

Employees are required to have annual training in the use of fire extinguishers. The
extinguishers must also undergo an annual maintenance check. Any abnormalities must
be corrected, or the extinguisher must be replaced. While extinguishers are being checked
and/or replaced, employers are required to provide alternate equivalent protection.

Extinguishing agent the material EXTINGUISHING AGENTS Extinguishers come equipped with different extinguishing
in a fire extinguisher (e.g., water, dry agents depending upon the fire classification. A fire extinguisher is required to be clearly
chemical, or foam); varies depending
on the fire classification being fought. marked as to what type and size of fire it can extinguish.
Several extinguishing agents are used, depending on the type and size of fire. The fol-
lowing chart (Table 24.1) identifies the types of agents used for the various fire classifications.
Process technicians must be aware that some extinguishing agents have hazards
(e.g., halon can create an oxygen-deficient environment, while CO2 extinguishers can
­displace oxygen and produce static electricity—another potential ignition source).
 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment 409

Table 24.1 Fire Extinguishing Agents and the Fire Classifications They are Used For
Extinguishing Agent Fire Class(es)
Water A, B
Dry chemical A, B, C, D
Foam A, B
Halon A, B, C
Carbon dioxide B, C
Wet chemical A

FIRE EXTINGUISHER USE When using a fire extinguisher, it is imperative that employees
follow general rules to ensure their own safety, as well as the ability to extinguish the fire
as quickly and efficiently as possible. Whenever a fire extinguisher is required, technicians
should contact the emergency response team at the facility to ensure that help is on the way
in the event the fire is greater than what a technician can extinguish.

Rescue Equipment
In the process industries, many types of emergencies can occur that require ropes and Ropes and mechanical retrieval
mechanical retrieval devices, stretchers, and so on. During these emergency situations, it is devices equipment used to rescue
workers from a hazardous situation.
sometimes necessary to rescue workers from a hazardous situation. To help aid in retrieval, Ropes are primarily used to lower
rescue workers use various types of equipment. rescuers into confined spaces and
to hoist injury victims out of those
ROPES AND MECHANICAL RETRIEVAL DEVICES Ropes come in a variety of materials spaces. Mechanical retrieval devices
and strengths. In rescue situations they are primarily used to lower rescue workers in are set up on a tripod and use a
­confined spaces to help injured victims and/or to hoist victims out of those spaces. winch or crank to lower and raise
individuals with the rescue rope.
To accomplish vertical retrieval, ropes may be used in conjunction with rigging
­mechanisms (e.g., harnesses, bolts, bolt hangers, carabiners, and other types of clips) and
mechanized retrieval devices.
Mechanized retrieval devices (Figure 24.8) are usually set up on a sturdy tripod and have
a wench or crank with which to lower and raise individuals into vertical confined spaces
via a rescue rope.

Figure 24.8 Mechanized

retrieval device.
CREDIT: Lakeview Images/Shutterstock.

Backboard a board used to

immobilize injured victims to prevent
STRETCHERS AND BACKBOARDS Backboards are used to immobilize injured victims damage to the spinal cord while they
are being moved.
to prevent damage to the spinal cord while they are being moved. They usually consist of a
rigid backboard of some type and restraints to hold the patient’s head, torso, and limbs in
Stretcher a bed with wheels used
place while in transit. Stretchers are beds with wheels that are used to transport patients to transport injured victims from one
from one place to another. place to another.
410 Chapter 24

Did You Know?

The following mnemonic is an easy way to remember the classes of fire extinguishers and what they
are used for:

Type Use
A (ashes) Solids
B (bucket) Liquids
C (current) Electrical equipment
D (difficult) Metals
K (kitchen) Grease/cooking oils

SCBA self-contained breathing

apparatus used to provide breathing
air when the wearer needs to enter BREATHING APPARATUSES As discussed in Chapter 22, Personal Protective Equipment and
an area with an atmosphere that
might be oxygen-deficient or harmful First Aid, respirators and breathing apparatuses come in different types and forms.
if inhaled. Most rescue teams use SCBA (self-contained breathing apparatus) (Figure 24.9) to enter
into confined spaces or fires. Escape masks serve as respiratory protection and allow poten-
Escape mask protective gear that tial victims to quickly escape in the event of a suddenly occurring emergency. Some escape
provides respiratory protection for a
limited period of time in the event of a masks (or hoods) can be used in conjunction with air supplies that allow for 5 to 15 minutes
suddenly occurring emergency. of breathing time.

Figure 24.9 Person ­donning

a self-contained breathing
­apparatus (SCBA).
CREDIT: Zulkamalober/Shutterstock.

24.3 Chemical and Gas Exposure

Exposure to hazardous chemicals is an emergency that needs immediate attention. To help
respond to such emergencies, plants have various types of safety equipment that are easily
accessible. Some of the equipment used to attend to such emergencies is listed below.

Eyewash Stations
Eyewash station used to flush the Eyewash stations are used to flush the eyes of contamination (e.g., harmful chemicals that
eyes of contamination from harmful have entered the eyes as a result of a splash). This helps reduce the risk of injury associated
chemicals.
with chemical burns.
 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment 411

Eyewash stations can either be personal portable units or permanent fixtures. Eyewash
stations should be placed in strategic locations that are easily accessible to all employees
working around chemical agents. Figure 24.10 depicts a type of eyewash station.

Figure 24.10 Eyewash

fountain.
CREDIT: Khamkhlai Thanet/Shutterstock.

Process technicians should always note the location of the eyewash station when enter-
ing a work area, since it may be difficult to find the station once something has been sprayed
in the eyes.

Safety Showers
Safety shower located throughout
Safety showers are used to rinse the body off in the event of a large exposure to a chemical
the plant; provides the ability to rinse
spill (Figure 24.11). Like eyewash stations, safety showers are strategically located within the the body off in the event of a large
plant so they can be easily accessed by employees. exposure to a chemical spill.

Figure 24.11 Safety shower

with pull chain.
CREDIT: BLUR LIFE 1975/Shutterstock.

Safety showers may require technicians to pull a chain or step on a grate or footplate
to activate them. Once activated, the safety shower releases water and may activate an
alarm in the control room. Process technicians should always note the location of the
safety shower station when entering a work area, so they can get to it quickly in the
event of prolonged exposure to hazardous agents. Safety showers and eyewash stations
must be checked periodically to ensure proper flow and be maintained so they are free
of debris.
412 Chapter 24

Decontamination
During a chemical spill, equipment can also become contaminated, so it is standard ­practice
to wash the chemical(s) off the equipment to decontaminate it. Some chemicals may need
other treatments to complete the decontamination process. The treatments needed depend
upon the chemical agent and how it reacts to water or the surrounding atmosphere (e.g., some
chemicals, if mixed with water or air, become highly volatile).

Chemical and Gas Protective Clothing (CPC)

Chemical protective clothing As discussed in the chapter on PPE, chemical protective clothing (CPC) is essential to the
(CPC) clothing that provides health and safety of those who work around chemicals. Items of CPC are classified based on
protection to those who work around
chemicals. Four classifications of the level of protection they provide.
CPC allow employees to access
• Level A—gives the highest level of protection for the skin, eyes, and respiratory
the proper level of protection for the
chemicals to which they may be ­system. It is used when there is a high concentration of vapors, gases, or particulates
exposed. and a high potential for splash, immersion, or exposure to unexpected or unknown
toxic chemicals.
• Level B—gives the highest level of respiratory protection but less skin protection.
It is used when IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) concentrations
of s­ ubstances do not represent a skin hazard and levels do not meet the criteria for
­air-purifying r­ espirators, but a high level of respiratory protection is still needed (i.e., the
atmosphere contains less than 19.5 percent oxygen or levels of substances may not be
­completely ­determined, but there is no apparent threat of harmful skin contact).
• Level C—gives the same amount of protection for skin as Level B and requires less
­respiratory equipment than Level A. It should be used when direct contact with
­atmospheric and chemical contaminants will not adversely affect the skin and ­levels
meet criteria for air-purifying respirators, meaning the material and its airborne
­concentration are known and the air-purifying equipment provides adequate protection.
• Level D—gives minimal skin and respiratory protection. It should be used when the
atmosphere contains no known hazards and the work situation presents no immediate
threat from chemical splashes or immersion or unexpected contact or inhalation of
­hazardous substances.

Technicians must always select the CPC that is approved for the chemical(s) they are
working with, and be aware that CPCs cannot be used for firefighting (see Figure 24.12).

Figure 24.12 Person in a

chemical protective suit.
CREDIT: Sandyman/Shutterstock.
 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment 413

24.4 Emergency Response

Response to an emergency will depend on the unique occurrence and setting. However,
certain general guidelines apply to any event. Operator awareness is a key element. Prompt
confirmation that an event is in progress is essential, followed by communication of the event
according to facility procedure. Rapid response can often minimize the impact of an event on
personnel, equipment, and the environment.
First responders to an event have particular responsibility. They must assess the situa-
tion and environment, both for their own safety when entering the area and for whatever
means there may be of containing the situation. The initial information they gather and share
will be the basis for further action. At minimum, any damaged equipment and apparent
spills, leaks, or releases should be identified immediately.
Emergency procedures should be part of orientation and ongoing training at all industry
facilities. A drill program should be in place as best practice to ensure each organization is
well trained to respond quickly in emergency situations. Tabletop drills and exercises allow
technicians to discuss various possible, simulated emergencies. These drills can be used to
enhance general awareness, validate plans and procedures, rehearse response ideas, and
assess the types and level of response needed to provide maximum responder protection
plus safe and effective mitigation of the emergency situation.

24.5 Government Regulations

and Industry Guidelines
Government regulations and industry guidelines affect how fire, rescue, and emergency
responses are handled in the process industries. These include the following:

Fire Protection Standard

The OSHA Fire Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.155) is intended to prevent and/or OSHA Fire Protection Standard
­minimize the consequences of fire within the workplace. When hazardous chemicals and (29 CFR 1910.155) intended
to prevent and/or minimize the
other materials are present within the workplace, the potential consequences are even more
consequences of fire within the
dangerous than in nonhazardous locations. workplace.
Equipment and alarms must be in place to protect employees from fire. Unless
­employees are members of a plant’s fire brigade or emergency response team, they are
not typically expected to fight fires. The fire protection standard requires the use of the
following:

• Fire brigades
• Portable fire extinguishers
• Sprinkler systems
• Fixed extinguishing systems
• Fire detection systems
• Alarm systems

Hazmat Emergency Response

The Department of Transportation (DOT) requires that plants transporting and/or loading or
unloading hazardous materials follow specific procedures to ensure the safety of employees
and of the general public. These requirements, identified in 49 CFR 172.600, list the following
emergency response requirements:

• Identification of the hazardous materials

• Identification of the health hazards and risks of fire and explosion
414 Chapter 24

• Documentation of the precautions to be taken in the event of an accident

• Means or methods for handling fires and spills
• Plans for first aid measures

Industry Guidelines
Guidelines vary depending on the industry, the chemicals, and the hazards associated in
each situation. In all cases, emergency procedures, engineering controls, and operating
­practices are there to prevent or minimize the consequences of an emergency situation.
Plant personnel should know and follow their plant’s practices and emergency procedures
to ensure safe operations.

Summary
Despite the safety systems and equipment used in the process Technicians involved in emergency response may use
industries and the amount of training provided for employees, a variety of equipment. For example, during fire situations,
emergencies sometimes occur. The response to those emergen- technicians may use fire hoses, fire hydrants, fire extinguish-
cies can often mean the difference between a small incident or ers, ropes and mechanical retrieval devices, stretchers, back-
a major catastrophe, and it can sometimes mean the difference boards, and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). During
between life and death, so the response to emergencies must hazardous chemical exposure, technicians may use e­ quipment
be efficient and timely. such as eyewash stations, safety showers, and chemical
Emergency response procedures should always be in ­protective clothing (CPC).
place, and emergency response equipment should be available It is important for technicians to be familiar with the
when it is needed. Employees should be trained on these pro- ­different types of emergency response equipment and how
cedures and equipment so they can respond to an emergency to use them, as well as government and company rules and
until professional help arrives. regulations governing emergency response.

Checking Your Knowledge

1. Define the following terms: 4. What classification of standpipes are equipped with
a. Chemical protective clothing 11⁄2 inch outlets and used primarily by the occupants
of the plant?
b. Eyewash station
a. Class 1
c. Fire brigade
b. Class 2
d. Incipient fire
c. Class 3
e. Safety shower
d. Class 4
f. SCBA
g. Standpipe system 5. Name two types of standpipe systems.

2. List the five classes of fire extinguishers and the sub- 6. What class of fire should halon be used for? (Select all
stances for which each class is used. that apply.)
a. A
3. Which of the following involves the discharge of gas
into the atmosphere? b. B
a. Leak c. C
b. Spill d. D
c. Release
d. Injection
 Fire, Rescue, and Emergency Response Equipment 415

7. Which level of chemical protective clothing provides 8. ______ response can often minimize the impact of an
minimal skin and respiratory protection? event on personnel, equipment, and the environment.
a. Level A 9. List four requirements of the OSHA Fire Protection
b. Level B standard.
c. Level C 10. List three HAZMAT emergency response requirements
d. Level D identified by the DOT.

NOTE: Answers to Checking Your Knowledge questions are in Appendix A.

