ald ok he Ir to ts on. ad “UNIT 4: How a Geographer Chapter 1 The Spatial Perspective Chapter 2 Patterns and Processes Unit Overview ‘More than others who study people, geographers see the world through a spatial perspective. They focus on where >eople live and why they behave as they do. Concepts, Skills, and Tools ‘To understand the spatial aspects of phenomena, geographers use a broad set of concepts, skills, and tools. One basic concept is distance. For example, how far apart in space are houses ina community? This distance affects everything from how people relate to their neighbors to where stores will open. A geographic skill is an ability o apply spatial concepts to understand how people live. ‘The most common tool for geographers is a map. A map can show almost any phenomenon that has a spatial distibution, Maps can help people identify and ‘analyze world patterns and processes. For example, mapping the spread of a disease ‘can help public health officials decide what steps to take to counter the spread. One systematic way to study geographic phenomena is 10 use Four Level Analysis. The four levels are comprehension of the basic information, identification of pattems, explanation of how individual phenomena might form patter, and prediction of what the pattern might lead to Gathering Information ‘Traditionally, geographers gathered data through field experiences. To make ‘maps, they carefully measured distances and drew what they saw. Today, ‘geospatial technologies make gathering information far simpler. Enduring Understandings 1. Geograpy is Nature and Perspectives ‘A. Geography, field of inquiry, looks atthe word from a spatial perspective. 'B. Geography offers a set of concepts, skills and tol that facilitate ericl thinking and problem solving : Geographical sills provide a foundation for analyzing world patems and process, . Geospatial technologies ineease the capability for ethering and analyzing geographic information with applications to everday lie , Feld experiences continue to he inportan means of gubering geographic ‘information and dat, Source: Calera an Gry Coreen 205 LNT: HOW TO THINKLKE A GEOGRAPHER 1The Spatial Perspective Geography is the “WHY of WHERE." National Gengrapie Sooty Essential Question: How does the way geographers look at the worid differ from that of other scientists? Geosraphy shares content with many other sence. Geographers are inerestedn the phenomena studied y elimatlgiss, botanists, economists, cocnlgis, and demoprapher, for example. These sient stuy the eater plants, usines, aman soy andthe charcteristis of poplations. Inthe seas geography is. since of yess, a eld hat imegrate the tcrning of many others. What dsiaguiss geosraphy fom all other fils tht founes ona portal pespcive of way of ooking at thing. Tht Gistncve perspective spate ‘spatial approach cones the anangement ofthe phenomene being suid arose the sarface of the sath, Imprint consieaton of this Spproach ate things such sleation, distance, destin, oentation, aterm, thd imterconestion. A spatial pach also Tooks a lements such a the tmovements of peopl and things, change in plas ver ie, and oven human Fetwepons of spe and pace. Gogrphers ask question about spatial Eistibuton sich as these * Why ar thngs whet they ae + How i hings become distuted as hey ae? + Whats hanging the pattern of distibtion? * What are the implications ofthe pata estibton fr people? Geography as a Field of Study Geography has been called the “mother ofall seiences” This is partly because itis one of the oldest fields of study, In addition, it is because geographers fare interested inthe content of so many other sciences. The word geography comes from Greek and combines the idea of studying, or writing about Caraply), with the idea of the earth (geo). So the word geography means earth writing’ 2 AMScO* AP*HUMAN GEOGRAPHYi Subfields of Geography Geography is commonly divided into two major branches: + Physical geography is the study of spatial characteristics of various elements of the physical environment. Physical geographers, like physical scientists, study topics such as weather and climate, ecosystems and biomes, and voleanism and erosion. + Human geography is the study ofthe spatial charactrities of humans and human activites. Human geographers share a spatial approach with physical geographers and often rely on information from physical eography and other physical sciences. ‘The concem of human geographes, however, isthe human population and the spatial characteristics associated with people. Human geographers specialize in subfields. These subfield include geographers who study the following: + population (health, births, migrations, ete.) + culture (language religion, popular music, ee) + economics (agriculture, level of development, wealth distribution, etc) + urban areas (cites, suburbs, challenges