Chipless RFID System for Barcode Replacement

by

Stevan Preradovic

Submitted to the Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering,

in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

at

Monash University

December 2009
 To

My Parents Radivoj & Zorka Preradovic

 Statement of Originality
The work presented in this thesis is to the best of the author’s knowledge and belief
original, except as acknowledged in the text. The material has not been submitted,
either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university.

Stevan Preradovic

i
 Copyright

Under the Copyright Act 1968, this thesis must be used only under the normal
conditions of scholarly fair dealing. In particular no results or conclusions should be
extracted from it, nor should it be copied or closely paraphrased in whole or in part
without the written consent of the author. Proper written acknowledgement should be
made for any assistance obtained from this thesis.

I certify that I have made all reasonable efforts to secure copyright permissions for
third-party content included in this thesis and have not knowingly added copyright
content to my work without the owner's permission.

ii
 Abstract

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a modern wireless data transmission and

reception technique for applications including automatic identification, asset tracking

and security surveillance. As barcodes and other means of identification and asset

tracking are inadequate for recent demands, RFID technology has attracted interest for

applications such as logistics, supply chain management, asset tracking, and security

access control. However, the cost of RFID limits their potential for the replacement of

trillions of barcodes each year. The only possible solution is a fully printable chipless

RFID tag.

A novel RFID system comprised of a chipless RFID tag and an associated reader is

reported in the thesis. The chipless tag is a fully-passive microwave circuit and uses

spectral signatures for data encoding. The tag consists of a multi-resonator coupled to

transmitting and receiving antennas. To accommodate multiple bits, the tag operates

over the ultra wideband (UWB) frequency spectrum. UWB antennas are used to

receive the interrogation signal sent from the reader and transmit the signal back to

the reader after performing modulation of the frequency spectra with the multi-

resonator. Modulation is performed in both amplitude and phase of the spectrum. A

chipless tag up to 35 bits which operate over 3-7 GHz band has been designed.

After the successful design of the chipless tag, three prototype readers have been

developed. The Gen1 reader was designed to validate the chipless RFID concept

using 6-bit chipless tag reading based on amplitude-only detection in S-band; the

Gen2 reader is an upgraded version of Gen1 with both amplitude and phase detection

iii
capability; and the third generation reader is a UWB reader capable of reading up to

35-bits in the UWB band. The integrated reader is a complete system with analog RF

and digital control sections loaded with graphical user interface (GUI) and software

protocol. Both the hardware and software design of the RFID reader and field trials

of the designed chipless RFID system have been validated in the real world

environment. An investigation into antenna systems in order to enhance reading range

up to 70 cm has also been performed.

The unique features of the developed chipless RFID system are: (i) a low cost, fully

printable tag and (ii) secure, remote and non-line-of-sight operability. The importance

of this concept lies in the fact that chipless RFID tags become comparable to barcodes

in terms of the substrate material used and the cost of fabrication. The main

application of this chipless RFID system is in short-range tagging of extremely low

cost items such as the Australian polymer banknote.

iv
 List of Publications
Journal Articles:
 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, “Design of chipless RFID tag for operation on
flexible laminates”, IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters (accepted for
publication January 2010).

 S. Preradovic, I. Balbin, N. C. Karmakar, “Multiresonator based chipless RFID

system for low-cost item tracking”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, vol. 57, no. 5, pp:1411-1419, May 2009.

 S. Preradovic, N.C. Karmakar, I. Balbin, “RFID Transponders”, IEEE Microwave

Magazine, vol. 9, no. 5, pp:90-103, October 2008.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Modern RFID Readers”, Microwave Journal, pp:85-

97, January September 2007.

 N. C. Karmakar, S. M. Roy, S. Jenvey, S. Preradovic, T. D. Vo, “Development of a

low-cost backscattered semi-active RFID tag at 2.4 GHz”, International Journal of
RF and Microwave Computer Aided Engineering, vol. 17, no. 6, pp: 574-582, Nov.
2007.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Chipless RFID – The barcode of the future”, IEEE

Microwave Magazine (submitted for review March 2010).

 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, “RFID system utilizing fully printable chipless

RFID transponder”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques
(submitted for revision December 2009).

Conference Articles:
 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, “4th generation multiresonator-based chipless RFID
tag utilizing spiral EBGs”, 40th European Microwave Conference 2010, Paris,
France, September - October 2010 (submitted for review February 2010).

 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, M. Zenere, “UWB chipless tag RFID reader

design”, IEEE International Conference on RFID-Technology and Applications,
Guangzhou, China, June 2010 (submitted for review February 2010).

 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, “Fully printable multiresonator based chipless

RFID system for low-cost item tracking”, International Microwave Symposium
2010, Anaheim, USA, May 2010 (Accepted 30th November 2009).

 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, “Chipless RFID tag for banknote tagging

applications”, Workshop on Applications of Radio Science WARS 2010
Conference, Canberra, Australia, February 2010.

v
 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Design of short range chipless RFID reader
prototype”, Fifth International Conference on Intelligent Sensors, Sensor
Networks and Information Processing, pp:307-312, Melbourne, Australia,
December 2009.

 S. Preradovic, S. Roy, N. Karmakar, “Fully printable multi-bit chipless RFID

transponder on flexible laminate”, Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference 2009,
pp:2371-2374, Singapore, December 2009.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Design of a fully printable planar chipless RFID

transponder with 35-bit data capacity”, 39th European Microwave Conference,
pp:13-16, Rome, Italy, September 2009.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Design of a fully printable chipless RFID tag on

flexible laminate for secure banknote applications”, International Conference on
Anti-counterfeiting, Security and Identification in Communications ICASID 2009,
pp:206-210, Hong Kong, August 2009.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, G. Swiegers, “A fully printable chipless RFID system

for low cost item tagging”, 11th Australian Symposium on Antennas, pp:22, Sydney,
Australia, February 2009.

 S. Preradovic, I. Balbin, N. C. Karmakar, “The development and design of a novel

chipless RFID system for low-cost item tracking”, Asia Pacific Microwave
Conference, pp:1-4, Hong Kong, December 2008.

 S. Preradovic, I. Balbin, N. Karmakar, G. Swiegers, “Chipless frequency signature

based RFID transponders”, 38th European Microwave Conference EuMC 2008,
pp:1723-1726, Amsterdam, Netherlands, October 2008.

 S. Preradovic, I. Balbin, N. Karmakar, G. Swiegers, “A novel chipless RFID system

based on planar multiresonators for barcode replacement”, IEEE RFID 2008,
pp:289-296, Las Vegas, USA, April 2008.

 S. Preradovic, I. Balbin, N. Karmakar, “Development of a low-cost semi-passive

transponder for sensor applications at 2.4 GHz”, International Symposium on
Communications and Information Technology ISCIT 2007, pp:131-135, Sydney,
Australia, October 2007.

 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, M. Ali, “The development of a low-cost agile RFID

reader”, 10th Australian Symposium on Antennas, pp:62, Sydney, Australia,
February 2007.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Design of a 2.4 GHz passive transponder using ADS

2005A”, 10th Australian Symposium on Antennas, pp:61, Sydney, Australia,
February 2007.

vi
 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Development of a simple low-cost RFID reader”,
International Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering ICECE 2006,
pp:112-115, Dhaka, Bangladesh, December 2006.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “RFID readers – a review”, International Conference

on Electrical and Computer Engineering ICECE 2006, pp:100-103, Dhaka,
Bangladesh, December 2006.

 S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “RFID transponders – a review”, International

Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering ICECE 2006, pp:96-99,
Dhaka, Bangladesh, December 2006.

 N. Karmakar, S. Roy, S. Preradovic, T. Vo, S. Jenvey, “Development of a low-cost

active RFID tag at 2.4 GHz”, 36th European Microwave Conference EuMC 2006,
pp: 1602-1605, Manchester, England, September 2006.

 S. Preradovic, G. Stojanovic, N. Karmakar, “The automated layout design of

monolithic inductors and transformers using EXPERT layout editor”, IEEE
Antennas and Propagations Society International Symposium 2006, pp: 593-596,
Albuquerque, USA, July 2006.

Book Chapter:
 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, “Modern RFID Readers – Review and Design”,
Smart Antennas for RFID, Wiley Science (to be published 2010)
ISBN9780470387641.

Patent:
 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, I. Balbin, S. M. Roy, “RFID Transponder”,
Australian Provisional Patent 2008901889, April 2008.

Workshop:
 S. Preradovic, N. C. Karmakar, “Recent development of chipless RFID for
Australia banknotes”, RFIday 2010 – Advances and Challenges in RFID
Technology, Tampere, Finland, April 2010.

vii
 Project Awards and Achievements

 Holder of the prestigious ARC Discovery Grant Scholarship during PhD candidature

 Winner of Student Challenge Competition (sponsored by THALES) at 38th European

Microwave Conference 2008, October 2008, Amsterdam.

 Shortlisted for APMC Prize Competition at Asia Pacific Microwave Conference 2008
in Hong Kong.

 Australian Provisional Patent “RF transponder” No. 2008901889 – protects the IP for
a fully printable chipless RFID transponder to be applied on Australian polymer
banknote.

 Based on the research findings and the above patent AUD $900,000 have been
granted to Monash University by the ARC and industry partners Securency Pty. Ltd
and Satnet Pty. Ltd for commercialization and refinement of the chipless RFID
system.

 Outcomes of the PhD research project have been presented at the ARC Major Grant
Expo 2008 held in Canberra as one of the top 10 projects predicted to have a
significant impact on society.

viii
 Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Nemai Chandra Karmakar for giving me the

opportunity to work on a delicate and interesting project such as the one presented in

this PhD thesis. Throughout the project, Dr. Karmakar gave me continuous guidance

and advice which greatly contributed to the successful completion of my PhD thesis.

We have weathered together the good and the bad, the highs and the lows during my

PhD candidature and have created a respectable and friendly relationship that will last

a life time.

The project work and the scholarship of the PhD candidate have been fully

supported by the Australian Research Council’s (ARC) large Discovery Project grant

DP0665523 “Chipless RFID for Barcode Replacement”. The work associated with the

design and development of this chipless RFID system has formed a substantial part of

a large ARC grant project.

I would like to thank my associate supervisor, Dr. Ahmet Sekercioglu for his

guidance and support during the writing of my thesis. His guidance in shaping the

structure of the thesis is very much appreciated.

Special thanks to Mr. Ian Reynolds who had etched out dozens and dozens of

printed circuit boards for me during my PhD candidature. His advise with printed

circuit board design and debugging some of my electronic circuits is highly

appreciated.

ix
 I would like to thank the members of the Mechanical and Electronic Workshops of

the Electrical & Computer Systems Engineering and in particular Mr. Tony

Brosinsky, Mr. Maurice Gay, Mr. Ray Chapman and Mr. Ray Cooper. Without their

sincere cooperation the project could not have been completed.

I record my appreciation to my friend and colleague Isaac Balbin for his

encouragement, pleasant company and generous support. We have experienced

together the good and the bad of PhD student life and become great friends in the

process. A special thanks to my friend Dr. Sushim Mukul Roy for his generous

support and friendship during my PhD candidature. Also, a special thanks to my

friends and colleagues Hamze Msheik, Ashish Singh, Vajira Amaratunga, Chettiya

Dinassayake, Michael Zenere, Duc Trung Vo and Gauri Nerlekar for their support.

The continuous support and love by my parents, Radivoj and Zorka Preradovic,

brother Dusan and grandmother Ljubinka have been the driving force throughout my

life and my PhD candidature. Their support and encouragement for my research

desire have greatly contributed to my success. I dedicate my thesis to my family who

experienced my absence during my PhD candidature.

x
 Table of Contents
Statement of Originality ............................................................................................. i
Copyright .................................................................................................................. ii
Abstract.................................................................................................................... iii
List of Publications.................................................................................................... v
Project Awards and Achievements ......................................................................... viii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xiv
List of Tables ....................................................................................................... xviii
List of Abbreviations.............................................................................................. xix
List of Major Symbols............................................................................................ xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Radio Frequency Identification............................................................................ 1
1.2 RFID Applications............................................................................................... 2
1.3 Limitations of Barcodes and Emergence of RFID as an Enabling Technology ..... 4
1.4 Chipless RFID Systems ....................................................................................... 5
1.5 Proposed Chipless RFID System ......................................................................... 67
1.6 Thesis Objectives .............................................................................................. 10
1.7 Original Contributions ....................................................................................... 11
1.8 Thesis Outline ................................................................................................... 13 11
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems.......................................................... 17
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Difficulties of Achieving Low Cost RFID.......................................................... 17
2.3 Chipless RFID Tags– The Low Cost RFID Solution of the Future ..................... 19
2.3.1 Review of Chipless RFID Tags....................................................................... 19
2.4 Modern RFID Readers....................................................................................... 24
2.4.1 RFID Reader Architecture .............................................................................. 25
2.4.2 Review of RFID Readers ................................................................................ 27
2.4.3 Towards Universal Reader Design .................................................................. 32
2.5 Chipless RFID System Specifications................................................................ 33
2.6 Proposed Chipless RFID Tag............................................................................. 36
2.7 Proposed Chipless RFID Reader........................................................................ 38
2.8 Conclusions and Motivation .............................................................................. 40
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators................................................................................... 43
3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 43
3.2 Theoretical Modelling of Spiral Resonator......................................................... 43
3.2.1 Spiral Resonator Modelling Using Distributed Components............................ 46
3.2.2 Spiral Resonator Modelling Using Coupled Lines........................................... 46
3.3 Parametric Study of Microstrip Spiral Resonator on PCB .................................. 53
3.4 Problems of Migration to Thin Flexible Substrates ............................................ 60
3.5 CPW Spiral Resonator for Chipless Tag on Flexible Substrate........................... 63
3.6 The Multiresonator – Cascaded Spiral Resonators ............................................. 66
3.6.1 Multiresonator on PCB Using Microstrip Technology .................................... 67
3.6.2 Multiresonator on Thin Flexible Laminate Using CPW Technology ............... 69
3.7 Encoding Data Using Novel “Spiral Shorting” Technique ................................. 71
3.8 Interference and Frequency Shifts of Cascaded Spiral Resonators...................... 73
3.9 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 76
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas...................................................................... 79
4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 79

xi
4.2 Theory............................................................................................................... 80
4.2.1 UWB Disc-Loaded Monopole Antennas for Chipless Tag .............................. 80
4.2.2 Log Periodic Dipole Antennas for Chipless Tag RFID Reader ........................ 82
4.3 Design ............................................................................................................... 82
4.3.1 Design of Microstrip Fed UWB Monopole ..................................................... 83
4.3.2 Design of CPW Fed UWB Monopole ............................................................. 85
4.3.3 Design of Log Periodic Dipole Antennas ........................................................ 89
4.4 Results............................................................................................................... 92
4.4.1 Microstrip Fed UWB Monopole Antenna Results ........................................... 92
4.4.2 CPW Fed UWB Monopole Results ................................................................. 97
4.4.3 Log Periodic Dipole Antenna Results ............................................................100
4.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................................103
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag ...............................................................................106
5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................106
5.2 Chipless RFID Tag Operating Principle............................................................107
5.3 Chipless RFID Tag Development .....................................................................107 109
5.4 Design ..............................................................................................................110
5.4.1 Proof of Concept Six-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB ....................................111
5.4.2 UWB 35-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB .......................................................112
5.4.3 UWB 23-bit Chipless RFID Tag on Thin Flexible Laminate ..........................114
5.5 Field Trials .......................................................................................................116
5.5.1 Six-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB................................................................118
5.5.2 UWB 35-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB .......................................................121
5.5.3 UWB 23-bit Chipless RFID Tag on Thin Flexible Laminate ..........................123
5.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................125
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader .............................106 127
6.1 Introduction......................................................................................................127
6.2 Differences Between Chipped and Chipless Tag Readers..................................129
6.3 Transceiver Specifications for Chipless Tag Reader..........................................129 131
6.4 Design ............................................................................................................135
6.4.1 Gen-1 Transceiver .........................................................................................139 136
6.4.2 Gen-2 Transceiver .........................................................................................139
6.4.3 UWB Transceiver ..........................................................................................139 141
6.5 Results..............................................................................................................145
6.5.1 Gen-1 Transceiver .........................................................................................146
6.5.2 Gen-2 Transceiver .........................................................................................155
6.5.3 UWB Transceiver ..........................................................................................163
6.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................168
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System ....................................................171
7.1 Introduction......................................................................................................171
7.2 Application and Implementation Constraints ....................................................173
7.3 Chipless RFID Tag – Reader System Components............................................173 176
7.3.1 Chipless RFID Tags.......................................................................................177
7.3.2 RFID Reader Digital Control Section.............................................................177 178
7.3.3 Chipless Tag RFID Reader Devices...............................................................180
7.3.4 Chipless RFID Reader Tag Interrogation/Detection Algorithm ......................177 182
7.3.5 Application Software for Chipless RFID System ...........................................184
7.4 Field Trials .......................................................................................................171
186
7.4.1 6-bit Proof-of-Concept RFID Chipless Tag – Reader System Field Trials ......187
7.4.2 UWB RFID Chipless Tag – Reader System Field Trials ................................187 199

xii
7.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................207
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work..............................................................211
8.1 Fulfilling the Thesis Objectives ........................................................................212
8.2 Future Work and Open Issues ...........................................................................219
References .............................................................................................................220
221

xiii
 List of Figures
FIG. 1-1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL RFID SYSTEM. .......................................................................1
FIG. 1-2 PRINCIPAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM..........................................7
FIG. 1-3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED CHIPLESS RFID TAG................................................................ 8
FIG. 1-4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED CHIPLESS RFID READER.......................................................... 9
FIG. 1-5 THESIS OBJECTIVES. ............................................................................................................. 11
FIG. 2-1 RFID LABEL/TAG MANUFACTURING PROCESS. ....................................................................... 18
FIG. 2-2 CLASSIFICATION OF CHIPLESS RFID TAGS. ............................................................................ 20
FIG. 2-3 MASTER-SLAVE PRINCIPLE BETWEEN THE APPLICATION SOFTWARE AND THE READER ............. 25
FIG. 2-4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL RFID READER. ..................................................................... 25
FIG. 2-5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE RF SECTION OF A RFID READER...................................................... 26
FIG. 2-6 CLASSIFICATION OF RFID READERS AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET AND OPEN LITERATURE. ....... 27
FIG. 2-7 SYSTEM-LEVEL OVERVIEW OF THE RANGEMASTER EMBEDDED RFID READER........................ 33
FIG. 2-8 CHIPLESS RFID TAG CIRCUIT BLOCK DIAGRAM...................................................................... 37
FIG. 2-9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF GEN1 AND GEN 2 CHIPLESS RFID READER. ............................................ 38
FIG. 2-10 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED UWB CHIPLESS RFID READER (7-9 GHZ). ........................... 40
FIG. 3-1 LAYOUT OF SPIRAL RESONATOR PLACED NEXT TO A MICROSTRIP LINE. ................................... 45
FIG. 3-2 CST SURFACE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION OF SPIRAL RESONATOR AT A) 2 GHZ AND B) 2.1 GHZ. 46
FIG. 3-3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL OF SPIRAL RESONATOR COUPLED TO MICROSTRIP LINE [116]...... 47
FIG. 3-4 SPIRAL RESONATOR CIRCUIT DIVIDED INTO SECTIONS. ........................................................... 49
FIG. 3-5 TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL OF SPIRAL RESONATOR BASED ON COUPLED LINES. ...................... 50
FIG. 3-6 CONVENTIONAL STEPS FOR SPIRAL RESONATOR DESIGN. ........................................................ 51
FIG. 3-7 LAYOUT OF A SPIRAL RESONATOR WITH DEFINED LAYOUT PARAMETERS................................. 53
FIG. 3-8 SIMULATED AND MEASURED FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SPIRAL RESONATOR. .......................... 53
FIG. 3-9 VARIATION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY AND ATTENUATION AT RESONANT FREQUENCY............ 54
FIG. 3-10 VARIATION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY VS SPIRAL LENGTH. .................................................. 55
FIG. 3-11 VARIATION OF ATTENUATION WITH SEPARATION BETWEEN SPIRAL TURNS. ........................... 56
FIG. 3-12 VARIATION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY VS SEPARATION BETWEEN SPIRAL TURNS................... 57
FIG. 3-13 VARIATION OF ATTENUATION WITH SEPARATION BETWEEN SPIRAL TURNS. ........................... 57
FIG. 3-14 VARIATION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY WITH SPIRAL CONDUCTOR WIDTH.............................. 58
FIG. 3-15 VARIATION OF ATTENUATION WITH SPIRAL CONDUCTOR WIDTH. .......................................... 58
FIG. 3-16 VARIATION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY WITH Dgap ............................................................. 59
FIG. 3-17 VARIATION OF THE ATTENUATION WITH Dgap . ................................................................... 59
FIG. 3-18 VARIATION OF THE MICROSTRIP SPIRAL INSERTION LOSS WHEN PRINTED ON PCB TLX-0 ...... 61
FIG. 3-19 SIMULATED ATTENUATION USING TWO DIFFERENT COUPLING METHODS. .............................. 61
FIG. 3-20 LAYOUT OF 4 SAME SPIRALS DESIGNED IN ORDER TO INCREASE ATTENUATION. ..................... 62
FIG. 3-21 SIMULATED INSERTION LOSSES USING ONE, TWO AND SIX SPIRAL RESONATORS. .................... 62
FIG. 3-22 A CO-PLANAR WAVEGUIDE (CPW). ..................................................................................... 63
FIG. 3-23 LAYOUT OF SPIRAL RESONATOR ETCHED OUT IN A CPW STRIP LINE. ..................................... 64
FIG. 3-24 SIMULATED FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SPIRAL RESONATOR ETCHED OUT IN A CPW STRIP ...... 65
FIG. 3-25 CPW SPIRAL RESONANT FREQUENCY AND ATTENUATION VS SPIRAL LENGTH. ....................... 66
FIG. 3-26 LAYOUT OF 6-BIT MULTIRESONATOR IN ADS MOMENTUM 2008........................................... 67
FIG. 3-27 PHOTOGRAPH OF 6-BIT MULTIRESONATOR ON TACONIC TLX-0. ........................................... 67
FIG. 3-28 MEASURED INSERTION LOSS AND TRANSMISSION PHASE OF 6-BIT MULTIRESONATOR............. 68
FIG. 3-29 LAYOUT OF CPW 3-BIT MULTIRESONATOR IN ADS MOMENTUM 2008.................................. 69
FIG. 3-30 PHOTOGRAPH OF MANUFACTURED CPW 3-BIT MULTIRESONATOR ON 90 ΜM TACONIC.......... 70
FIG. 3-31 MEASURED INSERTION LOSS AND TRANSMISSION PHASE OF CPW 3-BIT MULTIRESONATOR.... 70
FIG. 3-32 PHOTOGRAPH OF REMOVING SPIRAL RESONANCES VIA SPIRAL SHORTING FOR MICROSTRIP. ... 71
FIG. 3-33 PHOTOGRAPH OF REMOVING SPIRAL RESONANCES VIA SPIRAL SHORTING FOR CPW. ............. 72
FIG. 3-34 FREQUENCY SHIFT OF RESONANT FREQUENCY WITH SHORT-CIRCUITED SPIRAL...................... 72
FIG. 3-35 MEASURED INSERTION LOSSES OF CHIPLESS TAGS WITH DIFFERENT SPECTRAL SIGNATURES... 73
FIG. 3-36 MEASURED TRANSMISSION PHASES OF CHIPLESS TAGS WITH DIFFERENT SPECTRAL................ 73
FIG. 3-37 INSERTION LOSSES OF SIX SPIRAL RESONATORS IN THE MULTIRESONATOR............................. 75
FIG. 3-38 INSERTION LOSSES OF THREE SPIRAL RESONATORS IN THE MULTIRESONATOR........................ 75
FIG 4-1 UWB MONOPOLE OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLE. ........................................................................... 81
FIG. 4-2 UWB MONOPOLE ANTENNA WITH MICROSTRIP FEED AND DEFINED LAYOUT PARAMETERS. ...... 83