Student Activities
1. Given a fire extinguisher, practice extinguishing a fire 3. Locate a fire extinguisher in the building. List five things
(or simulated fire) using proper extinguisher technique. to check when inspecting this extinguisher.
2. Practice proper use of a safety shower and an eyewash
station.
Appendix A
Answers to Checking Your Knowledge Questions
Chapter 1 Answer LO # 17. c. 1.4
1. See Key Terms list. 1.1, 18. Attitudes and behaviors 1.4
1.3
19. Any four of the following: 1.4
2. Air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution 1.1
■■ Establish as regular a schedule as possible.
3. d. 1.1 ■■ Create a day-sleeping environment.
4. ■■ The accident itself (e.g., the ­vessel leaked) 1.2 ■■ Take naps when possible.
■■ The immediate causes (e.g., the alarm was faulty) ■■ Avoid stimulants, alcohol, and caffeine.
■■ The contributing causes (e.g., the worker did not ■■ Eat only light snacks in the 2–6 a.m./p.m.
understand the procedure) period.
■■ The root cause (e.g., procedure is unclear and ■■ Compensate for lower awareness.
poorly written) 20. Any five of the following: 1.5
■■ The results of the accident (e.g., a vapor cloud
was released and a person died as a result) ■■ Take care of yourself. Get plenty of sleep. Eat
properly. Exercise regularly.
5. a. 1.3 ■■ Get regular medical, eye, hearing, and other
6. ■■ The Occupational Safety and Health 1.3 health checkups. Stay current on immunizations
­Administration (OSHA) and other shots.
■■ The Occupational Safety and Health Review ■■ Avoid caffeine, tobacco products, alcohol, and
Commission (OSHRC) drugs (process facilities are drug and alcohol-free
■■ The National Institute for Occupational Safety and work environments).
Health (NIOSH) ■■ Learn how to relax and handle stress. Participate
in family time and activities and hobbies that you
7. c. 1.3 enjoy.
8. a. 1.3 ■■ Wear appropriate clothing to work. Some types
of clothing and jewelry are prohibited in process
9. Any four of the following: 1.3 facilities (e.g., loose clothing, open-toe footwear,
■■ The hazard rings).
■■ Identification of any previous incident that could ■■ Practice good hygiene. Shower after your shift.
have caused catastrophic results in the workplace Wash your hands thoroughly before eating or
■■ Engineering and administrative controls applicable drinking.
to the hazard and their interrelationships ■■ Do not eat in areas where hazardous substances
■■ Consequences if engineering and administrative might be present. Drink water only from potable
controls fail sources (approved drinking water).
■■ Location within the facility ■■ Beards are not permitted in facilities where
■■ Human factors ­respirator use might be necessary, as facial hair
■■ An evaluation of the range of possible safety and interferes with the respirator’s effectiveness.
health effects on employees if controls fail ■■ Properly secure long hair.
■■ Be on time and ready to work at the start of your
10. a., b., d., e. 1.3 shift.
11. False 1.3 Chapter 2
12. b. 1.3 1. See Key Terms list. 2.2,
13. c. 1.3 2.3

14. d. 1.3 2. Ergonomic hazards, biological hazards, 2.1

chemical ­hazards, physical hazards, and security
15. Administrative 1.3 hazards
16. Any four of the following: 1.4 3. b. 2.1
■■ Keep safety, health, environmental, and security 4. Any four of the following: 2.1
regulations as priorities and keep them in mind at
all times. ■■ Noise
■■ Follow all safe operating policies and procedures. ■■ Temperature
■■ Wear the appropriate personal protective ■■ Radiation
­equipment for the tasks being performed. ■■ Pressure
■■ Practice good safety habits. ■■ Energized equipment
■■ Look for unsafe acts. ■■ Hazardous atmospheres
■■ Watch for signs of potentially ­hazardous situations. ■■ Heights
416
 Appendix A 417

5. ■■ Manual material handling 2.1 14. a. b. d, 3.4

■■ Poor posture
15. b. 3.4
■■ Improper use of tools
■■ Repetitive motion Chapter 4
6. False 2.1 1. See Key Terms list. 4.1,
4.2
7. ■■ A substance’s chemical structure 2.1
■■ The extent of the body’s absorption of the substance 2. b. 4.1
■■ The body’s ability to change the substance into
3. b., c., d. 4.1
less-toxic substances so it can be eliminated from
the body 4. d. 4.1
8. b. 2.2 5. c. 4.1
9. 19 2.2 6. a., d. 4.1
10. d. 2.2 7. Rattlesnakes, water moccasins (also referred to as 4.1
cottonmouths), copperheads, and coral snakes
11. a. 2.3
8. c. 4.1
12. (C) * (T) = K 2.3
9. Any five of the following: Animal urine, feces, blood, 4.1
13. LD50 12 grams 2.3
hair, and dander (dead skin). Or peanuts, milk,
14. ■■ Time-weighted average 2.3 ­shellfish, and strawberries.
■■ Short-term exposure limit
10. Liver 4.2
■■ Exposure ceiling
11. The infection is transmitted only through specific body 4.2
15. a. 2.3
fluids: blood, genital fluids, and breast milk.
16. c. 2.4
12. Universal precautions are a strategy to prevent 4.2
17. a., c., d. 2.4 exposure to bloodborne pathogens.
18. Any three of the following: 2.4 13. Center for Disease Control (CDC) 4.2
■■ Poor air quality 14. Hand washing 4.2
■■ Contaminated water supply 15. a., c. 4.2
■■ Sudden death of animal populations
■■ Affected plant growth and reduced crop yields 16. c. 4.3
■■ Unusable, infertile soil Chapter 5
■■ Erosion
■■ Habitat destruction 1. See Key Terms list. 5.1

19. Any three of the following: 2.4 2. Any five of the following: 5.1

■■ Imbalanced ecosystems that ­cannot replenish ■■ Pinches

resources ■■ Strains and sprains
■■ Cancers in animal populations ■■ Cuts, punctures, or tears of skin, from minor to
■■ Mutations of living organisms severe
■■ Inability of living organisms to reproduce ■■ Sheared or severed appendages (e.g. fingers,
■■ Large-scale death of animal populations hands, arms, toes, legs, and feet)
■■ Loss of habitat for living organisms ■■ Crushed or broken appendages or body parts
■■ Widespread destruction of Earth’s ecosystems ■■ Blindness
■■ Strangulation
Chapter 3
3. c. 5.1
1. See Key Terms list. 3.1,
3.2 4. Any three of the following: 5.1

2. ■■ Aliphatic hydrocarbons 3.1 ■■ Grounding

■■ Aromatic hydrocarbons ■■ Bonding
■■ Cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons ■■ Dip lines
■■ Reducing turbulence
3. b. 3.1
5. b. 5.1
4. a., c., d. 3.1
6. ■■ Amount of the current (measured in amps) 5.1
5. c. 3.2
affected by the voltage and body resistance (wet
6. a. 3.2 versus dry skin)
■■ Path of the current; where the current enters and
7. a. 3.2
exits the body (the chest cavity and head are
8. b. 3.2 most sensitive)
■■ Length (duration) of time that the current flows
9. c. 3.3
7. Any five of the following: 5.1
10. a., b., c. 3.3
11. ■■ Estimates of the maximum amount of each 3.3 ■■ Blending
inventoried ­chemical present at any time ■■ Mixing
throughout the year ■■ Agitation
■■ Estimates of the average daily amount of each ■■ Spraying
inventoried chemical ■■ Coating
■■ The location of each inventoried chemical ■■ Filling/Flowing
■■ Power transmission
12. b. 3.3 ■■ Sand blasting
13. c. 3.3 ■■ Water blasting
418 Appendix A

8. The lockout/tagout procedure protects workers 5.2 ■■ Using sunscreen

from the potential release of uncontrolled energy by ■■ Getting enough sleep
isolating equipment from its energy source using ■■ Eating light meals
locks, chains, and tags. ■■ Paying attention to warning signs of heat stress
■■ Understanding how some types of PPE (e.g., pro-
9. c. 5.2
tective suits) can reduce the body’s ability to
10. c. 5.2 ­tolerate heat
■■ Avoiding contact between skin and extremely hot
Chapter 6
surfaces
1. See Key Terms list. 6.1
9. a. 7.2
2. a. 6.1
10. d. 7.2
3. 16% 6.1
11. ■■ X-ray 7.3
4. ■■ Heat 6.1 ■■ Alpha particle
■■ Fuel ■■ Gamma ray
■■ Oxygen ■■ High speed electron
■■ Chain reaction
12. Any four of the following: 7.3
5. More vapor increases on its surface. 6.1
■■ Radiation poisoning
6. c. 6.1 ■■ Nausea
7. a. 6.1 ■■ Loss of hair
■■ Cancer
8. Incipient, smoldering, and heat (flame) 6.1 ■■ Neurologic damage
9. c. 6.1 ■■ Reproductive problems
■■ Internal organ damage
10. d. 6.1 ■■ Death
11. d. 6.1 13. Sunlight 7.3
12. I. c. 6.1 Chapter 8
II. b.
1. See Key Terms list. 8.1.
III. a. 8.2
IV. e.
2. d. 8.2
V. d.
3. ■■ Nose hairs act as a filter to trap large particles, 8.1
13. c. 6.2 preventing them from going farther into the
14. a., b., c. 6.2 respiratory system.
■■ A mucous layer coats the respiratory system,
Chapter 7 including the inside of the nose, to trap particles
1. See Key Terms list. 7.1, and absorb gases or vapors. This mucus can be
7.2, expelled from the body by sneezing, blowing the
7.3 nose, or coughing.
■■ The windpipe (trachea) is covered with tiny hair-
2. c. 7.1 like cells called cilia, which move mucus and any
3. Any three of the following: 7.1 trapped particles it contains to the throat so it can
be coughed out.
■■ Monitoring pressure gauges
■■ Listening for the sounds of ­escaping gas 4. b. 8.2
■■ Checking cloth streamers for movement 5. a. 8.2
■■ Looking for corrosion
6. c. 8.2
4. d. 7.2
7. False 8.2
5. Conduction is the transfer of heat through matter via 7.2
vibrational motion from one object touching another, 8. Air-purifying respirator and air-supplying respirator 8.2
such as from a frying pan on a stove burner to an egg 9. b. 8.2
in the pan.
10. d. 8.2
Convection is the transfer of heat energy through the
circulation or ­movement of a fluid (liquid or gas), such 11. b. 8.2
as warm air being circulated through a heating system. 12. Self-contained breathing apparatus 8.2
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy through
13. Negative and positive testing 8.2
electromagnetic waves in space, without matter
moving in that space, such as the warmth from the 14. 8-hour time weighted averages (TWA) 8.3
Sun or an open flame.
Chapter 9
6. 4 7.2
1. See Key Terms list. 9.1,
7. a. 7.2 9.2
8. Answers could be any of the following: 7.2 2. Any three of the following: 9.1
■■ Acclimating to the environment ■■ Foreign objects on the walking surface (typically,
■■ Drinking plenty of fluids (avoid ­alcohol and objects that are not a permanent part of the
caffeine) walking surface, such as cables, boxes, and
■■ Adding salt to food to help replace salt lost tools)
through sweating ■■ Slippery or slick walking surfaces (spills, water,
■■ Avoiding working outdoors during the hottest part smooth concrete or metal)
of the day ■■ Improper lighting (e.g., dim lighting, no lighting, or
■■ Resting between work periods extremely bright light)
■■ Wearing appropriate clothing and/or PPE
 Appendix A 419

■■ Incorrectly designed or built walking surfaces 3. d. 10.1

(no traction, low areas where water can collect,
4. d. 10.1
steep inclines, narrow stair treads)
■■ Irregular or uneven surfaces 5. b. 10.1
3. Answer could be any of the following: 9.1 6. a. 10.2
■■ Make sure the ladder is properly opened and 7. Hearing loss 10.2
placed on a firm, dry base. 8. Any five of the following: 10.2
■■ Do not set a ladder on top of any loose objects or
raise its height by placing it on other objects. ■■ Interference with communication or the ability
■■ Allow only one person at a time on the ladder to understand communication such as verbal
when climbing up or down a ladder. instructions or alarms (this is probably the
■■ Always face toward the ladder. second most common and serious hazard in the
■■ If the ladder is near an entrance, place a barricade workplace)
around the ladder. ■■ Disorientation or dizziness (related to equilibrium
■■ Do not have tools in your hand when climbing the and caused by inner ear problems)
ladder. ■■ Speech problems (related to hearing loss)
■■ Use a tool belt, have someone hand you the ■■ Pain and nausea
tools, or find some other way of getting tools to ■■ Muscle tension
the raised work area. ■■ Stress or other psychological issues
■■ Do not lean too far to either side when working ■■ Increased pulse and elevated blood pressure
on a ladder. (related to stress)
■■ Climb down, reposition the ladder, and then ■■ Fatigue
resume the work.
9. 80 dBA or above 10.2
■■ If reaching up, do not let your waist extend above
the top rung. 10. b. 10.2
■■ Follow the manufacturer’s warnings. 11. ■■ Intensity of noise 10.2
■■ When leaning a ladder against a surface, make ■■ Personal comfort
sure the surface is not slippery or fragile. ■■ Availability
■■ Use the 4-to-1 rule: Put the base 1 foot
(0.3 meters) away from the wall for every 4 feet 12. a., b., c., d. 10.3
(1.2 meters) of height between the base and Chapter 11
the support point (where you lean the ladder).
For example, if the support point is 12 feet 1. See Key Term list. 11.1,
(3.6 meters) from the ground, place the base at 11.2
least 3 feet (0.9 meters) away from the wall. 2. Any five of the following: 11.1
■■ Extend the ladder about three feet (0.9 meters)
beyond the top of the support point. ■■ Obey all construction signs.
■■ Tie off the ladder at the top with a rope when in ■■ Never cross a construction ­barricade without
place. approval.
■■ Always have someone hold the ladder at the base ■■ Wear appropriate personal protective equipment
if it is not tied. (PPE) when passing through a construction
area (e.g., hard hat, safety glasses or goggles,
4. Means of egress refers to an exit or other way to 9.1
steel-toed shoes if appropriate, gloves, hearing
escape in case of an emergency
protection in noisy areas).
5. Put the base one foot away from the wall for every 9.1 ■■ Be aware that conditions around the facility
4 feet (1.2 meters) of height between the base and the can change and that new hazards can appear
support point (where you lean the ladder). during the course of construction (e.g., vehicles,
construction debris, pits, and utility line damage).
6. a. 9.1
■■ Watch out for construction vehicles (e.g., cranes,
7. b. 9.1 hoists, backhoes, bulldozers, dump trucks,
8. b. 9.1 cement trucks, and powered lifts).
■■ Exercise caution near trenches and excavations.
9. Anchor point 9.1 ■■ Monitor noise levels and use ­hearing protection
Body harness as needed.
Connecting device (lanyard)
3. a., b., d. 11.1
10. b. 9.1
4. b. 11.2
11. OHSA 1910.146 9.2
5. Answers could be any of these: 11.2
12. d. 9.2
■■ Check wooden-handled tools for splinters, cracks,
Chapter 10 chips, or weathering. Make sure the handle is
1. See Key Terms list. 10.1 securely attached (such as hammer heads).
■■ Do not use screwdrivers as chisels.
2. Any four of the following: 10.1 ■■ Check impact tools (e.g., chisels and wedges) for
■■ Hearing loss or reduction (either temporary or heads that have been flattened from repeated use
permanent) (called “mushroom” heads). Flattened heads can
■■ Ringing in the ears (tinnitus) shatter.
■■ Equilibrium problems (dizziness, disorientation)
■■ Inspect wrenches to make sure that jaws are not
■■ Speech problems sprung to the point that slippage occurs.
■■ Distraction (which could lead to an accident)
■■ Use spark-resistant tools around flammable
■■ Interference with communication or the ability to substances (e.g., tools made from non ­sparking
understand communication (e.g., verbal instruc- materials such as brass, plastic, aluminum, wood,
tions or alarms) titanium, and bronze).
■■ Psychological effects (e.g., stress)
■■ Be cautious when working around electricity;
■■ Fatigue make sure tools are grounded and insulated.
 420 Appendix A