from growth, etc.) + politics (local government, nations, distribution of power, ete.) The degre of specialization in human geography reflects the wide interests of geographers: there is medical geography, environmental geography, social geography, and even the geography of sports. However, all subfields Siae a spatial perspective and their interest in human populations Since geography studies spatial information, maps are one of the most important tols for geographers. Cartography, the art and science of mapmaking, isclosely associated with geography. Many geographers are also cartographers and vice versa, Geospatial technologies, such as satellite imagery and remotely sensed data, geographic information systems (GIS), and global positioning systems (GPS) can require technical skill on the ‘part of their scientists. Geographers rely on cartographers to help them organize spatial information The Early History of Geography Foras long as humans have been sble to write, they have written “geographies in their descriptions of place and cbservations of phenomena on earth. The frst ‘maps were probably simply scratched in the soil with sticks by early humans. In the river valleys of the Huang He in China, the Tigris-Euphrates valley in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq),and Egypt, ancient people studied geography and made maps. ‘The Grecks and Romans were the first people in western Eurasia to formalize a study of geography. + Homer’s liad and Odyssey are geographic in nature and point to Greek interest in descriptions of the world ‘Te SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE 3Aristotle was a keen observer of the earth and its features and how they influence human behavior. + Using geometry, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of Earth from Alexandria in Egypt during the 3rd century B.C.E., and he was very nearly correct, He coined the term geography + Ptolemy, a Greek who lived about 500 years after Eratosthenes, wrote a summary of Greek knowlecge about geography, including the location and size of continents, that dominated European thought for 1,000 years + Strabo wrote descriptions cf various areas of the Roman Empire and proposed theories about how geography influenced history. tesa on View athe During the European Middle Azes (about 500 C.E. to 1450C.E.), Europeans rarely ventured outside their region. But the Muslim culture that flourished in the Middle East and North Africa built strong trading ties with Africa and East Asia. As people traveled, they collected information about new places, created ‘maps, and wrote books about geography. Scholars such as Muhammad al-Idrisi (12th century) and fon Battuta (14th century) advanced the study of geography. The Modern History of Geography Starting with the historic voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Europeans launched a new era in exploratior, description, and mapping. One important ‘geographer ofthe early modern petiod was a Dutch scholar, Gerardus Mercator, He created a world map that was very useful for sailors and is still widely used today. Inthe late 18th century, a German, Alexander von Humboldt, traveled extensively through South America, His study of the continent’s wealth in plants and his detailed, accurate maps combined to spur European interest in the Americas. But most importantly, Humboldt saw the world as a connected whole, in which all types of knowledge contributed to each other. It is this approach that has inspired geographers ever since. 4 AMsco® AP HUMAN GEOGRAPHY| societies, marking the birth of th formal academic discipline of geography: wth, __Eatly efforts remained focused on the great themes of the discipline that had vas -_ emerged up to that point: exploring, mapping, gathering data about physical i nd buman geography, and secking to analyze and understand the diversity of the world’s regions in In the past century, geographers such as Carl Sauer (1889-1975) we |___ expanded the focus of geography neyond physical tats of the earth to include || aman asiviy Sine then, geography has become increasingly diverse and ind specialized. Geographers study the spatial distribution of nearly everything to ; explain what people eat to why they migrate to how they vote. | Concepts Underlying the Geographic Perspective | Historians look through the lens of time to understand the past. Similarly, {geographers look through the lens of space to understand place. | Location | Locations may be absolute or relive. Absolut location is the precise spot | swhere something is according to some system. The most widely used system | is the global grid of lines knowr. as latitude and longitude. Latitude is the | distance north or south of the equator an imaginary line that circles the globe | exactly halivay between the Nort and South Pols, The equator is