xiv
FIG. 4-3 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE MANUFACTURED UWB MONOPOLE WITH DEFINED LAYOUT PARAMETER 84
FIG. 4-4 UWB MONOPOLE ANTENNA WITH LAYOUT PARAMETERS ....................................................... 85
FIG. 4-5 PHOTOGRAPH OF CPW FED UWB MONOPOLE........................................................................ 86
FIG. 4-6 VARIATION OF ANTENNA FUNDAMENTAL MODE AND 10DB RETURN LOSS BANDWIDTH ........... 86
FIG. 4-7 VARIATION OF ANTENNA FUNDAMENTAL MODE AND 10DB RETURN LOSS BANDWIDTH............ 87
FIG. 4-8 VARIATION OF FUNDAMENTAL MODE AND 10DB RETURN LOSS BANDWIDTH WITH WGND........ 87
FIG. 4-9 VARIATION OF ANTENNA RETURN LOSS AND 10DB BANDWIDTH WITH LGAP ........................... 87
FIG. 4-10 SIMULATED T X AND RX TAG ANTENNA RETURN LOSSES ONCE INTEGRATED INTO TAG ........... 88
FIG. 4-11 LAYOUT OF LOG PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY WITH LAYOUT DEFINED PARAMETERS. .................. 90
FIG. 4-12 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE READER LPDA WITH DEFINED LAYOUT PARAMETERS.......................... 92
FIG. 4-13 MEASURED RETURN LOSS OF CHIPLESS RFID TAG UWB MONOPOLE ANTENNA...................... 93
FIG. 4-14 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE .......... 93
FIG. 4-15 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE . ........ 94
FIG. 4-16 MEASURED UWB CHIPLESS TAG ANTENNA RETURN LOSS..................................................... 94
FIG. 4-17 MEASURED TAG ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS AT 3 GHZ. ................................................ 95
FIG. 4-18 MEASURED TAG ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS AT 4 GHZ. ................................................ 95
FIG. 4-19 MEASURED TAG ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS AT 5 GHZ. ................................................ 96
FIG. 4-20 MEASURED TAG ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS AT 6 GHZ. ................................................ 96
FIG. 4-21 MEASURED TAG ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS AT 7GHZ.................................................. 96
FIG. 4-22 MEASURED UWB CHIPLESS TAG PEAK GAIN. ....................................................................... 97
FIG. 4-23 MEASURED RETURN LOSS OF CHIPLESS RFID TAG UWB MONOPOLE ANTENNA. .................... 97
FIG. 4-24 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE .......... 98
FIG. 4-25 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE. ......... 98
FIG. 4-26 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE . ........ 99
FIG. 4-27 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE . ........ 99
FIG. 4-28 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE. ......... 99
FIG. 4-29 MEASURED CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF UWB MONOPOLE . ...... 100
FIG. 4-30 MEASURED PEAK GAIN OF CHIPLESS RFID TAG UWB MONOPOLE ANTENNA. ...................... 100
FIG. 4-31 MEASURED RETURN LOSS AND GAIN OF LPDA READER ANTENNA. ..................................... 101
FIG. 4-32 MEASURED NEAR-FIELD CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF LPDA . .... 101
FIG. 4-33 MEASURED NEAR-FIELD CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF LPDA...... 102
FIG. 4-34 MEASURED FAR-FIELD CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF LPDA ........ 102
FIG. 4-35 MEASURED FAR-FIELD CO-POLAR AND CROSS-POLAR RADIATION PATTERNS OF LPDA. ....... 102
FIG. 5-1 CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM SIGNAL FLOW DIAGRAM................................................................. 107
FIG. 5-2 POTENTIAL CONVEYOR BELT APPLICATION FOR PROPOSED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM. ............. 108
FIG. 5-3 CHIPLESS TAG DESIGN PROCESS. ......................................................................................... 109
FIG. 5-4 CHIPLESS TAG LAYOUT WITH PARAMETERS ON T ACONIC TLX-0 LAMINATE. ......................... 111
FIG. 5-5 PHOTOGRAPH OF CHIPLESS RFID TAG ON TACONIC TLX-0 LAMINATE. ................................ 112
FIG. 5-6 LAYOUT OF INTEGRATED UWB 35-BIT CHIPLESS TAG WITH DESIGN PARAMETERS. ................ 113
FIG. 5-7 AUSTRALIAN $50 BANKNOTE WITH DIMENSIONS.................................................................. 113
FIG. 5-8 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE UWB 35-BIT CHIPLESS RFID TAG WITH DIMENSIONS ON T ACONIC ...... 114
FIG. 5-9 LAYOUT OF INTEGRATED FLEXIBLE CPW 23-BIT CHIPLESS TAG WITH DESIGN PARAMETERS .. 115
FIG. 5-10 PHOTOGRAPH OF 23-BIT CHIPLESS RFID TAG ON TACONIC TF-290..................................... 115
FIG. 5-11 CHIPLESS RFID TAG EXPERIMENT (A) BLOCK DIAGRAM AND (B) PHOTOGRAPH.................... 117
FIG. 5-12 CROSS-POLARIZED READER ANTENNAS MOUNTED ON A PLASTIC STAND.............................. 117
FIG. 5-13 MEASURED ISOLATION BETWEEN CROSS-POLARIZED TAG ANTENNAS.................................. 118
FIG. 5-14 AMPLITUDE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END. .................... 119
FIG. 5-15 RECEIVED SIGNALS BY READER FOR CHIPLESS TAG AT 5CM ROTATED BY 180 . .................... 119
FIG. 5-16 PHASE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END. ............................ 120
FIG. 5-17 PHASE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END ............................. 121
FIG. 5-18 PHOTOGRAPH OF MANUFACTURED 35-BIT CHIPLESS TAG MULTIRESONATOR ....................... 122
FIG. 5-19 MEASURED AMPLITUDE OF TAG SPECTRAL SIGNATURE AND MULTIRESONATING CIRCUIT..... 122
FIG. 5-20 MEASURED PHASE OF TAG SPECTRAL SIGNATURE AND MULTIRESONATING CIRCUIT............. 123
FIG. 5-21 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE 23 SPIRAL MULTIRESONATING CIRCUIT ON TF-290. ........................... 124
FIG. 5-22 MEASURED TAG INSERTION LOSS OF 23 BIT TAG ID “0X000000”. ....................................... 124
FIG. 5-23 MEASURED TAG TRANSMISSION PHASE OF 23 BIT TAG ID “0X000000”................................ 124
FIG. 6-1 DEVELOPED CHIPLESS TAG RFID READERS.......................................................................... 128
FIG. 6-2 CONVENTIONAL RFID READER FRONT END ISOLATION ARCHITECTURES ............................... 133
FIG. 6-3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF GEN-1 TRANSCEIVER........................................................................... 136
FIG. 6-4 PHOTOGRAPH OF GEN-1 TRANSCEIVER. ............................................................................... 136

xv
FIG. 6-5 DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT A) AND DIODE MODEL B) DESIGNED USING ADS 2008A. ............... 138
FIG. 6-6 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER........................................................................... 139
FIG. 6-7 PHOTOGRAPH OF GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER. ............................................................................... 140
FIG. 6-8 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF UWB TRANSCEIVER. ........................................................................... 142
FIG. 6-9 PHOTOGRAPH OF UWB TRANSCEIVER. ................................................................................ 142
FIG. 6-10 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSCEIVER TESTING EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR TAG DETECTION..... 145
FIG. 6-11 MEASURED GEN-1 TRANSMITTER OUTPUT POWER AND VCO TUNNING VOLTAGE. ............... 147
FIG. 6-12 MEASURED GEN-1 TRANSMITTER VCO OUTPUT. ............................................................... 147
FIG. 6-13 MEASURED RETURN LOSS (S11) AND GAIN (S21) OF VNA-25 POWER AMPLIFUER................ 148
FIG. 6-14 MEASURED GEN-1 TRANSMITTER OUTPUT POWER AND VCO TUNNING VOLTAGE. ............... 148
FIG. 6-15 MEASURED GEN-1 TRANSMITTER OUTPUT SPECTRUM ........................................................ 149
FIG. 6-16 MEASURED GEN-1 TRANSMITTER OUTPUT SPECTRUM FROM 0 – 10 GHZ ............................ 149
FIG. 6-17 MEASURED GEN-1 TRANSMITTER OUTPUT SPECTRUM FROM 0 – 10 GHZ ............................ 150
FIG. 6-18 MEASURED GEN-1 TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER ISOLATION. ................................................... 150
FIG. 6-19 MEASURED GEN-1 DIODE DETECTOR LEAKAGE OFFSET. ..................................................... 151
FIG. 6-20 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR MEASURING RECEIVER SENSITIVITY.......................................... 151
FIG. 6-21 MEASURED GEN-1 RECEIVER SENSITIVITY. ........................................................................ 152
FIG. 6-22 PHOTOGRAPH OF GEN-1 TESTING EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR WIRED 6-BIT TAG DETECTION. 153
FIG. 6-23 MEASURED SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF MULTIRESONATOR ................................................... 154
FIG. 6-24 DIFFERENT SPECTRAL SIGNATURES OF MULTIRESONATOR. ................................................. 155
FIG. 6-25 MEASURED AD8302 DC OUTPUT BASED ON AMPLITUDE DIFFERENCE. .............................. 156
FIG. 6-26 MEASURED AD8302 DC OUTPUT BASED ON PHASE DIFFERENCE. ....................................... 156
FIG. 6-27 MEASURED GEN-2 TRANSMITTER OUTPUT POWER AND VCO TUNNING VOLTAGE. ............... 157
FIG. 6-28 MEASURED GEN-2 TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER ISOLATION. ................................................... 158
FIG. 6-29 MEASURED GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER PHASE ERROR. ................................................................ 159
FIG. 6-30 MEASURED GEN-2 RECEIVER SENSITIVITY. ........................................................................ 160
FIG. 6-31 PHOTOGRAPH OF GEN-2 TESTING EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR WIRED 6-BIT TAG DETECTION. 161
FIG. 6-32 MEASURED AMPLITUDE SPECTRAL SIGNATURE USING AGILENT’S PNA AND GEN-2 TRANS. . 162
FIG. 6-33 MEASURED PHASE SPECTRAL SIGNATURE USING AGILENT’S PNA AND GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER162
FIG. 6-34 DIFFERENT MEASURED AMPLITUDE SPECTRAL SIGNATURES USING GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER. .... 162
FIG. 6-35 DIFFERENT MEASURED PHASE SPECTRAL SIGNATURES USING GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER. ............ 163
FIG. 6-36 PHOTOGRAPH OF UWB TRANSCEIVER EXPERIMENTAL SETUP. ............................................ 164
FIG. 6-37 SPECTRUM OF RECEVED TAG SIGNAL AFTER DOWN-CONVERSION. ....................................... 164
FIG. 6-38 DIGITIZED AMPLITUDE AND PHASE 17-BIT SPECTRAL SIGNATURE . ...................................... 165
FIG. 6-39 MEASURED SENSITIVITY OF UWB RECEIVER. .................................................................... 166
FIG. 6-40 MEASURED TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER ISOLATION OF UWB RECEIVER. ................................ 166
FIG. 6-41 UWB TELEDYNE YIG OSCILLATOR MOUNTED ON HEAT SINK. ............................................ 167
FIG. 7-1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONVEYOR BELT APPLICATION FOR CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM. ................ 174
FIG. 7-2 6-BIT PROOF-OF-CONCEPT CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM COMPONENTS......................................... 176
FIG. 7-3 UWB CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM COMPONENTS....................................................................... 177
FIG. 7-4 CHIPLESS RFID TAGS: (A) MICROSTRIP TAG WITH 6 BITS OF DATA AND (B) CPW TAG . .......... 177
FIG. 7-5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CHIPLESS RFID READER DIGITAL CONTROL SECTION. ........................... 178
FIG. 7-6 PHOTOGRAPH OF RFID READER DIGITAL SECTION. .............................................................. 179
FIG. 7-7 PHOTOGRAPH OF UPGRADED DIGITAL/CONTROL SECTION FOR UWB RFID READER............... 180
FIG. 7-8 PHOTOGRAPH OF GEN-1 RFID READER WITH DIODE DETECTOR............................................ 181
FIG. 7-9 PHOTOGRAPH OF GEN-2 RFID READER WITH GAIN/PHASE DETECTOR. .................................. 181
FIG. 7-10 PHOTOGRAPH OF UWB RFID READER CIRCUIT.................................................................. 181
FIG. 7-11 FLOW CHART OF THE RFID READER ID DECODING ALGORITHM. ......................................... 183
FIG. 7-12 FLOW CHART OF THE PC SOFTWARE APPLICATION ALGORITHM. ......................................... 185
FIG. 7-13 SCREEN CAPTURE OF PC SOFTWARE APPLICATION. ............................................................ 186
FIG. 7-14 FLOW CHART OF THE FIELD TRIALS CONDUCTED FOR CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM. .................... 187
FIG. 7-15 CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM . ....................................................................... 187
FIG. 7-16 CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM EXPERIMENTAL SETUP. ................................................................ 188
FIG. 7-17 MEASURED ISOLATION BETWEEN CROSS-POLARIZED READER AND TAG ANTENNAS.............. 189
FIG. 7-18 AMPLITUDE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END ..................... 190
FIG. 7-19 AMPLITUDE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END ..................... 190
FIG. 7-20 RECEIVED SIGNALS BY READER FOR CHIPLESS TAGS AT 5CM ROTATED BY 180. ................... 191
FIG. 7-21 PHASE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END. ............................ 192
FIG. 7-22 PHASE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END ............................. 193
FIG. 7-23 PHASE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END ............................. 193

xvi
FIG. 7-24 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP USING DIRECTIVE LPDA’S . ...................... 194
FIG. 7-25 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP IN THE LABORATORY...................................... 195
FIG. 7-26 RECEIVED POWER LEVELS BY READER FOR CHIPLESS TAGS AT 5CM. .................................... 195
FIG. 7-27 PHASE VARIATIONS OF THE RECEIVED TAG SIGNAL AT THE READER END ............................. 196
FIG. 7-28 PHOTOGRAPH OF RFID READER IN OPERATING MODE......................................................... 197
FIG. 7-29 RECORDED AMPLITUDE OF TAG’S SPECTRAL SIGNATURE AFTER CALIBRATION..................... 198
FIG. 7-30 RECORDED PHASE OF TAG’S SPECTRAL SIGNATURE AFTER CALIBRATION............................. 198
FIG. 7-31 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE ANECHOIC CHAMBER SETUP. ....................................................... 200
FIG. 7-32 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP IN THE ANECHOIC CHAMBER. .......................... 200
FIG. 7-33 PHOTOGRAPH OF CROSS-POLARIZED HORN ANTENNAS USED AT READER END. ..................... 201
FIG. 7-34 MEASURED ISOLATION BETWEEN CROSS-POLARIZED READER HORN ANTENNAS................... 201
FIG. 7-35 NORMALIZED MAGNITUDE VARIATION VS FREQUENCY OF CHIPLESS RFID TAG . ................. 202
FIG. 7-36 NORMALIZED PHASE VARIATION VS FREQUENCY OF CHIPLESS RFID TAG. ........................... 202
FIG. 7-37 NUMBER OF SUCCESSFULLY DETECTED BITS VS DISTANCE OF TAG FROM READER. ............... 203
FIG. 7-38 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP IN THE LABORATORY...................................... 204
FIG. 7-39 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 2ND GEN UWB RF SECTION................................................................ 205
FIG. 7-40 NORMALIZED 8-BIT DIGITIZED TAG AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRAL SIGNATURE.............. 206

xvii
 List of Tables
TABLE 2-1 SPECIFICATIONS FOR CHIPLESS RFID TAG ......................................................................... 35
TABLE 2-2 SPECIFICATIONS FOR CHIPLESS RFID TAG READER............................................................. 36
TABLE 3-1 ADS SCHEMATIC COMPONENTS USED IN THE TRANSMISSION LINE MODE OF SPIRAL ............ 51
TABLE 3-2 RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF MICROSTRIP SPIRAL RESONATORS UNDER DIFFERENT DESIGN .. 74
TABLE 3-3 RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF CPW SPIRAL RESONATORS .................................................... 75
TABLE 6-1 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE GEN-1 AND GEN-2 TRANSCEIVERS. ........................................... 134
TABLE 6-2 SPECIFICATIONS FOR UWB TRANSCEIVER. ...................................................................... 135
TABLE 6-3 GEN-1 TRANSCEIVER RF COMPONENT SPECIFICATIONS. ................................................... 137
TABLE 6-4 GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER RF COMPONENT SPECIFICATIONS. ................................................... 141
TABLE 6-5 UWB TRANSCEIVER RF COMPONENT SPECIFICATIONS. .................................................... 143
TABLE 6-6 GEN-1 TRANSCEIVER PRE-DESIGN AND TESTED SPECIFICATIONS. ...................................... 153
TABLE 6-7 GEN-2 TRANSCEIVER PRE-DESIGN AND TESTED SPECIFICATIONS. ...................................... 160
TABLE 6-8 UWB TRANSCEIVER PRE-DESIGN AND TESTED SPECIFICATIONS. ....................................... 167
TABLE 7-1 AMPLITUDE AND PHASE DIFFERENCES VS READING DISTANCE OF DIFFERENT BITS. ............ 191
TABLE 7-2 AMPLITUDE AND PHASE DIFFERENCES VS READING DISTANCE OF DIFFERENT TAG BITS. ..... 196
TABLE 7-3 AMPLITUDE AND PHASE DIFFERENCES VS FREQUENCY BETWEEN TWO TAGS ...................... 206

xviii
 List of Abbreviations
1D One Dimensional
2D Two Dimensional
3D Three Dimensional
A Ampere
AC Alternating Current
ADC Analog to Digital Converter
ADS Advanced Design System
ARC Australian Research Council
ASIC Application Specific Integrated Circuit
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
AUD Australian Dollar
BP Battery Powered
BPF Band Pass Filter
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
BW Bandwidth
CAD Computer Aided Design
cm Centimetre
CPU Central Processing Unit
CPW Co-Planar Waveguide
CS Chip Select
CST Computer Simulation Technology
CW Continuous Wave
DAC Digital to Analog Converter
dB Decibel
dBi Gain Expressed in dB with Respect to an Isotropic Radiator
DC Direct Current
DGS Defected Ground Structure
DSP Digital Signal Processing/Processor
EAS Electronic Article Surveillance
ECSE Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering
EIRP Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
EM Electromagnetic
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FPAA Field Programmable Analog Array
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array
FSS Frequency Selective Surface
Gen1 Generation 1
Gen2 Generation 2
GHz Gigahertz
GS Gigasample
GUI Graphical User Interface
H Henry
HF High Frequency
IC Integrated Circuit
IDT Interdigital Transducer
IF Intermediate Frequency
IL Insertion Loss

xix
ISM Industrial Scientific and Medical
kg Kilogram
KHz Kilohertz
LED Light Emitting Diode
LNA Low Noise Amplifier
LO Local Oscillator
LOS Line-of-Sight
LPDA Log Periodic Dipole Antenna
mA Milliampere
MAG Magnitude
MHz Megahertz
MIT Massachussets Institute of Technology
mm Millimetre
MoM Method of Moments
mV Millivolts
NLIS National Livestock Information System
nH Nanohenry
PA Power Amplifier
PC Personal Computer
PCB Printed Circuit Board
pF Picofarad
PSK Phase Shift Keying
PNA Performance Network Analyser
QF Quality Factor
RCS Radar Cross Section
RF Radio Frequency
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer
RL Return Loss
RLC Resistance-Inductor-Capacitor
RTB RF-to-Baseband
Rx Receiver
SAW Surface Acoustic Wave
SDMA Space Division Multiple Access
sec Second
sin Sine
SMA Sub Miniature Type A
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
TDR Time Domain Reflectometry
TFTC Thin Film Transistor Circuits
Tx Transmitter
UHF Ultra-High Frequency
USA United States of America
UWB Ultra-Wide Band
V Volt
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator
VNA Vector Network Analyser
W Watts
WORM Write Once Read Many
YIG Yttrium Iron Garnet

xx
 List of Major Symbols

CD Distributed Spiral Capacitance

Ri Spiral Inner Radius
Ro Spiral Outer Radius
ρ Charge Density
q Charge Quantity
LD Distributed Spiral Inductance
Loi Self Inductance of Spiral Turn i
M Mutual inductance Between Spiral Turns When the Current is in
Concurrent Directions
M Mutual inductance Between Spiral Turns When the Current is in
Opposite Directions
M j , j 1 Mutual Inductance between Spiral Segments i and j
fr Resonant Frequency
Le Equivalent Inductance
Ce Equivalent Capacitance
Rn Separation Between LPDA Elements
ln 1 Length of Dipole Arm
σ LPDA Spacing Factor
α Angle Factor of LPDA
τ LPDA Geometric Ratio
Bs Antenna Bandwidth
L Antenna Length
 Wavelength
c Velocity of Light in Free Space (2.997925  108 m )
s
N Number of LPDA Elements
Za Characteristic Impedance of LPDA Elements
Z0 Characteristic Impedance of Transmission Line
Z in Input Impedance
εr Relative Dielectric Constant

xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Radio Frequency Identification

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a wireless data capturing technique which

utilizes radio frequency (RF) waves for automatic identification of objects. RFID

relies on RF waves for data transmission between the data carrying device, called the

RFID tag, and the interrogator [1]-[2]

A typical RFID system is shown in Fig. 1-1. An RFID system consists of three

major components: a reader or interrogator, which sends the interrogation signals to

an RFID tag, which is to be identified; an RFID tag or transponder, which contains

the identification code; and middleware software, which maintains the interface and

the software protocol to encode and decode the identification data from the reader into

a mainframe or personal computer. The RFID reader can read tags only within the

reader’s interrogation zone. The reader is most commonly connected to a host

computer which performs additional signal processing and has a display of the tag’s

identity [3]. The host computer can also be connected via internet for global

connectivity/networking.

Clock

RFID Data RFID Tag

Reader
Global Host
Network Computer
Fig. 1-1 Block diagram of a typical RFID system.

RFID was first proposed by Stockman [4] in his landmark paper “Communication

by Means of Reflected Power” in 1948. Stockman advocates that by alternating the

load of the tag antenna it is possible to vary the amount of reflected power (also called

1
Chapter 1 Introduction

“antenna load modulation”) and therefore perform modulation. This new form of

wireless technology is now known as RFID. Since then researchers and engineers

have been working on developing low cost RFID systems. In the following section the

applications of RFID technology are presented.

1.2 RFID Applications

One of the biggest advantages of RFID technology in comparison to other

identification technologies is the option of automated identification and tracking. This

is possible due to the non-line-of-sight identification that comes with the use of RF

waves. Hence, RFID has found broad areas of application which include: supply chain

management and logistics, electronic article surveillance (EAS), document tracking,

luggage handling, vehicle tagging, security and access control, livestock tagging, the

automobile industry and sport.

With the implementation of RFID into supply chain management came the

automation of supply chain management operations and protocols, leading to

reduction of annual profit losses due to human error (scanning of goods manually)

and running out of stocks in retail outlets (RFID enables early detection of depleted

goods and resources). The first major retail chain to mandate and successfully

implement RFID in their supply chain management was Walmart [5].

Another major application of RFID is electronic article surveillance (EAS) which

utilizes ultra low cost 1-bit RFID tags to prevent the theft of goods and articles [6].

Although EAS provides almost no flexibility in terms of tag programmability their

low cost and reasonable detection range (0.5 metres) has made them extremely

2
Chapter 1 Introduction

popular in retail chains.

Since knowledge management is extremely important to any organization, the use

of RFID in document tagging has increased with the development of RFID

technology. Proper tracking of documents using RFID provides cost savings, reduced

need to locate, reproduce or rewrite lost documents, increases confidentiality and

prevents the loss of documents [7].

Another major application of RFID (especially in Australia) is the tagging of

livestock. Australia has a comprehensive National Livestock Information System

(NLIS) [8]. Under the umbrella of NLIS, every animal and pet in Australia must be e-

tagged. Recent outbreaks of mad cow disease and the resulting bans on the

importation of beef from some countries have forced Australia to adopt the NLIS in

order to establish quick and effective animal quarantines in the event of an outbreak

of disease.

Although RFID has found applications in many areas, there is no single RFID

system that meets the criteria for all applications. The reason for this is that some

features are required in some applications but not in others. For example, some

applications require short range (up to 1.5 m) low cost tags (luggage tagging) while

others require long range (over 20 m) and more robust tags (expensive equipment and

vehicle tagging). Hence, the design of a RFID system or choice of an RFID system is

determined by the application for which it will be used.

The following section will focus on the limitations of barcodes that have enabled

3
Chapter 1 Introduction

the emergence of RFID as the leading identification technology in the future.

1.3 Limitations of Barcodes and Emergence of RFID as an Enabling

Technology

Barcode labels have been used to track items and stocks for sometime after their

inception in the early 1970s. Though barcodes are printed in marks and spaces and

very cheap to implement, they present undeniable obstacles in terms of their short

range readability and non-automated tracking. These limitations currently cost large

corporations millions of dollars per annum [9].

The growing tendency today is to replace barcodes with RFID tags which have

unique ID codes for individual items that can be read at a longer distance. Hence, the

obstacles of reading range and automation would be solved using RFID. The only

reason why RFID tags have not replaced the barcode is the price of the tag. The cost

of an existing RFID tag is still much higher when compared to the price of the

barcode. A comprehensive overview of the available RFID tags in the market is

presented in [10].

The main cost of an RFID tag comes from the chip embedded as the information-

carrying and processing device in the tag. Significant investment and many

investigations have been focused on lowering the price of the RFID chip. As a result,

the price of the RFID tag has become lower and lower [11]-[12]. However, the price

of the RFID tag is still not competitive when compared to the cost of the barcode. The

recent development of chipless tags without silicon integrated circuits (ICs) has

4
Chapter 1 Introduction

lowered the cost of the tags to a level comparable to that of the barcode. However, the

technology is still at conceptual level.

The tagging of documents and large volumes of paper/plastic based items such as

postage stamps, tickets, banknotes and envelopes is a problem due to the relatively

high price of the tag. Chipless RFID tags that can be printed on paper and plastic

using conductive ink could prove to be a viable and economical solution. However,

the design of a fully-functional printable chipless RFID tag has not been reported to

date. Hence, a clear gap in current RFID technology can be found for tagging the

above-mentioned low cost items. A fully printable and chipless RFID technology has

been identified as a low cost, efficient, secure and reliable solution [13]. This project

reports the design of fully printable chipless tags based on passive microwave

resonators and antennas.

The following section provides a brief overview of chipless RFID systems based on

research published to date.

1.4 Chipless RFID Systems

The concept of chipless RFID tags [14] appears to be a promising solution for low

cost item tagging. In order to minimize cost, tags are made fully printable and without

ICs. Encoding data without an IC is achieved by two chipless tag encoding schemes:

time domain reflectometry (TDR) and spectral signatures.

To date, the only commercially successful chipless RFID system is that developed

by RFSAW© [15]. The RFSAW tag is based on surface acoustic waves (SAW) and

5
Chapter 1 Introduction

utilizes the TDR encoding scheme. Although SAW tags are fully functional and could

well replace chipped tags, they do not provide a fully printable solution due to their

piezoelectric nature, which cannot be printed on banknotes, postage stamps or other

paper/plastic based items. Hence, the problem of having a robust tagging system for

paper/plastic products remains open for research and development.

Printable TDR-based chipless tags have been reported in [16] and [17]. These tags

encode data using a train of precisely delayed back-scattered pulses of the

interrogation signal (1 ns pulse) by using multiple capacitive loadings at particular

points of the microstrip line. Each data bit requires a delay line which significantly

increases the size of the tag. The drawbacks of this technology are the number of bits

that can be encoded, the size of the tags and the amount of spectrum used.

Fully printable chipless RFID tags which use spectral signature encoding have been

reported using space filling curves [18] and capacitively tuned dipoles [19]. The space

filling curves require considerable layout modifications for data encoding. However,

the capacitively tuned dipoles may have undesired parasitic mutual coupling effects

and large layout areas restricting efficient data encoding.