■■ Inspect spark-resistant tools for wear or ■■ When ascending or descending grades in excess
damage, since they are made of materials that of 10 percent, drive loaded forklifts with the load
are softer than other tools and can wear down up the grade. This will require backing down a
quickly. slope to keep the load on the higher side of the
■■ Keep a proper grip, holding the handle firmly grade.
across the fleshy part of your hand. ■■ Never charge an electric forklift in a nondesig-
■■ Do not overexert yourself. If you feel your hand nated area.
or arm strength weakening, take a break and
4. b. 12.1
resume the task later.
■■ In moist environments, make sure your hand 5. c. 12.1
remains dry and your vision is not blurred by
6. c. 12.1
sweat.
■■ Use hand tools for their intended purpose and 7. ■■ Tankers–ships designed to carry petroleum 12.1
never engage in careless activity or “play” with products across large bodies of water. There
them. are many different types of tankers, based on
the products they carry (e.g., chemical tankers,
6. Misuse and improper maintenance 11.2
liquefied gas tankers).
7. Brass, plastic, aluminum, wood, titanium, and bronze 11.2 ■■ Barges–flat-bottom boats designed to transport
cargo on inland waterways. Barges are typically
8. Any five of the following: 11.2
connected in a long string.
■■ Make sure all electric tools are properly grounded ■■ Supply boats–vessels used to carry materials to
or double insulated. offshore platforms.
■■ Always use a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) 8. Any five of the following: 12.1
when using ­electric power tools.
■■ Make sure to use extension cords rated for the ■■ Always enter or exit the helicopter in a crouched
service. Do not plug an extension cord into position from the front or side of the helicopter,
another extension cord. taking care to ensure the pilot can see you.
■■ Know the hazards of electricity, including ■■ Do not walk toward the rear of the helicopter
electrocution, shocks, and burns. unless unloading a baggage compartment and
■■ Be aware of potential secondary hazards from only if the pilot is aware of what you are doing.
electricity (e.g., a mild shock from an electric tool ■■ Never cross underneath the tail boom when the
that startles a worker off a ladder). engine is operating.
■■ Never remove the grounding plug from a cord. ■■ Watch out for flying debris.
■■ Understand the mechanical ­hazards of the tool. ■■ Listen carefully to all safety briefings and obey all
■■ Avoid using the tool in wet or damp environments. instructions from the pilot.
■■ Do not use a tool if it becomes wet. ■■ Never distract the pilot or touch the flight controls.
■■ If a safety belt is available, make sure it is
9. Welding 11.2
adjusted properly and securely fastened. Keep it
10. Acetylene gas 11.2 on until the pilot indicates that you can remove it.
■■ Wear hearing protection.
11. a. 4 ft (1.2 meters) 11.2
■■ Never smoke while in or near a helicopter.
12. OSHA General Industry Standards 11.3 ■■ Always wear appropriate gear (e.g., cold weather
survival gear for flights over northern or Arctic
Chapter 12
waters).
1. See Key Terms list. 12.1 ■■ If flying over water, make sure you know the
location of flotation devices and how to use them.
2. Visibility issues (driver) and awareness (driver and 12.1
■■ Make sure you know how to open the emergency
pedestrian).
exit, use a fire extinguisher, locate the first aid
3. Any three of the following: 12.1 kit, use the headset and microphone, and other
similar tasks. You may be asked to perform any
■■ Select the proper forklift for the job, based on one (or more) of these tasks.
load capacity, work area, operating conditions,
and size. 9. a, d, e 12.1
■■ Handle only stable or safely arranged loads. 10. b. 12.1
■■ Verify that the forklift has been inspected before
use. OSHA requires daily safety inspections. Worn 11. b. 12.2
tires, damaged pressure lines, faulty brakes, or Chapter 13
bent forks can all cause major hazards. If the
forklift does not meet the required inspection, 1. See Key Terms list. 13.1
remove it from service. 2. 74 13.1
■■ Ensure that only authorized personnel make
forklift repairs. 3. d. 13.1
■■ Maintain the forklift in a clean condition. Follow 4. d. 13.1
the manufacturer’s cleaning recommendations.
■■ Before each use, check the horn, brakes, lights, 5. d. 13.1
play in the steering wheel, and controls. 6. Any four of the following: 13.1
■■ Always wear the proper personal protective
equipment (PPE) when operating a forklift. ■■ Already-soaked ground (when the ground is
■■ Know and follow the material storage and already saturated with water, usually from recent
handling guidelines for your facility. heavy rainfalls)
■■ Always be alert for potential hazards. ■■ Type(s) of soil in surrounding land (e.g., sandy soil
■■ Do not rush or take shortcuts. compared to clay)
■■ Never exceed the forklift’s lift capacity or overload ■■ The geography of surrounding land (e.g., low-
the truck. lying terrain)
■■ If the forklift must be left unattended: ■■ Proximity and size of bodies of water
❑❑ Shut off the motor and set the brakes ■■ Frequent storms and heavier-than-normal rainfall
❑❑ Lower the fork and shift the controls to neutral.

Z01_NAPT2498_02_SE_APPA.indd 5 01/04/20 6:51 PM

 Appendix A 421

7. c. 13.1 ■■ Working at heights

■■ Working in confined spaces
8. 50,000 13.1
4. Back 15.2
9. b. 13.1
5. Any five of the following: 15.2
10. d. 13.1
11. Any four of the following: 13.1 ■■ Lifting from the floor
■■ Lifting while twisting
■■ Low temperatures ■■ Lifting objects that are too heavy
■■ Winds blowing over 35 mph (56.3 kph) ■■ Lifting objects of odd shapes
■■ Visibility of one-quarter mile or less ■■ Repetitive lifting
■■ A duration of three hours or more ■■ Lifting from shoulder height
■■ Heavy snowfall ■■ Lifting while seated
■■ Blowing snow ■■ Pushing or pulling loads without assistance
■■ Bending while moving
12. b. 13.1
6. d. 15.2
13. b. 13.1
7. legs 15.2
14. OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) 1910.119 13.2
8. a. 15.3
Chapter 14
9. Any three of the following: 15.3
1. See Key Terms list. 14.1,
14.2, ■■ Repetitive movement
14.3, ■■ Falls
14.4 ■■ Sore muscles and joints
2. False 14.1 ■■ Strains

3. Deterrence, Detection, Delay, Response, Recovery, 14.1 10. OSHA 15.4

and Re-evaluation 11. Any 4 of these; 15.1
4. b. 14.1 ■■ Get proper exercise.
5. b., d. 14.2 ■■ Get sufficient sleep.
■■ Eat properly and drink enough water.
6. Biological 14.2 ■■ Take breaks.
7. ■■ Pulmonary agents (lung-damaging) such as 14.2 ■■ Stretch and limber up.
phosgene ■■ Start strenuous tasks slowly.
■■ Blistering agents, such as mustard gas ■■ Avoid using wrist splints.
■■ Nerve agents, such as sarin or VX 12. Any four of the following: 15.3
■■ Riot-control agents, such as tear gas
■■ Tools
8. a. 14.2
■■ Chairs, desks, and workstations
9. d. 14.3 ■■ Computer keyboards and mice
■■ Shoe inserts
10. b. 14.3
■■ Floor mats
11. Surveillance, Elicitation, Tests of security, Acquiring 14.3 ■■ Foot rails
supplies, Suspicious persons, Trial run, Deploying
assets Chapter 16

12. Deterrence 14.3 1. See Key Terms list. 16.1,

Detection 16.2,
Response 16.3,
Communications 16.4
Assessment 2. a. 16.1
13. False 14.3 3. a. 16.1
14. a. 14.4 4. Any five of the following: 16.2
15. Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability, and Accountability 14.4 ■■ Human error
16. b. 14.4 ■■ Exceeding operating limits
■■ Corrosion and erosion
17. c. 14.4 ■■ Improperly designed or installed equipment
18. b. 14.4 ■■ Equipment failure
■■ Process changes
19. Patriot Act 14.5 ■■ Weather conditions
Chapter 15 5. a., c., d. 16.2
1. See Key Terms list. 15.1, 6. Any four of the following: 16.3
15.2,
15.3, ■■ Clarifiers for primary water treatment
15.4 ■■ Trickling filters for secondary water treatment
■■ Activated sludge digesters, dewater dryers, and
2. False 15.1
incinerators for secondary water treatment
3. Any five of the following: 15.1 ■■ Baghouses
■■ Cyclone separators
■■ Lifting and material handling ■■ Electrostatic precipitators
■■ Repetitive motions ■■ Wet scrubbers
■■ Poor posture ■■ Carbon absorbers
■■ Improper use of tools ■■ Packed towers
■■ Extended workstation or computer use ■■ Dikes and containment walls.
422 Appendix A

7. c. 16.4 ■■ Corrosive atmospheres

■■ Mechanical damage
8. EPA 16.4
■■ Chemicals with properties similar to the
9. a. 16.4 substance being monitored
10. They are produced as by-products of the manufacture 16.4 5. d. 18.2
of certain pesticides, preservatives, disinfectants, and
6. a. 18.2
paper products.
7. Any five of the following: 18.2
Chapter 17
1. See Key Terms list. 17.1, ■■ Temperature (e.g., high temperature in a reactor)
17.2 ■■ Pressure (e.g., high pressure in a vessel)
■■ Flow (e.g., high or low flow in a line)
2. b. 17.1 ■■ Level (e.g., high or low level in a storage tank)
3. Engineering 17.1 ■■ Hazardous atmospheres (e.g., oxygen-deficient,
flammable materials present)
4. Any seven of the following: 17.2 ■■ High radiation (e.g., X-rays)
■■ Chemical leak (e.g., high hydrogen sulfide levels in
■■ Process containment
the atmosphere)
■■ Automation
■■ Flames, smoke, and explosion (e.g., fire)
■■ Noise abatement
■■ Jams, stoppages, or foreign objects (e.g., removal
■■ Sound dampening
of a guard)
■■ Heat shielding
■■ Speed and/or velocity (e.g., overspeed trips on a
■■ Radiation shielding
turbine)
■■ Equipment layout
■■ Product quality (e.g., product off specifications)
■■ Ventilation
■■ Detection systems 8. An interlock is a control system that does not allow 18.2
■■ Alarms an action or change unless a certain condition or
■■ Electrical grounding and bonding conditions are met.
■■ Automatic shutdown devices
9. b. 18.2
■■ Machine guarding
■■ Guardrails 10. False positive response 18.3
■■ Spill containment
11. Any six of the following: 18.3
■■ Work areas and working surfaces
■■ Fire suppression equipment ■■ Always pay attention to alarms, even if one goes
■■ Redundant (backup) systems off regularly.
■■ Flares and pressure-relief valves ■■ Remain calm and logical.
■■ Interlocks (devices designed to prevent an action ■■ Understand what the facility’s various alarms
unless a certain condition is met) mean.
■■ Improved equipment design (e.g., fails less, leaks ■■ Be familiar with emergency plans and operations
less) associated with various alarms.
■■ Closed-loop sampling ■■ Know the evacuation route for your area and
5. d. 17.2 meeting or check-in locations.
■■ Be alert to conditions around you (e.g., wind
6. Any five of the following: 17.2 direction or air current, which determines the
direction a hazardous atmosphere might travel).
■■ Policies
■■ Report alarms; do not be deterred by panic or the
■■ Procedures
consequences of a false alarm.
■■ Plans
■■ Know which alarms are not functioning and the
■■ Principles
backup plan for each alarm.
■■ Rules
■■ Know what backup plans exist if alarm systems
■■ Agreements
fail.
■■ Systems
■■ Participate in emergency drills.
7. A process hazard analysis (PHA) is an organized, 17.2 ■■ Never tamper with or disable an alarm.
systematic process used to identify potential hazards ■■ If an alarm seems to go off inadvertently or too
that could result in accidents that could cause injury, often, inform your supervisor.
death, property damage, or environmental damage. ■■ Know how to troubleshoot alarm conditions and
how to determine the root cause.
8. Activators, Behavior, and Consequences 17.2
■■ Participate in regular testing processes, including
9. Personal protective equipment 17.2 backup systems.
■■ Assist with any alarm system repairs.
10. Selection, fit, inspection, wear, maintenance, storage 17.2
■■ Be able to locate emergency PPE quickly and use
Chapter 18 it properly.
■■ Perform housekeeping tasks regularly to keep a
1. See Key Terms list. 18.1,
work area clean and make sure evacuation routes
18.2
are uncluttered.
2. ■■ Product quality is being compromised or harmed, 18.1
12. c. 18.2
or
■■ There is a dangerous condition apparent due 13. Any four of the following: 18.2
to one or more parameters being out of normal
operating range. ■■ Why is the parameter being measured?
■■ Is there another parameter with inherently less
3. d. 18.2 variation that could be substituted for this
4. Any three of the following: 18.3 parameter?
■■ What are the consequences of changing the
■■ Dust upper and/or lower alarm points so that the
■■ Temperature parameter would not be in an alarm condition
■■ Moisture and humidity under normal operation?
 Appendix A 423

■■ Are there additional or different controls that can be Chapter 20

placed on the parameter that would tend to lessen
1. See Key Terms list. 20.1
its variation under normal operating conditions?
■■ Are there equipment changes that would allow the 2. d. 20.1
parameter to have a wider control range without
3. Regulatory 20.1
compromise to safety or product quality?
■■ Are there personnel changes that need to be made 4. Any five of the following: 20.1
to ensure this parameter and its related parameters
receive more “operator attention”? ■■ Documentation and shipping papers
■■ Should measurement of another parameter be ■■ Training
substituted for this parameter? ■■ Permits
■■ Inspections and audits
Chapter 19 ■■ Investigations
1. See Key Terms list. 19.1,
■■ HAZOPs
19.2,
■■ Monitoring
19.3
■■ Safe work observations
■■ Housekeeping
2. Fugitive 19.1 ■■ Community awareness
3. c. 19.1 5. b. 20.2
4. True 19.1 6. b. 20.2
5. a. 19.1 7. Industrial hygiene and fugitive emissions 20.2
6. Any three of the following: 19.1 8. Any three of the following: 20.3
■■ Oil and solid separation ■■ Prevents accidents
■■ Biological treatment ■■ Saves money
■■ Chemical treatment ■■ Increases productivity
■■ pH control ■■ Improves worker morale
■■ Waste sludge removal (e.g., incineration, land fill
disposal) 9. 7.42 20.3
■■ Additional treatment as required 10. a., c. 20.4
7. ■■ Reduction in flow velocity of fluids 19.1 11. False 20.4
■■ Acoustical insulation
■■ Equipment mufflers 12. American Chemical Council 20.4
■■ Noise insulation between walls and within doors 13. d. 20.4
8. Copper 19.1 14. Any four of the following: 20.4
9. Shuts off the power 19.1 ■■ Ensure the compatibility of materials being stored
10. Any three of the following: 19.1 in the same area.
■■ Ensure proper ventilation within the storage
■■ Flare systems container as well as in the immediate area.
■■ Pressure relief valves ■■ Allow adequate traffic routes and escape routes.
■■ Deluge systems ■■ Ensure that heat or ignition sources are not in the
■■ Explosion suppression systems area.
■■ Explosion proof designs (control rooms) ■■ Ensure proper labeling of hazardous materials.
■■ Spill containment ■■ Maintain SDSs for all chemicals at the facility.
11. 98 19.1 15. Any six of the following: 20.4
12. Rupture 19.1 ■■ Written operating procedures
13. Any four of the following: 19.2 ■■ Employee and contractor training
■■ Prestartup safety review
■■ Sensors for critical variables ■■ Hot work permits
■■ Safe shutdown logic ■■ Mechanical integrity
■■ Interlock controls ■■ Management of change (MOC) process
■■ Process energy source interrupters (e.g., electric ■■ Incident investigations
breakers, hydraulic fluid diverters, steam turbine ■■ Emergency planning and response
trips) ■■ Compliance audits
■■ Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to the critical ■■ Process safety information
instrumentation and controls ■■ HAZOP
■■ Environmental control systems activators ■■ Written employee involvement plan
14. c. 19.3 ■■ Trade secret exclusion

15. Any four of the following: 19.3 Chapter 21

1. See Key Terms list. 21.1,
■■ Severe burns
21.2,
■■ Severe cuts from a high-pressure jet of steam
21.3
■■ Thermal expansion
■■ Thermal shock 2. a., c. 21.1
■■ Water hammer, which occurs when steam is
3. ■■ Tests the area for hazardous conditions 21.1
introduced into a unit too rapidly
■■ Frees the area of hazards
■■ Ruptured equipment
■■ Informs the recipient of potential hazards that exist
16. These include process water, fire water, drinking 19.3 ■■ Communicates the job responsibilities to the
water, potable water, deionized water, wastewater, recipient
and cooling water. ■■ Identifies safety equipment that is near the work site
17. Legionnaires’ disease 19.3 4. True 21.1
424 Appendix A