designated 4 Fas andthe poles as 90° north ard 90° south the i ‘Longitude is the distance east ot west of the prime meridian, an imaginary | line that runs from pole to pole through Greenwich, England, Its designated } as. 0 On the oppenite side of tre globe fom the prime meriian is 180" ins )—_ longitude. The International Date Line roughly follows this line but makes in |__ deviations to accommodate intemational boundaries. Thus, on this system, the ast | __absolute location of Mexico City s 19° north latitude and 99° west longitude | THE GLOBAL ORID | | Eee sed ed | od ‘THE SPATAL PERSPECTIVE §Relative location is a description of where something isin relation to other things. To describe Salt Lake City, Utah, as being “just south of the Great Salt Lake and just west of the Rocky Mountains, on Interstate 15 about halfway between Las Vegas, Nevada, anc Butte, Montana,” is one way (of many) to describe its relative location. Rebtve location is often described in terms of ity, how well two locations are tied together by roads or other links, and accessibility, how quickly and easily people in one location can interact with people in another location, ‘THE RELATIVE LOCATION OF SALT LAKE CITY Relative locations can change over time and as accessibility changes. For example, the many ghost towns (abandoned settlements) of the western United States once had relative Iccations near water sources (Which dried up), along trade routes (which changed), or near mines (which closed). Their good relative locations lost the advantages—access to resources or trade—that they once had. However, their absolute locations, as deseribed by the global grid of latitude and longitude, remain the same. Place Place refers to the specific human and physical characteristics of a location, A group of places in the same area that share a characteristic form a region. ‘Two ways to refer to place arz is site and situation. Site can be described as the characteristics at the immediate location—for example, the soil type, climate, labor force, and human structures. In contrast, situation refers to the Tocation of a place relative to its surroundings and other places. The situation of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, is roughly in the center of the Arabian Peninsula; the situatior of the Arabian Peninsula is between the 6 ausco* aP* HUMAN GEOGAARHYher continents of Affica and Asia, When the interstate highway system was created Salt in the United States in the 1950s, the situation of many small towns changed vay dramatically. Towns along old railroad lines became less important as centers, )to of trade while towns along the new interstate suddenly became more important, sof, Related tothe concept of place isa sense of place. Humans tend to perceive aks, the characteristics of places in different ways based on their personal betiels act For example, the characteristics of Rome, Italy, might be described differently by a local resident than by an oursider or by a Catholie than by a Hindu, Ifa place inspires no strong emotional tes in people, it has placeessness. Finally, locations can also be designated using toponyms, or place names. Some toponyms provide insights into the physical geography, the history, or the culture ofthe location. The entre coast of Florida is dotted with communities, with “beach” in the name—Femandina Beach, Miami Beach, Pensacola BBeach—all of which are on beaches. Salt Lake City is named fora lake with unusually salty water. Towa is named for a Native American tribe. Pikes Peak js named for an explorer, Zebuloa Pike. Sometimes toponyms get confusing Greenland is icier than Iceland; Iceland is greener than Greenland. And some toponyms are deceiving. Lake City, Towa, is not on a lake, and few people consider Mount Prospet,Iinos, at an elevation of 665 fet above sea level, ona mountain The Importance of Distance Avan ideration of distance is an important part af the gengraphic perspective and spatial approach. Distance isa measurement of how far or how nearthings re to one another. The term proximity indicates the degree of nearness. Distance ‘can be measured in terms of geography and is given in a type of measurement, such as meters, miles, or kilometers. It may be straight-line distance ("as the | Sow ortovel dacs wing otha urs and vis, Milwaukee o | Kalamazoo is 130 miles by ar but 250 miles by car because the normal route | Ssrtndd senda vey j Distance and Time of |] Distance can be measured in terms of time: one place might be “a two-hour | Geko" fo enon pace Tiucapecs mapreion ite icing “toe | Gistnce™ between locaton because of improved methods of ransporaton sn, | and communication New Yon Cy and London are seprted by sean, 3 | dutahe development of airtel sea reduced travel time between them. As is aah tay belch cae ty tga te dnt cat vet |G tel ume spac coms sta