1.5 Proposed Chipless RFID System

The present project will propose a fully printable chipless RFID system based on

multiresonators and cross-polarized ultra-wide band (UWB) monopole antennas. The

tag’s unique ID is encoded as the spectral signatures of the resonators. The main

differences between the proposed system and others reported in [18] and [19] are that

we encode data in both amplitude and phase and the operation is not based on radar

6
Chapter 1 Introduction

cross section (RCS) back-scattering. The proposed system works on retransmission of

the interrogation signal with the encoded unique spectral ID. The received and

transmitted signals are cross-polarized in order to achieve good isolation between the

two. Due to the robust design based on microwave engineering (multiresonators) and

antenna technology (cross-polarized Tx/Rx antennas), we believe to have achieved

less mutual coupling effects, greater number of possible bits and easier encoding than

that reported in [18] and [19].

Mag
Interrogation signal
Chipless freq spectrum
Phase
Tag
Tx reader
Rx tag freq antenna
antenna
Interrogation
Multi- Signal RFID
resonator Rx reader Reader
Encoded Tag antenna
Signal
Tx tag
antenna
0 01010
Mag
freq Tag response signal
Phase spectrum

freq
Fig. 1-2 Principal block diagram of proposed chipless RFID system.

As the proposed chipless RFID system uses spectral signatures for data encoding

and is fully passive, the tags do not need any power supply in order to operate [20].

The main application for this chipless RFID system is mainly short range (up to 40

cm) tagging of extremely low cost items. Hence, power limitation restrictions

(transmitted EIRP maximum of -45 dBm outdoors and -55 dBm indoors), does not

present a major concern for the proposed system. The principal block diagram of the

proposed chipless RFID system is shown in Fig. 1-2.

7
Chapter 1 Introduction

As can be seen in Fig. 1-2, the chipless tag encodes data in the frequency spectrum

and thus has a unique ID of spectral signatures. The spectral signature is obtained by

interrogating the tag by a continuous wave (CW) multi-frequency signal of uniform

amplitude and phase. The tag then receives the interrogation signal and encodes the

data into the frequency spectrum in both magnitude and phase. The encoded signal is

then retransmitted back to the reader. This allows the reader to use two criteria for

data decoding – amplitude and phase.

UWB Rx
Antenna
EM signal
from Reader
Multiresonator
Resonator Resonator Resonator
UWB Tx
1 2 N
Antenna
EM signal
to Reader

Fig. 1-3 Block diagram of proposed chipless RFID tag.

The chipless RFID tag consists of UWB antennas and a multiresonating circuit

operating in the UWB frequency spectrum as shown in Fig. 1-3. The UWB antennas

are used to receive the interrogation signal sent from the reader and transmit the signal

back to the reader after performing spectral signal modulation by the multiresonator.

The multiresonator is a combination of multiple filtering sections which are used to

modulate the spectrum of the interrogation signal sent by the reader. Modulation is

performed in both magnitude and phase of the spectrum. The magnitude and phase are

modulated in the forms of magnitude attenuations and phase jumps at the resonant

frequencies of the multiresonator, respectively.

The chipless RFID reader is an electronic device which can detect the ID of the

chipless tag when it is within the reader’s interrogation zone. The block diagram of

8
Chapter 1 Introduction

the chipless RFID reader and its basic components are shown in Fig. 1-4. The RFID

reader has transmitting and receiving antennas to send the interrogation signal to the

chipless tags and receive the encoded signal from the chipless tags.

Chipless RFID Reader Tx

Data Antenna
link
Comms Power Low Noise
Interface Amp Amp
Digital to EM signal
analog vco
converter to tag
Rx
Antenna
PC with Micro-
Middleware controller Analog to RF to DC
Band-pass
digital converter
and GUI converter Filter
EM signal
Low Noise
Amp
from tag
Fig. 1-4 Block diagram of proposed chipless RFID reader.

The RFID reader transmitter comprises a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), low

noise amplifier (LNA) and power amplifier (PA). Tuning of the VCO’s output

frequency is done by the microcontroller through the digital-to-analog (ADC)

converter. The reader transmitter generates the interrogation signal which is sent to

the chipless tag. The chipless tranponder encodes its spectral signature into the

reader’s interrogation signal and sends the signal back to the reader.

The signal processing of the received tag signal is performed at the receiver end of

the RFID reader and results in a digital signal being sent to the microprocessor of the

RFID reader. The receiver comprises a LNA, a band-pass filter (BPF), a

demodulating circuit which converts the RF signal to baseband and an analog-to-

digital converter (DAC). The microprocessor uses tag detection and decoding

algorithms to determine the ID of the chipless tag, which is sent to an application or

software enterprise on a personal computer (PC) which provides the graphical user

interface (GUI) between the RFID system and the user.

9
Chapter 1 Introduction

1.6 Thesis Objectives

The main aim of the project is to develop a fully printable chipless RFID tag and

reader system for low cost item tagging.

The design of the chipless tags was performed in two stages – firstly on printed

circuit board (PCB) in order to prove the concept, and finally on flexible laminate

which is compatible with commercial grade products such as the Australian polymer

banknote. The design on PCB was carried out in order to prove the concept and

validate the initial theory of using multiresonating structures for the proposed chipless

RFID system and minimizing cross-talk using cross-polarized tag antennas. This

phase verified the tag for robust and reliable amplitude and phase data encoding. The

successful design of a 6-bit prototype tag operating between 2 and 2.5 GHz on PCB

provided the motivation for the development of a 35-bit chipless tag operating within

the UWB spectrum. The third and final stage of the chipless tag design focused on

developing the tag on thin flexible laminate. The optimization steps and parametric

study of both the tag antenna and multiresonating circuit using ADS Momentum are

presented along with the simulated and measured results. Finally, the chipless tag

designed on flexible laminate was tested in field trials in order to validate its

successful operation.

Hardware and software design of the RFID reader and experimental results of the

reading of designed chipless tags were also performed. An investigation of the use of

directional wide-band antennas versus omni-directional antennas in order to achieve

greater reading ranges was also carried out. Both amplitude and phase decoding are

performed at the reader end using RF gain/phase comparator circuits in the RF

10
Chapter 1 Introduction

circuitry of the RFID reader. The designed RFID reader uses an 8-bit ATMEL

microcontroller as its central processing unit (CPU) and an analog-to-digital converter

(ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC) for sending and receiving analog

information to and from the RF circuitry of the reader.

The following tasks have been performed to fulfill the objectives of the thesis as

shown in Fig. 1-5. They are as follows: 1) Chipless tag development, 2) Chipless

RFID reader development and 3) Chipless RFID system integration.

Tasks fulfilled

Chipless Tag Chipless RFID Reader Chipless RFID System

Development Tasks Development Tasks Integration Tasks

Multiresonator Design RFID Reader Digital Anechoic Chamber

and Optimisation Section Development Testing

UWB Tag Antenna RFID Reader Transceiver Outdoor Testings

Design and Optimisation Development

Chipless Tag Integration RFID Reader Antenna Comparison of Anechoic

and Layout Optimisation Design Chamber and Outdoor
Testings
Chipless Tag Field Trials RFID Reader Software
Design

RFID Reader Integration

and Testing

Fig. 1-5 Thesis objectives.

1.7 Original Contributions

These tasks have generated the following original contributions in the field of

research:

11
Chapter 1 Introduction

1. A novel fully printable chipless RFID tag which comprises a spectral signature

based tag which encodes data in both magnitude and phase of the spectrum.

2. A complete and systematic review of RFID tags and readers reported in the open

literature. The review results in a novel classification of RFID tags and readers

according to their operating factors.

3. Design and optimization of spiral multiresonator circuits on flexible laminates with

high Q factor.

4. Integration of cross-polarized monopole antennas at the ports of the 2-port

multiresonating circuit to create a novel chipless tag with minimized cross-talk

between interrogation and tag signals.

5. Novel tag data encoding technique using “spiral shorting”. The spiral shorting

technique is designed as a write-once-read-many (WORM) data encoding technique.

6. Investigation of chipless RFID tag reading range using directional high gain reader

antennas which are cross-polarized in order to increase isolation between the

transmitted and received signals to and from the tag respectively.

7. Hardware design of the chipless tag reader which performs the main signal

processing algorithms of the reader device.

8. Design of a RF transceiver section for the Gen-1 RFID reader which has magnitude

12
Chapter 1 Introduction

spectral signature detection features. The circuit operates between 2 and 2.5 GHz.

9. Design of a RF transceiver section for the Gen-2 RFID reader which has phase

spectral signature diction features. The circuit operates between 2 and 2.5 GHz.

10. Design of a RF transceiver section for the UWB RFID reader which operates

within 3.1 and 10.7 GHz.

11. Design of three chipless RFID tag reader units by integrating the afore mentioned

digital and RF transceiver sections of the RFID reader.

12. Development of novel chipless tag detection and decoding algorithms/techniques

in both magnitude and phase of the spectral signature.

13. Development of the software application with GUI.

14. Full system integration of the chipless RFID tag and RFID reader device.

To date, the above original contributions to the field of research have generated (i) 4

referred journal papers of high impact factor, (ii) 17 referred conference papers (iii)

one Australian provisional patent and (iv) one book chapter. A full list of publications

can be found on pages iv to vi.

1.8 Thesis Outline

This section provides a brief description of the following chapters presented in this

13
Chapter 1 Introduction

thesis.

Chapter 1 Introduction

An introduction to RFID systems, RFID applications, the limitations of barcodes

and the emergence of RFID as an enabling technology are presented. Chipless RFID

systems are proposed as a low cost option for tagging low cost items. The proposed

concept of the chipless RFID system and the original contributions and goals of the

thesis are presented followed by an outline of the chapters.

Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

This chapter presents the literature review and focuses on chipless RFID tags and

readers available on the market and reported in scientific conferences and journals. A

novel classification of RFID tags and readers is presented together with the system

specifications of the proposed chipless RFID tag and RFID reader.

Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

In this chapter spiral resonators are studied as spectral signature encoding circuits

for the novel chipless RFID tag. The theory of operation is presented and a

comprehensive parametric study of two types of spiral resonators is reported: the

microstrip and the co-planar waveguide spiral resonator. The microstrip spiral

resonator is used for tags designed on standard printed circuit boards, while the co-

planar waveguide spiral resonator is used for thin flexible laminates due to its superior

performance. Finally, the spiral resonators are cascaded to form a multiresonating

circuit which is used for multiple bit data encoding using the spectral signature

concept.

14
Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

Two types of UWB antennas are discussed in this chapter: circular monopole and

log periodic dipole array. The circular monopole antenna is used for the chipless tag

since it yields ultra wide band with an almost omni-directional radiation pattern. The

log periodic dipole antenna is used for the RFID reader since it has high gain and a

directional radiation pattern. The theory and design of these antennas is presented,

followed by results confirming the successful design and operation of the antennas.

Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

In this chapter the integration of the UWB monopole antennas and the

multiresonating circuits is reported to form the chipless RFID tag. Three types of tags

are designed: a 6-bit proof-of-concept tag, a 35-bit tag and a 23-bit flexible RFID tag.

The layout specifications and measurements of the chipless tags are presented. This

chapter finalizes the design of the chipless RFID tag.

Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

The design of the RFID transceivers needed to interrogate the chipless tags

previously designed is presented in this chapter. Firstly, a Gen-1 transceiver is

designed which detects only the amplitude of the tag’s spectral signature. Following

the Gen-1 design the Gen-2 transceiver is designed with amplitude and phase

detection capabilities. The Gen-2 transceiver is upgraded to operate with the UWB

region and hence the UWB transceiver is designed. All three transceiver circuits are

tested and characterized by wired readings to the tag and their successful operation is

confirmed.

15
Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag – Reader System

The integration of the chipless RFID system is presented in this chapter. The

chipless RFID system application is specified. The chipless RFID system comprises a

chipless RFID tag and RFID reader. The RFID reader is designed by integrating the

transceiver circuits and the digital control section of the reader. The chipless tag is

first interrogated inside the anechoic chamber using a vector network analyser and

then it is tested outside in a laboratory setup which represents a reflective

environment. The chipless tag is finally interrogated by the developed RFID reader to

confirm successful system operation.

Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Works

The conclusions focus on the important findings of this research project and

highlight future research mainly in the area of successful printing of tags on plastic

banknotes, long range reading capabilities of the reader and anti-collision protocols.

16
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

2.1 Introduction

In the preceding chapter an introduction to RFID and chipless RFID systems was

presented. The proposed chipless RFID system based on multiresonators was shown

in a block diagram. The proposed chipless RFID system is a novel spectral signature

design which encodes data in both magnitude and phase.

This chapter focuses on the difficulties of achieving low cost chipped RFID

systems and the emergence of chipless RFID systems as a cheaper solution. The main

issue of chipped RFID tags is the cost of the IC and its assembly to the tag’s antenna.

A comprehensive review of chipless RFID tags available on the market and reported

in peer-reviewed journals or conferences is presented. The novel system concept of

using chipless tags results in the need for new RFID readers and their system

architecture is presented in this chapter.

2.2 Difficulties of Achieving Low Cost RFID

The use of RFID instead of optical barcodes discussed in Chapter 1 has not yet been

achieved due to the greater price of the RFID tag (10 cents) compared to the price of

the optical barcode (less than 0.1 cents). The arguments for not having a cheap RFID

tag are comprehensively presented in [21]. Fletcher advocates that Application

Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) design and testing along with the tag antenna and

ASIC assembly result in a costly manufacturing process. This is why it is not possible

17
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

to further lower the price of the chipped RFID tag. The basic steps for manufacturing

a chipped RFID tag are shown in Fig 2-1.

ASIC ASIC ASIC Antenna Tag Assembly Conversion to

Design Manufacturing Testing Manufacture Label/Package

Fig. 2-1 RFID label/tag manufacturing process.

The design of silicon chips has been standardized for over 30 years and the cost of

building a silicon fabrication plant is in the billions of US dollars [22]-[23]. Since

silicon chips are fabricated on a wafer-by-wafer basis there is a fixed cost per wafer

(around US $1000). As the cost of the wafer is independent of the IC design, the cost

of the RFID chip can be estimated based on the required silicon area for the RFID

chip. Significant achievements have been made in reducing the size of the transistors

allowing more transistors per wafer area [24]. Decreasing the amount of transistors

needed results in an even smaller silicon area, hence a lower RFID chip price. As a

result, great efforts have been made by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

(MIT) to design a RFID ASIC with less than 8000 transistors. Although this will

reduce the price of the silicon chip, its miniature size imposes limitations and further

handling costs.

The cost of dividing the wafer, handling the die and placing them onto a label

remains significant, even if the cost of the RFID chip were next-to-nothing. The cost

of handling the die increases with the use of smaller than standard chips, simply

because the electronics industry is not standardized for them.

18
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Hence, with highly-optimized low transistor count ASICs, implemented assembly

processes and extremely large quantities (over 1 billion) of RFID chips sold per

annum, a minimum cost of 5 cents is the reality for chipped RFID tags.

2.3 Chipless RFID Tags – The Low Cost RFID Solution of the

Future

Given the inevitable high cost of silicon chip RFID tags (when compared to optical

barcodes), efforts to design low cost RFID tags without the use of traditional silicon

ASICs have emerged. These tags, and therefore systems, are known as chipless RFID

systems. Most chipless RFID systems use the electromagnetic properties of materials

and/or design various conductor layouts/shapes to achieve particular electromagnetic

properties/behaviour. The main focus of this thesis will be on chipless RFID systems.

2.3.1 Review of Chipless RFID Tags

There have been some reported chipless RFID tag developments in recent years.

However, most are still reported as prototypes and only a handful are considered to be

commercially viable or available. The challenge for researchers when designing

chipless RFID tags is how to perform data encoding without the presence of a chip. In

response to this problem two general types of RFID tags can be identified: time

domain reflectometry (TDR)-based and spectral (frequency) signature-based chipless

RFID tags. Fig. 2-2 shows the classification of reported chipless RFID tags.

TDR-based chipless RFID tags are interrogated by sending a signal from the

reader in the form of a pulse and listening to the echoes of the pulse sent by the tag.

A train of pulses is thereby created which can be used to encode data. Various RFID

19
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

tags have been reported using TDR-based technology for data encoding. We can

distinguish between non-printable and printable TDR-based tags.

An example of a non-printable TDR-based chipless RFID tag is the surface

acoustic wave (SAW) tag developed by RFSAW Inc [25] which is also the

commercially most successful. SAW tags are excited by a chirped Gaussian pulse

sent by the reader centred around 2.45 GHz [26]-[30]. The interrogation pulse is

converted to a surface acoustic wave using an interdigital transducer (IDT). The

surface acoustic wave propagates across the piezoelectric crystal and is reflected by a

number of reflectors which create a train of pulses with phase shifts [31]-[38]. The

train of pulses is converted back to an EM wave using the IDT and detected at the

reader end where the tag’s ID is decoded [39]-[48].

Chipless RFID Tags

TDR based Spectral

signature based

Non-printable Printable Chemical Planar circuits

SAW tags TFTC Nanometric Capacitively

materials tuned dipoles
Delay-Line-
Based Tags Ink-tattoo Space filling
chipless RFID curves

LC resonant
Fig. 2-2 Classification of chipless RFID tags.

20
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Printable TDR-based chipless tags can be found either as Thin-Film-Transistor-

Circuits (TFTC) or microstrip-based tags with discontinuities. TFTC tags are printed

at high speed on low cost plastic film [49]. TFTC tags offer advantages over active

and passive chip-based tags due to their small size and low power consumption. They

require more power than other chipless tags but offer more functionality. However

low cost manufacturing processes for TFTC tags have not yet been developed.

Another issue is the low electron mobility which limits the frequency of operation up

to several MHz.

Delay-line-based chipless RFID tags operate by introducing a microstrip

discontinuity after a section of delay-line as reported in [50]-[52]. The tag is excited

by a short pulse (1ns) EM signal. The interrogation pulse is received by the tag and

reflected at various points along the microstrip line creating multiple echoes of the

interrogation pulse. The time delay between the echoes is determined by the length of

the delay-line between the discontinuities. This type of tag is a replica of the SAW tag

using microstrip technology which makes it printable. Although initial trials of and

experiments on this chipless technology have been reported, only 4 bits of data have

been successfully encoded, which shows the limited potential of this technology.

Spectral signature-based chipless tags encode data into the spectrum using

resonant structures. Each data bit is usually associated with the presence or absence of

a resonant peak at a predetermined frequency in the spectrum. So far, five types of

spectral signature-based tags have been reported and all five are considered to be fully

printable. We can distinguish two types of spectral signature tags based on the nature

of the tag: chemical and planar circuit.

21
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Chemical tags are designed from a deposition of resonating fibres or special

electronic ink. Two companies from Israel use nanometric materials to design

chipless tags. These tags consist of tiny particles of chemicals which exhibit varying

degrees of magnetism and when electromagnetic waves impinge on them they

resonate with distinct frequencies, which are picked up by the reader [53]. They are

very cheap and can easily be used inside banknotes and important documents for anti-

counterfeiting and authentication. CrossID, an Israeli paper company, claims to have

70 distinct chemicals which would provide unique identification in the order of 2 70

(over 10 21 ) when resonated and detected suitably [54]. Tapemark also claims to have

“nanometric” resonant fibres which are 5 microns in diameter and 1mm in length

[55]. These tags are potentially low cost and can work on low grade paper and plastic

packaging material. Unfortunately, they only operate at frequencies up to a few KHz,

although this gives them very good tolerances to metal and water.

Ink-tattoo chipless tags use electronic ink patterns embedded into or printed onto

the surface of the object being tagged. Developed by Somark Innovations [56], the

electronic ink is deposited in a unique barcode pattern which is different for every

item. The system operates by interrogating the ink-tattoo tag by a high frequency

microwave signal (>10 GHz) and is reflected by areas of the tattoo which have ink

creating a unique pattern which can be detected by the reader. The reading range is

claimed to be up to 1.2 m (4 feet) [57]-[58]. In the case of animal ID, the ink is placed

in a one-time-use disposable cartridge. For non-animal applications the ink can be

printed on plastic/paper or within the material. Based on the limited information

available for this technology (which is still in the experimental phase) the author

assumes that it is spectral signature based.

22
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Planar circuit chipless RFID tags are designed using standard planar

microstrip/co-planar waveguide/stripline resonant structures such as antennas, filters,

and fractals. They are printed on thick, thin and flexible laminates and polymer

substrates. Capacitively tuned dipoles were first reported by Jalaly [59]. The

chipless tag consists of a number of dipole antennas which resonate at different

frequencies. When the tag is interrogated by a frequency sweep signal the reader

looks for magnitude dips in the spectrum as a result of the dipoles. Each dipole has a

1:1 correspondence to a data bit. Issues regarding this technology include: tag size

(lower frequency longer dipole – half wavelength) and mutual coupling effects

between dipole elements.

Space-filling curves used as spectral signature encoding RFID tags were first

reported by McVay [60]. The tags are designed as Peano and Hilbert curves with

resonances centred around 900 MHz. The tags represent a frequency selective surface

(FSS) which is manipulated with the use of space-filling curves (such as the Hilbert

curve). The tag was successfully interrogated in an anechoic chamber. Only 3 bits of

data have been reported to date. However, the tag requires significant layout

modifications in order to encode data.

LC Resonant chipless tags comprise of a simple coil which is resonant at a

particular frequency. These tags are considered 1-bit RFID tags. The operating

principle is based on the magnetic coupling between the reader antenna and the LC

resonant tag. The reader constantly performs a frequency sweep searching for tags.

Whenever the swept frequency corresponds to the tag’s resonant frequency, the tag

will start to oscillate, producing a voltage dip across the reader’s antenna ports. The

23
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

advantage of these tags is their price and simple structure (single resonant coil), but

they are very restricted in operating range, information storage (1 bit), operating

bandwidth and multiple-tag collision. These tags are mainly used for electronic article

surveillance (EAS) in many supermarkets and retail stores [61].

In the following section, general RFID reader architecture and a review of modern

RFID readers will be presented.

2.4 Modern RFID Readers

RFID readers are devices that perform the interrogation of RFID tags. In a chipless

RFID system, the RFID reader detects the tag by using signal processing

demodulation techniques to extract data from the tag’s signal. A chipless tag cannot

generate a signal without the reader sending an interrogation signal to the tag.

Therefore, the reader and tags are in a master-slave relationship in which the reader

acts as a master and the tags as slaves. Nevertheless, RFID readers themselves are

also in a slave position. A software application, also called middleware, processes

data from the RFID reader, acts as the master unit and sends commands to the reader

[62] as shown in Fig. 2-3.

24
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Master Slave
Command Interrogation
Middleware /Host
RFID RFID
Application
Reader Tag
Response Response
Master Slave
Data flow

Fig. 2-3 Master-slave principle between the application software and the reader, and the reader and
tags.

2.4.1 RFID Reader Architecture

An RFID reader consists of three main parts shown in Fig. 2-4. These main three

components are:

- Digital/Control section;
- RF section; and
- Antenna.

Digital
Section
Host Transmitted Received
Application data data Antenna
and/or
Middleware
RF Section

Fig. 2-4 Block diagram of a typical RFID reader.

The digital section of the RFID reader performs digital signal processing over the

received data from the RFID tag. This section usually consists of a microprocessor, a

memory block, some analog-to-digital converters and a communication block for the

software application.

25
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

The reader’s RF section is used for RF signal transmission and reception and

consists of two separate signal paths to correspond with the two directional data flows

as shown in Fig. 2-5.

Transmitted Power
data amplifier Antenna
Modulator
Directional
Local coupler
Oscillators
Received
data Low noise
amplifier
Demodulator

Fig. 2-5 Block diagram of the RF section of a RFID reader.

The local oscillator generates the RF carrier signal, a modulator modulates the

signal, the modulated signal is amplified by the power amplifier, and the amplified

signal is transmitted through the antenna. A directional coupler separates the system’s

transmitted signal and the received weak back-scattered signal from the tag [63]. The

weak back-scattered signal is amplified using low noise amplifiers (LNA) before the

signal is decoded in the demodulator. Different demodulation techniques are used

when decoding the data received from the tag. Most RF sections are protected from

EM interference by metal cages.

Depending on the RFID system’s applications the RFID reader can be designed in

different ways such that the antenna’s resonating frequency, gain, directivity and

radiation pattern can vary. Adaptive antennas act as spatial filters and are a promising

technique for implementing spatial diversity into RFID readers [64]. The antenna

reported in [63] is a 5-element rectangular patch antenna array with an intelligent

26
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

beam-forming network at 2.45 GHz. A number of different reader antennas have

been developed based on microstrip patch antennas [65]-[67].

Following is a detailed discussion on the various RFID reader systems available on

the market and reported in open research literature.

2.4.2 Review of RFID Readers

Fig. 2-6 shows the classifications of RFID readers reported in the open literature

and available on the commercial market. The classification was completed following

an analysis and synthesis of a comprehensive literature review of RFID readers. The

classification is based on the power supply, communication interface, mobility, tag

interrogation, frequency response and the supporting protocols of the reader.

RFID Readers

Communication Interrogation Frequency Data Encoding RFID Reader

Power Supply Mobility
Interface Protocol Spectrum Protocols Antennas

Powered
Non-Unique
From Serial Stationary Passive Simple Fixed Beam
Frequency
Network

Battery Unique Scanned

Network Handheld Active Agile
Assisted Frequency Array

Fig. 2-6 Classification of RFID readers available in the market and reported in the open literature.

The classification of RFID readers based on their power supply creates two types of

readers: readers supplied from the power network and battery powered (BP) readers.

Readers supplied by the power network generally use a power cord connected to an

appropriate external electrical outlet. Most readers using this type of power supply are

fixed stationary readers and their operating power supply ranges from 5V-12V [68],

but there are examples of readers that operate at voltage levels as high as 24 V [69].

27
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Battery powered (BP) readers are light in weight and portable. The battery is mainly

used to power up the motherboard of the reader. Most BP readers are handheld, but

there are also stationary readers that are battery assisted. BP readers use 5V to 12V

batteries for their power supply [70]-[71].

Based on their communication interface, readers can be classified as serial and

network.

Serial readers use a serial communication link to communicate with their host

computers or software applications. The reader is physically connected to a host

computer using the RS-232 [72], RS-485, I2C or USB serial connection [73]-[75].