5. 1. The need for the permit is identified, and permit 21.1 10. Any four of the following: 21.4
needs are discussed with a supervisor or other
authorized person. ■■ Continuously monitor conditions that allowed the
permit to be issued to ensure these conditions still
2. The type of permit to be issued is determined. exist during the entry.
3. The permit is completed, and the precautions are ■■ Know the hazards that might occur during the
noted. entry.
4. The permit is reviewed with all workers who will be ■■ Monitor the weather to ensure conditions are not
affected by or involved in the work. becoming severe or are severe enough to stop
the entry.
5. The authorized person and the employee completing ■■ Continuously communicate with employees who
the work sign the permit. The supervisor maintains have entered the confined space to ensure they
the original, and the employee completing the work are all right.
maintains the copy. ■■ Always have the means of summoning emergency
6. The job is completed or the permit becomes invalid aid at hand (close by and immediately available).
or expires. ■■ Never leave the permitted area while work is
ongoing and there is no temporary replacement
6. I. g. 21.1,
attendant.
II. b. 21.2
■■ Return all fire equipment that has been placed “at
III. a. the ready” to its normal storage position.
IV. e. Chapter 22
V. f.
1. See Key Terms list. 22.1
VI. d.
VII. c. 2. Any four of the following: 22.1
VIII. h. ■■ Report the situation immediately to the proper
7. a., c., d. 21.2 authorities, as outlined in your company’s policies
and procedures. Provide as much accurate
8. 1. Identify the specific steps performed to complete 21.3 information as possible about the location,
a job. situation, and victim’s status and symptoms.
2. Identify hazards and potential hazards associated ■■ Make sure the scene is safe. Do not rush to help
with performing the job. if doing so would put you or someone else in
danger (e.g., live electric wires in contact with the
3. Determine solutions for removing and/or minimizing
victim).
the hazards and potential hazards.
■■ If properly trained and company policies and
9. Any five of the following: 21.4 procedures permit, administer first aid.
■■ Do not move a victim unless a critical situation
■■ Watch out for fires and hazards while others are threatens the victim (e.g., fire, threat of explosion,
performing hot work (flame, torch, or welding hazardous atmosphere).
operations). ■■ Remember to use proper PPE and follow safety
■■ Ensure conditions required for the permit to be procedures while dealing with the situation, so
issued are maintained during the work. you do not become a victim also.
■■ Ensure at all times that flammable materials are ■■ Remain calm and observant.
kept separated from sources of ignition. This ■■ Provide a full and accurate report on the situation
can extend to several hours after hot work is and/or assist with any investigation.
performed if the possibility exists that sparks or
residual heat could cause a fire after the hot work 3. Safety glasses, safety goggles, or face shields 22.1
has been completed. 4. Any three of the following: 22.1
■■ In the event of a fire, summon emergency
assistance and if appropriate (if you are trained ■■ Bruises
and have the equipment available), attempt to ■■ Bleeding
extinguish the fire). ■■ Strains
■■ Stop operations if any condition becomes apparent ■■ Fractures
that would prohibit the permit from being issued. ■■ In extreme cases, death
■■ Ensure that you and all employees know where
5. Flame 22.1
emergency equipment is located.
■■ Maintain constant communication with employees 6. Any three of the following: 22.1
performing the hot work and with employees who
would be affected should a fire/explosion occur.
■■ Unconsciousness
■■ Before and during each shift, when the permit is
■■ Cessation of breathing
active, inspect the entire permitted area to ensure
■■ Weakness
that conditions that allowed the permit to be
■■ Weak or absent pulse
issued still exist.
■■ Stopped heart
■■ Be prepared to operate fire extinguishers,
■■ Burned skin
hydrants, fixed monitors, and hose carts. It is a 7. Any four of the following: 22.1
good idea to have a fire extinguisher next to you,
ready to use, in some instances. ■■ Chemical suits, biohazard suits, or similar clothing
■■ Never leave the permitted area while work is and gear
ongoing and there is no temporary replacement ■■ Respiratory protection
attendant. ■■ Hard hats
■■ Return all fire equipment that has been placed “at ■■ Gloves
the ready” to its normal storage position. ■■ Safety footwear
■■ Face shields, safety goggles, or safety glasses
 Appendix A 425

8. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and 22.2 HAP—Hazardous air pollutants
Health (NIOSH), The American National Standards SARA—Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Institute (ANSI) Act
9. Correct, Comfortable, Compulsory 22.2 10. 10 23.2
10. d. 22.2 11. Requires the federal government (taxpayers) to pay to 23.2
clean up sites contaminated with toxic chemicals and
11. Earplugs and earmuffs 22.2
to require entities that contaminated the sites to also
12. True 22.2 pay, if they still exist.
13. a. 22.2 Chapter 24
14. Totally encapsulating chemical protective 22.2 1. See Key Terms list. 24.1,
15. Neoprene, butyl, latex, nitrile 22.2 24.2,
24.3
16. True 22.2
2. ■■ Class A—ordinary combustibles (e.g., wood, 24.1
17. True 22.2 paper, cloth, and rubber)
18. a. 22.3
■■ Class B—flammable liquids (e.g., greases, tars,
oils, and lacquers)
19. 1 22.4 ■■ Class C—electrical equipment
20. a. 22.4 ■■ Class D—combustible metals (e.g., magnesium,
lithium, and sodium)
Chapter 23 ■■ Class K—cooking oil, fat, grease, or other kitchen
1. See Key Terms list. 23.1 fires

2. c. 23.1 3. c. 24.1

3. Colorimetric detectors and polarographic detectors 23.1 4. b. 24.2

4. a. 23.1 5. Wet standpipes and dry standpipes 24.2

5. a. 23.1 6. a., b., c. 24.2

6. Criticality of the process and how devastating a major 23.1 7. d. 24.3

event would be to the process 8. Rapid 24.4
7. I. d. 23.1 9. Any four of the following: 24.5
II. a.
■■ Fire brigades
III. f. ■■ Portable fire extinguishers
IV. b. ■■ Sprinkler systems
V. c. ■■ Fixed extinguishing systems
VI. e. ■■ Fire detection systems
■■ Alarm systems
8. ■■ Noise monitoring 23.1
■■ Toxic substances sampling 10. Any three of the following: 24.5
■■ Ergonomic studies ■■ Identification of the hazardous materials
9. HAZWOPER—Hazardous Waste Operations and 23.2 ■■ Identification of the health hazards and risks of fire
Emergency Response Act and explosion
CERCLA— Comprehensive Environmental Responsi- ■■ Documentation of the precautions to be taken in
bility, Compensation and Liability Act the event of an accident
CWA—Clean Water Act ■■ Means or methods for handling fires and spills
CAA—Clean Air Act ■■ Plans for first aid measures
Appendix B
Government/Regulatory and Industry Resources
American Chemistry Council American Society of Mechanical
www.americanchemistry.com Engineers

700 Second Street, NE www.asme.org

Washington, DC 20002 Two Park Avenue
Phone: 202-249-7000 New York, NY 10016-5990
Phone: 800-843-2763
American Coatings Association
www.paint.org American Society for Testing & Materials

901 New York Avenue, NW www.astm.org

Suite 300 West 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700
Washington, DC 20001 West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
Phone: 202-462-6272 Phone: 610-832-9500

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
­Hygienists (ACGIH® ) (CDC)
www.acgih.org www.cdc.gov
1330 Kemper Meadow Drive 1600 Clifton Road
Cincinnati, OH 45240 Atlanta, GA 30329
Phone: 513-742-2020 Phone: 404-639-3311
Public Inquiries: 800-232-4636
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
www.ansi.org Coast Guard

1899 L Street, NW www.uscg.mil

11th Floor 2703 Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue, SE
Washington, DC 20036 Washington, DC 20593
Phone: 202-293-8020 Phone: 202-372-4630

American Petroleum Institute (API) Department of Energy

www.api.org www.energy.gov
1220 L Street, NW 1000 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20005-4070 Washington, DC 20585
Phone: 202-682-8000 Phone: 202-586-5000

American Red Cross Department of Health and Human Services

www.redcross.org www.hhs.gov
th
431 18 Street, NW 200 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20006 Washington, DC 20201
Phone: 800-733-2767 Phone: 877-696-6775

426
 Appendix B 427

Department of Homeland Security Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)

www.dhs.gov www.msha.gov
U.S. Department of Homeland Security 100 Wilson Blvd, 21st Floor
245 Murray Lane, SW Arlington, VA 22209-3939
Washington, DC 20528-0075 Phone: 202-693-9400
Phone: 202-282-8000
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Department of Labor
www.nfpa.org
www.dol.gov
1 Batterymarch Park
Frances Perkins Building
Quincy, MA 02169-7471
200 Constitution Ave, NW Phone: 617-770-3000
Washington, DC 20210
Phone: 866-487-2365 (4-USA DOL)
National Institute for Occupational and Safety Health
(NIOSH)
Department of Transportation
www.dot.gov www.cdc.gov/niosh/

1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE Office of the Director

Washington, DC 20590 Patriots Plaza 1
Phone: 202-366-4000 395 E Street, SW, Suite 9200
Washington, DC 20201
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Phone: 202-245-0625

www.epa.gov
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Ariel Rios Building
www.nist.gov
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 1070
Phone: 202-272-0167 Gaithersburg, MD 20899-1070
Phone: 301-975-6478 (NIST)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
www.faa.gov National Institutes of Health (NIH)
800 Independence Avenue, SW www.nih.gov
Washington, DC 20591 9000 Rockville Pike
Phone: 866-835-5322 (TELL-FAA) Bethesda, MD 20892
Phone: 301-496-4000
Federal Railroad Administration
railroads.dot.gov National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE (NOAA)
Washington, DC 20590 www.noaa.gov
Phone: 202-396-4000
1401 Constitution Avenue, NW
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Room 5128
Washington, DC 20230
www.iso.org
Phone: 202-482-6090
ISO Central Secretariat
BIBC II National Safety Council (NSC)
Chemin de Blandonnet 8
CP 401 www.nsc.org
1214 Vernier, Geneva 1121 Spring Lake Drive
Switzerland Itasca, IL 60143-3201
Phone: +41 22 749 01 11 Phone: 630-285-1121
428 Appendix B

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
www.ntsb.gov (PHMSA)

490 L’Enfant Plaza, SW www.phmsa.dot.gov

Washington, DC 20594 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE
Phone: 202-314-6000 East Building, 2nd Floor
Washington, DC 20590
National Weather Service Phone: 202-366-4433
www.weather.gov
U.S. Government’s Official Web Portal
1325 East-West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910 www.firstgov.gov
U.S. General Services Administration
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 1800 F Street, NW
www.nrc.gov Washington, DC 20405
Phone: 800-333-4636 (800-FED-INFO)
Office of Public Affairs (OPA)
Washington, DC 20555-0001
Phone: 800-368-5642

Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)

www.osha.gov
200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Room Number N3626
Washington, DC 20210
Phone: 800-321-6742 (OSHA)
Glossary
4-to-1 rule a safety rule for using straight or extension Alarm a device, such as a horn, flashing light, whistle,
ladders. or bell, that provides visual and/or audible cues of
­conditions outside the normal operating range.
ABC model a model used to provide observation and
feedback on safety performance to workers: (A) activators Algae simple, plantlike organisms which grow in water,
or events in an environment often direct (B) behavior or contain chlorophyll, and obtain their energy from the
performance, which is motivated by (C) the consequences sun and their carbon from carbon dioxide (through
that people expect to avoid or receive. photosynthesis).
Absorption the complete uptake of a contaminant into a Allergen a substance that causes an allergic reaction or
liquid or a solid. unhealthy response by the body’s immune system.
Acid a substance with a pH less than 7.0 that releases Ambulance a standard vehicle of emergency medical
hydrogen (H+) ions when mixed with water. service departments used to treat injury victims at remote
sites and transport them to other medical facilities as
Action level (AL) is a hazard threshold that, if exceeded, needed.
puts additional control measures (e.g., respirator) into
action. Ampere (amp) a unit of measure of the electrical
­current flow in a wire; similar to “gallons of water”
Acute effects short-term health effects. flow in a pipe.
Administrative controls policies, procedures, programs, Amplitude the measurement used to describe the
training, and supervision to establish rules and guide- ­intensity of sound.
lines for workers to follow in order to reduce the risk of
exposure to a hazard. Anaphylaxis a rare, life-threatening, allergic reaction that
can result in shock, respiratory failure, cardiac failure, or
Adsorption the adhesion of a contaminant to the outer death if left untreated.
surface of a solid body or a liquid.
Annunciator a device that displays alarm conditions
Affected and other employees employees who are through the use of flashing and continuously lit panels.
responsible for recognizing when the energy control
­procedure is used and who understand the purpose of Arachnid a class of arthropod that has four pairs of
the procedure and the importance of not starting up ­segmented legs (i.e., the legs are made up of sections)
locked/tagged equipment. and includes scorpions, spiders, and ticks.
Agreement a plan for coordinating activities between Arc a spark that occurs when current flows between two
­different organizations. points (contacts) that are not intentionally connected.
See spark.
Air pollution the contamination of the atmosphere,
­especially by industrial waste gases, fuel exhausts, Arc welding a welding process that uses an electrical arc
smoke, or particulate matter (finely divided solids). produced between two electrodes to generate heat.
Air-purifying respirator a type of PPE that usually Arthropod a type of animal that has jointed limbs and a
­covers a wearer’s nose and mouth, using a filter or body made up of segments, such as crustaceans (crabs),
­cartridge to remove any contaminants before they enter arachnids (spiders), and insects (mosquitoes).
the wearer’s lungs. Asphyxiants substances that can result in suffocation.
Air-supplying respirator a type of personal protective Atmosphere the air space or environment in which the
equipment (PPE) that covers a wearer’s face with a mask, process technician is working.
providing breathable air through a hose that connects the
mask to a clean air source (usually a compressed air tank Atmospheric pressure the pressure at the surface of the
or compressor). earth (1.01 bar [14.7 PSIA] at sea level).

429
430 Glossary

Attitude a state of mind or feeling with regard to some Four classifications of CPC allow employees to access the
issue or event. proper level of protection for the chemicals to which they
may be exposed.
Audible alarm an alarm that uses sound to warn work-
ers of a particular condition or hazard. Chronic effects long-term health effects.
Audit a review, typically conducted by people from the Class A fire the classification given to ordinary combus-
company, a hired third party, regulatory agencies, or a tible materials, such as wood, paper, cloth, and rubber.
combination of these groups, to determine if a particular
facility is complying with established safety, health, and/ Class B fire the classification given to flammable liquids,
or environmental programs. such as grease, tar, oil, and lacquer.