tfc re nMencig | cate evryere and eicing tal erst oe than vr bf Inthe TD comun, the moutaous pens of soubeatern Europe were fame | Stdoberctanges pln cease Bape Tien same mass everyone else in the world. ‘THE SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE 7Distance and Connection ‘The increasing connection between places is reflected in the growth of spatial Interaetion. Spatial interaction refers to the contact, movement, and flow of things between locations. Connections might be physical, such as through roads. Or they can be through information, such as through radios or Internet service. Places with more connections will have increased spatial interaction The friction of distance indicates that when things are farther apart, they tend to be less well connected. This inverse relationship between distance and connection is a concept called distance-decay. A clear illustration of this concept isthe weakening ofa radio signal a it travels across space away from 1 radio tower. Friction of distance causes the decay, or weakening, of the signal. Natural characteristics like waves, earthquakes, and storm systems exhibit the distance-decay function, Human characteristics also exhibit distance-decay, although the key issue is more accurately described as connectedness than distance. When ‘anew pet store opens, its influence is strongest in the area closest to the store but only among the pet owners who have a connection to the store, Improvements in transportation, communication, and infrastructure have reduced the friction of distance between places as they have increased the spatial interaction. ‘Concepts such as accessibility ‘and remoteness are changing. The ‘world is more spatially connected than ever before in history. The Internet can be used to illustrate several ofthese concepts. It allows a person living in El Paso, Texas, to shop ata store in New York City (via its website) and receive a product shipped from a warehouse in Allanta, Georgia. Distance-decay is less influential than it once was. ‘Strength of Interaction = Distance Density and Distribution Density is the number of something in a specifically defined area, Population density is the number of people per square mile, Densities are often compared to.one another as “higher” or “lower.” The population density ina ten-acre city block of tall apartment buildings is likely higher than the population density of 1 ten-aere block filled with single-family homes. A simple population density for an area can be calculated by counting the people and dividing by the area. Besides describing density using numbers, density can be described in psychological terms. In a full elevator, one person might feel that the density is fine, Another might feel itis uncomfortably dense. 8 Amsco* ap» HUMAN GEOGRAPAYygraphers are also interested in distribution, the way a phenomenon is spread out over an area. Some areas might have a cluster or concentration of atial no something that is sparse in other areas. For example, two city blocks with the ‘ugh same density might have very different distributions. In one, people might be net spread evenly throughout the block. The other might consist ofa large building jon where everyone lives and a large park where no one lives. Geographers look hey for patterns inthe distribution of phenomena across space that give clues about and ‘causes or effects of the distribution. Common patterns include the following: this + Linear phenomena are arrarged ina straight line, such asthe distribution rom of towns along a railroad lin. the + Citeular phenomena are equally spaced from a central point, forming ams ‘circle, such as the distribation of the homes of people who shop at a vit particular store. oe + Geometric phenomena are in a regular arrangement, such as the squares = formed by roads in the Midwest a + Random phenomena appear to have no order to their position, such asthe re distribution of pet owners ina city i Matching pater of aisributon scaled spatial association and indicates that two (or more) phenomena may be related, or associated with one another. | Forexampl, the distribution of malaria matches the distribution ofthe mosquito te | act Hoven jt io hans te irate | i | ces, does not mean one is necessarily the cause of the other. The distribution of tial bicycle shops in a large city might be similar tothe distribution of athletic wear stores—but one probably does no: cause the other. They both might reflect the lity distribution of active people, Human-Environment Interaction The dual relationship between humans and the natural world are at the heart ‘of human geography. The connection and exchange between them is referred in | to as human-environment interaction. Geographers who focus on how | humans influence the physical world often specialize in studying sustainability, | pollution, and environmental issues. ‘The study of how humans adapt to the environment is known as cultural on ecology. The belief that landforms and climate are the most powerful forces ed | _ shaping human behavior and societal development is called environmental ity determinism. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, some people used of | _ environmental determinism to argue that people in some climates were superior ity to those of other climates, a In reaction came the view known as possibilism, a view that acknowledges in | _limits on the effects of the natural environment and focuses more on the role iy that human culture plays. Different cultures may respond to the same natural environment in diverse ways, defending on their beliefS, goals, and available technologies. ‘THE SPATALPERSPECTE 9Landscape Analysis The word landscape comes from older Germanic words that refer to the condition, the “shape,” ofthe land. The term can also imply a specifi area, a ina “desert landscape” othe “landscape of Tuscany.” The task of defining and describing landscapes is called landscape analysis. Observation and Interpretation ‘The first part of landscape analysis is careful observation. Geographers are keen observers of phenomena and collect data about what they see. The term field observation is used to refer to the act of physically visiting a location, place, or region and recording, firsthand, information there. Geographers ean ‘often be found taking notes, sketching maps, counting and measuring things, ‘and interviewing people as they walk through an area that they are interested in studying, For most of the history of geography, this was the only way t0 gather data about places. All of the information that can be tied to specific locations is called spatial data. Modern technology has increased the ways in which geographers can obtain. spatial data, Remotely sensed in’ormation from satellites that orbit the earth above the atmosphere and aerial photography (professional images captured from planes within the atmosphere) are important sources of observed data available today. Ground-level ptotography has replaced sketching as a tool for capturing information about landscapes. Sound recordings and the ability to get chemical analyses of air, water, and soil have also changed the way ‘geographers observe a landscape, Once data has been gathered, it must be interpreted. Geographers depend on their skills of synthesizing and integrating, or putting together, all of the collected information to better understand the place, area, or landscape being studied. A common example clearly observable today isthe changes that occur in the landscapes of rural and whan areas over time. A geographer may be interested in understanding what changes are likely to occur as people move into or out ofan area: *+ Who are the people migrating into this area? Who is leaving? + What are the cultures of these groups of people? + What effects will the changes have on the focal economy? + What are the causes of people moving? + What types of human-environment interaction are occurring? The Built Environment When we use the word environment, we usually think of nature and natural things. Plants, the air, water, and animals are all part of the natural environment. Human geographers often refer to the built environment, by which they mean the physical artifacts that humans have created and that form 10 Amsco* aP* HUMAN GEOGRAFHYpart of the landscape. Buildings, roads, signs, and fences are examples of the bailt environment ie The architectural style of buildings varies from place to place. Think of wea, typical homes and buildings in China, and then think of homes and buildings aed in Germany. These differences occur because people with different cultures living in different physical landscapes construct buildings, roads, and other elements to create a unique built environment. Anything built by humans is aw part ofthe cultural landscape. ‘on Four-Level Analysis can Ove systematic way to study geographic phenomena is to use FourLevel gs, ‘Analysis. This method is summarized inthe chart below. sted yto Sie u tain 4.Comprehension | Estabish thobasio |» What? ath information ceary |. where? aed + when an + Seale? ity 2.tdentiteation | ienty and desorte | + Are phenomena connected? es pater n phonorona 3. Explanation | Expiainhow navidual | » Why's something where Kis? phenomena might frm |. How cd something gat where pattern itis? “4.Predietion | Exsiainwhyapattomis | + So wnat? import. ard redet |. watir2 winattmigitind to | Ma GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES: THINKING ABOUT DISTANCE, Geographers use the concept of distance to study the spatial distribution ‘of phenomena The perception of distance reflects context. Neighboring families in a small town in Iowa might live 50 feet apart, To a