Network readers are connected to the host computer via a wired or wireless

network. These types of readers behave like a standard network device. Today’s RFID

readers support multiple network protocols such as Ethernet, TCP/IP, UDP/IP, HTTP,

LAN, WLAN and others [76]-[77]. This allows easier tracking and maintenance,

better data rate and results in a smaller number of hosts for the installation of a large

number of readers in comparison with serial readers.

The next classification of RFID readers can be made on the basis of their mobility.

Hence, we distinguish two types of readers: stationary and handheld RFID readers.

Stationary RFID readers are also known as fixed readers. This term comes from

the reader’s ability to be mounted on walls, portals, doors or other objects where they

can perform effective tag readings. They are not intended to be moved or carried.

28
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Fixed RFID readers are mainly used for wireless data capture in supply chain

management, asset tracking and product control [78], but can also be found in

personnel identification and authentication for restricted access areas [79]-[81].

Handheld RFID readers are mobile readers that can be carried and operated by

users as handheld units. Handheld readers have built in antennas and usually do not

have connectors for additional antennas. They are battery powered and light weight

(from 82g up to 700g). They have shorter reading ranges than fixed readers [82]-[83]

and are mainly used for applications such as tracking live stock and locating items in

stores and in stock.

Another classification of RFID readers can be made based on the reader’s

interrogation protocols, either passive or active.

Passive readers are limited to “listening” and do not perform additional tag

interrogations. When interrogating the tags, the reader sends a CW signal as a power

source for the RFID tag which becomes activated. Upon activation, the RFID tag

transmits its unique ID back to the reader [84].

Active readers are true interrogators which interrogate and listen to tags. Active

readers perform data transmission to the tag which is implemented, in most cases, as a

modulation of the carrier signal. Therefore, tags must have a demodulating circuitry

enabling them to decode the reader’s command. These readers can perform both

listening and calling out to the tags and can even achieve successful area location of

the tag based on the amplitudes of the tags response to the reader’s interrogation [85].

29
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

We can also classify readers based on the tag frequency responses to which they

listen to as unique frequency response and non-unique frequency response based

readers.

Unique frequency response-based readers operate at a unique (or short bandwidth

<80MHz) frequency range and use this frequency for both data transmission and

reception. The vast majority of RFID readers that can be found on the market today

are unique frequency response based readers.

Non-unique frequency response-based readers operate using one frequency for

sending a command orsimply provide a carrier signal at a certain frequency and listen

for an integer multiple of its carrier frequency, generally in the form of a 2nd

harmonic, or a frequency-divided signal as the tag’s response [86]. Two RF

frequencies used for communication by the reader to the RFID system allow fast and

reliable full-duplex communication, but this system needs a more complex RF front

end for both the reader and tag module [87]. Fig. 2-7 shows a multi-frequency RFID

system.

We can further distinguish between two types of RFID readers based upon their

ability to communicate with tags in regard to data encoding protocols: simple RFID

readers and agile RFID readers.

Simple RFID readers use a unique protocol for communication and data

transmission between tags in the reader’s interrogation zone [88]-[89]. When a tag

that supports the reader’s interrogation protocol is set in the interrogation area of the

30
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

reader, the tag is automatically recognized and detected. When a tag that operates

using a different protocol is put into the interrogation area, no data transmission will

occur, because of the unfamiliarity of the reader’s interrogation protocol to the tag.

Agile RFID readers can operate and perform interrogations and data transmission

with tags using multiple protocols. The most commonly used protocols for data

transmission between tags and readers include EPC Gen1 [90], EPC Gen2 [91], ISO

18000 [92] and TIRIS Bus Protocol. The majority of RFID readers that can be found

in the market are designed for multiple protocols and multi-tag readings [93].

We can also distinguish between two types of RFID readers based on their

antennas: fixed beam RFID readers and scanned array RFID readers.

Fixed Beam antennas are characterized with a unique and fixed beam radiation

pattern [94]. Several fixed beam antennas may also be used, and can be commonly

found in Alien Technology readers. The advantage of using such antennas is that they

are easy to install and do not need any logic to control their radiation patterns. The

disadvantage of these antennas is that they pick up multipath signals alongside the

tag’s signal which can result in errors during interrogation.

Scanned Array RFID readers use smart antenna systems in order to reduce the

number of tags within their main lobe radiation zone and thus reduce reading errors

and collisions among tags. This technique exploits spatial diversity among tag

locations. The direct beam also reduces the effects of multipathing [95]. This new

approach to RFID antenna technology is being incorporated by some RFID

31
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

manufacturers including Omron Corporation, Japan [95], RFID Inc. [96] and

RFSAW, USA [89].

2.4.3 Towards Universal Reader Design

RFID reader designers and manufacturers have gone a step further in the design of

independent reader modules [97]-[98]. The design of embedded RFID readers was

been introduced to the world of RFID in 2005 [99]. In June 2005, Anadigm Inc.

announced the birth of the industry’s first RFID-embedded reader that can be

customized to read different RFID tag types, with different modulation schemes,

frequencies and data transmission protocols [100]. The “universal” reader is named

RangeMaster. The RangeMaster’s system-level block diagram is shown in Fig. 2-7. It

comprises a Field Programmable Analog Array (FPAA) in conjunction with an RFID

State Machine, enabling RFID system engineers to develop a universal RFID reader

supporting multiple protocols and frequencies for future fixed, mobile and handheld

reader designs [101]. The advantage of embedded RFID readers, such as

RangeMaster, when compared to standard readers are that they allow standardization

around a single circuit board, together with simplification and improvement of

product development, manufacturing time and cost.

32
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

RangeMaster Chip-Set

Voltage Limit RFID

Downconverter dpASP

Differential or single ended baseband

and LNA

Antisaturation
switch control

filtered waveform
RFID
ON/OFF
State
Modulator
Machine

16 bit control word

3 wire
unidirectional
interface
RFID Reader System Controller Tx/Rx Software
Stack

Fig. 2-7 System-level overview of the RangeMaster embedded RFID reader [100].

2.5 Chipless RFID System Specifications

Several RFID system design requirements are discussed in this section. These

requirements are largely determined by the application for which the RFID system

will be deployed.

1) Cost. The cost of a RFID system is largely dependent on the cost of the tag. The

chipless RFID tag needs to be extremely cheap – below 1 cent would be preferable in

order to be affordable when tagging low cost paper/plastic based items. This places

restrictions on both tag design and the choice of materials for construction. Typical

conductors that can be used are copper, aluminium and conductive ink. Typical

dielectrics are polyester and PCB substrates.

2) Size. The size of the tag is dependent on both frequency of operation and the size of

the tagged item. The size of the tag should be from several centimetres to

approximately a decimetre.

33
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

3) Frequency band. The frequency band of operation is an important aspect of the

proposed system because it directly determines the number of bits which can be

encoded. The proposal for a UWB system is the chosen option. The UWB frequency

spectrum varies from country to country (generally from 3.1GHz – 10.7GHz, USA).

UWB systems are restricted by the amount of EIRP which is in the noise level (below

-40dBm outdoors and below -50dBm indoors).

4) Read range. Minimum required reading range is specified based on the reader

sensitivity which is entirely due to the fact that the chipless tag does not need a power

supply for operation. Limitations in reading range are introduced due to the low EIRP

and orientation.

5) Application with mobility. The chipless RFID system is intended for conveyor belt

applications at speeds of 80 m/min. The Doppler shift, in this case, at 10.7GHz

(worst-case scenario for the UWB system) is less than 400Hz and does not effect the

operation of the chipless tags. Although the tag spends less time in the interrogation

zone of the reader, since the tag and reader do not communicate using handshaking or

synchronization, this does not present a major issue.

6) Reliability. RFID tags should be reliable devices that can sustain variations in heat,

humidity and stress and processes such as printing, label insertion and lamination.

Conductive ink has proven to be extremely robust and when printed on flexible

substrates, it maintains its robustness which is a necessity for applications such as

envelope or note bill tagging.

34
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

7) Security. The chipless RFID system can provide an extra layer of security against

counterfeiting when using transparent conductive inks. A tag may be printed without

being visible. Another advantage is the fact that it would be impossible to read

multiple tags stacked together (a stack of tagged note bills cannot be read accurately

due to the mutual coupling and the inability to differentiate between tags or determine

the number of tags).

Table 2-1 Specifications for chipless RFID tag

Electrical specifications

Frequency of operation 3.1 – 10.7 GHz

Tag antenna polarization Linearly-polarized

Tag antenna radiation Preferably omni-directional

Number of bits Greater than 20 bits

Mechanical specifications

Tag Size Width: 64 mm maximum ; Length: 120 mm

Printability Fully printable, no semiconductor

Operations Printed on thin plastic/paper objects

Weight Less than 5g

Visibility Preferably transparent

Operating temperature -20° to 80° C

Commercial

Cost Less than 1 cent per tag.

35
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

Table 2-2 Specifications for chipless RFID tag reader

Electrical specifications

Frequency of operation 3.1 – 10.7 GHz

Transmitting Power 15 dBm

Number of Reader Antennas At least two antennas – transmitting and receiving

Reader Antenna Polarization Linearly-polarized

Reader Antenna Gain Above 5 dBi

Communication Interface Serial bus interface (RS-232)

Mechanical specifications

Connector SMA/DB-9

Operations Mountable over a conveyor belt

Size Portable - within 200 mm by 200 mm

Weight Less than 5 kg

Environmental Suitable for work in industrial environment

Operating temperature -20° to 50° C

Commercial

Cost Less than AU $2000 (a guide only)

The following sections will present the proposed chipless RFID tag and RFID reader

circuits.

2.6 Proposed Chipless RFID Tag

The above review of available and reported chipless RFID tags has shown the lack

of an operational fully-printable multibit chipless RFID tag. This section presents the

proposed novel chipless RFID tag based on multiresonators. The main components of

the tag are the transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) antennas and multiresonating

36
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

circuit. A block diagram of the integrated chipless RFID tag with basic components is

shown in Fig. 2-8.

Vertical
UWB polarization
monopole Rx
antenna

Multiresonator

1
st
2
nd
3
rd
N-th
UWB
resonator resonator resonator resonator monopole Tx
antenna

Horizontal
polarization

Fig. 2-8 Chipless RFID tag circuit block diagram.

The proposed chipless RFID tag consists of a vertically-polarized UWB disc-loaded

monopole receiving (Rx) tag antenna, a multiresonating circuit and a horizontally-

polarized UWB disc-loaded monopole transmitting (Tx) tag antenna.

When the interrogation signal reaches the tag it is received using the receiving

monopole antenna and propagates towards the multiresonating circuit. The

multiresonating circuit encodes data bits using cascaded spiral resonators which

introduce attenuations and phase jumps at particular frequencies of the spectrum.

After passing through the multiresonating circuit, the signal contains the unique

spectral signature of the tag and is transmitted back to the transmitter using the

transmitting monopole tag antenna. The receiving and transmitting tag antennas are

cross-polarized in order to minimize interference between the interrogation signal and

the re-transmitted encoded signal containing the spectral signature.

37
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

The main differences between our spectral signature-based tag and those reported in

the previous section are that we encode data in both amplitude and phase, the tag

operates in the UWB region, and the tag responses are not based on radar cross

section (RCS) back-scattering but on retransmission of the cross-polarized

interrogation signal with the encoded unique spectral ID.

2.7 Proposed Chipless RFID Reader

In the present thesis, three types of RFID readers will be presented: 1st Generation

(Gen1) chipless RFID reader, 2nd Generation (Gen2) chipless RFID reader and the

UWB RFID reader.

To PC RFID Reader
Digital Section
RS232 Displays Tx
Interface RF Section antenna
Power
amplifier
Micro- VCO LPF
controller
DAC
(CPU)
Power
supply RF-to
regulation Baseband
LPF
ADC Processing
Power Rx
Circuit antenna
amplifier

Fig. 2-9 Block diagram of Gen1 and Gen 2 chipless RFID reader.

The Gen1 and Gen2 RFID readers are designed as first and second generation RFID

chipless tag reader prototypes operating between 2 – 2.5 GHz. The two main parts of

the RFID reader are: the Digital section and the RF section. A block diagram of the

RFID reader is illustrated in Fig. 2-9.

The central processing unit (CPU) sends data to the RF section using a digital-to-

38
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

analog (DAC) converter. The analog data is the tuning voltage for the voltage-

controlled oscillator (VCO) which generates the RF signal for interrogating the

chipless tag. The received signal from the tag is amplified and filtered before being

sent to the RF-to-Baseband (RTB) circuit where it is converted to a DC analog value

and sent to the digital section. The analog signal is then converted to a digital signal

using the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and sent to the CPU for tag ID decoding.

The tag ID is displayed on a 7 segment LED display section and/or sent to the host

computer.

The digital section is designed around an 8-bit Atmel AT89C52 microcontroller

[102] which performs the major signal processing and data decoding algorithms. The

RF section consists of two RF paths: transmitter and receiver. The transmitting circuit

is comprised of a VCO which generates the RF interrogation signal and is used as a

reference signal for the receiver. The interrogation signal is thus amplified and filtered

and transmitted by a wideband directive reader antenna. The signal is received by a

cross-polarized receiver antenna and processed (filtered and amplified) before being

sent to the RTB circuit. The RTB circuit differs between the Gen1 and Gen2 RFID

reader. As the Gen1 reader uses magnitude detection, a diode rectifier is used as the

RTB circuit. The Gen2 reader utilizes a Gain/Phase detector AD8302 [103] as the

RTB. The AD8302 compares the received RF signal from the tag with the reference

signal from the VCO and yields DC equivalent values of magnitude and phase

difference between the two RF signals. The two DC values are multiplexed and sent

to the digital section of the reader for further processing (digitizing) and decoding.

The UWB RFID reader is upgraded to work in the UWB region by introducing a

39
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

wide band oscillator and down-converting mixers as shown in Fig. 2-10. The mixers

are used to down-convert the UWB signals (from 5-9 GHz) to below 2.5 GHz where

the gain/phase detector AD8302 operates. The received tag signal and reference signal

are compared in amplitude and phase by the AD8302. The amplitude and phase

difference are given as separate DC values by the AD8302. The 2 DC values are

multiplexed and then sent to the digital section where they are digitized and processed

for tag ID detection.

To PC
Tx
Digital Section UWB RF Section Antenna
10dB
RS232
Interface
Displays Osc. coupler
RF Amp
LPF
LO
Micro- VCO
controller
DAC
(CPU) Power Rx
Power divider
supply Mixer Antenna
regulation Gain/phase
ADC detector LNA LPF
IF Power Mixer
Amp

Fig. 2-10 Block diagram of proposed UWB chipless RFID reader (7-9 GHz).

With these design proposals for the chipless RFID reader and tag we conclude the

chipless RFID system specification. The following chapters will focus on the tag and

reader design and experimental results.

2.8 Conclusions and Motivation

In this chapter we have presented novel classifications of RFID tags and RFID

readers. The classification was based on open literature and published research

articles. As shown, there are various types of RFID systems. The majority of RFID

40
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

tags are chip-based and hence require power supply in order to operate. This imposes

limitations in terms of cost and implementation.

A fully-printable chipless RFID tag which can be used on paper/plastic based items

has not yet been developed. Most chipless tags found in the review are either in early

prototype stages or have remained there for sometime (5 years or more). This leaves

an open area for research for the development of a novel operating chipless RFID

system. The proposed chipless RFID tag based on multiresonators has been presented.

The tag comprises of two cross-polarized UWB monopole antennas and a

multiresonating circuit.

The advantages of fully-printable chipless tags include that they have the potential to

be extremely low cost (less than 1 cent), robust (no chip - no mechanical damage),

secure (using transparent conductive ink), have zero power consumption and require

no maintenance.

The next step was the proposal of a circuit for interrogating the chipless tags – a

chipless RFID reader. The hardware and software development of a fully operational

reader enables the proposal of the chipless RFID system to be transformed into a

potential application which could be commercialized or optimized for tagging

particular items (mainly conveyor belt applications where items are scanned one at a

time).

The successful development of this chipless RFID system will be the most cost-

effective tagging solution for low cost paper/plastic items and will provide an extra

41
Chapter 2 Low Cost Chipless RFID Systems

layer of security against counterfeiting, assist passport and sensitive documents

control, enable cheap and effective tracking of currency and open the door to the era

of ultra-low cost printable chipless RFID.

As mentioned in Section 2.6, the tag requires narrowband resonators and UWB

antennas in order to encode as many bits as possible and provide enough frequency

spectrum. The resonances are obtained by utilizing fully-printable planar microwave

resonant structure – resonators. UWB tag antennas are designed as linearly-polarized

UWB monopole antennas which are fully planar. Hence, the following chapters will

focus on the design of the tag multiresonator and UWB antenna.

42
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

3.1 Introduction

Having set the objectives, goals and system specifications in the preceding chapter,

the following chapters present the component level design of the chipless tag, system

level design of the RFID readers followed by the system integration and field trials.

This chapter presents the detailed investigation of the spiral resonator which is the

fundamental component of the chipless RFID tag. According to the operating

principle for the chipless RFID tag presented in Chapter 2, the tag encodes data by

using a multiresonator. The multiresonator consists of cascaded microwave spiral

resonators coupled to a microstrip transmission line. The microwave spiral resonators

must be fully planar, exhibit narrow bandwidth (meaning high Q factor) and be

compact in size for use in the printable chipless tag.

After formulating the specification requirements to fulfil the thesis objectives, a

microwave resonant structure which can meet the requirements is investigated. The

most suitable candidate that can meet all the desirable features is the spiral resonator

[104]. When compared to other planar circuits such as defected ground structures

(DGS) [105]-[112], spiral resonators have the advantage of having 5 to 50 times

narrower 3dB bandwidth. They can also be modified easily for data encoding, as will

be shown later in this chapter. Various spiral resonators coupled to the microstrip

lines can be found in the open literature. Some are etched in the ground plane [113]

while others are etched inside the microstrip line [114] or gap-coupled to the

microstrip line [115].

43
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

The conventional microstrip spiral resonator gap coupled to the microstrip line

[114] is used due to its narrow bandwidth (20 MHz), reasonably high attenuation at its

resonant frequencies (>7dB) and single-sided layout. Understanding of the theoretical

models of the spiral is the foundation for the design of high Q spiral resonators. The

theoretical model of the spiral resonator is discussed in detail later in the chapter.

In this chapter the theoretical model and operation of the spiral resonator are

presented. The distributed component model and coupled-line model are presented. A

parametric study of the spiral resonator is performed. Many useful design curves are

derived from the study. Following the parametric study, the microstrip spiral

resonators are designed on 90 µm thin flexible laminate to emulate the tagged

polymer banknote. However, the attenuation of the spiral resonator on the thin

laminate drops drastically (700%) due to the fact that the energy concentration inside

the thin laminate is very high and the skin depth may be comparable to the thickness

of the copper cladding. This problem has been addressed and solved by transferring

the design to a CPW technology. A novel data encoding technique is introduced that

can ease the mass production of tags with unique IDs. In the final sections,

investigations of the loading effects of the multiple resonators on a transmission line

and their mutual coupling and the conclusions are presented.

44
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

3.2 Theoretical Modelling of Spiral Resonator

Fig. 3-1 shows the layout of a conventional spiral resonator. The microstrip line and

the spiral resonator are on the same plane (top layer) and are separated from the

continuous metallic ground plane (bottom layer) by a dielectric layer. From Fig. 3-1 it

is clear that the spiral resonator is gap-coupled to the 50 ohm microstrip line. At its

resonant frequency, the spiral resonator creates a stop band effect.

Spiral resonator
(conductor)

microstrip
(conductor)

Ground Plane Conductor

(conductor) thickness
Substrate εr Width of microstrip
Substrate
(dielectric) thickness

Fig. 3-1 Layout of spiral resonator placed next to a microstrip line.

Surface current distribution simulation is used in order to understand how the stop

band effect is created at the spiral’s resonant frequency. Fig. 3-2 (a) shows the peak

surface current distribution of a spiral resonator at its resonant frequency (2 GHz) and

(b) at a non-resonant frequency (2.1 GHz). The simulation was performed using CST

Microwave Studio 2008. From Fig. 3-2 (a) it is clear that the surface current

distribution is greater around the spiral at its resonant frequency. The spiral resonator

creates a low impedance path to ground at its resonant frequency and absorbs the

majority of the current propagating from Port 1 to Port 2 of the microstrip line,

resulting in a stop band effect. At its resonant frequency, the spiral resonator couples

almost none of the surface current propagating between Port 1 and Port 2 as seen in

Fig. 3-2 (b).

45
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Port 2

a)

Spiral
resonator

Port 1

Port 2
b)

Spiral
resonator

Port 1

Fig. 3-2 CST surface current distribution of spiral resonator at a) resonant frequency of 2 GHz and b)
non-resonant frequency of 2.1 GHz.

3.2.1 Spiral Resonator Modelling Using Distributed Components

The spiral resonator coupled to a microstrip line can be modelled using distributed

capacitance and inductance as a series RLC circuit coupled to a microstrip line [116].

The spiral resonator on its own is modelled as a series RLC circuit due to the low

impedance path that it creates at its resonant frequency which is the characteristic of

series RLC circuits. When the spiral resonator is coupled to the microstrip line, the

entire circuit (microstrip line + gap coupling + spiral resonator) is modelled as a

46
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

parallel RLC circuit due to its stop band characteristic as reported in [116]. The

equivalent circuit model is shown in Fig. 3-3.

RD
CD
Le
LD
LM Ce
Rs LT

ZL= Z0 Re
Z0
Cs Z0

Zs= Z0

Fig. 3-3 Equivalent circuit model of spiral resonator coupled to microstrip line [116].

The spiral resonator is modelled as a series RLC circuit where the distributed

capacitance is CD, the distributed inductance is LD and the resistive loss of the spiral is

RD. The coupling between the microstrip line and the spiral resonator is modelled

with mutual inductance LM, which is determined by the length of the coupled line and

the distance from the 50 ohm line.

Jiang et al [117] have reported the calculation of distributed capacitance and

resonant frequency of spiral resonators. First, the charge distributions on the spiral

resonator are found by the method of moments. Given the charge distribution, it is

possible to calculate the distributed capacitance of one spiral turn C1 as:

N1
1
C1  q  H  ri  i (3-1)
2 i 1

47
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

The spiral turn surface is subdivided into N1 sub-annuli, the mean radius of the

spiral is r, charge density is ρ and charge quantity is q. The total equivalent distributed

capacitance of the spiral resonator

CD  C1 ( Ri  Ro ) / 2r (3-2)

where Ri is the inner radius of the spiral and Ro is the outer radius of the spiral.

Hejazi et al reported the calculation of distributed inductance of spiral resonators in

[118]. The reported method for calculating the distributed inductance of spiral

resonators calculates the inductance of individual turns and the mutual inductance

between turns of the spiral resonator. Applying this method, the total distributed

inductance LD of any spiral shape has the general form of:

j
n  k 
LD   Loi  2   M    M    M j , j 1   M k , k  2  (3-3)
i 1  j 1 k 1 

where Loi are the self inductances of the turns, M  is the mutual inductance between

turns when the current is in concurrent directions, M  is the mutual inductance

between turns when the current is in opposite directions, M j , j 1 is the mutual

inductance between adjacent segments meeting at a point and the nearest segments

not meeting at a point M k , k  2 , j = 1, 2…, n-1 and k = 1, 2, …, n-2 and n is the

maximum number of turns in the spiral resonator.

The resonant frequency fr of the spiral resonator coupled to a microstrip line is

reported in [115], [119] as:

1
fr  (3-4)
2 LeCe

48
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

where Le and Ce are the total equivalent inductance and capacitance of the band stop

filter respectively.

3.2.2 Spiral Resonator Modelling Using Coupled Lines

The previous section focused on spiral resonator modelling using distributed

lumped components. This method provides an accurate RLC circuit model of the

spiral resonator. However, it does not significantly aid the designer when designing

the layout of the spiral resonator. A coupled line theory model of the spiral resonator

is proposed in Figs 3-4 and 3-5. A transmission line model of the spiral resonator

models the frequency characteristics of the resonator based on the layout of the

resonator and not the equivalent lumped circuitry.

12

14 13 11 9

15 16 10 8

17 22
6
1

18 19

20 5

21 2 3 4

Fig. 3-4 Spiral resonator circuit divided into sections.

49
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Port 1
50Ω
µ-strip
line
21

2 symmetric Microstrip 2 Microstrip 90°

coupled 20 line 18 line 15 Microstrip
symmetric
microstrip lines Bend
coupled 14
3 Asymmetric microstrip
90°
coupled microstrip lines Microstrip µ-strip
lines 19 17 line
Bend
16 13
Open
Circuit
End 2 symmetric
22 12 coupled
microstrip lines

1 6 Asymmetric coupled microstrip lines

4 Asymmetric coupled
microstrip lines 2

µ-strip
3 Asymmetric coupled
line
microstrip lines 10
3 90° 11
2 Microstrip
Bend
Open symmetric
Circuit coupled 9
50Ω 90°
End Microstrip microstrip Microstrip Microstrip
µ-strip 5 line 6 lines 7 line 8 Bend
line
4

Port 2
Fig. 3-5 Transmission line model of spiral resonator based on coupled lines.

Fig. 3-4 shows the sections of the spiral resonator which are used to model it in

ADS Schematic Simulator. There are a total of 22 sections of the spiral resonator. The

sections of the spiral resonator are represented by schematic microstrip components as

shown in Table 3-1. However, it is important to notice that as the ADS Schematic

does not support coupled microstrip bends, this type of circuit could not be used in the

transmission line model of the spiral resonator. Instead, the lack of a coupled

microstrip bend circuits was compensated with asymmetrically coupled line circuits

and 90° bends. The transmission line model still gave very accurate simulation results

when compared to the simulation results obtained using the full wave EM solver ADS

50
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Momentum. These results will be shown in the following sections.

Table 3-1 ADS Schematic components used in the Transmission line mode of spiral resonator
ADS Schematic components Section Number

6 asymmetric coupled lines 1

4 asymmetric coupled lines 2

3 asymmetric coupled lines 3, 19

2 symmetric coupled lines 7, 12, 17, 20

microstrip line 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 15 ,18, 21

90° microstrip bend 9, 10, 14, 16

open circuit 5, 22

Start

Select dielectric
material

Approximation of
spiral layout
parameters

Perform full
wave analysis

Extract S-parameters vs
frequency
Change
dimensions

Is the
frequency NO
response
acceptable?