Authorized employees employees who are responsible Class C fire the classification given to electrical equip-
for implementing the energy control procedures and per- ment fires.
forming service or maintenance work. They receive the Class D fire the classification given to combustible met-
most detailed training on procedures. als, such as magnesium, lithium, and sodium.
Backboard a board used to immobilize injured victims to Closed environment drain system a system of devices
prevent damage to the spinal cord while they are being such as pumps, piping, and scrubbers to prevent the
moved. release of liquids, gases, and vapor to the atmosphere.
Bacteria single-celled, microscopic organisms that lack Cold work any work performed in an area that contains
chlorophyll and are the most diverse group of all living bulk quantities of combustible or flammable liquids or
organisms. gases, or bulk quantities of liquids, gases, or solids that
Base a substance with a pH greater than 7.0 that releases are toxic, corrosive, or irritating.
hydroxyl (OH-) ions when dissolved in water. Combustible liquid any liquid that has a flashpoint at
Behavior an observable action or reaction of a person or above 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees ­Celsius),
under certain circumstances. but below 200 degrees Fahrenheit (93.3 degrees
Celsius).
Biological hazard a living or once-living organism, such
as a virus, an insect, or an animal, that poses a threat to Combustion the process by which substances (fuel) com-
human health. bine with oxygen to release heat energy, through the act
of burning (oxidation).
Bloodborne pathogens pathogenic microorganisms that are
present in human blood and can cause disease in humans. Combustion point the ignition temperature at which a
These pathogens include, but are not limited to, hepatitis B fuel can catch on fire.
virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Conduction the transfer of heat through matter via vibra-
Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) tional motion.
explosion resulting from excessive compression of Conductor a material that has electrons that can break
vapor in the container head space and vapor ­flashing free and flow more easily than other materials.
from its release to the atmosphere above its ­normal
boiling point. Confined space a work area, not designed for continu-
ous employee occupancy, that restricts the activities of
Bonding a system that connects conductive equipment employees who enter, work inside, and exit the area, and
together, keeping all bonded objects at the same electrical provides a limited means of egress.
potential to eliminate static sparking.
Contaminant a substance not naturally present in the
Carcinogen a cancer-causing substance. atmosphere or present in unnaturally high concentra-
Ceiling a concentration that should not be exceeded tions; also called an impurity. Can be a physical, chemical,
by workers during an exposure period; also called the biological, or radiological substance.
­maximum acceptable ceiling. Convection the transfer of heat through the circulation or
Chain reaction a series of occurrences or responses in movement of a liquid or a gas.
which each reaction is initiated by the energy produced Corrective and preventive action (CAPA) action taken
in the preceding reaction. to resolve or prevent shortcomings discovered during an
Chemical hazard any hazard that comes from a solid, audit, inspection, or employee observation; by comment
liquid, or gas element, compound, or mixture that could or suggestion; or as the result of an accident/incident
cause health problems or pollution. investigation.
Chemical protective clothing (CPC) clothing that pro- Corrosion the eating away of materials by a chemical
vides protection to those who work around chemicals. process (e.g., iron rusting).
 Glossary 431

CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation, which is an emer- Dose–response relationship the connection between the
gency method to assist a victim whose heart has stopped amount (dose) and the effect (response) that a substance
beating properly. can have on the body.
Critical lift any lift that could result in death, injury, Earthquake a shaking and moving of the earth resulting
health impacts, property damage, or project delay if there from a sudden shift of rock beneath the surface (geologic
is an accident. stress).
Curb a method of spill containment for process units. Effluent liquid wastewater discharge from a process
It is sloped to a sewer collection system. facility.
Cyber relating to computers and computing items, such Electric tool a tool operated by electrical means (either
as data, the internet, and computer networks. AC or DC).
Cyber attack an attack against information, comput- Electricity a flow of electrons from one point to another
ers, and communication systems to cause harm, steal along a pathway, called a conductor.
­information, disrupt productivity, or take control of a Endothermic having to do with a chemical reaction that
computer system. requires the addition or absorption of energy.
Cybersecurity security measures intended to protect Energy the ability to do work.
information and information technology from unauthor-
ized access or use. Engineering controls controls that use technological
and engineering improvements to isolate, diminish, or
Decibel (dB) the measurement of the intensity of a remove a hazard from the workplace.
sound, based on the human ear’s perception. A unit that
is used to measure sound-level intensity (how loud a Engulfment the state of being surrounded or completely
sound is). covered by materials or products within a confined space.

Deflagration a process of subsonic combustion that Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) a federal
­usually propagates through thermal conductivity (i.e., hot agency charged with the authority to make and enforce
burning material heats the next layer of colder material national environmental policy.
and ignites it). Ergonomic hazard hazard that can create physical and
Deluge system a system of dumping or spraying water psychological stresses because of forceful or repetitive
to extinguish a fire or suppress a toxic release or hydro- work, improper work techniques, or poorly designed
carbon spill. tools and workspaces.

Department of Homeland Security (DHS) a depart- Ergonomics the study of how people interact with their
ment of the U.S. federal government with responsibili- work environment.
ties to safeguard public security, especially from terrorist Erosion the wearing away (abrading) of materials by a
threats. physical process (e.g., sandblasting).
Department of Transportation (DOT) a U.S. government Escape mask protective gear that provides respiratory
agency with a mission of developing and coordinating protection for a limited period of time in the event of a
policies to provide an efficient and economical national suddenly occurring emergency.
transportation system, taking into account the need, the
environment, and the national defense. Exothermic relating to a chemical reaction that releases
energy in the form of heat.
Detection device equipment designed to sense a particu-
lar condition (e.g., smoke, vapors, and flame) and send Explosion a sudden increase in heat energy, released in a
a signal to an alarm system if the condition exceeds a violent burst.
preset limit. Explosion suppression barrier a wall or other device
Detonation a violent explosion that generates a super- built around a specific process area or the control room to
sonic shock wave and propagates through shock suppress explosions.
compression. Explosive a substance that causes a sudden, almost
Dike a structure built around storage tanks to hold the instantaneous release of pressure, gas, and heat when
contents of the tanks in the event of a leak. subjected to sudden shock, pressure, or high temperature.
Exposure incident an incident involving the contact of
Dockboard a temporary platform used during the
blood (or other potentially infectious materials) with an
­loading operations of cargo vehicles.
eye, mouth, other mucous membrane, or nonintact skin,
Dose the amount of a substance taken into or absorbed which results from the performance of an employee’s
by the body. duties.
432 Glossary

Extinguishing agent the material in a fire extinguisher Flammable gas any gas that, at ambient temperature and
(e.g., water, dry chemical, or foam); varies depending on atmospheric pressure, forms a flammable mixture with
the fire classification being fought. air at a concentration of 10 percent by volume or less.
Eyewash station used to flush the eyes of contamination Flammable liquid any liquid that has a flashpoint below
from harmful chemicals. 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees Celsius).
Facility also called a plant. A building or place that is Flammable solid any solid, other than a blasting agent
used for a particular industry. or explosive, that is liable to cause fire through friction,
absorption of moisture, spontaneous chemical change,
Fall protection a system designed to minimize injury
or retained heat from manufacturing or processing, or
from falling when the work height is 4 feet (1.2 meters)
which can be ignited readily and when ignited burns
or greater (above or below grade).
so vigorously and persistently that it creates a serious
FDA Food and Drug Administration —a federal agency hazard.
responsible for protecting the public health by ensuring
Flare an environmentally approved device that burns
the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary
waste gases collected from various process sources to
drugs, biological products, and medical devices; and by
reduce pressure.
ensuring the safety of our nation’s food supply, cosmetics,
and products that emit radiation. Flashpoint the minimum temperature at which a liquid
gives off a vapor in sufficient concentration to ignite.
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency; a
U.S. government agency that coordinates responses to Flooding the rising of water to cover normally dry land.
disasters within the United States.
Frequency the number of sound vibrations per second
Fire a type of combustion, resulting from a self-sustaining (peaks of pressure in a sound wave).
chemical reaction.
Fuel any material that burns; can be a solid, liquid, or
Fire brigade a private fire department or industrial fire gas.
department composed of a group of employees who are
Fugitive emission an intentional or unintentional release
knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in basic firefighting
of a gas.
operations.
Fugitive emissions monitoring measuring emissions
Fire engine a vehicle that carries and pumps water.
from sources (e.g., flange connection around packing) to
Fire hose used to deliver large quantities of water when determine if any hazardous agents are present at unac-
the fire is too large to be controlled by a fire extinguisher ceptable EPA levels.
or other means.
Fungi plantlike organisms that obtain nutrients by break-
Fire hydrant a point of water supply for fire hoses; ing down decaying matter and absorbing the substances
mounted on trucks or freestanding and connected to a into their cells. They are similar to algae but do not con-
water main. tain chlorophyll.
Fire point the temperature at which burning is self-­ Gas detection equipment equipment that detects the
sustaining after removal of an ignition source. components within a gaseous atmosphere.
Fire tetrahedron the elements of a fire triangle (fuel, Gas detector tube an instrument that provides instant
­oxygen, and heat) combined with a fourth element, a measurement of a specific gas, usually indicated by a
chain reaction that keeps the fire burning. color change within the tube.
Fire triangle the three elements (fuel, oxygen, and heat) Ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) a safety device
that must be present for a fire to start. that detects the flow of current to ground and opens the
circuit to interrupt the flow.
Fire truck an emergency response vehicle that does not
carry or pump water. Grounding intentionally creating a low-resistance path
to conduct electricity safely to the earth from a tool or an
Fire watch a trained employee who monitors the
electrical system.
­conditions of an area for a specified time during
and after hot work to ensure that no fire danger is Guardrail a rail secured to uprights and erected along
present. the exposed sides and ends of platforms (OSHA).
First-degree burns burns that affect only the outer layer Hand tool a tool that is manually powered.
of skin and cause pain, redness, and swelling.
Handheld fire extinguisher used to extinguish small
Flammable (inflammable) the ability of a material to fires; must be mounted, located, and identified, so it is
ignite and burn readily. easily accessible during an emergency.
 Glossary 433

Handrail a single bar or pipe supported on brackets from Hydraulic tool a tool that is powered using hydraulic
a wall or partition, as on a stairway or ramp, to furnish (liquid) pressure.
persons with a handhold in case of tripping (OSHA).
Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) any
Hazard control the recognition, evaluation, and elimina- condition that presents an immediate threat to a person’s
tion (or mitigation) of hazards in the workplace. life or causes permanent health problems. This usually
refers to an airborne concentration that is immediately
Hazardous agent a substance, method, or action by dangerous to life and health or can impair a person’s
which damage or destruction can happen to personnel, ­ability to escape the atmosphere.
equipment, or the environment.
Incipient fire a small fire that requires immediate atten-
Hazardous atmosphere an atmosphere that can cause tion to prevent it from becoming larger and more serious.
death, illness, or injury if people are exposed to it.
Examples of hazardous atmospheres are flammable, Indicator device a generic term for a type of equipment
oxygen-deficient/enriched, toxic, or irritating/corrosive that indicates process variables; may be visual (e.g., light),
environments. audible (e.g., horn), or both.

Hazards substances, methods, or actions by which dam- Industrial hygiene monitoring monitoring the health
age or destruction can happen to personnel, equipment, and well-being of workers exposed to chemical and
facilities, or the environment. ­physical agents in their work environment.

HAZCOM OSHA 29 C.F.R. 1910.1200 Hazard Com- Infectious capable of infecting or spreading disease.
munication/Employee Right-to-Know, a standard to Inorganic compound a chemical compound that does
ensure that employees are aware of the chemicals they are not contain carbon chains.
exposed to in the workplace and the measures to take to
protect themselves from such hazards. Insider a person inside a company who causes harm,
either intentionally or unintentionally.
HAZWOPER the acronym for the OSHA standard
for Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Inspection a proactive activity conducted prior to a need
Response. for action by plant personnel to ensure that safety, health,
and environmental programs are being followed.
Heat the transfer of energy from one object to another
as a result of a temperature difference between the two Insulator a device made from a material that will not
objects. conduct electricity; the device is normally used to give
mechanical support or to shield electrical wire or elec-
Hertz (Hz) a measurement used to describe frequency. tronic components.
One hertz is one cycle per second.
Intensity the loudness of a sound (pressure-peak inten-
Highly toxic requiring only a small amount of exposure sity of a sound wave).
to be lethal.
Interlock a type of hardware or software that does not
Host an organism whose body provides nourishment allow an action to occur if certain conditions are not met.
and shelter for another, smaller organism. Ionizing radiation radiation that contains enough energy
Hostile nation-state a country that poses a threat to to cause atoms to lose electrons and become ions.
other countries. ISO 14000 an international standard that addresses how
Hot work any fire or spark-producing operation to incorporate environmental aspects into operations and
(e.g., welding, burning, and riveting). product standards.

HSSE Health, safety, security, and environment. Job safety analyses (JSAs) procedures which analyze
how a job is performed in order to identify and correct
Hurricane an intense, low-pressure tropical (warm area) undesirable conditions.
weather system with sustained winds of 74 miles per
hour (119 kilometers per hour) or more. Hurricanes can Kinetic energy energy associated with mass in motion.
rotate clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on their Leak a condition that occurs when a container or equip-
location of origin. ment is compromised, allowing a material to escape.
HVAC ventilation systems used to control workplace LEL meter lower explosive limit meter; ­measures the
environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, combustible content of an atmosphere.
and odor. The acronym is short for heating, ventilating,
and air-conditioning. Lockout device a device placed on an energy source, in
accordance with an established procedure, that ensures
Hydraulic the use of liquid (hydraulic fluid) as the the energy is isolated and the equipment cannot be
power source. ­operated until the device is removed.
434 Glossary

Lockout/tagout OSHA-mandated procedures for control- Organic peroxide an organic compound that contains
ling hazardous energy. the bivalent ¬ O ¬ O ¬ structure and which can be
Lower explosive limit (LEL) the point below which a ­considered to be a structural derivative of hydrogen
spark will not lead to combustion because there is too ­peroxide, where one or both of the hydrogen atoms has
much oxygen present. been replaced by an organic radical.

Machine guard a barrier that prevents a machine OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration)
­operator’s hands or fingers from entering into the point a U.S. government agency created to establish and enforce
of operation. workplace safety and health standards, c­onduct workplace
inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and
Malware computer programs developed to cause investigate serious workplace incidents.
­intentional harm.
OSHA Fire Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.155)
Maritime Security (MARSEC) a three-tiered system intended to prevent and/or minimize the ­consequences
used by the U.S. Coast Guard to communicate to USCG of fire within the workplace.
and maritime industry partners about, and respond to,
credible threats. Oxidizer a chemical that can initiate or promote combus-
tion in other materials.
Means of egress an exit or way to evacuate a building or
facility during an emergency. Oxyacetylene welding a welding process that burns a
blend of oxygen and acetylene to generate heat.
Microorganism a very small form of life (often view-
able only through a microscope) that includes viruses, Oxygen-deficient an atmosphere in which the oxygen
­bacteria, algae, and fungi. concentration is less than 19.5 percent.

Monitoring a process used to gather data to evaluate the Oxygen-enriched an atmosphere in which the oxygen
work environment using specialized equipment. concentration is greater than 23.5 percent.

Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) a health condition Pathogen an infectious microorganism, such as bacteria
characterized by damage to muscles, nerves, tendons, or a virus, that can cause disease.
ligaments, joints, etc. Permissible exposure limit (PEL) an OSHA limit repre-
Mutagen a chemical suspected to have properties that senting the maximum acceptable exposure of workers to
change or alter a living cell’s genetic structure; mutagens a hazard over a specific period of time.
can lead to cancer or birth defects if the egg or sperm is Permissive device a device or series of codes that
affected. requires one or more specific conditions to be met (some-
Near miss an unsafe act that does not result in an times sequentially) before a piece of equipment or process
­incident or accident but had the potential to do so. can be started safely.