family. ina high-rise apartment in Manhattan, 50 feet might seem like a long, distance. To a family living on a ranch in Wyoming, miles from theit nearest neighbor, 50 feet migh: feel uncomfortably close. ‘Time and Distance and al by | Inaddition, what people considera long distance changes over time. In orm the mid-1800s, Irish families held Funeral-like ceremonies for emigrants ‘THE SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE 11leaving for the United States, Australia, and elsewhere. Trips by ship to these other lands were so long, expensive, and dangerous that families expected they would never see the departing person again. And they often didn’t. But what seemed far away in the 1800s seems much closer today. A flight by jet from Dublin to Boston takes about seven hours, costs only two days’ pay for many people, and is remarkably safe Seale and Distance AA third factor shaping the perception of distance is scale. At a personal level, cight people crowded into an elevator, separated by inches, probably feel close together At the community level, Tampa and Orlando seem close together, even though they are about 85 miles apart. tthe global level, the countries of Mali and Chad seem close together, separated by only 1,500 miles. Other Disciplines and Distance Geographers are not alone in studying distance. Historians might research the change over time in how immigrants viewed distance Sociologists might focus or how distance affects how neighbors interact. However, unlike others who study human actions, geographers emphasize the role of distance and other concepts that describe spatial distribution KEY TERMS ‘patil approach region ‘spatial apsoiation physi! geography site ‘human-environment human geography situation interaction solute location sense 2 place cultural ecology environmental latte toponems o determinism equator istane possbiism longitude roxinity z ee landscape analysis prime meridian time-space compression Spat interaction a fiction of distance International Date Line spatial data relative lotion acral photography disanse-decay connectivity accessibility spatial association een density cultural landscape host towns place HuMaN GEOGRAPHY6. Which technology had the greatest effect on the application of the distance-decay function? (A) food preservatives because they reduce decay (B) cars because they weakened family connections (C) barbed wire because it stretches for long distances (D) new medicines because they keep people healthier (E) a jet, because it strengthens the connections between distant places . The frequency of occurrence of something within a specifically defined area is the (A) density (B) distribution (©) incidence (D) imerconnection (B) pattern One way that possibilism differs from environmental determinism is that it emphasizes (A) culture (B) climate (©) history (D) regions. (B) trade FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION 1. The geographic perspective consists, in part, of concepts relating to place, or location, and distance, A, Identify and describe a similarity between the absolute location and. the site ofa city. B. Identify and describe a similarity between the relative location and the situation of a large sperts stadium. C. Explain the concept of distance-decay, and describe an example of it from the real world ee THE SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE 15THINK AS A GEOGRAPHER: GROUPING DATA How people group informaticn can emphasize certain patterns in the data, In turn, this can influence how readers interpret it. Imagine you are ‘creating a map based on the data in the table. | mi900'"" | 2015 estimate | Change NewYork | aaava0z | a.ss040s | -5113.000 Chicago | _sc0asrs| 2720500 | ssoatart Philadelphia | 120007 | sserzeaa| 270745 St. Louis 975,208 ansee5 | 250.569 45% | Boston 200,802 eorsar| oes | 0% | Baltimore | 508,957 ee | Cleveland aeres| _eeaore|__-0.008 26 Butfalo 352,987 ee ee san 342702 aeaer6 | sana] 1s2%| Francisco | Gineinnani_| 22502] 200,550] 2750 1. Ifyou use large dots to show cities of three million or more people in 1900 and small dots forthe other cities, what impression would the map give readers about the relative size of cities? 2. If you use large dots to show cities of 600,000 or more people in 1900 and small dots forthe other cities, what impression would the _map give readers about the relative size of cities? 3. If you use an upward-pointing arrowhead for cities that increased in population and a downward-pointing arrowhead for cities that decreased in population, what would you be emphasizing? 44. Ifyou use large, medium, and small dots, into what three classes ‘would you divide the cities based on their population in 2015? 5. If you divided the cities into three categories by percentage of change, what classes would you use? Explain. 16 Amsco* ap*Human GEOGRAPHY