YES

Stop

Fig. 3-6 Conventional steps for spiral resonator design.

Fig. 3-6 shows the conventional design phase of a spiral resonator. The design

51
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

phase starts with the choice of a laminate on which the spiral resonator is to be

designed. Further, an approximation of the spiral resonator’s layout

parameters/dimensions is made based on the quarter wavelength of the desired

resonant frequency. The full wave solver is then used to calculate the S-parameters

versus frequency behaviour of the frequency resonator. If the results are not

satisfactory the spiral resonator dimensions are varied and the full wave analysis is

performed again until satisfactory results are achieved. Obviously, this type of design

method is time consuming and purely iterative.

The coupled line model (Fig. 3-5) enables faster and easier design of the spiral

resonator. The optimization time is much shorter due to the fact that transmission line

theory based simulators take less time to simulate than that for the full wave 3D or

Method of Moments (MoM) solvers do. The transmission line model has been

designed in ADS 2008 Schematic Editor. It is important to note that the model has

neglected the influence of coupling between the microstrip bends due to the non-

existence of such microstrip components in the ADS Schematic Editor.

The following section focuses on the parametric study of the spiral resonator and

the comparison between the performances of the spiral resonators obtained using a

commercial full wave solver (ADS Momentum) and the proposed coupled line model

of the spiral resonator. This study facilitates not only understanding of the operation

of the spiral resonator but also deriving many useful design curves. These design

curves are used to tune the resonator into the optimal design.

52
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

3.3 Parametric Study of Microstrip Spiral Resonator on PCB

As can be seen from Fig. 3-7, the layout of a conventional microstrip spiral

resonator is defined by the following parameters: W feed is the width of the microstrip

line, Dgap is the separation between the spiral and microstrip line, Wspiralcond is the

width of the spiral conductor, Dspiralcond is the separation between the spiral conductors

and Lspiral and Wspiral are the length and width of the spiral resonator, respectively. The

frequency response of a spiral resonator (see Fig. 3.7 below) is shown in Fig. 3-8.

Lspiral

Spiral Wspiralcond Wspiral

resonator
Dspiralcond
Dgap
Wfeed
Fig. 3-7 Layout of a spiral resonator with defined layout parameters.

0
Magnitude (dB)

S11 Simulated
-10 S21 Simulated
S11 Measured
S21 Measured

-20

-30
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 3-8 Simulated and measured frequency response of spiral resonator designed on Taconic TLX-0
( W feed = 2.26 mm, Wspiralcond = 0.8 mm, Dspiralcond = 0.3 mm, Dgap = 0.2 mm, Lspiral = 8.64 mm, Wspiral =
5.2 mm, εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ = 0.0019).

53
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Fig. 3-8 shows good agreement between measured and simulated results obtained

by ADS Momentum 2008. In the simulation all boundaries were considered to be

open space and the ports were set to have 50 ohm impedance. The S21 curve of the

spiral resonator showed resonance at 2.37 GHz with 7 dB attenuation. The

corresponding S11 curve had a magnitude of -5.2 dB. The S21 3 dB bandwidth is 20

MHz. The spiral resonator was designed on Taconic TLX-0.

4 10

Attennuation(dB)
Frequency (GHz)

8
3

6
2
4

1
Resonant Frequency
2
Attenuation

0 0
1 2 3 4

Number of Turns N

Fig. 3-9 Variation of resonant frequency and attenuation at resonant frequency with number of turns N
(other parameters are as for Fig. 3-8).

The first parameter varied in the parametric study was the number of turns N in the

spiral resonator. The other design parameters were kept constant while the number of

turns was varied from 1 to 4. The width of the spiral resonator conductor was 0.8 mm,

separation between spiral conductors was 0.3 mm and gap separation between the

spiral and microstrip line was 0.2 mm while the spiral length was kept at 10 mm. The

parametric study is shown in Fig. 3-9. From Fig. 3-9 it is clear that the insertion

loss/attenuation of the spiral resonator decreases with the number of turns. Although

the greatest insertion loss at the resonant frequency is for N = 1, another important

parameter must be taken into account and that is the length of the spiral

resonator Lspiral . We can see that for the same spiral length with a greater number of

54
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

turns the resonant frequency decreases. This is as expected due to the increase of the

trace length of the spiral resonator. Therefore, for a smaller number of turns the

insertion loss is greater but the length of the spiral must also be greater. In order to

have a compact spiral resonator, a spiral with 2 turns was chosen since its length and

attenuation provide the optimal solution.

After choosing the number of turns for the spiral resonator the transmission line

model presented in Section 3.2.2 was benchmarked against an existing MoM solver –

ADS 2008 Momentum. A parametric study of the spiral resonator was performed

using the proposed transmission line model based on coupled line theory and ADS

2008 Momentum. The spiral layout parameters varied were: (i) the length of the spiral

( Lspiral ), (ii) separation between spiral conductors ( Dspiralcond ), (iii) spiral conductor

width ( Wspiralcond ) and (iv) distance of the spiral from the microstrip line ( Dgap ). The

dielectric used was Taconic TLX-0 with the following properties: εr = 2.45, h =

0.787mm, tanδ = 0.0019.

6
Resonant Frequency (GHz)

2
Momentum
1 TL Model
0
5 6 7 8 9 10

Spiral Length Lspiral(mm)

Fig. 3-10 Variation of resonant frequency vs spiral length Lspiral (other parameters are as for Fig. 3-8).

55
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

10

Attenuation (dB)
8

6 Momentum
TL Model
4
5 6 7 8 9 10

Spiral Length Lspiral(mm)

Fig. 3-11 Variation of attenuation with separation between spiral turns Dspiralcond (other parameters are
as for Fig. 3-8).

Figs 3-10 and 3-11 show the variation of the resonant frequency and insertion loss

with length of the spiral resonator respectively. The width of the spiral resonator

conductor is 0.2 mm, separation between spiral conductors is 0.3 mm and gap

separation between the spiral and microstrip line is 0.2 mm. As expected the resonant

frequency of the spiral resonator increases as the length of the spiral resonator

decreases and vice versa. The insertion loss of the spiral resonator is mainly constant

from 2 to 4 GHz. The transmission line model in ADS Schematic Editor based on

coupled lines shows close correspondence with the simulation results using

Momentum.

Figs 3-12 and 3-13 show the variation of the resonant frequency and attenuation

with the separation between spiral conductors (spiral turns) respectively. The width of

the spiral resonator conductor is 0.8 mm, the length of the spiral resonator was 10 mm

and gap separation between the spiral and microstrip line was 0.2 mm. By decreasing

the gap between spiral conductors, we decrease the overall dimensions of the

resonator and its trace length which results in the increase of the resonant frequency.

56
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

From Figs 3-12 and 3-13 it is clear that the transmission line model corresponds well

to the simulation results in Momentum.

3
Resonant Frequency (GHz)
2.6

2.2

1.8
Momentum
1.4
TL Model

1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Gap variation Dspiralcond(mm)

Fig. 3-12 Variation of resonant frequency vs separation between spiral turns Dspiralcond (other
parameters are as for Fig. 3-8).

8
Attenuation (dB)

5 Momentum

4 TL Model

3
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Gap variation Dspiralcond(mm)

Fig. 3-13 Variation of attenuation with separation between spiral turns Dspiralcond (other parameters are
as for Fig. 3-8).

Figs 3-14 and 3-15 show the variation of the resonant frequency and attenuation

with the width of the spiral conductor respectively. The length of the spiral conductor

is 10 mm, the separation between spiral conductors is 0.3 mm and gap separation

between the spiral and microstrip line is 0.2 mm. From Fig. 3-14 we can see that the

width of the spiral conductor does not significantly influence the shift in resonant

57
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

frequency. However, the spiral resonator’s attenuation at the resonant frequency is

greatly dependent on the spiral conductor width. The optimal spiral conductor width

is 0.8 mm. Based on Figs 3-14 and 3-15 we can conclude that the simulation results

obtained with Momentum and the transmission line model designed in ADS

Schematic Editor show close correspondence.

Resonant Frequency (GHz)

2.6

2.2

1.8
Momentum
1.4 TL Model
1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Spiral Conductor Width Wspiralcond(mm)

Fig. 3-14 Variation of resonant frequency with spiral conductor width Wspiralcond (other parameters are
as for Fig. 3-8).

7
Attenuation(dB)

3 Momentum

TL Model
1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Spiral Conductor Width Wspiralcond(mm)

Fig. 3-15 Variation of attenuation with spiral conductor width Wspiralcond (other parameters are as for
Fig. 3-8).

Figs 3-16 and 3-17 show the variation of the resonant frequency and attenuation

with the variation of Dgap . The parametric study of spiral resonators has shown that

58
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

the attenuation greatly depends on Wspiralcond and Dgap . The parameter Dgap is the gap

between the spiral and the microstrip line. As expected, the attenuation of the spiral

resonator is greater for smaller values of Dgap due to the stronger coupling between

the spiral and the 50 ohms microstrip line. The variation of the resonant frequency is

minimal for the different Dgap . Based on Figs 3-16 and 3-17 we can conclude that the

simulation results obtained with Momentum and the transmission line model designed

in ADS Schematic Editor correspond closely.

4
Resonant Frequency

3
(GHz)

1 Momentum
TL Model
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Gap length Dgap (mm)

Fig. 3-16 Variation of resonant frequency with Dgap (other parameters are as for Fig. 3-8).

10
Attenuation (dB)

Momentum
2
TL Model
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Gap length Dgap (mm)
Fig. 3-17 Variation of the attenuation with Dgap (other parameters are as for Fig. 3-8).

59
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

The following section presents the disadvantages of microstrip spiral resonators

printed on thin flexible laminates.

3.4 Problems of Migration to Thin Flexible Substrates

The design of the spiral resonator on thick PCB was presented in detail in Section

3.3. However, it is necessary to investigate the properties of microstrip spiral

resonators on thin flexible laminates, due to the fact that the chipless tag will

ultimately be printed on thin and flexible laminates such as paper and/or

polymer/plastic. The main problems of designing spiral resonators on flexible

substrates are:

- resonators exhibit low Q factor due to thin substrate; and

- microstrip lines and tracks become thinner on thinner substrates;

These two aspects make the design unrealistic for application to polymer banknotes.

The problem with using microstrip resonators on thin flexible laminates is that the

spiral resonators’ quality (Q) factor drops radically as shown in Fig. 3-18, rendering

them unusable for tags on flexible substrates. From Fig. 3-18 it is clear that the

insertion loss drops over 700% when the spiral resonator is designed on TF-290 (90

µm thickness) in respect to a spiral resonator designed on TLX-0 (787µm thickness).

60
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

(dB)
Loss(dB)
-3

Attenuation
Insertion -6 Spiral on PCB TLX-0

Spiral on Flexible Substrate TF-290

-9
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 3-18 Variation of the microstrip spiral insertion loss when printed on PCB TLX-0 (εr=2.45, h=
0.787 mm, tanδ = 0.0019) and flexible TF-290 (εr = 2.9, h = 0.09 mm, tanδ = 0.0028).

In order to increase the attenuation of the individual spiral resonators we used a new

type of coupling to the microstrip line – corner coupling. By using corner coupling we

were able to increase the attenuation at a design frequency, as shown in Fig. 3-19. As

the simulations were performed using ADS Momentum 2008, corner coupling

between the spiral resonator and the microstrip line was accounted for.

0
(dB)
Insertion Loss(dB)

-0.5
Attenuation

-1

-1.5
Conventional Closed Corner
Coupling Coupling

-2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency(GHz)

Fig. 3-19 Simulated attenuation using two different coupling methods.

Although attenuation increased from 0.5 to 1.5 dB it did not reach the desired -7

dB. A tandem of spiral resonators resonating at the same frequency further increased

the attenuation of the resonator as shown in Fig 3-20. By using the same spiral

61
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

resonator coupled to the microstrip line more than once (4 spirals in Fig. 3-20) we

increased the attenuation at a level of 2.5 dB. Fig. 3-21 shows the simulated insertion

losses of 1, 2 and 6 spirals operating at the same resonant frequency. The

disadvantages of this solution are layout size and inefficiency (same spiral repetition)

and increased 3 dB attenuation bandwidth (> 500 MHz). Because it is extremely

difficult to achieve exact replicas of the same spirals, frequency shifts occur resulting

in lesser attenuation and even larger 3 dB bandwidth.

Port 1 Port 2

Fig. 3-20 Layout of 4 same spirals designed in order to increase attenuation at their resonant frequency.

-2
Insertion Loss(dB)

-4

Single Spiral
-6
Two Spirals
Six Spirals
-8

-10
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 3-21 Simulated insertion losses using one, two and six spiral resonators in order to increase
attenuation.

Since neither solution provided satisfactory results, the design of the spiral

resonators was shifted from microstrip technology to co-planar waveguide (CPW)

technology. CPW technology was first proposed by Dr. Sushim Mukul Roy of the

Monash University RFID research group and it offers spiral resonators which are

62
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

single-sided, have satisfactory Q factors and are compact in size. The following

section will focus on designing the spiral resonator on thin flexible TF-290 laminate

using CPW technology.

3.5 CPW Spiral Resonator for Chipless Tag on Flexible Substrate

The coplanar waveguide (CPW) was first proposed by C. P. Wen in 1969 [120]. We

propose the novel waveguide as a dielectric substrate coated with a single layer of

copper. The isometric view of a CPW is shown in Fig. 3-22. It consists of a conductor

centre strip with conductive ground plane sheets on both sides of the strip. The

impedance of the strip is determined by the width of the strip, the gap, the permittivity

and thickness of the dielectric. In practice this means that we can have multiple

widths of the CPW strip on the same dielectric which would have, for example, a 50

ohm impedance at the cost of modification of the gap between the strip and ground

planes. This property of CPW makes it a very flexible transmission line technology.

Gap between ground

plane and strip

Ground Plane Strip Ground Plane

(conductor) (conductor) (conductor)
Conductor
thickness

Substrate εr Width of strip

Substrate
(dielectric) thickness

Fig. 3-22 A co-planar waveguide (CPW).

In the previous section it was shown that when using thin flexible laminates the

microstrip spiral resonators experienced a great drop in Q factor which resulted in

63
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

smaller attenuation at their resonant frequency. Since it is crucial for the tag to be

designed on thin laminates/substrates and still have a distinct dip in the spectrum

magnitude, this type of frequency response of the resonator is unsatisfactory.

In order to avoid the increase in metallic loss in the microstrip line due to the

decrease in dielectric thickness, CPW technology was used for designing high Q

spiral resonators. CPW technology uses spiral shapes etched out in the stripline to

create stop bands. CPW technology overcomes the problem of low Q factor as found

in microstrip technology. The layout of a spiral resonator designed on 90 µm thin

Taconic TF-290 laminate is shown in Fig. 3-23.

Strip

Ground Port 2
plane

Spiral
resonator Ground
plane
Port 1

Substrate

Fig. 3-23 Layout of spiral resonator etched out in a CPW strip line.

64
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Magnitude (dB)
-5 S11
S21

-10

-15
4 5 6
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 3-24 Simulated frequency response of spiral resonator etched out in a CPW strip line on TF-290
(εr = 2.9, h = 90 µm, tanδ = 0.0028).

The CPW strip line, the ground plane and the spiral resonator are on the same plane

(top layer). The strip line is separated from the continuous metallic ground planes by a

gap. At its resonant frequency, the spiral resonator creates a stop band as can be seen

in Fig. 3-24. The 2-port s-parameters of the CPW spiral resonator were obtained from

ADS Momentum 2008. The CPW spiral resonator was designed on Taconic TF-290

(εr = 2.9, h = 90 µm , tanδ = 0.0028).

When printing the spirals using CPW technology, the stopband attenuation is

comparable with PCB results on flexible substrates as shown in Fig. 3-24 (> 7dB).

This is the main reason for the migration of the tag to CPW technology. Each spiral

resonator introduces a different stop-band resonance. By varying the dimensions of

the spiral resonator we can vary the resonance. Fig. 3-25 shows the variation of the

spiral’s resonant frequency and attenuation with the spiral’s resonator length Lspiral as

obtained from ADS 2008 Momentum simulation.

65
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

12 9
Resonant Frequency

Frequency (GHz)

Attenuation (dB)
Spiral Attenution
9 8

6 7

3 6
2 3 4 5 6 7
Spiral Length Lspiral (mm)
Fig. 3-25 CPW spiral resonant frequency and attenuation vs spiral length Lspiral .

The advantages of the CPW spiral resonator in comparison to the microstrip spiral

resonator are higher attenuation at resonant frequency and the single sided layout. The

disadvantages are in terms of compact layout, since CPW spiral resonators can be

cascaded only by placing them in series. In contrast, microstrip spiral resonators can

be cascaded on both sides of the microstrip line.

The following section will focus on cascading spiral resonators in microstrip and

CPW technology and the design of multiresonators on PCB (thick laminate) and thin

flexible laminate.

3.6 The Multiresonator – Cascaded Spiral Resonators

The theory, design, parametric study and optimization of spiral resonators for PCB

and thin flexible laminates were comprehensively investigated in the preceding

chapter. However, the main task was to design a multiresonating circuit which can

encode a unique spectral signature of the tag into the interrogation signal sent by the

RFID reader. The multiresonating circuit was designed by cascading spiral resonators

next to the microstrip line (microstrip technology for PCB) or etching them out in the

66
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

CPW strip line (CPW technology for thin laminates) with different lengths so that

multiple resonances occur. Based on this idea, the design of a microstrip

multiresonator operating on PCB Taconic TLX-0 and the CPW multiresonator

designed on a thin flexible laminate TF-290 are presented in this section.

3.6.1 Multiresonator on PCB Using Microstrip Technology

Fig. 3-26 Layout of 6-bit multiresonator in ADS Momentum 2008.

Fig. 3-27 Photograph of 6-bit multiresonator on Taconic TLX-0.

Fig. 3-26 shows the top view of a 6-bit multiresonator layout generated in ADS

Momentum 2008. Fig. 3-27 shows a photograph of the fabricated 6-bit multiresonator

on Taconic TLX-0 substrate. The 6-bit multiresonator consists of 6 spiral resonators

cascaded next to a 50 ohm microstrip line. The multiresonator provides six

distinguishable resonances between 2 and 2.5 GHz. Each resonance is separated by

67
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

approximately 100 MHz from each other. In order to design the spirals at different

frequencies, the length of each spiral has been varied so that the spiral’s resonant

frequency is fine tuned. The parametric study of the spiral resonators was

comprehensively presented in Section 3.3. The spiral resonators were placed at a

separation of 3 mm from each other, had a copper conductor width of 0.8 mm and

were placed 0.2 mm from the 50 ohm microstrip line. The width of the 50 ohm

microstrip line on Taconic TLX-0 was calculated to be 2.26 mm.

Fig. 3-28 shows the measured frequency response in both magnitude and phase of

the 6-bit multiresonator. From Fig. 3-28 it is clear that at the resonant frequencies of

individual spirals of the multiresonator there is a magnitude “dip” and phase “jump”

in the magnitude and phase of the spectrum of the multiresonator. These properties

are used to encode data into the spectrum using the multiresonator.

0 80
-1

Phase (Degrees)
60
Magnitude(dB)

-2
-3 40
-4 20
-5 0
-6
-7 -20
-8 -40
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Frequency(GHz)
Insertion Loss (S21) Transmission Phase(S21)

Fig. 3-28 Measured insertion loss and transmission phase of 6-bit multiresonator.

From the results shown in Fig 3-28 we can see 6 distinct resonant nulls in the

magnitude and 6 phase shifts due to the six spirals. Analog 1:1 correspondence are

binary data encoded by using the magnitude and phase of the spectral signature. The

68
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

presence of a magnitude null (“dip”) and phase jump represent logic “0” while the

absence of a magnitude null and phase jump at a particular frequency represent logic

“1”.

3.6.2 Multiresonator on Thin Flexible Laminate Using CPW Technology

In the previous section the multiresonator was designed on thick PCB using

microstrip technology. As shown in Sections 3.4 and 3.5 CPW technology on thin

flexible laminates is superior to microstrip technology. Hence, the design of a

multiresonator on thin flexible laminate was performed on Taconic TF-290 which is

90µm thin. Fig. 3-29 shows the top view of the 3-bit multiresonator layout generated

in ADS Momentum 2008. Fig. 3-30 shows a photograph of the fabricated 3-bit

multiresonator on TF-290 substrate. The 3-bit multiresonator consists of 3 spiral

resonators cascaded within a 50 ohm CPW strip line. The spirals are etched in the

CPW strip line. The CPW multiresonator provides 3 distinguishable resonances

between 2 and 2.5 GHz. Each resonance is separated by approximately 200 MHz

from each other. The resonant frequencies of the CPW spirals were placed further

away in spectrum due to the larger bandwidth of the CPW spirals compared to

microstrip spirals. In order to design the spirals at different frequencies, the length of

each spiral has been varied so that the spiral’s resonant frequency is tuned. The spiral

resonators were placed 3 mm from each other.

Fig. 3-29 Layout of CPW 3-bit multiresonator in ADS Momentum 2008.

69
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Fig. 3-30 Photograph of manufactured CPW 3-bit multiresonator on 90 µm Taconic TF-290 substrate.

Fig. 3-31 shows the simulated frequency response in both magnitude and phase of

the 3-bit multiresonator. From Fig. 3-31 it is clear that at the resonant frequencies of

each spiral of the multiresonator there is a magnitude null and phase jump in the

magnitude and phase of the spectrum of the CPW multiresonator. These distinct nulls

and jumps in magnitude and phase respectively are interpreted as logic “0” while their

absences at the resonant frequencies are interpreted as logic “1”.

0 -80

-2 -100
Phase (Degrees)
Magnitude (dB)

-4 -120

-6 -140

Insertion Loss
-8 Transmission Phase -160

-10 -180
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0

Frequency(GHz)

Fig. 3-31 Measured insertion loss and transmission phase of CPW 3-bit multiresonator.

In the following section the novel data encoding technique for introducing and

removing the resonances is presented.

70
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

3.7 Encoding Data Using Novel “Spiral Shorting” Technique

It is necessary to encode data into the tag in order for the tag to have a unique ID.

This can be achieved by introducing or removing the resonances of the

multiresonator. Fig 3-28 shows the S-parameter measurements of a multiresonator

which gives a tag ID of 000000. In order to create a different ID, for example, 101010

the resonances at 2.1 GHz, 2.3 GHz and 2.5 GHz need to be removed. By removing

the spiral the resonance is also removed. The other option is to short the turns of the

spiral as shown in Figs 3-32 and Fig. 3-33 (microstrip and CPW respectively), thus

shifting the resonance frequency of the spiral up where it will be of no significance.

The shift of the resonant frequency with the shorting of the turns is shown in Fig. 3-

34. The advantage of shorting turns over to removing the entire spiral from the layout

is that it enables future printing techniques to preserve the layout with all of the

spirals shorted and when encoding data the shorting can be removed via a laser or

other etching technique. The frequency signatures of tags with different IDs are

shown in Figs 3-35 and 3-36.

Un-shorted
Spiral
Short
between turns
to remove
resonance
Shorted
Spiral

Fig. 3-32 Photograph of removing spiral resonances via spiral shorting for microstrip multiresonator.

71
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

Un-shorted
Spiral
Resonator

Shorted
Spiral
Resonator

Fig. 3-33 Photograph of removing spiral resonances via spiral shorting for CPW multiresonator.

0
Insertion Loss(dB)

-1
-2 Frequency shift
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Frequency (GHz)
Shorted Spiral Non-Shorted Spiral
Fig. 3-34 Frequency shift of resonant frequency with short-circuited spiral.

72
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

0
-1

Insertion Loss (dB)

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Frequency (GHz)

Tag 000000ID Tag101010 ID

Fig. 3-35 Measured insertion losses of chipless tags with different spectral signatures.

40

30
Transmission Phase

20
(Degrees)

10

-10

-20

-30
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Frequency (GHz)

Tag 000000ID Tag101010 ID

Fig. 3-36 Measured transmission phases of chipless tags with different spectral signatures.

3.8 Interference and Frequency Shifts of Cascaded Spiral Resonators

In the previous sections the design of the multiresonator and data encoding using the

spiral shorting method have been presented. However, it is important to understand

the influence and interference created amongst the cascaded spiral resonators. Figs. 3-

73
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

35 and 3-36 show the presence of a small frequency shift of the spiral resonance

frequency.

Tables 3-2 and 3-3 show the resonant frequencies of the microstrip and CPW

multiresonator. Table 3-2 shows the resonant frequencies of the six microstrip spiral

resonators when they are cascaded in the multiresonator and all spirals are active,

when they are cascaded in the multiresonator and only 1 spiral is active and others are

shorted (inactive) and when they are alone. The same data are shown in Table 3-3 for

3 spirals in the CPW multiresonator. From Tables 3-2 and 3-3 it is clear that the

frequency shifts are minimal (within a few MHz) and are thus completely acceptable.

The influence of the spirals is shown in Figs 3-37 and 3-38. From Fig. 3-37 it is clear

that the frequency shifts of the spiral’s resonant frequencies are minimal and that the

spirals have minimal influence on each other.

Table 3-2 Resonant frequencies of microstrip spiral resonators under different design conditions
Spiral No. All spirals active in multiresonator One spiral active in multiresonator Single Spiral

1 1.993 GHz 1.994 GHz 1.994 GHz

2 2.098 GHz 2.099 GHz 2.099 GHz

3 2.191 GHz 2.190 GHz 2.191 GHz

4 2.291 GHz 2.291 GHz 2.290 GHz

5 2.396 GHz 2.395 GHz 2.395 GHz

6 2.494 GHz 2.493 GHz 2.494 GHz

74
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

0
-1

Insertion Loss (dB)

-3

-5

-7
st
1 Spiral
-9 nd
2 Spiral
rd Multiresonator
3 Spiral
-11 th
4 Spiral
th
5 Spiral
-13 th
6 Spiral
-15
1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 3-37 Insertion losses of six microstrip spiral resonators in the multiresonator and alone.