Networked linked together, as in two or more computers Permissive interlock a type of interlock that allows a
sharing data, programs, and resources such as printers process or equipment to start up once certain conditions
and scanners. are met.
Neurotoxin a poison that affects the nervous system. Personal monitoring device an instrument that measures
an individual’s exposure to airborne contaminants.
Nip point a dangerous area where contact is made between
two points on the equipment (e.g., a belt meeting a pulley or Personal protective equipment (PPE) specialized gear
two gears intermeshing); also called a pinch point. that provides a barrier between hazards and the worker
using the PPE.
Noise any unwanted or excessive sound.
pH a measure of the amount of hydrogen ions in a solu-
Nonionizing radiation low-frequency radiation that
tion that can react and indicate if the substance is an acid
does not have enough energy to convert atoms to ions.
or a base.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) a U.S. govern-
Physical hazard any hazard that comes from environ-
ment agency that protects public health and safety through
mental factors such as excessive levels of noise, tem-
regulation of nuclear power and the civilian use of nuclear
perature, pressure, vibration, radiation, electricity, and
materials.
rotating equipment.
Ohm a measurement of resistance in electrical circuits.
Physical security security measures intended to counter
Opening/blinding permit a permit used to help ensure physical threats from a person or group seeking to inten-
that accidental leaking from pipes does not occur. tionally harm other people or vital assets.
Organic compound a chemical compound that contains Plan a method, prepared in advance, for carrying out
carbon chains. an action.
 Glossary 435

Pneumatic using air pressure or a gas as the power Process technician a worker in a process facility who
source. monitors and controls mechanical, physical, and/or
chemical changes, throughout many processes, to pro-
Pneumatic tool a tool that is powered using pneumatic
duce either a final product or an intermediate product,
(air or gas) pressure.
made from raw materials.
Point of operation the area where the equipment actu-
Process technology a controlled and monitored series
ally performs its intended task (e.g., cutting, rotating, and
of operations, steps, or tasks that converts raw materials
stamping).
into a product.
Policy a guiding principle.
Process upset controls devices and systems used in the
Positive pressure control a system used to keep external process industries to respond to control upsets.
air, which may contain airborne toxic substances, from
entering the building. Program computer software (sometimes called an
application).
Potential energy the energy of a body as a result of its
position or condition. Protein allergen an allergen caused by substances pro-
duced by vertebrate animals, including blood, feces, hair,
Powder-actuated tool a tool that uses a small explosive and dead skin.
charge to drive fasteners into hard surfaces such as con-
crete, stone, and metal (e.g., nail gun). Pyrophoric a chemical that will ignite spontaneously
in air at a temperature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit
Power tool a tool that is powered by a source such as (54.4 degrees Celsius) or below.
electricity, pneumatics, hydraulics, or powder actuation.
Rad radiation absorbed dose; the unit of ionizing radia-
Powered industrial truck a mobile, power-propelled tion absorbed by a material, such as human tissue.
truck used to carry, push, pull, lift, stack, or tier materi-
als. Forklifts and other similar vehicles are considered Radiation the transfer of heat energy through electro-
powered industrial trucks by the American Society of magnetic waves.
Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Reactive a corrective activity conducted in response to a
Powered platform equipment designed to lift personnel need.
on a platform to work at heights. Redundant system a system that provides a backup in
Pressure relief valve a safety valve that automatically the event the primary system fails.
opens at a set pressure to protect process vessels or Release a controlled or uncontrolled discharge of process
­piping from excessive pressure. materials into the environment.
Pressure the amount of force a substance or object exerts Relief valve a safety device designed to open slowly as
over a particular area. the pressure of a liquid in a closed vessel exceeds a ­preset
Pressure switch a mechanical device that uses electrical level; can be used in service where liquid expands to
contacts to complete an electric circuit and generate an ­create a gas.
alarm signal. Rem roentgen equivalent man; a unit of measure of the
Principle a set of rules or standards. dose of radiation deposited in body tissue, averaged over
the body.
Proactive a preventive activity conducted prior to a need
for action. Repetitive motion injury (RMI) an injury caused by
repeating the same motion.
Procedure a step-by-step set of instructions for accom-
plishing a task. Resistance welding a welding process that uses electric-
ity generated through the material to be welded com-
Process fluid any material that flows in a pipe that bined with pressure at the weld point to create the weld.
­supports or hinders a process in a plant or refinery; it
can be either liquid or gas. When under pressure, both Respiration the bodily process of taking oxygen from
gases and liquids transmit force equally. Process gases are air breathed in (inhalation) and giving off carbon dioxide
­compressible; liquids are not. (exhalation); also called breathing.
Process hazard analysis (PHA) an organized, ­systematic Risk a combination of vulnerabilities and threats.
process used to identify potential hazards that could Ropes and mechanical retrieval devices equipment used
result in accidents causing injury, death, property to rescue workers from a hazardous situation. Ropes are
­damage, or environmental damage. primarily used to lower rescuers into confined spaces and
Process industries a broad term for industries that con- to hoist injury victims out of those spaces. Mechanical
vert raw materials, using a series of actions or operations, retrieval devices are set up on a tripod and use a winch or
into products for consumers. crank to lower and raise individuals with the rescue rope.
436 Glossary

Route of entry the way in which a hazardous substance Sound wave a pressure wave that moves through the air
can enter the body, such as inhalation through the nose, and is audible to the human ear.
absorption through the skin or eyes, accidental ingestion,
Spark a single burst of electrical energy. See arc.
or through injection.
Spill an uncontrolled discharge of a liquid that usually
Rule a statement describing how to do something or
involves more volume than a leak.
­stating what may or may not be done.
Spill containment a combination of procedures and
Runaway reaction a reaction that is out of control; can be
devices designed to contain spilled materials in the
either endothermic or exothermic.
immediate area of the spill and to minimize the effects of
Runoff polluted groundwater from pollutants contained a spill on the environment.
in landfills or other industrial manufacturing or disposal
Standpipe system a system that provides hose ­stations
sites where uncontrolled rainwater comes into contact
with water supplied by a main, fire pump, or tank;
with toxic chemicals and then drains into rivers or under-
­standpipes can be either wet (connected to a permanent
ground water supplies ultimately used as sources of
water supply and constantly filled with water) or dry
drinking water.
(not connected to a permanent water supply).
Safe work permit a permit used to ensure the area is safe
Static electricity electricity “at rest”; an electrical
for work to be performed and for communicating that
charge caused by friction between two dissimilar
information.
materials.
Safety data sheet (SDS) a document that provides key
Storm surge danger created by hurricane force winds
safety, health, and environmental information about a
which push water toward the shoreline. As a storm
chemical.
surge advances on a shoreline, it can create a wall
Safety shower located throughout the plant; provides the of water 15 feet (4.6 meters) or more above normal
ability to rinse the body off in the event of a large expo- water levels.
sure to a chemical spill.
Stretcher a bed with wheels used to transport injured
Scaffold tags tags used to label the status of a scaffold victims from one place to another.
clearly and to communicate its approved use.
Superfund a monetary fund that comes from tax dollars
SCBA self-contained breathing apparatus used to pro- paid by the chemical industry to pay for the cleanup of
vide breathing air when the wearer needs to enter an area abandoned waste sites in the event no responsible party
with an atmosphere that might be oxygen-deficient or can be found.
harmful if inhaled.
System an organized, interdependent set of related prin-
Second-degree burns burns that affect both the outer ciples or rules.
and the underlying layer of skin.
Temperature the measure of the thermal energy of a
Security hazard a hazard or threat from a person or substance.
group seeking to intentionally harm people, computer
Teratogen a substance believed to have an adverse effect
resources, or other vital assets.
on human fetus development.
Sensitizer an agent that can cause an allergic reaction.
Terrorist a radical person who uses terror as a weapon to
Short circuit an event that occurs when electrons in control others.
a current flow find an additional path outside of the
Third-degree burns burns that affect deeper tissues
intended circuit or conductor, and flow to it.
and cause white or blackened, charred skin that may be
Short-term exposure limit (STEL) a concentration numb.
to which workers can be exposed for a short term
Threat a potential event that could result in harm to
(e.g., 15 minutes) before suffering any harm.
either people or property; an individual or a group that
Shutdown devices equipment that ensures that pro- will harm people or property.
cesses and/or equipment are secured from failures that
Three-point contact a safety practice in which both
may result in hazardous conditions.
feet and at least one hand are used when ascending or
Soil pollution the accidental or intentional discharge of descending stairs.
any harmful substance into the soil.
Threshold limit value (TLV) a limit set by the American
Sound a form of vibrational energy conducted through a Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists, repre-
medium (e.g., solid, liquid, or gas) that creates an audible senting the maximum acceptable exposure of workers to
sensation that can be detected by the ear. a hazard over a specific period of time.
 Glossary 437

Time weighted average (TWA) an average concentration VOC meter a testing device used to identify volatile
of a chemical or a noise level to which an employee can organic compounds as well as to test for carbon monox-
be exposed over an eight-hour period or 40 hours a week. ide, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, and LEL (lower explosive
limits).
Toeboard a vertical barrier at floor level erected along
exposed edges of a floor opening, wall opening, platform, Volatility the ability of a material to evaporate.
runway, or ramp to prevent falls of materials (OSHA).
Volt the derived unit for electrical potential, electrical
Tornado a destructive, localized windstorm. Tornadoes potential difference (voltage), and electromotive force; the
are produced by severe thunderstorms. A funnel cloud electromotive force that will establish a current of 1 amp
may or may not occur during a tornado. through a resistance of 1 ohm.
Toxic material a substance determined to have an Voltage the driving force needed to keep electrons
adverse health impact. ­flowing in a circuit.
Toxin a poisonous substance that can harm living Voluntary Protection Program (VPP) an OSHA program
organisms. designed to recognize and promote effective safety and
health management.
Unit an integrated group of process equipment used to
produce a specific product or products. All equipment Vulnerability a weakness, or “hole” in a defense system.
contained in a department.
Walking and working surfaces how OSHA refers to
Universal precautions an approach to infection control. floors, walkways, passageways, corridors, platforms, and
According to the concept of universal precautions, all other similar surfaces.
human blood and certain human body fluids are treated
Warning a weather advisory issued when certain
as if known to be infectious for HIV, HBV, and other
weather conditions (e.g., thunderstorm, hurricane, and
bloodborne pathogens.
flash flood) are expected in the specified area.
Upper explosive limit (UEL) the point above which a
Watch a weather advisory issued when certain weather
spark will not lead to combustion because there is too
conditions (e.g., thunderstorm, hurricane, and flash
little oxygen present.
flood) are possible in the specified area.
Vacuum any pressure below atmospheric pressure
Water pollution the introduction, into a body of water
(1.01 bar [14.7 PSIA]).
or the water table, of any EPA-listed potential pollutant
Venom a poisonous substance produced by some that affects the water’s chemical, physical, or biological
­animals (such as snakes and spiders) and transmitted to integrity.
prey or an enemy by biting or stinging.
Water-reactive any chemical that reacts with water to
Vertigo a sensation or illusion of movement in which release a gas that is either flammable or that presents a
a person feels as if revolving in space (called subjective health hazard.
­vertigo) or senses the surrounding environment to be
Wavelength the distance between successive points of
spinning (called objective vertigo).
equal amplitude on a sound wave.
Vibration the rapid movement of an object back and forth
Working load limit the maximum weight, designed by
along its radial or horizontal axis, in a periodic motion.
the manufacturer, which should not be exceeded when
Visible alarm an alarm that uses visual means working with a load.
(e.g., lights, motion, and color) to warn workers of a
­particular condition or hazard.
Index
A instrumentation, 320–21
ABC model of behavior change, 295, 332 interlock control system, 306–307, 395
Abdominal thrusts. See Heimlich maneuver process technicians, responsibilities of, 309–11
Absorption as route of entry, 39–40 rationale, for alarms, 307–309
Access and perimeter control, 248 redundant alarm systems, 305, 394
Accidents toxic-gas alarm and detection systems, 394
causes of, 23–24 Algae as biological hazard, 77
in process industries, 8–9 Alkalies, classifications of, 65
Acetylene, 196, 197 Allergen, 60, 84–86
Acid rain Ambient noise, 182
and Clean Air Act, 280–81 American Chemical Council (ACC), 335
deposition, 50, 51, 280, 282 Community Awareness Emergency Response
Acids, 59. See also Acid rain (CAER), 335
classifications of, 65 Responsible Care® guiding principles, 340
and fire hazards, 112 American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 76, 88 ­Hygienists (ACGIH), 21, 41, 44
Action level (AL), 45 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 21. See also
Administrative controls, 291, 293–96. See also Engineering Personal protective equipment (PPE)
controls; Personal protective equipment (PPE) chemicals, standards for labeling, 62
for alarm systems, 307 Fall Protection Standard, 175
common activities, 328–30 American Society for Testing & Materials (ASTM), 21
common programs, 327–30 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 21
Africanized bees, 82 Amplitude, 179
Air Contaminants standard, 17 Anaphylaxis, 84
Aircraft. See Helicopters, hazards of Anesthetic atmospheres, 150
Air emissions, 398–99 Animals, as biological hazard, 83
Air quality Annunciator, 302
air as hazardous substance, 322 Ants. See Fire ants, as biological hazard
air pollution hazards, 48–50 Arachnids. See Scorpions, as biological hazard;
air-purifying respirators, 154, 155–57 Spiders, as biological hazard
air-supplying respirators, 154–55, 157–59 Arc, 103
Clean Air Act, 18, 280–81 Arc welding. See Welding hazards
emergency respirators, 159 Arm and hand protection, 377–79
monitoring, 16, 152, 340 Arthropods as biological hazard, 77–78
Short-term exposure limit (STEL), 45 Asbestos, 148
Time-weighted average (TWA), 44–45 “As low as reasonably achievable” (ALARA), 350
Alarms and detection devices, 301–304. See also Asphyxiants, 60, 148–49
Monitoring equipment Assassination, 245
administrative controls for, 307 Atmospheres, hazardous, 146–53
alarm-system problems, 309–11 flammable, 116, 149
automatic shutdown and response devices, 305–306, Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 11
394–95 Attitude, importance of, for workplace safety, 22, 23–24
deluge suppression and detection systems, 320 Audits for compliance, 14, 295, 330, 339
explosive-gas alarms and detectors, 320, 397 Automatic shutdown and response devices, 305–306
fire alarms and detection systems, 304, 393 Awareness, by communities, 335

438
 Index 439

B Burn hazards
Back injuries, 361–62 degrees and classification of, 130, 133, 135
Backup alarm systems, 305 from fires, 111
Bacteria, as biological hazard, 76–77. See also first aid for, 362–63
­Microorganisms, as biological hazard; Pathogens, from hot environments, 133
bloodborne
Badges, colorimetric. See Monitoring equipment C
Barges, 210 Cameras, restriction on, 393
Barrier creams, 377 Cancer
Bases (chemical compounds), 58 and asbestos, 148
Bees, as biological hazard, 82 and benzene, 148
Behavior of employees carcinogens, defined, 47
behavior-based observation and feedback and radiation, 139, 142
process, 332 Carbon monoxide detectors, 304
as factor in workplace safety, 22, 23–24 Carcinogens, 60
Benzene, 148, 150 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), 366
“Best-available technology” (BAT), 282, 283 dangers of giving, 86–87
“Best practicable control technology” (BPT), 282, 283 PPE for, 91
Bhopal, India, industrial accident, 8 Carpal tunnel syndrome, 261
Bicycles, hazards of, 213–14 Carts, hazards of, 213–14
Biological hazards, 242. See also Pathogens, bloodborne Cascading failures, 8
algae, 77 Ceiling (C), 45
allergens, 84–86 Cell phones and danger of static electricity, 101, 114
animals, 83 Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 90
arthropods, 77–78 Chain reaction, as component of fire, 113
bacteria, 76–77 Change, management of, 14
biological attack (terrorism), 242 Channelview, Texas, industrial accident, 9
defined, 7, 75 Chemical hazards, 242, 410–11
determining, 36–37 categories of, 274–75
first aid for, 366 chemical attack (terrorism), 242
fungi, 77 chemical protective clothing (CPC), 412
microorganisms, 75 composition of, 43
overview of, 75 defined, 7, 33–34
PPE for, 375–76 determining, 36–37
protozoa, 77 explosives, 121
scorpions, 79 exposure, 410–12
spiders, 78 first aid for, 365
ticks, 79 interactions of, 45–46
toxins, 84–86 overview of, 57–59
viruses, 76 PPE for, 375–76, 412
for warfare, 74 Process Safety Management (PSM) standards, 338–39
in water sources, 51 Responsible Care® guiding principles, 340
Biometrics, 253 in water sources, 52
Blackmail and extortion, 246 Chemical manufacturing process industries, 4, 5
Black widow spider, 78 Chemical Safety Board (CSB), 21
Blanking or blinding, 349 Chernobyl nuclear accident, 9
Bleeding, first aid for, 360 Choking, first aid for, 366–67
BLEVE, 122 Circuit breakers, 105–106
Blizzards, 231 Classification systems
Bloodborne pathogens. See Pathogens, of air-purifying respirators and filters, 156
bloodborne for burns, 130, 133
Boats. See Watercraft, hazards of of chemical protective clothing (CPC), 412
Body and skin protection, 375–77 of combustible materials, 65, 274
Bombings, 243–44 for explosives, 121
Bonding system, 207, 318, 319 for fire extinguishers, 408–409
Boots, safety, 379–80 for fires, 118
Breathing. See Respiration for hard hats, 374
Brown recluse spider, 78 of hazardous chemicals, 274–75
440 Index

for liquids via flashpoint, 115 Cybersecurity, 7, 32, 38. See also Physical security
for materials handling, 341 cyber attacks, 245, 250–51
of PPE protection, 382–83 effective practices, 255
for responses to hazardous waste releases, 286 industrial espionage, 246
of standpipe systems, 407 overview of, 238–40
threat condition levels for risk of terrorist attacks, 247 passwords, protecting, 253–54
Clean Air Act, 18, 280–81 policies and procedures, 252–53
Clean Water Act, 18, 282–83 viruses, worms, malware, 254–55
Closed-environment drain systems, 315
Closed-loop sampling, 315 D
Closed systems for containment of hazardous waste, DDDRRR, 239–40. See also Cybersecurity; Physical security
315, 320 Decibel levels, 180
Cold-related hazards. See Temperature hazards Decontamination, 16, 92, 340, 412
Color coding safety showers and eyewashes, 381–82
of air-purifying respirators and filters, 156 DEET, 79, 81
of alarm warning signals, 302 Dehydration, in heat-related emergencies, 134
of fire-hazard materials, 119 Deluge suppression and detection systems, 320, 382, 397
standards for electrical wiring, 107 Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 11
of threat condition levels for risk of terrorist DDDRRR, 239–40
attacks, 247 Department of Transportation (DOT), 11. See also
Colorimetric tubes and badges, 391 ­Regulations and guidelines
Combustible materials, 59, 149. See also Fire hazards and chemical hazards, 58–59
classifications of, 65, 274 materials handling regulations, 341
Communications, as element of cyber-and physical Depressant atmospheres, 150
­security, 248, 249 Designation hazards, 303
Community awareness programs, 335 Detection of hazardous substances
Compliance by detection and alarm devices, 301–304
audits, 14, 295, 330, 339 by process technicians, 61
noncompliance, consequences of, 18–19 Deterrence. See Cybersecurity; Physical security
Comprehensive Environmental Response and Liability Detonation hazards, 123. See also Explosion hazards
Act (CERCLA), 286–87 Documentation
Computer hacking. See Cybersecurity of hazardous chemicals, 61–63
Computer use and ergonomics, 266–67 and shipping papers, 329
Concentration, lethal, 42 Doses of hazardous substances. See also Monitoring;
Condensate, as hazardous substance, 323 ­Monitoring equipment; Radiation hazards
Confidential information. See Cybersecurity dose-response relationship, 41–42
Confined spaces lethal, 42
ergonomic stress and, 268 and routes of entry, 40–41
hazards of, 172 Dosimeter, 392
OSHA requirements, 353 Drench hose, 382
permits to enter, 152, 171–75, 346–51 Dumps, hazardous waste. See Hazardous
Construction hazards, 190 waste handling
Containment systems, 314–20 Dust, 33
Continuous noise, 182 Dust explosion, 122–23
Contract employees, PSM requirements for, 13
Control systems for process upsets, 318. See also E
­Administrative controls; Engineering controls Earplugs and earmuffs, 371
Copperhead snakes, 82, 83 Earthquakes, hazards of, 233–35
Coral snakes, 82 Effluent control, 316
Corrosion, as factor in leaks and spills, 277–78 Egress, means of, 168–69
Corrosive atmospheres, 150 Electrical hazards, 101–104
Corrosive substances. See Acids; Alkalies, electrical safety guidelines, 104–106
classifications of; Bases electrical shocks, first aid for, 363–64
Cottonmouth snakes, 82 safeguards against, 317–18
Coulometric detectors, 390 and vapors of flammable liquids, 114–16
Cranes, hazards of, 206–207 Electric arc welding, 196
Critical lifts, 198 Electric power tools, 195
Critical lifting permits, 350–51 Electro-magnetic pulse (EMP), 243
 Index 441

Electron capture detectors, 391 Ergonomic hazards, 260–62

Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know computer use and, 266–67
Act (EPCRA), 63–64, 285–86 confined spaces and, 268
Emergency planning and response, 219–20, 320–21 defined, 7, 32, 35
action plan development, 14, 339, 340 design for, 269
community awareness and, 335 heights, working at, 267–68
to earthquakes, 234–35 lifting and material handling, 262–264
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know and physical stress, 260, 261, 262
Act (EPCRA), 63–64 posture, poor, 264–65
emergency vehicles, 407–408 repetitive motion injuries, 264
to extreme temperatures, 230–35 tools, proper use of, 265–66
to floods, 226 vibrations as, 269
to hazardous waste releases, 286 Erosion, as factor in leaks and spills, 277
HAZWOPER and, 15–16 Espionage, industrial, 246
to hurricanes, 222–23 Ethanol, 150
to lightning and rainstorms, 228–30 Ethical consequences of noncompliance, 19
rescue equipment, 348 Evacuation and accountability plans, 328
to security threat, 248–50 Excavation safety, 198
to tornadoes, 223–24 Exit routes, 168–69
Employees Explosion hazards, 120–22. See also Detonation hazards
HAZWOPER training, 16 explosion-suppression systems, 320, 397
safety training for, 13 explosive-gas detectors, 304, 320, 397
Energy hazards, equipment and, 100 overview of, 110–11
Engineering controls, 291, 292–93. See also Administrative protection from, 124–25
controls; Personal protective equipment (PPE) from released gases from fires, 112
alarms and indicator systems, 300–311 as terrorist attacks, 242–45
Engulfment, 172 Explosive materials
Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, 224 classifications of, 64
Environmental hazards, 48–53. See also Regulations and defined, 59, 274–75
guidelines Exposure
air pollution, 48–50 decontamination, 92
controls for, 279 duration of, 42–43
defined, 7 Exposure Control Plan, 92
from leaks, spills, and releases, 279 limits, 44–45
long-term effects, 52–53 to radiation, 139–42
process technician responsibilities, 279–80 reduction of levels of, 340
short-term effects, 52 Exposure incident, 92
soil pollution, 50–51 Extortion and blackmail, 246
temperature hazards, 133–37 Exxon Valdez oil spill, 8
water pollution, 51–52 Eye injuries
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 10. See also­ eyewashes, 381–82, 410–11
­Regulations and guidelines first aid for, 359–60
and chemical hazards, 59 PPE to prevent, 372–73
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know
Act (EPCRA), 63–64 F
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 62–63 Face protection, 373–74
Epinephrine, 78 Falling objects, hazards of, 171
EpiPen, 78 Fall protection, 169–71, 380
Equipment hazards ANSI Fall Protection Standard, 175
in confined spaces, 348 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 11
design, improper, 278 Fibers, 33
energy hazards, 100 Fire alarms and detection devices. See Alarms and
exceeding operating limits, 277 ­detection devices
failures, 278 Fire ants, as biological hazard, 81
moving or rotating hazards, 97–98 Fire hazards. See also Alarms and detection devices
pressure hazards, 98 characteristics of, 112
radiation hazards, 99–100 classes of fire, 404
temperature hazards, 98–99 fire alarms and detection systems, 304, 393
442 Index

fire brigades, 405–408 Gas masks. See Respirators

fire equipment, 405–410 Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and
fire triangle and tetrahedron, 112–13 Labeling of Chemicals (GHS), 64–66
fire watch, 349 Gloves
flammable and combustible substances, 114–16 latex allergy, 86
flammable atmospheres, 116 as PPE, 90–91, 376–78
fuel and heat sources, 113–14 Government agencies. See Regulations and guidelines;
health effects of, 111–12 Regulatory agencies, responsibilities of
heat transfer, 118 Government agencies related to the process industries,
National Fire Code, 119–20 11–12
overview of, 110–11 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI), 105, 318
protection from, 124–25, 376 Grounding and bonding mechanisms, 207, 317–18
stages of fire, 116–18 Guidelines, industry. See Regulations and guidelines
vessels as, 118–19 Gunfire, as form of attack, 245
welding, 186–17
First aid, 358–67. See also Cardiopulmonary H
resuscitation (CPR) Hand and arm protection, 377–79
regulations on, 383–85 Hand washing, as universal precaution, 89–90
snakebite, first aid for, 83 Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), 86
Flame ionization detectors, 391 Hard hats, 374–75
Flammable materials, 59, 114–15 Hazard Communication (HAZCOM)
atmospheres, 149 standard, 15, 61–62
classifications of, 65, 274 Hazard controls, 291. See also Administrative ­controls;
vapors of, and fire hazard, 114–15 Engineering controls; Personal protective
Flare systems, 319, 396 ­equipment (PPE)
Flashpoint, 114 Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 281
Floating roof tanks, 315–16 Hazardous Materials–General Requirements for Shipments
Floods, hazards of, 225–27. See also Hurricanes, and Packaging standard, 17
hazards of; Rainstorms, hazards of Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS), 66–67
Fluids, process, as hazardous substances, 321–23 Hazardous waste handling, 283–84, 286. See also Material
Food manufacturing industry, 5, 6 handling
Foot and leg protection, 379–80 Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response
Forklift hazards, 202–204 (HAZWOPER), 15–16, 339–40
Fossil fuel industries, 4 and radioactive materials, 141
Frequency of sound, explained, 179 Hazards. See also Specific type of hazard
Frostbite and frostnip, 137, 232 chemicals materials, 59–60
Fuel-operated tools, 196 classification systems for, 64–66
Fuel sources of fires, 113–14 defined, 6–7, 32–36
Fugitive emissions, 314–15, 398 Hazards and Operability Study (HAZOP), 294, 331–32
Fujita (F) scale. See Enhanced Fujita Scale Head injuries, first aid for, 363
Fumes, 33 PPE to prevent, 374–75
Fungi as biological hazard, 77 Health effects of hazardous substances, 46–48.
Fuses, 105–106 acute (short-term) effects, 46–47
from burns, 137–38
G chronic (long-term) effects, 46, 47
Gas chromatographs, 391 from corrosive atmospheres, 150
Gases, chemical hazards, 33–34 in fires, 111–12
Gases, hazardous health monitoring, industrial, 295
classifications of, 65 heat, effect on body of, 133–34
compressed, dangers of, 131–32 from inhalation, 147
containment systems for, 315 local and systemic effects, 47–48
explosion-suppression systems, 320, 397 on reproductive systems, 47, 140
explosive-gas detectors, 304, 397 sensitivity of individual, factors in, 43–44
flare systems for, 319 shock, electrical, 103–104
gas detector tubes, 392 Hearing loss, 181–83. See also Noise; Sound, basics of
released, in fires, 112 conservation and protection, 184–85
toxic-gas alarms and detection noise-induced, 372
systems, 304–305, 394 PPE to prevent, 371–72
 Index 443

Hearing protectors International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 341

fit, use, and maintenance, 186 ISO 14000, 19, 341
types, 186 ISO 14001, 19–20
Heat hazards. See Temperature hazards Internet. See Cybersecurity
Heat sources of fires, 114 Investigations of incidents. See Incidents in process
Heat transfer in fires, 118 industries
Heavy equipment, 198 Ionizing radiation. See Radiation hazards
Heights Ion mobility spectrometers, 392
ANSI Fall Protection Standard, 175 Irritant atmospheres, 150
ergonomic stress and working at, 267 Irritants, 60
falls from, 169–71, 380
Heimlich maneuver, 366–67 J
Helicopters, hazards of, 211–12 Job safety analysis (JSA), 276, 353
Hepatitis B virus (HBV), 76, 87
Hertz (Hz) of sound, explained, 179 K
High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, 155, 156 Kidnapping, as form of terrorism, 244
Hijacking, as form of terrorism, 244 “Killer bees,” 82
Hot work permit system, 14, 338, 349
Housekeeping in process plant, 92, 333-37 L
Human error Labeling. See also Classification systems;
as factor in leaks, spills, and releases, 276–77 Color coding
as factor in workplace incidents, 23–24 of hazardous chemicals, 61–63
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 76, 87–88 safety data sheets (SDSs), how to read, 68–70
Hurricanes, hazards of, 220–23 Ladders, hazards of, 167–68
Hydraulic tools, 196 Landfills, and hazardous-waste legislation, 284
Hydrocarbons, 49, 57 Latex
Hypothermia, 136, 232 allergic reaction to, 86
gloves, as PPE, 90–91, 376–78
I Leaks, pressure, 132
Illness, in workplace, 23 Leaks, spills, and releases, 275–79, 404–405
Immediately dangerous to life and health Comprehensive Environmental Response and Liability
(IDLH), 147, 154 Act (CERCLA), 286–87
Impact injuries, first aid for, 360–61 containment and control systems for, 314–20
Impact noise, 182 Process Safety Management (PSM) regulations, 338–39
Impulse noise, 182 reporting of, 285, 286
Incidents in process industries, 8–9 responses to, classification of, 286
Incident Command Systems, 328 spill containment, 397
investigations of, 14, 296, 331, 339 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
Indicator devices. See Alarms and detection devices; (SARA), 286–87
Monitoring equipment underground storage tanks and, 284
Industrial espionage, 246 Legal consequences of noncompliance, 18
Industrial hygiene monitoring, 332, 398 Leg and foot protection, 379–80
Industry groups and standards, 19–21 Legionnaires’ disease, 76
Information, and risk of cyber attack, 251 Legislation. See Regulations and guidelines
Infrared analyzers, 391 Lethal concentration (LC), 42
Ingestion as route of entry, 40 Lethal dose (LD), 42
Inhalation as route of entry, 38–39 Life Safety Code, 175
Injection as route of entry, 40 Lifting and ergonomic stress, 263–64, 361–62
Injuries in workplace, 22–23, 359. See also First aid; Personal critical lifting permits, 350–51
protective equipment (PPE); Specific type of injury Lifts, critical, 198
Inorganic compounds, 58 Lighting
Insects. See Bees, as biological hazard; Fire ants, as for emergency exits, 169
­biological hazard; Mosquitoes, as biological hazard illumination standards, HAZWOPER, 175
Inspections of process facilities, 295, 330 Lightning, 106, 227–30
Instrumentation and process upsets, 320–21 as part of hurricane, 221
Intensity of sound, explained, 179 Liquids, chemical hazards, 33
Interlock control systems, 306–307, 320, 321 Liquids, hazards of loading and
Intermittent noise, 182 unloading, 207–208
444 Index