Table 3-3 Resonant frequencies of CPW spiral resonators under different design conditions
Spiral No. All spirals active in multiresonator One spiral active in multiresonator Single Spiral

1 1.997 GHz 1.998 GHz 1.998 GHz

2 2.204 GHz 2.201 GHz 2.2 GHz

3 2.449 GHz 2.445 GHz 2.445 GHz

0
-1

-3
Inseertion Loss

-5

-7
-9 st
1 Spiral
nd
2 Spiral
Multiresonator
-11 rd
3 Spiral

-13

-15
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0

Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 3-38 Insertion losses of three CPW spiral resonators in the multiresonator and alone.

75
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

3.9 Conclusions

This chapter has reported investigations of microstrip and CPW spiral resonators as

high Q stopband filters for chipless tag multiresonators. In the first part of the chapter,

the equivalent circuit and theoretical model of the microstrip spiral resonator was

presented. The spiral resonator was modelled first with distributed LC components

and then using coupled microstrip lines and microstrip discontinuities.

The parametric study of the spiral resonator was performed by varying different

design/layout parameters of the spiral resonator. Corresponding effects on the

frequency responses of the spiral resonator due to the parametric study have also been

presented. A single spiral resonator was thus optimized and designed to produce a

bandstop resonance at 2.37 GHz. The 3 dB bandwidth of the insertion loss is 20 MHz.

The microstrip spiral resonator was designed on thin flexible laminate TF-290. The

performance of microstrip spiral resonators on flexible was investigated and yielded

poor Q factor and unsatisfactory frequency response. Two different approaches to

increasing the Q factor and optimizing the frequency response were attempted: closed

corner coupling and spiral repetition. Although these methods increased the insertion

loss of the spiral at its resonant frequency the bandwidth of the spiral resonators was

dramatically increased (over 500 MHz).

The design of CPW spiral resonators etched into the strip line showed satisfactory

performance on thin flexible laminate. The CPW spiral resonators exhibited

comparable results to microstrip spiral resonators on thick PCB laminates. The

advantages of CPW spirals in comparison to microstrip spiral resonators on thin

76
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

flexible laminates are higher Q factor and single-sided layout. However, the use of

CPW technology results in larger circuits due to the fact that cascading can be

performed in one dimension (1D). Microstrip spiral resonators can be placed on both

sides of the microstrip line hence allowing smaller layout.

The multiresonator circuit is used for encoding data by the chipless tag. The

multiresonator was designed as cascaded spiral resonators placed next to the

microstrip line or etched in the CPW strip line using microstrip and CPW technology

respectively. The magnitude and phase of the frequency spectrum of the

multiresonator circuit were investigated and it has been shown that both can be used

for data encoding. The spectral signature data encoding using phase is a fully novel

concept and is intended to increase the reading range of the tag since phase is more

resistant to noise than magnitude.

A novel data encoding technique called spiral shorting has been presented. The

encoding of data is performed by shorting the turns of the spiral in order to shift the

spiral’s resonant frequency outside the band of interest, hence resulting in no

resonance at the particular frequency reserved for the spectral signature data bit. The

presence of the resonance is treated as a logic “0” since it creates a magnitude null

and phase jump, while its absence is treated as logic “1”. The advantage of using this

type of data encoding rather than removing the entire spiral is that using little layout

modification is needed for data encoding and it can be performed using a laser.

Different investigations were carried out to identify the mutual influence between

cascaded spirals. The spiral resonators were placed in three different scenarios: 1)

77
Chapter 3 Spiral Resonators

cascaded with all spirals active, 2) cascaded with only one spiral active while others

are shorted (inactive) and 3) a single spiral resonator. The resonant frequencies of the

spiral resonators in all three conditions resulted in minimal frequency shifts of only a

few MHz which are acceptable and reflect the robustness of the design.

The following chapter presents the design of UWB antennas for the chipless RFID

tag and RFID reader.

78
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

4.1 Introduction

In the preceding chapter, the theory and design of the spiral resonators for spectral

signature encoding were discussed. In this chapter the design of UWB antennas for

the chipless tag and RFID reader is presented. The Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) has defined a UWB antenna as any antenna that has an absolute

bandwidth of no less than 500 MHz or fractional bandwidth of at least 0.2 [121].

The antennas used in this project are UWB due to the wideband spectrum required

to encode spectral signature data. Based on the chipless RFID system specifications, it

is clear that the antennas used for the tag and the reader are completely different. This

is because the tag requires an omnidirectinal antenna while the reader circuit requires

a high gain directional antenna.

Firstly, the theory of operation of UWB linearly-polarized disc-loaded monopole

antennas (hereafter referred to as monopole antennas) is presented. The development

of UWB monopole antennas for chipless tag on PCB and thin flexible laminate is then

presented. Two types of technologies are used when designing the UWB monopoles

on PCB and thin laminate: microstrip and CPW technologies, respectively.

The directional UWB antenna used for the RFID reader is a log periodic dipole

antenna (LPDA) array. LPDAs are UWB high gain, linearly-polarized directive

antennas which offer extended reading ranges for RFID readers.

79
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

4.2 Theory

In this section the theory of operation of the disc-loaded monopole antennas and

LPDAs is presented. The UWB monopoles are used as the Tx and Rx tag antennas

while the LPDAs are used as Tx and Rx reader antennas.

4.2.1 UWB Disc-Loaded Monopole Antennas for Chipless Tags

As is the case for any wireless communications system, the tag antenna plays a

crucial role in the chipless RFID system. However, the choice of antenna and design

is not a simple task and must meet certain criteria [122]. First, the antenna should

exhibit extremely large bandwidth in order to obtain many frequency signatures that

are needed to encode large numbers of data bits. Second, the radiation pattern of the

antenna should be as constant as possible over the entire frequency band of operation

and should be omni-directional or very close to it. Third, the antenna needs to be

linearly-polarized since orthogonal cross-polarization is to be used as an isolation

mechanism between the interrogation signal sent from the reader and the tag’s

response signals received by the reader, as mentioned in Chapter 2. Finally, the

antenna has to exhibit a compact and fully printable (planar) layout in order to be

printed on a paper/plastic base material.

Circular UWB monopole antennas have a simple layout and exhibit extremely large

bandwidth and a figure-of-eight radiation pattern [123]-[127]. UWB dipole antennas

have been reported by researchers with similar radiation properties and bandwidth as

those found using UWB monopoles [128]-[130]. Both types of antennas are fully

printable and initially appear suitable for deployment as the chipless RFID tag

antenna. The main disadvantage of UWB dipoles when compared to UWB monopoles

80
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

is that they require an impedance matching circuit and/or balun [131] which can

increase the size and complexity of design of the tag. As UWB monopole antennas

need no impedance matching circuit or balun for their successful operation, they are a

preferred solution for the chipless RFID tag antenna.

Higher order
Fundamental
Return mode modes
Loss (dB)

-10dB

Antenna
bandwidth

Frequency (GHz)

Fig 4-1 UWB monopole operational principle.

The UWB characteristic of the monopole antenna is attributed to the overlapping of

the antenna modes (resonances) which are closely distributed over the spectrum [132].

The operational principle of the UWB disc monopole is shown in Fig. 4-1. The use of

the higher order modes influences the monopole’s radiation pattern in the E-plane

which becomes distorted from a figure-of-eight radiation pattern in the fundamental

mode. At the antenna’s fundamental mode of operation the wavelength of the

transmitting/receiving signal is greater than the antenna’s dimensions and because the

antenna operates in an oscillating mode a standing wave is formed. As the frequency

of the signal (and therefore operation) increases, the antenna starts operating in a

hybrid mode of standing and travelling waves. At higher frequencies the travelling

waves are dominant since the wavelengths at these frequencies are smaller than the

antenna structure. Therefore, due to the hybrid modes of antenna operation it is

possible to create an extremely wide-band operating antenna at the expense of

radiation pattern distortion at higher operating modes. These distortions are due to the

81
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

surface current distribution in higher order modes [123]-[124]. The H plane radiation

pattern remains constant throughout the operating band. This is due to the symmetry

of the antenna’s configuration along its axis of rotation.

4.2.2 Log Periodic Dipole Antennas for Chipless Tag RFID Reader

High gain RFID reader antennas with directive radiation patterns can significantly

increase the RFID reader’s reading range and the number of tags interrogated as the

antenna can provide spatial diversity with its narrow beamwidth. The LPDA consists

of a sequence of side-by-side parallel linear dipoles which form an antenna array. The

LPDA has similarities in terms of layout and directivity to the Yagi-Uda array but

offers much larger bandwidths. The Yagi-Uda antenna elements do not follow any set

patterns (lengths, element spacing separation etc) while the LPDA antenna elements

increase logarithmically.

LPDA’s have been designed as reader antennas in this thesis due to the fact that the

proposed chipless RFID system needs wide band RFID reader antennas with directive

pattern and high gain. The designed antenna presented in this section is designed for

the Gen1 and Gen2 RFID proof-of-concept readers which operate between 2 and 2.5

GHz.

4.3 Design

In this section the design steps of two types of UWB monopole antennas are

presented based on their feeding mechanisms: microstrip fed and CPW fed. The

empirical design steps of LPDA for the RFID reader are also outlined.

82
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

4.3.1 Design of Microstrip Fed UWB Monopole

As discussed in the preceding section, the UWB monopoles need to be fully planar

and printable. In this section the design of UWB monopole antenna on thick PCB is

described. The substrate used was Taconic TLX-0 (εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ =

0.0019 and the antenna was fed using microstrip line [133]-[136].

The UWB monopole antenna layout with microstrip feed and parameters is

presented in Fig. 4-2. As can be seen, the disc-loaded monopole antenna of disc radius

R and the microstrip feed line of width Lfeed is etched on the top side of the laminate.

The ground plane of width Wgnd and length Lgnd is etched on the bottom side of the

laminate. The feedline is a 50 ohm microstrip line of width Wfeed. The antenna is fed

with an SMA connector soldered at the end of the feed line.

Lgnd

Lfeed
R

W gnd Lgap

Fig. 4-2 UWB monopole antenna with microstrip feed and defined layout parameters.

The performance of the antenna relies entirely on its layout parameters. The two

dominant design parameters are the radius of the patch R and the width of the ground

plane Wgnd. The radius R determines the fundamental operating mode (first resonance)

83
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

of the antenna and therefore the low frequency cut off. The width of the ground plane

Wgnd makes a significant contribution to the matching of the antenna and determines

the high frequency cut off, hence the overall antenna bandwidth. A photograph of the

UWB monopole antenna operating between 2 and 10 GHz is shown in Fig. 4-3.

L
Lgap

Lfeed Lgnd
Bottom
Top side
side

Fig. 4-3 Photograph of the manufactured UWB monopole with defined layout parameters (L = 66 mm,
Wgnd = 60 mm, Lgap = 1 mm, Lgnd = 31 mm Lfeed = 32 mm and R = 15 mm).

The UWB monopole antenna shown above was designed for a proof-of-concept tag

operating from 2 - 2.5 GHz. However, although the antenna operates in the UWB

frequency spectrum it is too large in dimensions to be used for a chipless tag on a

banknote. The overall length of the antenna is 66 mm and the width is 60 mm. Hence,

the UWB antenna needed to be redesigned to work at a higher frequency range.

The new UWB tag antenna was designed in order to operate within the UWB (3.1 –

7 GHz) spectrum and with an almost omni-directional radiation pattern. The antenna

was designed on Taconic TLX-0 using ADS 2008 Momentum and is shown in Fig 4-

4. The dimensions of the antenna are much smaller resulting in an antenna 36mm in

84
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

length and 20mm wide. The dimensions of this type of antenna make it suitable for

the chipless tag.

R Lfeed
Top Side

Lgap

Lgnd

Bottom Side
W

Fig. 4-4 UWB monopole antenna with layout parameters (L = 36 mm, W = 20 mm, Lgnd = 20 mm, Lgap =
1 mm, Lfeed = 21 mm and R = 7 mm, substrate Taconic TLX-0 (εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ = 0.0019).

4.3.2 Design of CPW Fed UWB Monopole

Following the design of the CPW multiresonator circuit on flexible laminate, the

next step was to design a CPW fed UWB antenna. As presented in the previous

sections, UWB monopole antennas are a suitable chipless RFID tag antenna with

wideband return loss performance and almost omni-directional radiation patterns.

Various UWB monopole antennas which incorporate CPW feeds have been reported

in [137]-[141]. However, the design of CPW fed UWB monopole antennas on

flexible laminates has not been reported to date. Hence, a thorough parametric study

of the antenna was performed.

The CPW disc monopole antenna is a single layer-metallic structure comprised of a

copper disc with radius R and a 50Ω CPW printed on the same side of the dielectric

substrate Taconic TF-290 (εr=2.9, h=90μm, tanδ=0.0028). The manufactured CPW

85
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

monopole antenna with design parameters is shown in Fig. 4-5.

L
Lgap
Dgap
W
R
Wfeed
H-plane
Wgnd
Lgnd E-plane
Fig. 4-5 Photograph of CPW fed UWB monopole (L = 27 mm, W = 18.8 mm, Lgnd = 12 mm, Wgnd = 8mm,
Dgap = 0.15 mm, Lgap = 2 mm, Wfeed = 2.5 mm and R =7 mm, substrate Taconic TF-290 εr = 2.9, h = 0.09 mm,
tanδ = 0.0028).

The parametric study of the UWB monopole antenna is shown in Figs 4-6, 4-7, 4-8

and 4-9. The antenna’s parametric study and design were carried out using Agilent’s

ADS Momentum 2008 on 90 µm Taconic TF-290.

9
Frequency (GHz)

7
10dB Return Loss Bandwidth

5 Fundamental Mode
Frequency

3
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Antenna Disc Radius R (mm)
Fig. 4-6 Variation of antenna fundamental mode and 10dB return loss bandwidth with R (Lgnd=12mm,
Wgnd=8mm, Lgap=2mm; other parameters are as in Fig. 5-6).

86
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

Frequency (GHz)
10dB Return Loss Bandwidth

6 Fundamental Mode Frequency

3
10 12 14 16 18 20
Antenna Ground Length Lgnd (mm)
Fig. 4-7 Variation of antenna fundamental mode and 10dB return loss bandwidth with Lgnd (R = 7
mm, Wgnd = 8 mm, Lgap = 2 mm; other parameters are as in Fig. 5-6).

8
7
Frequency (GHz)

10dB Return Loss Bandwidth

6
Fundamental Mode Frequency
5
4
3
2
1
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Antenna Ground Width Wgnd (mm)
Fig. 4-8 Variation of fundamental mode and 10dB return loss bandwidth with Wgnd (R = 7 mm, Lgnd
= 12 mm, Lgap = 2 mm; other parameters are as in Fig. 5-6).

0
Magnitude(S11)

-5

-10

-15
Lgap=1mm
-20 Lgap=1.5mm
Lgap=2mm
-25
3 5 7 9 11
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 4-9 Variation of antenna return loss and 10dB bandwidth with Lgap (R = 7 mm, Lgnd = 12 mm,
Wgnd = 8 mm; other parameters are as in Fig. 5-6).

87
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

Fig. 4-6 indicates that for R = 7 mm the fundamental radiating mode of the antenna

is around 4.2 GHz with a 10 dB bandwidth greater than 6.5 GHz, which covers the

tag’s operating frequency range (5 to 10.7 GHz) with small physical dimensions. Fig.

4-7 shows that the 10 dB antenna bandwidth remains above or around 6.5 GHz for

shorter (<12 mm) and much longer (>20 mm) ground plane lengths. When designing

the tag the ground plane length is longer than 20 mm, hence the return loss bandwidth

is greater than 7 GHz. This satisfies the system’s operating requirements. From Fig. 4-

8 it is clear that the variation of the ground width does not influence the resonant

frequency, but significantly influences the 10 dB return loss bandwidth of the antenna.

The optimized value for the antenna’s ground width is 8 mm, since it provides the

largest antenna bandwidth. Fig. 4-9 shows that the optimized value of Lgap = 2 mm is

the optimal solution for the best matching of the antenna over the defined bandwidth.

Tx Antenna
-2
Tx Tag Antenna S11
Return Loss (dB)

Rx Tag Antenna
-7 Rx Antenna
S11

-12

-17

-22
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 4-10 Simulated Tx and Rx tag antenna return losses once integrated into the chipless tag circuit.

Fig. 4-10 shows the simulated return losses of the Tag Rx and Tag Tx antennas

integrated within the tag. The return loss simulations were performed in order to test

the performance of the monopoles when integrated with the multiresonating circuit,

hence resulting in a greater and non-symmetrical monopole ground plane. The return

loss remains satisfactory (below -10dB) over the desired region from 5-11 GHz where

the tag data are encoded. The radiation pattern distortions are minimal due to the main

88
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

surface current distribution being around the gap between the antenna ground plane

and circular disc.

4.3.3 Design of Log Periodic Dipole Antennas

An LPDA design requires three design parameters [142]: geometric ration τ, angle

factor α and spacing factor σ, as shown in Fig. 4-11.

By defining the desired directivity, the geometric ratio τ and spacing factor σ may

be easily found from [142]. The geometric ratio determines the length and resonant

frequency of each dipole element using

l n1 f rn1 (4-1)

 
ln f rn

where f rn and f rn1 are the resonant frequencies of the n-th and n+1-st dipole

element respectively. The spacing factor σ defines the separation between the dipole

elements in order to achieve desired bandwidth and gain and is defined as

Rn 1  Rn
 (4-2)
2ln 1

where Rn and Rn 1 are the separation between the n-th and n+1-st dipole element

respectively, and ln 1 is the length of the two dipole arms of the n+1-st element as

shown in Fig. 4-29. After this, the angle factor may be calculated using the following

equation:

1    (4-3)
  tan 1  
 4 

Based on these three design parameters, the LPDA was designed with the layout

shown in Fig. 4-11.

89
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

α ln1
s

Rn
Rn 1

Fig. 4-11 Layout of log periodic dipole array with layout defined parameters.

The antenna bandwidth is defined as

f stop (4-4)
Bs   (1.1  7.7(1   ) 2 cot  )
f start

where f stop is the high frequency limit and f start is the low frequency limit. The

overall length of the antenna is defined as

max 1 (4-5)
L (1  ) cot 
4 Bs

where max is the largest wavelength defined as

v (4-6)
max  2lmax 
f min

The number of dipole elements that need to be used for the LPDA is defined as

ln Bs (4-7)
N  1
ln(1   )

The characteristic impedance Z a of the dipole elements is defined as

 l  (4-8)
Z a  120 ln n  2.25
 dn 

where ln and d n are the length and width of the n-th dipole element respectively.

90
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

The design curve shown in [142] shows the relationship between Z a and Z0 , where
Rin Rin

Z 0 is the antenna input impedance and Rin is the desired input impedance (in our case

50Ω). Based on this curve we can set the necessary impedance of the dipole arms Z a

in order to set the ration Z 0 to 1 in order to achieve a match to 50 Ω. Finally, the

Rin

spacing between the feed lines is found from:

Z0 (4-9)
s  d  cosh( )
120
Further optimization of the LPDA is performed using CAD tools such as ADS,

CST, Ansoft HFSS etc...

The overall design process of the reader LPDA may be summarized as follows:

1) Determine σ and τ from given directivity from [142], (4-1) and (4-2).

2) Determine α using (4-3).

3) Determine antenna bandwidth Bs using (4-4).

4) Calculate L and N from (4-5) and (4-7) respectively.

5) Determine Z a and Z 0 using [99].

Rin Rin

(6) Calculate spacing between the feed lines s from (4-9).

(7) Perform LPDA optimization using CAD tools.

Optimization of the LPDA was achieved using CST Microwave Studio 2008. Fig.

4-12 shows a photograph of the designed LPDA on Taconic TLX-0. The layout

dimensions of the LPDA are given in Table 4-1.

91
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

Dipole
length

Feed
probe

Distance
between dipoles

Fig. 4-12 Photograph of the reader LPDA with defined layout parameters (substrate Taconic TLX-0
εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ = 0.0019).

Table 4-1 Log periodic dipole array dimensions

Dipole length (cm) Distance between dipoles (cm)
3.22 3.22
2.99 2.99
2.78 2.78
2.58 2.58
2.4 2.4
2.24 2.24

4.4 Results

In this section the measured results of the CPW fed and microstrip fed UWB

monopole antennas and LPDA are presented. The results include return loss, gain, co-

polar and cross-polar radiation pattern measurements.

4.4.1 Microstrip Fed UWB Monopole Antenna Results

The antenna was measured using Agilent’s PNA E8136A with one port calibration

from 1 to 10 GHz. The measured return loss vs frequency of the monopole antenna is

shown in Fig. 4-13. As can be seen in Fig. 4-13, the antenna exhibits 10 dB return loss

(RL) bandwidth starting from 2 GHz and beyond 10 GHz.

92
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

Magnitude S11(dB)
-5

-10

-15

-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 4-13 measured return loss of chipless RFID tag UWB monopole antenna.

Figs. 4-14 and 4-15 show the radiation patterns of the UWB tag antenna at 2 and

2.5 GHz measured inside an anechoic chamber respectively. As can be seen, the

minimum cross-polar level is -25dB (160° @ 2 GHz vertical plane) and the maximum

is -7dB (90° @ 2.5 GHz vertical plane) smaller than the co-polar component.

Therefore, the measured radiation patterns ensure polarization purity. The measured

antenna gain was ~1dBi across the desired frequency band. The suppression of the

cross-polar component is essential and can contribute significantly to robust reading

results.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10

300 -20 60 300 -20 60

-30 -30

270 -40 90 270 -40 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-Polar Radiation Pattern Vertical Plane Co-Polar Radiation Pattern Horizontal Plane
Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern Vertical Plane Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern Horizontal Plane

Fig. 4-14 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 2 GHz.

93
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10

300 -20 60 300 -20 60

-30 -30

270 -40 90 270 -40 90

c

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-Polar Radiation Pattern Vertical Plane Co-Polar Radiation Pattern Horizontal Plane
Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern Vertical Plane Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern Horizontal Plane

Fig. 4-15 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 2.5 GHz.

As mentioned in the design Section 4.3.1 a new monopole antenna with smaller

dimensions was designed. The tag antenna measurements were performed in the

anechoic chamber at the Department of Electrical & Computer Systems Engineering

(ECSE) at Monash University.

0
Return Loss (dB)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 4-16 Measured UWB chipless tag antenna return loss.

Fig. 4-16 shows the RL vs frequency of the monopole antenna. The fundamental

mode (at 3.5 GHz) and higher order modes of the UWB monopole antenna are clearly

visible in Fig. 4-16. As mentioned in the theory of the antenna, the UWB monopole

antennas rely on the overlapping of their modes in order to achieve extremely large

bandwidth. Hence, radiation pattern changes are expected at frequency ranges which

are not within the monopole’s fundamental mode of operation. The antenna co-polar

94
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

and cross-polar radiation patterns from 3 - 7 GHz (in steps of 1 GHz) in both

horizontal (E-plane) and vertical planes (H-plane) are presented in Figs 4-17, 4-18, 4-

19, 4-20 and 4-21 respectively. As can be seen in the figures, the H-plane patterns are

almost isotropic due to the symmetry of the antenna structure in the H-plane.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
300 -20 60 300 -20 60
-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-polar Vertical Plane at 3GHz Co-polar Horizontal Plane at 3GHz
Cross-polar Vertical Plane at 3GHz Cross-polar Horizontal Plane at 3GHz

Fig. 4-17 Measured tag antenna radiation patterns at 3 GHz.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
300 -20 60 300 -20 60

-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-polar Vertical Plane at 4GHz Co-polar Horizontal Plane at 4GHz
Cross-polar Vertical Plane at 4GHz Cross-polar Horizontal Plane at 4GHz

Fig. 4-18 Measured tag antenna radiation patterns at 4 GHz.

95
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
300 -20 60 300 -20 60

-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-polar Vertical Plane at 5GHz Co-polar Horizontal Plane at 5GHz
Cross-polar Vertical Plane at 5GHz Cross-polar Horizontal Plane at 5GHz

Fig. 4-19 Measured tag antenna radiation patterns at 5 GHz.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
300 -20 60 300 -20 60
-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-polar Vertical Plane at 6GHz Co-polar Horizontal Plane at 6GHz
Cross-polar Vertical Plane at 6GHz Cross-polar Horizontal Plane at 6GHz

Fig. 4-20 Measured tag antenna radiation patterns at 6 GHz.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
300 -20 60 300 -20 60
-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-polar Vertical Plane at 7GHz Co-polar Horizontal Plane at 7GHz
Cross-polar Vertical Plane at 7GHz Cross-polar Horizontal Plane at 7GHz

Fig. 4-21 Measured tag antenna radiation patterns at 7 GHz.

The measured peak gain of the UWB monopole tag antenna was measured in the

anechoic chamber and is shown in Fig. 4-22 The gain of the antenna increases with

96
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

frequency which is as expected.

4
Gain (dBi) 3

0
3 4 5 6 7
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 4-22 Measured UWB chipless tag peak gain.

4.4.2 CPW Fed UWB Monopole Results

The measured antenna return loss vs frequency is shown in Fig. 4-23. The antenna

yields UWB operation with greater than 10 dB return loss from 5 to 11 GHz.

0
Return Loss(dB)

-10

-20

-30
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Frequency(GHz)

Fig. 4-23 Measured return loss of chipless RFID tag UWB monopole antenna.

Fig. 4-23 shows multiple operating modes of the UWB monopole antenna. In order

to achieve extremely large bandwidth, UWB monopole antennas rely on the

overlapping of their modes. Hence, changes in radiation patterns are expected with

frequencies outside the monopole’s fundamental mode of operation of around 4.2

97
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

GHz. The antenna co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns from 5-10 GHz (in steps

of 1 GHz in an anechoic chamber) in both E and H planes (as shown in Fig. 4-5) are

presented in Figs 4-24, 4-25, 4-26, 4-27, 4-28 and 4-29 respectively.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
-20 -20
300 60 300 60
-30 -30
-40 -40
270 -50 90 270 -50 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180

Co-Polar E Plane @ 5GHz Co-Polar H Plane @ 5GHz

Cross-Polar E Plane @ 5GHz Cross-Polar H Plane @ 5GHz
Fig. 4-24 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 5 GHz.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
-20 -20
300 60 300 60
-30 -30
-40 -40
270 -50 90 270 -50 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-Polar E Plane @ 6GHz Co-Polar H Plane @ 6GHz
Cross-Polar E Plane @ 6GHz Cross-Polar H Plane @ 6GHz
Fig. 4-25 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 6 GHz.