Liquids, loading and unloading, 207–208 N

Local Emergency Planning Committees Narcotic atmospheres, 150
(LEPCs), 63–64 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Lockout/tagout procedures, 107, 351–53 (NAAQS), 280, 281
OSHA requirements, 353–54 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 67
Lyme disease, 79 hazardous materials storage standards, 20, 341
Life Safety Code, 175
M National Electrical Code, 107
Machine guard, 98
National Fire Code, 119–20
Maintenance hazards, 191
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Malware, 254–55
(NIOSH), 10, 154, 368
Management of change process, 14, 338–39
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Maritime Security (MARSEC), 11
(NOAA), 10
Material handling. See also Hazardous waste
National Safety Council (NSC), 21
handling
Natural disasters, overview of, 218–19. See also Specific type
and ergonomic stress, 263–64, 263–64
Neurotoxins, 60
importance of classification for, 274
New Source Review (NSR) program, 281
safe, 335
Nip (pinch) points, 97
Maximum acceptable ceiling, 45
Nitrogen asphyxiation, 38
Mechanical integrity requirements, 338
Nitrogen, dangers of, 132, 322
Medical evaluation. See also Cardiopulmonary
Nitrogen oxide (NOx), 50
­resuscitation (CPR); First aid
Noise. See also Hearing loss; Sound, basics of
before exposure to hazardous atmospheres, 152–53
abatement devices, 317
for hearing loss, 185
control, 185
surveillance after HAZMAT exposure, 16, 340
types of, 178, 182
Mercury vapor monitors, 391
Noncompliance with regulations, consequences of, 18–19
Merit program (VPP), 17
Nondisclosure agreement, 246
Mesothelioma, 148
Nonionizing radiation. See Radiation hazards
Methanol, 150
Nuclear or radiological attack, 242–43
Microorganisms, as biological hazard, 75, 86. See also
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 11, 140
­Bacteria, as biological hazard; Pathogens,
­bloodborne; Viruses, as biological hazard O
Mine Safety and Health Act, 18 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),
Mining industry, 4 10. See also Regulations and guidelines
and soil pollution, 51 Air Contaminants standard, 17
Mold, as biological hazard, 77 blanking or blinding, 349
Monitoring. See also Cybersecurity; Monitoring equipment; and chemical hazards, 59
Physical security confined spaces, 172, 174
to evaluate work environment, 295 forklifts and powered industrial trucks, 203
for fugitive emissions, 314, 331, 398 heavy equipment, 198
for hazardous substances, 61, 152, 340 lifts, critical, 198
industrial hygiene, 331–32, 398 HAZCOM, 15, 61–62
for noise levels, 185 HAZWOPER, 15–16, 339–340
for potential hazardous situations, 300–301 noise hazard definition, 184
regulations on, 398–99 Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission
Monitoring equipment (OSHRC), 10
detection devices, 301–304 permissible exposure limits (PELs), 44
gas-detection equipment, 390–92 personal protection equipment, 14–15, 385
lower explosive limit (LEL) meters, 389 Process Safety Management (PSM) standard,
O2 meters, 390 12–17, 277, 338–339
personal monitors, 305, 392 recordable injury rate calculate, 334–335
Moral consequences of noncompliance, 19 scaffolding, 198
Mosquitoes, as biological hazard, 80–81 voluntary protection program, 17
Moving objects, 264 welding, 196
Municipal wastewater treatment, 283 Office of Hazardous Materials Safety (OHMS), 11
Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD), 261 Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS), 11
Mutagens, 47, 60 Oil and gas process industries, 4
Mutual aid agreements, 328 Opening/blinding permits, 349–50
 Index 445

Organic compounds, 57, 60 Personal vehicle safety, hazards of, 213

classifications of, 65 Personnel and security concerns, 249–50
Organizations and agencies. See Regulations and Pharmaceutical industry, 4
­guidelines; Regulatory agencies, responsibilities of pH, defined, 58
Oxidizing agents Photoacoustic spectrometers, 391
classifications of, 65 Photochemical smog, 50
defined, 275 Photon ionization detectors, 391
Oxyacetylene welding, 196. See also Welding hazards Physical hazards
Oxygen defined, 7, 34–35
as component of fire, 114 in water sources, 52
-deficient or -enriched atmospheres, 148–49 Physical security, 7, 32, 37. See also Cybersecurity
Oxygen cylinders, 197 importance of awareness, 250
Ozone, 49–50 measures to safeguard, 247–50
overview, 238–40
P signs of potential terrorist activity, 247
Particulate matter (PM), 49 terrorist attacks, 242–45
Particulate monitors, 392 threat response plans, 246
Pasadena, Texas, industrial accident, 9 threats to, 242–47
Passwords, protecting, 253–54 workplace violence, 245–46
Pathogens, bloodborne, 86–92, 384–85. See also Bacteria, Physical stress. See Stress, physical
as biological hazard; Microorganisms, as biological Pinch (nip) points, 97
hazard; Viruses, as biological hazard Pipelines, hazards of, 210–11
PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Placard system. See Classification systems
Perimeter control, 248 Plant allergens and toxins, as biological hazard, 4–85
Permissible exposure limits (PELs), 17, 44, 184 Platforms, powered, hazards of, 204–205
Permissive devices, 320 Pneumatic tools, 195
Permits Poisonous snakes. See Snakes, as biological hazard
company driving, 212 Poisonous substances
for discharge into water treatment facility, 283 atmospheres, 149
to enter confined spaces, 152, 171–75, 346–48 neurotoxins, 60
Operating Permit Program, 282 Polarographic detectors, 390
OSHA requirements, 353 Pollen, as biological hazard, 84
procedures, 346 Pollutants, 273
responsibilities of issuers and recipients of, 345 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 284
safe work, 294, 330 Posture, poor, role in physical stress, 264–65
stationary source operating, 280 Potentially responsible parties (PRPs), 286
for treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) Powder-actuated tools, 196
facilities, 284 Powered industrial trucks, hazards of, 202–204
types of, 346–51 Powered platforms, hazards of, 204–205
for vehicle entry, 202 Power generation industries, 4–5
Peroxides, defined, 275 Power tools
Peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs), 50 electric, 195
Personal monitoring devices, 392 hydraulic, fuel-operated, and powder-actuated
Personal protective equipment (PPE), 14–15, tools, 196
22, 296–97, 367–82 pneumatic tools, 195
application of DEET on, 79 safety procedures with, 194–95
for bloodborne pathogens, 90–92 Pregnant workers
for falling objects, 171 and radiation dose, 140
fall protection, 170 teratogens and, 47
for fires and explosions, 124–25 Pressure hazards with equipment and vessels, 98, 129–33
for hazardous atmospheres, 151–53 explosion suppression systems, 397
and heat-related hazards, 136 pressure relief valves, 319, 396–97
levels of protection by, 382–83 Pre-startup safety review, 13
for noise hazards, 185 Privacy, right to, 253
for radiation hazards, 140 Process changes, 278
regulations for, 385 Process fluids, as hazardous substances, 321–23
respirators, 153–60 Process Hazard Analysis (PHA), 13, 294, 331
types of, 370–80 Process industries, defined, 3
446 Index

Process Safety Management (PSM) standard, 12–14, Regulatory mandated programs, 328
277, 338–39 Releases of hazardous materials. See Leaks, spills,
Process technician and releases
defined, 3 Repetitive motion injuries (RMIs), 264. See also
expectations of, with regard to PPE, 369 Ergonomic hazards
responsibilities of, for detection and alarm systems, Reportable Quantity (RQ), 64
309–11 Reproductive effects. See Health effects of hazardous
responsibilities of, for environment, 279–80 substances
responsibilities of, for workplace safety, 22–26 Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA), 11
Process technology, defined, 3 Resistance welding, 196. See also Welding hazards
Process-upset control systems, 318, 395–97 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 16, 17,
Protective equipment. See Personal protective 64, 283–84
equipment (PPE) Respiration, 146–47. See also Respirators
Protein allergens, 86 breathing problems, first aid for, 364–65
Protozoa, as biological hazard, 77 Respirators, 371, 410
Pulp and paper industry, 5 Air purifying respirators, 154, 155–57, 371
Pyrophoric materials, defined, 274 Air supplying respirators, 154–55, 157–59, 371
emergency respirators, 159
R fit, use, and care of, 159–60
Radiation hazards, 139 Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 158, 410
ionizing, 99, 139, 140–41, 350 Response of body to hazards. See Health effects of
nonionizing, 99, 139, 142 ­hazardous substances
nuclear or radiological attack, 242–43 Responsible Care guiding principles, 20
permits, 350 Richter scale, 233
Rail cars, hazards of, 208–209 “Right to Know” standard, 15, 61–62, 335
Rainstorms, hazards of, 227–30. See also Floods, hazards of; Rodents, as carriers of hantavirus, 86
Hurricanes, hazards of Roof tanks, floating, 315–16
Rationale, for alarms, 307–309 Routes of entry of hazardous substances, 38–40
Rattlesnakes, 82 Runaway reactions in pressure emergencies, 132
Redundant alarm systems, 305
Regulations and guidelines S
for administrative controls, 337–41 Sabotage, 246
affecting process agencies, 12–17 Safety data sheet (SDS), 15, 43, 61
for bloodborne pathogens, 86–92 how to read, 68–70
for chemical hazards, 70–71 Safety of workplace. See also Permits; Personal protective
for construction, tool, and welding hazards, 199 equipment (PPE); Specific hazard
for cybersecurity, 256 administrative controls for, 21–22
for electrical equipment, 107 engineering controls for, 21
for emergency response, 413–14 HAZWOPER safety and health program, 339–40
environmental: air, 280–82 lighting for emergency exits, 169
environmental: water, 282–83 OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM), 12–13
ergonomic design, guidelines for, 269 personal safety habits, 27
for fire and explosion hazards, 129, 413 responsibility of process technician for, 22–26
for hazardous atmospheres and respirators, 160–61 safety review, pre-startup, 338
industry guidelines, 414 safe work observations, 332–37
lockout/tagout to control hazardous energy, 94, 107 safe work practices, 27–28, 338
monitoring, 398–99 stress as factor in, 26–27
for noise exposure, 187 Saffir-Simpson scale, 220
for permits, 353 St. Louis encephalitis, 80
for physical security, 256 Scaffolding, 198
for PPE, 383–85 Scaffold tags, 351
for pressure hazards, 142 Scorpions, as biological hazard, 79
for radiation hazards, 142 Security hazards, 32, 37–38
for vehicle and transportation hazards, 214–15 defined, 7 (See also Cybersecurity; Physical security)
for working areas, fall protection, and confined Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 158, 410
spaces, 175 Sensitizers, 60
Regulatory agencies, responsibilities of, 10. See also Shift work, impact on workplace safety of, 25–26
­Regulations and guidelines Ships. See Watercraft, hazards of
 Index 447

Shock, electrical, 103–104 Threshold limit value (TLV), 41, 44, 147
safeguards against, 317–18 and odor of chemicals, 157
Shock (from inadequate oxygen), first aid for, 366 Threshold Planning Quantities (TPQs), 63–64
Shoes, safety, 379–80 Thunderstorms. See Rainstorms, hazards of
Short circuits, 102 Ticks, as biological hazard, 79
Short-term exposure limit (STEL), 45 Time weighted average (TWA), 44–45, 184
Showers, safety, 381–82, 411 Tools
Shutdown, automatic, and response devices, 305–306 general, usage of, 192–93
Site-control HAZWOPER program, 340 hand tools, 193–94
Skin protection, 375–77 power tools, 194–96
Sludge, See Wastewater treatment types, 192
Smog, photochemical, 50 Tornadoes, hazards of, 221, 223–24
Smoke detectors. See Alarms and detection devices 4-to-1 rule for ladders, 168
Snakes, as biological hazard, 82–83 Toxicology
snakebite, first aid for, 83 containment systems for gases, 315
Sniffers, 305 defined, 37
Snowstorms, hazards of, 231–33 plant toxins, 85–86
Soil pollution, 50–51 toxic atmospheres, 149
Solid and hazardous waste, handling of, 283–84 toxic-gas alarms and detection systems, 304–305
Solids, chemical hazards, 33 toxic materials, 60
Sound, basics of, 179–81 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 62–63, 284–85
Sound waves, 179 Trade secrets, protection of, 14
Sparks, electrical, 103–104 from cyber attacks, 251
Spiders, as biological hazard, 78 from industrial espionage, 246
Spill containment, 320 issue with SDSs, 70
Spills of hazardous materials. See Leaks, spills, and releases Training
Spyware. See Cybersecurity confined space attendant duties, 354–55
Standards for workplace safety, 12–21 as control for safety, 294
Star program (VPP), 17 for emergency response, 62, 307
State Implementation Plans (SIPs), 281 for fire brigades, 405
Static electricity, 101, 104 for fire/explosion hazards, 124–25
dangers of, near flammable vapors, 114, 115, 149 fire watch attendant duties, 354
safety procedures to avoid, 207–208 in first aid, 358–67, 385
Steam, as hazardous substance, 322–23 of forklift operators, 203
Sterlington, Louisiana, industrial accident, 9 HAZWOPER, 16, 339–40
Storm surge, 221, 225 for noise hazards, 185
Stress as factor in workplace safety, 26–27 for process technicians’ jobs, 329
Stress, physical, 262 for PSM requirements, 338
comparison of factors in, 260–61 respirator protection, 154
ergonomics and, 260 safety, 16
Submit Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), 286 for SCBA, 159
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 49 in use of PPE, 369
“Sun stroke,” 134 Trains, hazards of, 208–209
Symptoms of exposure. See Exposure; First aid; Health Treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) facilities, 284
effects of hazardous substances Trojan horse, 254
Trucks, hazards of, 202–204, 208
T
Tanker cars, hazards of, 208–209 U
Tanker ships, hazards of, 209–10 Ultraviolet analyzers, 391
Temperature hazards, 133–38, 230–33 Underground storage tanks, 284
and equipment, 98–99 United Nations standards for dangerous goods, 18, 64–66
PPE for, 377, 380–81 Universal precautions against bloodborne
Teratogens, 47, 60 pathogens, 89–90
Terrorism. See Cybersecurity; Physical security
Texas City, Texas, industrial accident, 8, 9, 124, 131 V
Thermal conductivity detectors, 391 Vaccines for hepatitis B virus, 87
Threats to process industries. See Cybersecurity; Physical Vacuum, 129
security dangers of, 130
448 Index

Varying noise, 182 treatment facilities, 5

Vehicle and transportation hazards, 202. See also Specific types of, 323
vehicle Watercraft, hazards of, 209–10
vehicle safety, 212–13 Water emissions, 399
Venom, 78 Water moccasins, 82
Ventilation Water Quality Act of 1987, 282–83
for hazardous atmospheres, 151, 316 Water-reactive materials, defined, 274
for pressure-relief valves, 319 Wavelength, 179
Vibration, 179 Weather, inclement, 218–19. See also Temperature hazards;
Viruses, as biological hazard, 76. See also Pathogens, specific types of severe weather
bloodborne as factor in leaks, spills, and releases, 279
Viruses, computer, 254 Welding hazards, 196–97
Vision. See Eye injuries West Nile virus (WNV), 80, 81
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 49 Wild animals, as biological hazard, 83
Voluntary Protection Program (VPP), 17 Wind-chill factor, 136, 231
Voluntary standards, 19–21 Winds, high, hazards of, 223–24. See also Hurricanes,
­hazards of; Rainstorms, hazards of; Snowstorms,
W hazards of
Walking and working surfaces, hazards “Worker Right to Know” law (HAZCOM), 61–62
of, 164, 165–67 Working areas, hazards of, 164–67
Warning devices. See Alarms and detection devices confined spaces, 171–75
Wasps, as biological hazard, 82 exit routes, 168–69
Waste emissions, 399 falling objects, 171
Wastewater treatment fall protection, 169–71
construction, 283 ladders, 167–68
effluent control, 316 Working load limit, 206
Water Workplace violence, 245–46
Clean Water Act, 18, 282–83 Worms, 254
and electrical hazards, 103
as hazardous substance, 323 Z
pollution, 51–52 Zika virus, 80