98
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
-20 -20
300 60 300 60
-30 -30
-40 -40
270 -50 90 270 -50 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-Polar E Plane @ 7GHz Co-Polar H Plane @ 7GHz
Cross-Polar E Plane @ 7GHz Cross-Polar H Plane @ 7GHz
Fig. 4-26 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 7 GHz.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
-20 -20
300 60 300 60
-30 -30
-40 -40
270 -50 90 270 -50 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180

Co-Polar E Plane @ 8GHz Co-Polar H Plane @ 8GHz

Cross-Polar E Plane @ 8GHz Cross-Polar H Plane @ 8GHz
Fig. 4-27 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 8 GHz.

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
-20 -20
300 60 300 60
-30 -30
-40 -40
270 -50 90 270 -50 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180
Co-Polar E Plane @ 9GHz Co-Polar H Plane @ 9GHz
Cross-Polar E Plane @ 9GHz Cross-Polar H Plane @ 9GHz
Fig. 4-28 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 9 GHz.

99
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

0 0
0 0
330 30 330 30
-10 -10
-20 -20
300 60 300 60
-30 -30
-40 -40
270 -50 90 270 -50 90

240 120 240 120

210 150 210 150

180 180

Co-Polar E Plane @ 10GHz Co-Polar H Plane @ 10GHz

Cross-Polar E Plane @ 10GHz Cross-Polar H Plane @ 10GHz
Fig. 4-29 Measured co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of UWB monopole at 10 GHz.

The tag antennas show good cross-polar component suppression (at least in the

order of 10 dB average) which is essential for robust readings and isolation between

the interrogation signal and encoded signal. Fig. 4-30 shows the measured peak gain

vs frequency of the tag antenna. The gain of the antenna increases with frequency.

6
5
Gain (dBi)

4
3
2
1
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 4-30 Measured peak gain of chipless RFID tag UWB monopole antenna.

The following section presents the design of directional UWB reader antennas for

RFID reader applications.

4.4.3 Log Periodic Dipole Antenna Results

The measured return loss and gain vs frequency, co-polar and cross-polar radiation

100
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

patterns in both vertical and horizontal planes in near-field and far-field conditions are

shown in Figs 4-31 to 4-35 respectively. The antenna measurements were performed

in an anechoic chamber. The near-field radiation patterns are of particular interest due

to the fact that the proposed tag is read mostly in the near-field of the LPDA reader

antenna. As can be seen from Figs 4-32 to 4-35, the polarization purity in the near-

field region remains intact with more than 10dB cross-polar levels.

0 6
-5
Return Loss(dB)

-10 5.5

Gain (dBi)
-15
-20 5
-25
-30 Return Loss 4.5
Gain
-35
-40 4
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 4-31 Measured return loss and gain of LPDA reader antenna.

0 0
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 -40
270 -50 90 270 -50 90

180 180
Co-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2GHz Co-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2.5GHz
Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2GHz Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2.5GHz
Fig. 4-32 Measured near-field co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of LPDA reader antenna in
horizontal plane (18 cm distance).

101
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

0 0
0 0

-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

180 180
Co-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2GHz Co-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2.5GHz
Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2GHz Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern at 2.5GHz
Fig. 4-33 Measured near-field co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of LPDA reader antenna in
vertical plane (18 cm distance).

0 0
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

180 180
Co-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2GHz Co-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2.5GHz
Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2GHz Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2.5GHz
Fig. 4-34 Measured far-field co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of LPDA reader antenna in
horizontal plane (86 cm distance).

0 0
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
270 -40 90 270 -40 90

180 180
Co-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2GHz Co-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2.5GHz
Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2GHz Cross-Polar Radiation Pattern @ 2.5GHz
Fig. 4-35 Measured far-field co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns of LPDA reader antenna in
vertical plane (86 cm distance).

102
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

The LPDA is the preferred candidate for the reader antenna to the UWB monopoles

due to the more directive radiation pattern which creates a stronger line-of-sight

(LOS) component, higher gain and low cross-polar components.

4.5 Conclusions

Three different types of antennas have been investigated in this chapter. They

include UWB disc-loaded monopole antennas in both microstrip and CPW for the

chipless tag and LPDA for the RFID reader. The goal of these investigations has been

to achieve a tag antenna with wideband operation and omnidirectional radiation

pattern and a directive wideband high gain antenna for the RFID reader respectively.

The monopole antenna was designed using two different feeding methods. The first

method used was the microstrip feed line. A proof of concept monopole antenna

operating from 2 to 2.5 GHz was designed and then a UWB monopole operating from

3 to 7 GHz was designed. Both antennas were tested in an anechoic chamber for

return loss, antenna radiation patterns (co-polar and cross-polar in both E and H

planes) and gain. The measured return losses of the antennas were above 10 dB in the

desired operating ranges which confirmed the successful matching of the antennas to

an 50 ohm impedance at the desired frequency band. The antenna radiation pattern

measurements showed that the antennas have an almost omni-directional co-polar

component and a reasonable cross-polar component suppression of 7 dB in both

planes. The cross-polar component suppression is particularly important due to the

fact that the interrogation signal and tag signal are cross-polarized which minimizes

cross-talk.

103
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

The design of the second type of monopole antenna was on thin flexible TF-290

laminate. The monopole antenna was fed by a CPW 50 ohm strip line. This was

necessary since the multiresonator of the tag on flexible laminate is designed using

CPW technology. However, as little information on CPW UWB monopole antenna

design on flexible laminate was available in the research literature, a comprehensive

parametric study of CPW monopole was conducted by varying the antenna’s layout

properties. From the parametric study it was clear that the resonant frequency of the

antenna is determined mainly by the size of the antenna’s circular disc (or patch) and

that the width and length of the ground plane influence the matching of the antenna to

50 ohms. The antenna was designed to operate between 5 and 10.7 GHz with an

almost omni-directional radiation pattern and smaller gain due to the radiation pattern

requirements. The antenna co-polar and cross-polar components of the radiation

patterns in both planes were measured in an anechoic chamber along with the gain.

The antenna radiation patterns were almost omni-directional with some distortions in

the E plane due to the higher order modes operating at higher frequencies.

The LPDA was designed as a high gain UWB antenna for the proof-of-concept

reader operating between 2 and 2.5 GHz. The design steps of the LPDA entailed the

calculation of the dipole arms and separation distances between them. The final

tuning and optimization of the LPDA was carried out using CAD tools. The LPDA

was designed on Taconic TLX-0 substrate using CST Microwave Studio 2008. The

measured return loss of the antenna was measured to be above 10 dB from 2 to 2.7

GHz. The radiation pattern and gain measurements of the LPDA were performed in

the anechoic chamber. The measured gain was between 4.7 dBi at 2 GHz and 6.5 dBi

and 2.7 GHz. The LPDA radiation pattern was measured in both planes in near-field

104
Chapter 4 Ultra Wideband Antennas

and far-field conditions. The radiation pattern confirmed the directive radiating nature

of the LPDA and the cross-polar component suppression above 10 dB.

The following chapter will present the integration of the UWB monopole antenna

and multiresonator into a chipless RFID tag and the result of field trials.

105
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

5.1 Introduction

The preceding chapters have presented the design of spiral resonators and UWB

monopole antennas using microstrip and CPW technology. The spiral resonators are

the data encoding devices of the proposed chipless RFID tag. The transmitting (Tx)

and receiving (Rx) antennas of the tag are used to receive and transmit the

interrogation signal from the reader and encoded tag signal respectively.

The integration of the UWB monopole antennas and multiresonating circuit which

form the complete chipless RFID tag is presented in this chapter. The operating

principle of the chipless tag is presented first. The tag is fully passive and hence

requires an external source of electromagnetic signals in order to encode the data. The

external source of EM signals comes from the reader which transmits a continuous

wave (CW) interrogation signal to the tag. The tag receives the signal and encodes its

spectral signature using the multiresonator. The encoded tag signal is then sent back

to the reader by the tag’s transmitting antenna. The reader further processes the

returned data and displays the ID code of the tag.

The development of the chipless RFID tag is presented in three stages. Firstly, the

6-bit chipless tag operating from 2 to 2.5 GHz is presented. It is a first proof-of-

concept tag on a standard microstrip laminate Taconic TLX-0. The successful design

and testing of the 6-bit tag provided motivation for the design of a UWB 35-bit tag

that operates from 3.1 to 7 GHz. Both the 6-bit tag and the 35-bit tag were designed

on 787 µm thick Taconic TLX-0. Finally, the design of a 23-bit chipless tag on 90 µm

106
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

thin flexible laminate is presented. All three tags were tested inside and outside an

anechoic chamber to confirm their successful operations.

5.2 Chipless RFID Tag Operating Principle

In this section, the operating principle of the chipless tag is presented. The

fundamentals of the working principle of the chipless tag and reader system were

presented in Section 1.5 “Proposed Chipless RFID System”. The signal flow diagram

of the proposed chipless tag is shown in Fig. 5-1.

Tx reader Rx reader
antenna Cross-talk antenna
E-plane 40-60dB isolation H-plane
polarization polarization

Interrogation Free-space
signal radiation Free-space
radiation Tag signal

Signal encoded with

spectral signature
Interrogation signal
travelling through
waveguide

Cacaded spiral resonators

Fig. 5-1 Chipless RFID system signal flow diagram.

The chipless tag encodes data in the frequency spectrum thus encoding the spectrum

with its unique spectral signature. The spectral signature is obtained by the RFID

reader by interrogating the tag by a multi-frequency signal. The tag encodes its

spectral signature into the interrogation signal spectrum using a multiresonating

circuit which is a multi-stop band filter. The multiresonator is a set of cascaded spiral

107
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

resonators designed to resonate at particular frequencies and create stop bands. The

stop band resonances introduce magnitude attenuation and phase jumps to the

transmitted interrogation signal at their resonant frequencies which are detected as

abrupt amplitude attenuations and phase jumps by the RFID reader. In order to

provide isolation between the transmitting and receiving signal, the reader and tag

antennas are cross-polarized. As a result, cross-talk between the transmitting and

receiving antennas is minimized at the cost of introducing restrictions in tag

positioning and orientation.

The proposed chipless RFID system is a preliminary design for a short range

conveyor belt system where the tagged items are tracked moving through the

interrogation zone of a fixed reader antenna system as shown in Fig. 5-2.

Reader
Antennas

Tagged
Banknotes

Chipless
RFID Tags

Conveyor
Belt

Fig. 5-2 Potential conveyor belt application for proposed chipless RFID system.

The expected power levels of the received signals from the chipless tags in an

anechoic chamber (loss-less environment) in the antenna far-field region can be

calculated using the Friis free-space transmission formula [143]. The power density of

the signal that reaches the chipless RFID tag in free space is given by

Pt Gr
S (5-1)
4r 2

108
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

where Pt is the transmitted power and Gr is the gain of the reader transmitting antenna

and r is the separation distance between the tag and reader antennas. The power

collected by the tag’s antenna is defined as

2
Pa  SAe  S Gt (5-2)
4
where Ae is the effective area of the antenna defined by Gt , the tag’s antenna gain,

and wavelength λ. Hence, the signal received by the reader after interrogating the tag

is defined as

Pt Gt2Gr24 L( f )
Prx  (5-3)
4r 4
where L( f ) is the insertion loss of the tag’s multiresonating circuit as a function of

frequency f. The theoretical polarization loss factor p between two linearly-polarized

antennas with a misalignment angle θ can be expressed as in [144]:

p  cos 2  (5-4)
From (5-4) we can see that the minimum efficiency (maximum isolation) is for θ =

90°. Hence, we have cross-polarized our tag and reader antennas in order to minimize

cross-talk between them.

5.3 Chipless RFID Tag Development

Monopole Multi- Antenna &

Antenna resonator Multi- Chipless
Parametric Parametric resonator Tag
Study & Study & Integration to Testing
Optimization Optimization Form
Chipless Tag

Fig. 5-3 Chipless Tag design process.

109
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

The tag design steps are shown in Fig. 5-3. The tag design was begun by designing

the tag monopole antennas and achieving the necessary return loss bandwidth and

radiation pattern. Following the tag antenna design, design and optimization of the

spiral resonators (multiresonating circuit) were carried out. When the tag antenna and

multiresonating circuit were optimized they are integrated to form a complete chipless

RFID tag which were then tested in a wireless experimental setup inside an anechoic

chamber (for theoretical verification) and in a laboratory (for investigations of

robustness).

In the following sections, the design and testing of a 6-bit and 35-bit chipless tag on

a standard microstrip laminate and a 23-bit chipless tag on thin laminate are reported.

5.4 Design

The tag operating principle based on spectral signatures and polarization diversity

was presented in the preceding section. Following the design of spiral resonators and

UWB monopole antennas, the integration of these two components to form a chipless

RFID tag was performed. The integrated tag was designed in the following steps:

- Initially, the UWB monopole antenna is simulated and measured. Good

performance in the UWB spectrum in radiation patterns, return loss and gain was

measured on Taconic TLX-0 PCB and TF-290 flexible laminate.

- Six and thirty five spiral resonators were designed cascaded on Taconic

TLX-0 using microstrip technology between 2-2.5 GHz and 3.1-7 GHz respectively.

The spirals were cascaded next to a 50 ohm microstrip line with 3 mm separation

between spirals. Measured results showed good performance in both magnitude and

phase of the spectrum.

110
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

- Twenty three spiral resonators were designed cascaded on TF-290 flexible

laminate using CPW technology. The spirals were cascaded within a 50 ohm strip line

with 3 mm separation between spirals. Measured results showed good performance in

both magnitude and phase of the spectrum.

- Finally, two UWB monopoles and cascaded spirals – multiresonator were

integrated to form the chipless RFID tag. The monopole antennas were placed at each

port of the 2-port multiresonator circuit to provide transmitting and receiving

capabilities for the tag.

5.4.1 Proof-of-Concept Six-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB

The layout of the tag is shown in Fig. 5-4. It consists of a vertically-polarized UWB

disc-loaded monopole receiving tag antenna, a multiresonating circuit and

horizontally-polarized UWB transmitting tag antenna. In order to prove the concept of

the chipless RFID tag, the operating frequency was set from 2 to 2.5 GHz.

128.17 mm

3 mm 15 mm
60 mm

5.2 mm
8.24mm 8.54mm 8.94mm 9.34mm 9.74mm 10.24mm

2.26 mm

1 mm

15 mm

Fig. 5-4 Chipless tag layout with parameters on Taconic TLX-0 laminate (εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ
= 0.0019).

111
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

Tag Rx
Antenna

Tag Tx
Antenna
Spiral
Resonators

Fig. 5-5 Photograph of chipless RFID tag on Taconic TLX-0 laminate (εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ =
0.0019).

A photograph of the chipless RFID tag manufactured on Taconic TLX-0 (εr = 2.45, h

= 0.787 mm, tanδ = 0.0019) is shown in Fig. 5-5. The spiral resonators had different

lengths in order to have different resonant frequencies as can be seen in Fig. 5-5. The

spiral resonators were cascaded next to a 50 ohm microstrip line. The ground plane of

the tag was etched/removed under the radiation patches of the monopole antennas.

5.4.2 UWB 35-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB

The successful design and results of a 6-bit tag motivated us to design a 35-bit

chipless tag, which may find application for the Australian polymer banknotes and

secure documents. In the previous section we presented the proof of concept

tag/system working in an unlicensed frequency band between 2 and 2.5 GHz with

only 6 bits of data and significantly larger dimensions. In this section we present a

chipless RFID tag operating in the ultra-wide band (UWB) spectrum (between 3.1 and

7 GHz) with a data capacity of 35 bits (capable of providing over 1.3 billion ID

combinations). The number of bits in the UWB tag is limited by the 2nd harmonic of

the spiral resonators. The layout of the tag is shown in Fig. 5-6.

112
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

85.57 mm

7 mm

2.26 mm

4.2 mm 5.2 mm
1 mm
48 mm 5.2 mm 5.2 mm

43.23 mm

7 mm
16 mm

42.34 mm

Fig. 5-6 Layout of integrated UWB 35-bit chipless tag with design parameters on Taconic TLX-0
laminate (εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ = 0.0019).

The dimensions of the chipless tag are limited mainly by the dimensions of the

object being tagged, in this case an Australian polymer banknote. The 50 dollar

Australian banknote with dimensions is shown in Fig. 5-7. Therefore the tag must be

designed to fit into the available area of 65 mm by 151 mm.

151 mm

65mm

Fig. 5-7 Australian $50 banknote with dimensions. (Permission obtained from the Reserve Bank of
Australia www.rba.gov.au)

113
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

A photograph of the tag is shown in Fig. 5-8. The UWB chipless RFID tag

consists of a vertically-polarized UWB monopole receiving antenna, a 35 spiral

multiresonating circuit and a horizontally-polarized UWB monopole transmitting

antenna. The cross-polarized antennas minimize crosstalk between transmitting and

receiving signals. In order to minimize the area of the tag, the spirals were placed on

both sides of the meandered microstrip line.

Tag Rx
Tag Tx Antenna
Antenna
Multiresonator

65mm

88mm
Fig. 5-8 Photograph of the UWB 35-bit chipless RFID tag with dimensions on Taconic TLX-0
laminate (εr = 2.45, h = 0.787 mm, tanδ = 0.0019).

5.4.3 UWB 23-bit Chipless RFID Tag on Thin Flexible Laminate

The flexible chipless tag was designed on laminate Taconic TF-290 (εr = 2.9, h = 90

μm, tanδ = 0.0028) using ADS Momentum 2008. For this purpose, the antenna and

multiresonators were designed individually. The layout of the chipless RFID tag with

design parameters printed on flexible TF-290 laminates is shown in Fig. 5-9. The tag

was designed on CPW, making it single-sided.

114
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

Ground plane

1.8 mm

3 mm

7 mm

0.15 mm 2.5 mm
Ground plane

7 mm

Fig. 5-9 Layout of integrated flexible CPW 23-bit chipless tag with design parameters on Taconic TF-
290 laminate (εr = 2.9, h = 0.09 mm, tanδ = 0.0028).

108mm

Tag Rx
Antenna
Tag Tx
Antenna
Multiresonator

64mm

Fig. 5-10 Photograph of 23-bit chipless RFID tag on Taconic TF-290 (εr = 2.9, h = 90 µm, tanδ =
0.0028).

A photograph of the tag is shown in Fig. 5-10. The tag encodes 23 bits of data

between 5 and 10.7 GHz. The chipless tag is comprised of a vertically- polarized

UWB disc-loaded monopole receiving tag antenna, a multiresonating circuit and a

horizontally-polarized UWB transmitting tag antenna designed using CPW

technology. The chipless tag is designed to fit the Australian banknote and its

dimensions are 108mm by 64mm. The spirals were etched out with the spiral trace

115
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

and separation between spiral traces being 0.2 mm. The 50 ohm CPW strip line was

designed to be 2.5 mm with the gap separation from the ground plane being 0.15 mm.

The spirals were etched in the strip line with a 3 mm separation between adjacent

cascaded spirals.

Having presented the designs of the different chipless RFID tags in this section, the

field trials of tags will be presented in the following section.

5.5 Field Trials

The field trials were performed in an anechoic chamber in order to validate the

successful encoding of the tag and its detection at the reader end using Agilent’s

E8361A performance network analyser (PNA) as the reader. The chipless tag and

reader antennas (which are UWB monopoles) were mounted on plastic stands and

placed in the anechoic chamber. The VNA was calibrated with the output power of

the ports being -28dBm. The block diagram and a photograph of the experimental

setup are shown in Fig. 5-11. Fig. 5-11 (a) shows that the reader antennas are cross-

polarized in order to minimize crosstalk, thus improving the isolation between the

interrogation signal and the tag signal. Due to the monopole antenna’s small gain and

omni-directional radiation pattern, a reading range of only a few centimetres was

achieved. Greater reading ranges are achieved using high gain directional reader

antennas and this will be discussed in later chapters. Figs 5-12 and 5-13 show the

cross-polarized reader antennas, and the measured isolation of the UWB monopole

reader antennas which is greater than 35 dB.

116
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

Anechoic chamber
Plastic
stand Vector
Chipless Network
Tag Interrogation Analyzer
Signal

Encoded
Tx
Tag Signal
Antenna

Rx
Antenna

EM Plastic
Absorbers stand

(a)

Reader Chipless
Antennas Tag

Plastic Foam
Stand Stand

EM
absorbers Vector
Network
Analyzer

(b)
Fig. 5-11 Chipless RFID tag experiment (a) block diagram and (b) photograph.

Fig. 5-12 Cross-polarized reader antennas mounted on a plastic stand.

117
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

44

Reader Antenna Isolation

42
40
38
(dB)
36
34

32
30
1 3 5 7 9 11
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 5-13 Measured isolation between cross-polarized tag antennas.

The PNA sweeps the spectrum from the calibrated minimum frequency to the

calibrated maximum frequency with equal output power of -28 dBm. The amplitude

and phase information in the spectral signature are measured and assessed in such a

way that the tag with no resonances (all ‘1’s = no nulls and no phase jumps) is used as

a reference. The following sections provide the measured field trials of the proof-of-

concept 6-bit tag, the UWB 35-bit tag on PCB and the UWB 23-bit tag on thin

flexible laminate.

5.5.1 Six-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB

The proof-of-concept tag encodes six bits of data from approximately 2 to 2.5 GHz.

The measured results of the received data are presented in both magnitude and phase.

The amplitude difference of the received power due to the tag frequency signatures is

presented in Fig. 5-14. From the amplitude vs frequency measurement, the distinct

response of codes “000000” and “010101” are clearly visible. The worst-case

amplitude difference between 0 & 1 is more than 4 dB (at 2.5 GHz). This result

reflects the robustness of encoding data of the proposed tag. This robustness is

provided by the orthogonally-polarized Tx and Rx antenna system for both the tag

118
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

and the reader. Fig. 5-15 shows the amplitude difference in respect of 111111 ID of

the received signal after interrogating the same tag rotated by 180 degrees, hence

creating a polarization mismatch. The amplitude information is considered completely

unreadable and therefore useless.

Amplitude Difference(dB)

-2

-4

-6

25 24 23 22 21 20
-8
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55

Frequency(GHz)
TagID 000000 TagID 010101
Fig. 5-14 Amplitude variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 5 cm.

2
Amplitude Difference(dB)

-1

-2
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55
Frequency(GHz)
TagID 000000 TagID 010101
Fig. 5-15 Received signals by reader for chipless tags at 5 cm rotated by 180 degrees (polarization
mismatch between tag and reader antennas).

Following the successful amplitude-only measurement, the phase characteristics of

119
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

the multiresonator based tag were investigated. The phase information in the spectral

signature was measured and compared with a reference tag with the 111111 ID. The

variation of the phase of the received power due to the tag’s frequency signatures is

presented in Fig. 4-16. From Fig. 4-16 it is clear that there is a significant phase

difference of more than 15° between a logic ‘0’ and logic ‘1’. This is a significant

finding in encoding bits in phase. A commercial phase detector can differentiate

between single degrees of phase difference. Hence, the phase encoded tag would no

doubt produce a more robust detection method compared to its amplitude encoding.

This will be further demonstrated in the field trials of the proposed chipless tag-reader

system in the later chapters. As mentioned in the preceding section, the system is

orientation-sensitive due to the orthogonally polarized Tx and Rx antennas.

Phase Difference(Degrees)

20

15

10

-5
25 24 23 22 21 20
-10
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55

Frequency(GHz)
TagID000000 TagID010101
Fig. 5-16 Phase variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 5 cm.

Fig. 5-17 shows the phase information when the tag is rotated by 180 degrees

creating complete polarization mismatch with the reader antennas. The distinct phase

difference between the two states completely disappears making the tag unreadable.

These orientation-sensitive operations will make the proposed system most suitable

120
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

for banknote authentication where hundreds of notes pass through a conveyor belt

system.

Phase Difference(Degrees) 50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Frequency(GHz)
TagID 000000 TagID 010101
Fig. 5-17 Phase variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 5 cm rotated
by 180 degrees (wrong alignment).

5.5.2 UWB 35-bit Chipless RFID Tag on PCB

The UWB 35-bit chipless tag encodes 35-bits of data from 3.1 to 7 GHz. The 35 bit

data is encoded using a 35 spiral multiresonator circuit on Taconic TLX-0 as shown in

Fig. 5-18. The MSB spiral corresponds to the MSB data bit at 3.1 GHz, and the LSB

spiral corresponds to the LSB data bit at 7 GHz. The proof-of-concept phase of the

35-bit tag was conducted first in a wired condition using an Agilent 8361A PNA and

then two orthogonally-polarized monopole antennas were connected and tested in a

wireless condition. The results of the comparative studies are presented in Figs 5-19

and 5-20.

121
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

MSB spiral

LSB
spiral

Fig. 5-18 Photograph of manufactured 35-bit chipless tag multiresonator on Taconic TLX-0.

The amplitude difference of the received power due to the tag’s spectral signature

and the tag’s multiresonator insertion loss are presented in Fig. 5-19. The variation of

the received power’s phase due to the tag’s spectral signature is presented in Fig. 5-

20. The multiresonator measurements are compared against the received tag’s signal

at the reader end and correspond to one another, hence confirming successful tag

operation.
Magnitude Difference(dB)

-3

-6

-9 MSB
Received Tag Signal
LSB
-12
Multiresonator Insertion Loss
-15
3 4 5 6 7
Frequency(GHz)

Fig. 5-19 Measured amplitude of tag spectral signature and multiresonating circuit.

122
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

Transmission Phase (Degrees)

60
Multiresonator Transmission Phase
40 Received Tag Signal

20 MSB
0

-20 LSB

-40

-60
3 4 5 6 7

Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 5-20 Measured phase of tag spectral signature and multiresonating circuit.

The tag field trials concluded the successful design, testing and wireless detection of

the chipless RFID tag on PCB. However, our objective is to make the tag operate on a

thin Australian polymer banknote. The following section therefore presents the

chipless tag designed on a thin flexible laminate with electrical properties similar to

those of the polymer banknote substrate.

5.5.3 UWB 23-bit Chipless RFID Tag on Thin Flexible Laminate

The CPW-based UWB 23-bit chipless RFID tag encodes 23 bits of data from 5 to

10.7 GHz. The tag is printed on thin flexible laminate Taconic TF-290. The 23 bits of

data are encoded using a 23 spiral multiresonating circuit shown in Fig. 5-21. The

measured spectral signatures in both insertion loss vs frequency and transmission

phase vs frequency of the 23-bit tag are shown in Figs 5-22 and 5-23 respectively.

From Figs 5-22 and 5-23 it is clear that the 23 logic ‘0’ bits are detected in the

magnitude as magnitude nulls (or dips) while their phase signature is represented by

23 phase jumps. These measurements confirm the successful operation of the tag.

123
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

MSB LSB

Fig. 5-21 Photograph of the 23 spiral multiresonating circuit on TF-290.

Insertion Loss (dB)

0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-5

-15
MSB
LSB
-25
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 5-22 Measured tag insertion loss of 23 bit tag ID “0x000000”.
Transmission Phase (Degrees)

40

20
MSB
0

-20

-40
LSB
-60
0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-80
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 5-23 Measured tag transmission phase of 23 bit tag ID “0x000000”.

124
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

The successful detection of the 6-bit and 35-bit tags on PCB and the 23-bit tag on

thin flexible substrate conclude the successful design and integration of the fully

printable chipless RFID tags and prove the novel chipless tag concept.

5.6 Conclusion

In this chapter, the concept of multiresonator-based chipless RFID, integration of

UWB monopoles and spiral resonators to form a chipless tag and tag field trials have

been presented. The theory of operation of the chipless RFID tag has been explained

for use in conveyor belt applications where a single tag is read at a time.

Three different chipless RFID tags have been designed. The first was the proof-of-

concept 6-bit tag on Taconic PCB substrate. The chipless tag operated between 2 and

2.5 GHz with 6 bits of data encoded by 6 spiral resonators. The second tag was the

UWB 35-bit tag on Taconic PCB. The UWB 35-bit tag operated from 3.1 to 7 GHz.

The third tag was designed on thin flexible laminate Taconic TF-290 and encoded 23

bits of data from 5 to 10.7 GHz. All three chipless tags have been presented in detail

in terms of layout design and dimensions. The 35-bit tag on PCB and 23-bit tag on

thin laminate were designed to fit on the Australian banknote. Tagging of Australian

banknotes for anti-counterfeiting and identification applications was the primary

factor for determining the size of the chipless tag.

The designed chipless tags were tested using an experimental setup placed inside an

anechoic chamber. The tags were interrogated by an Agilent’s vector network

analyzer PNA 8361A. The reader antennas were UWB monopole antennas which

were cross-polarized. The VNA was used to sweep the desired frequency band and

125
Chapter 5 Chipless RFID Tag

record the insertion loss recorded between the reader antennas. The successful

detection of all three tags in both magnitude and phase of the spectral signature was

confirmed. Thus, the concept of multiresonator-based chipless RFID utilizing cross-

polarized antennas has been proven. The use of phase data encoding and extraction is

the first of its kind to be investigated and reported in spectral signature chipless RFID

development. The use of phase encoding along with amplitude data encoding allows

for comparison between the two for more robust and accurate readings.

The following chapters will concentrate on the design of the chipless RFID tag

reader circuit in order to complete the system design.

126
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag

Reader

6.1 Introduction

In the preceding chapters, the design of chipless RFID tags on PCB and thin flexible

laminates has been presented. The integration and successful field trials of the

chipless RFID tags has proved the concept of the multiresonator-based chipless RFID

tag. The tag’s main attractive features are its low cost, robustness, printability and

ease of data encoding. These advantages are the salient features of the chipless RFID

tag which obviates the need for silicon chips.

The successful design and testing of the novel chipless tag demands the

development and design of a chipless tag reader. First, the design of a proof-of-

concept chipless tag reader which operates over 2 – 2.5 GHz only and reads a 6-bit

tag was attempted. Two designs were produced: 1st generation (Gen-1) reader, which

decodes only the amplitude of the spectral signatures of the chipless tag, and a 2nd

generation (Gen-2) reader, which decodes both the amplitude and phase of the

chipless tag’s spectral signatures. Finally, a chipless tag reader which operates over

the UWB spectrum 5 – 10.7 GHz is presented. The UWB tag reader uses down-

conversion blocks in the RF transceiver topology in order to process the received tag

signal at an intermediate frequency (IF) band.

As presented in Chapter 2, an RFID reader consists of three main parts: antenna(s),

an RF transceiver and a digital/control section. The three RFID readers, presented in

this chapter and shown in Fig. 6-1 differ mainly by the configurations of the RF

transceivers and their frequency of operation. The transceiver topologies that are

127
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

presented in this chapter use two antennas and dedicated transmit and receive RF

paths to send interrogating CW signals to the tag and receive the encoded returned

signals from the chipless tag. Hence, the chipless RFID system resembles a bi-static

radar which uses two separately-located Tx and Rx antennas. It is also the unique

transceiver design for the chipless tag readers that differentiates them from the

conventional HF and UHF RFID readers found on the market today. The use of

conventional readers is not possible since the chipless tags are unique by nature of

their spectral signature-based data encoding technique, whereas conventional tags use

time domain data encoding techniques.

RFID
Readers

Narrowband UWB
(2 - 2.5 GHz) (5 – 10.7 GHz)

Gen-1 Gen-2
Reader Reader

Fig. 6-1 Developed chipless tag RFID readers.

This chapter is organized as follows: the operating principle of the proposed

chipless RFID tag is presented and compared to the conventional reader. Next the

design and specifications of RF transceiver which determine the frequency band of

operation, the modulation technique and the power requirement are outlined. The

design and development of the readers are presented, next followed by the result of

the reader. The transceivers were tested by means of wired tag interrogation

conditions (without antennas) in order to confirm their successful operations.

128
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

6.2 Differences Between Chipped and Chipless Tag Readers

As mentioned in Chapters 1 and 2, the only commercially-successful and fully-

operational chipless RFID system is the SAW-based chipless RFID designed by

RFSAW© [145]. A fully dedicated chipless SAW tag reader [146] was designed by

the RFSAW engineers in order to accommodate the unconventional modulating and

data encoding properties of the SAW tag. Hence, it is imperative to design a reader

that can read the multiresonator-based chipless tag by decoding data from their

spectral signatures.

Although the use of conventional off-the-shelf RFID readers would be preferable

the new chipless RFID tags demanded a completely new development of the reader

from scratch. Three main differences between the developed chipless RFID tag reader

and conventional off-the-shelf RFID reader are: (i) conventional RFID readers operate

mostly at HF (13.56 MHz), UHF (915 MHz) and microwave (2.45 GHz) bands while

the chipless tag reader operates outside these bands; (ii) conventional readers use

amplitude shift keying (ASK) and binary phase shift keying (BPSK) time domain-

based demodulation techniques, while the presented reader decodes the tag by

sweeping the microwave frequency spectrum and acquiring the tag’s spectral

signature; and finally (iii) the proposed reader can process the tag data even after the

tag has been read and has left the interrogation zone, while conventional readers

require the tag to be in the reader’s interrogation zone due to handshaking algorithms

between tag and reader [153].

The difference in frequency of operation between the chipless tag reader and

conventional RFID readers is more than obvious. As most chipped RFID systems

129
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

operate in industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) bands [147]-[149], which have

narrow bandwidths of a few KHz up to 83 MHz (2.45 GHz ISM band) due to fee-less

license options, the chipless system proposed in this thesis operates in the UWB

region which has a bandwidth greater than 500 MHz.

The most commonly-used data encoding techniques for conventional RFID tags are

amplitude shift keying (ASK) [150] and phase shift keying (PSK) [151]. Hence, RFID

readers designed for detecting these tags also use these two modulation schemes for

data encoding and decoding [152]. This fundamentally means that conventional

readers cannot detect and identify the chipless tag with its spectral signatures and

development of a dedicated chipless RFID tag reader is therefore necessary.

The communication between conventional RFID tags and readers is usually

performed by using a handshaking algorithm between the two [153]. Another option

is the use of tag polling by the reader by which each tag ID is stored in the reader’s

data base [154]. The reader transmits the tag’s ID from its database one at a time and

waits for the tag with the polled ID to respond. Both of these options require the tag to

be in the interrogation zone of the reader. The reader’s interrogation zone is the area

around the reader where the tag can receive the reader’s signal and retransmit a signal

back to the reader which can be detected [155]. In the case of a chipless RFID system,

as the tag is fully passive and hence cannot respond to the reader’s polling, hence no

handshaking algorithms are possible or needed. Instead the reader can perform

processing of the tag’s signal even when the tag has left the interrogation zone of the

reader.

130
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

The radio frequency transceiver is the heart of the proposed reader. The transmitter

section generates the CW interrogation signal and the receiver section receives the

echoes from the tag. Both sections are analog circuits and set the link budget of the

complete system. Therefore, it is vital to formulate the specifications including

frequency of operation, transmit power level, interrogation signal type and receiver

sensitivity. In the following section the specifications of the transceiver for the

chipless tag reader are presented.

6.3 Transceiver Specifications for Chipless Tag Reader

The initial step in the design procedures of the chipless RFID tag reader was to

formulate the specifications for a particular application. The conveyor belt application

for tagging Australian polymer banknotes with the fully-printable chipless RFID tags

has been presented in Chapter 5, and the specifications of the tag and reader have

been presented in Chapter 2. Hence, the specifications for the reader’s transceiver

need to fit the reader specifications presented in Chapter 2 and carry extra parameters

such as power level of the interrogation signal, transmitter-to-receiver

leakage/isolation and receiver sensitivity. The main governing parameters for

formulating the specifications are bandwidth, design frequency and reading range.

The bandwidth of the transceiver is defined as the frequency band over which the

transceiver exhibits tolerable transmitter and receiver performances. The frequency of

operation is set differently for different generations of readers. For example, for the

UWB reader, the transceiver is to operate within the UWB region (5 – 10.7 GHz).

However, for Gen-1 and Gen-2, the transceivers are designed outside the UWB region

131
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

for 2 - 2.5 GHz for fewer data bits and as the initial stage of the proof-of-concept

exercise.

The reading range of the RFID reader is determined by the reader’s transmitting

power and the receiver’s sensitivity in order to ensure successful tag interrogation and

detection. Transmitting power limitations are dictated by standards while the

receiver’s sensitivity is limited by bandwidth and minimum signal power.

Another important transceiver parameter which determines the transceiver

architecture greatly is the type of interrogation that the reader is required to perform.

In the present project, two specific options were explored:

1) Frequency sweep interrogation; and

2) Pulse interrogation.

Frequency sweep interrogation is defined as sweeping a CW signal over an

operating frequency band in a specific time interval (similar to a spectrum analyser).

The advantages of this type of interrogation over pulsed interrogation are that the

transmitter architecture is relatively simple to design and control (a VCO sweeps over

a frequency band) and the receiver sensitivity is quite high. The disadvantages of this

type of interrogation are the slower reading rates than pulsed interrogation.

Pulse interrogation is defined as the interrogation of the chipless tag using a

wideband pulse (or series of pulses) centred round the centre frequency of operation.

The advantage of this type of interrogation is its high reading rates. The disadvantages

include the need for ultra high speed switching components required for transmitter

132
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

design, high speed ADC converters (above 1 GS/sec) for receiver design, and receiver

detection is reduced [156] due to sinc (sin x/x) function frequency distribution.

The isolation between the reader’s transmitter and receiver is also important since

the RFID reader must operate in full duplex mode. A duplexer cannot be used to

remove the transmitter’s leakage signal since the tag will respond at the same

frequency as the transmitted signal [157]. Conventional RFID readers are designed

with 4 transmitter isolation approaches to minimize the leakage [158]-[162]. The

typically-used architectures utilize isolation components such as circulator (Fig. 6-2

(a)), directional coupler (Fig. 6-2 (b)), quadrature hybrid (Fig. 6-2 (c)) and separate

transmitter/receiver antenna as shown in Fig. 6-2 (d).

Tx Directional
Tx Coupler

Rx Rx
(a) (b)
Tx Antenna

Quadrature
Hybrid Coupler
Tx Tx
Rx Antenna

Rx
Rx
(c) (d)

Fig. 6-2 Conventional RFID reader front end isolation architectures between Tx and Rx by using a)
circulator, b) directional coupler, c) hybrid coupler and d) bi-static antennas.

The circulator, directional coupler and quadrature hybrid architectures are

significantly dependant on the performance of the three components previously

mentioned. The use of two antennas does not significantly increase the isolation

unless the reader antennas are linearly cross-polarized. The chipless tag reader

133
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

transceiver designed in this project will have cross-polarized reader antennas for high

Tx/Rx leakage cancellation.

As mentioned earlier, the design of the transceiver was conducted by designing two

proof-of-concept transceivers (Gen-1 and Gen-2) operating from 2 - 2.5 GHz which

were used to detect the 6-bit proof-of-concept chipless tag. The third transceiver

operates in the UWB region. Specifications for the Gen-1 and Gen-2 transceivers are

given in Table 6-1 while the specifications for the UWB transceiver are given in

Table 6-2.

Table 6-1 Specifications for the Gen-1 and Gen-2 transceivers.

Electrical specifications

Frequency of operation 2 – 2.5 GHz

Transmitting Power 15 dBm

Interrogation Signal Type Frequency sweep (CW)

Detection Type Amplitude only (Gen-1); Amplitude and Phase (Gen-2)

Tx/Rx Isolation 60 dB

Receiver Sensitivity -35 dBm

Max. Power Consumption 2 Watts

Commercial

Cost Less than AU $200 (guide only)

134
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Table 6-2 Specifications for UWB transceiver.

Electrical specifications

Frequency of operation Within 3.1 – 10.7 GHz band

Transmitting Power 15 dBm

Interrogation Signal Type Frequency sweep CW)

Detection Type Amplitude and Phase

Tx/Rx Isolation 60 dB

Receiver Sensitivity -35 dBm

Max. Power Consumption 10 Watts

Commercial

Cost Less than AU $2000 (guide only)

The following section presents the design of the Gen-1, Gen-2 and UWB transceiver

circuits.

6.4 Design

In this section the design of three types of transceivers for the chipless RFID tag

reader are presented. The transceiver circuits are designed to meet the specifications

presented in Section 6.3. Agilent’s ADS Schematic and Momentum simulators were

used to simulate the performances of the three transceivers before their fabrication

and testing. In order to maintain low cost, the RF transceivers were fabricated on FR-

4 laminate (εr = 4.4, h = 0.5 mm, tanδ = 0.02). The RF transceivers for the chipless

RFID tag reader were designed and developed first, followed by the digital circuit

design, software programming and final system testing.

135
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

6.4.1 Gen-1 Transceiver

The Gen-1 transceiver was designed to operate between 2 and 2.5 GHz and detect

the amplitude variations of the tag’s spectral signature. In order to accomplish this,

the receiver circuit utilizes a Schottky diode rectifier/detector circuit which converts

the RF signal to an equivalent DC output. The DC signal is then sent to the reader’s

ADC for conversion to a digital signal. The block diagram and photograph of the

Gen-1 transceiver are shown in Figs 6-3 and 6-4 respectively.

Tx Control Signals RF Transmitter

Tuning
voltage Power
From amplifier To Tx
DAC Antenna
VCO LPF
Time

Diode From Rx
detector Antenna
LPF LPF LPF
To
Power Power
ADC
amplifier amplifier

RF to DC conversion RF Receiver

Fig. 6-3 Block diagram of Gen-1 transceiver.

5V regulator

9V regulator

VCO Power To Tx
Tuning voltage amplifier Antenna
from DAC

RF envelope to LPF
ADC

Detector
Diode diode From Rx
Rectifier Power
Antenna
amplifier

Fig. 6-4 Photograph of Gen-1 transceiver.

136
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

The Gen-1 transceiver operates between 2 and 2.5 GHz and consists of a transmitter

and receiver circuit. The RF components used for the design of the Gen-1 receiver are

shown in Table 6-3. The control signals for the transmitter are sent from the DAC

which generates a tuning voltage for the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The

DAC generates a voltage ramp from 0 to 14V in order to sweep the output signal

frequency generated by the VCO from 1.95 to 2.5 GHz. The VCO is a Z-

Communications V626ME10-LF. As the output power of the VCO is approximately

between 3-6 dBm, which is below the required 15 dBm, a Mini-Circuit VNA-25

power amplifier was added as a gain block. In order to filter out any higher

order/frequency products, a Mini-Circuits LFCN-2500 low pass filter (LPF) was used.

The amplified and filtered signal is thus sent to the broadband reader antenna which

may be a UWB monopole antenna for short reading ranges and a LPDA for longer

reading ranges. Both antennas were presented in detail in Chapter 4.

Table 6-3 Gen-1 Transceiver RF component specifications.

Component specifications

V626ME10-LF VCO Output frequency:1.9 – 2.55 GHz; Output power: 3-6 dBm
Z-Communications
VNA-25 Power Amplifier Operating frequency: 0.5 – 2.5 GHz; Gain = 10 dB
Mini-Circuits
LFCN-2500 Low Pass Filter Operating frequency: 0 – 2.5 GHz
Mini-Circuits
SMS7630-020 Schottky Diode Operating frequency: 0 -10 GHz; Voltage drop: 0.11V
Skyworks
Commercial

Cost AU $85

The receiver circuit starts with a LFCN-2500 LPF which is used to filter out any

undesired frequencies above the 2.5 GHz band. The signal is further amplified by two

cascaded VNA-25 power amplifiers with low pass filtering stages in between. The

137
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

signal is amplified in order to be of an appropriate signal strength/power so that the

diode rectifying circuit may convert the RF power to DC. The diode rectifier consists

of a shunt Skyworks Schottky diode and series 56 pf DC block and load capacitors

and a 47 nH RF choke inductor. The circuit of the diode rectifier and Schottky diode

model were made in ADS Analog Schematic and are shown in Fig. 6-5 a) and b)

respectively. The Schottky diode model was obtained from Skyworks Inc. The diode

rectifier circuit acts as an RF envelope detector which can be used to detect the dips in

the RF power due to the chipless tag’s stop-band resonances. The Schottky diode

model takes into account the capacitive and inductive properties of the SOT-143

packaging of the SMS7630-020 diode. The SOT-143 has 4 ports/pins because there

were 2 diodes in the SOT-143 packaging.

RF in Vdc
DC out

L
C C
Diode L1
C1 C2
SMS7630020 L=47 nH
C=56 pF C=56 pF
R=
P1 P4

P2 P3
(a)

Diode
DIODE1
Model=SMS7630

Diode_Model
SMS7630
Diode Is=5e-6 A
DIODE2 Rs=20 Ohm
Model=SMS7630 N=1.05
Tt=1e-11 sec
Cjo=0.14 pF
Vj=0.34 V
M=0.4
Fc=0.5
Bv=2 V
Ibv=1e-4 A
Eg =0.69

(b)
Fig. 6-5 Diode rectifier circuit a) and diode model b) designed using ADS 2008A.

138
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

In the following section the design of the Gen-2 RFID reader transceiver is

discussed.

6.4.2 Gen-2 Transceiver

The Gen-2 transceiver is designed to operate between 2 and 2.5 GHz and detect

both the amplitude and phase variation of the tag’s spectral signature. In order to

accomplish this, the receiver circuit utilizes an AD8302 gain/phase detector circuit

which generates a DC voltage output corresponding to the amplitude and phase

difference between the reference RF signal and the received tag signal. The block

diagram and photograph of the Gen-2 transceiver are shown in Figs 6-6 and 6-7

respectively.

Tx Control Signals RF Transmitter

Tuning
voltage Power Power
From divider amplifier To Tx
DAC Antenna
VCO LPF
Time

Reference From Rx
signal Antenna
To LPF
ADC MUX AD-
8:1 8302 LPF LPF LPF
Gain/Phase
Control detector Received Power Power
tag signal amplifier
signal amplifier
RF to DC conversion RF Receiver

Fig. 6-6 Block diagram of Gen-2 transceiver.

139
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

5V Regulator

9V Regulator

Power To Tx
amplifier Antenna
Power
Tuning voltage divider
from DAC
LPF
VCO
Gain Diff. Power
to ADC amplifiers
LPF
LPF
Phase Diff.
to ADC MUX 8:1 Gain/Phase
Detector LPF From Rx
Antenna

Fig. 6-7 Photograph of Gen-2 transceiver.

The RF components used for the design of the Gen-2 receiver are shown in Table 6-

4. The transceiver consists of a transmitter and receiver circuits. The transmitter

circuit is controlled in the same way as the Gen-1 transceiver. The difference between

the Gen-1 and Gen-2 transceivers is the power divider circuit which provides a

reference signal for the receiver circuit. The use of a single VCO means that the

transceiver has a coherent architecture. The receiver circuit is the same as the Gen-1

except that the AD8302 gain/phase detector is used instead of the RF diode detector

used in the Gen-1. The gain/phase detector is used to detect the variations in

magnitude and phase of the received tag signal when compared to the reference signal

supplied from the VCO. The AD8302 is multiplexed with a SN74LV4066A 8:1

multiplexer due to the use of a signal ADC on the digital control section of the RFID

reader.

140
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Table 6-4 Gen-2 Transceiver RF component specifications.

Component specifications

V626ME10-LF VCO Output frequency:1.9 – 2.55 GHz; Output power: 3-6 dBm
Z-Communications
VNA-25 Power Amplifier Operating frequency: 0.5 – 2.5 GHz; Gain = 10 dB
Mini-Circuits
LFCN-2500 Low Pass Filter Operating frequency: 0 – 2.5 GHz
Mini-Circuits
AD8302 Gain/Phase Detector Operating frequency: 0.3 -2.7 GHz; Voltage output: 0-1.8V
Analog Devices
SN74LV4066A 8-1 Multiplexer Operating frequency: DC; Voltage output:0-5V
Texas Instruments
Commercial

Cost AU $110

The Gen-2 receiver is advanced in comparison to the Gen-1 receiver since it has

both amplitude and phase spectral-signature detection and decoding capabilities. Both

amplitude and phase detection and decoding capabilities of the Gen-2 transceiver

yield robust reading of the chipless RFID tag. This advantageous feature of the Gen-2

transceiver will be presented in Section 6.5.2. With the design of the Gen-2

transceiver, the proof of concept RFID transceiver circuit was complete. The next step

in transceiver design for dedicated chipless tag RFID reader was the design of a UWB

transceiver which has the capability to work above 2.5 GHz.

6.4.3 UWB Transceiver

The UWB transceiver is designed to operate within 3.1 and 10.7 GHz band and

detect the amplitude and phase of the tag’s spectral signature. Therefore, the UWB

transceiver circuit is an extension of the Gen-2 transceiver. The UWB receiver circuit

utilizes the AD8302 gain/phase detector circuit which generates a DC voltage output

corresponding to the amplitude and phase differences between the two RF signals –

the reference from the transmitter and the received signal from the tag. The block

141
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

diagram and photograph of the UWB transceiver are shown in Figs 6-8 and 6-9

respectively.

Tunning 10 dB Tx
voltage Coupler Antenna
YIG
Osc.

From
DAC
LO Rx
Power Antenna
Divider

To
Mixer ADC

IF Power
Gain/ Amp.
LPF Amp Phase Information
Detector Phase
LPF Information
Mixer

Fig. 6-8 Block diagram of UWB transceiver.

Tuning
Voltage 10 dB
from DAC coupler Tx Antenna
Interrogation
signal

To ADC LPF
Mixer
Amp. Phase
info info
LPF Mixer
YIG
oscillator
IF Reference Received Tag
IF Tag Signal signal
Signal Local
LO Oscillator
Cascaded IF signal Rx Antenna
Amplifiers

Power
Divider

Fig. 6-9 Photograph of UWB transceiver.

As can be seen in Fig. 6-8, the UWB transceiver consists of a transmitter and

receiver path. The transmitter consists of a powerful Teledyne YIG oscillator which

142
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

operates from 2-6 GHz and generates an interrogation signal of constant 15 dBm

power to the Tx antenna. Therefore, the power amplifiers are not needed in the

transmitter path. The highest operating frequency of the UWB transceiver is limited

by the highest operating frequency of the YIG oscillator which can be extended by

either upgrading the used oscillator currently or by adding a YIG oscillator working

from 6 to 10.7 GHz.. Table 6-5 shows the components used for the UWB transceiver

design.

Table 6-5 UWB transceiver RF component specifications.

Component specifications

YIG Oscillator Output frequency:2 – 6 GHz; Output power: 15 dBm

Teledyne
RVC6000 VCO Operating frequency: 4– 8 GHz; Output power: 5 dBm
Richardson Electronics
4014C-10 10 dB Coupler Operating frequency: 3– 10 GHz;
Narda
ZX05-14+ Mixer Operating frequency:4 - 9 GHz; Attenuation: 24 dB
Mini-Circuits
LFCN-2500 Low Pass Filter Operating frequency: 0 – 2.5 GHz
Mini-Circuits
AD8302 Gain/Phase Detector Operating frequency: 0.3 -2.7 GHz; Voltage output: 0-1.8V
Analog Devices
Gain Blocks GMX7001 Operating frequency: 0 - 6GHz; Gain: 22-14 dB
Mimix Broadband
Commercial

Cost AU $3800

From Figs 6-8 and 6-9 it is clear that the UWB transceiver utilizes a

downconverting stage at the receiver, which consists of a pair of ZX05-14+ mixers.

The UWB transceiver requires a pair of mixers since it has two IF channels fed into

the AD8302 gain/phase detector unit: IF reference signal and IF tag signal. The IF

signals cannot be above 2.7 GHz because the gain/phase detector can work only up to

2.7 GHz. The IF reference signal is obtained by downconverting the RF signal

143
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

separated from the YIG oscillator by a Narda 4014C-10 10dB coupler. The IF tag

signal is obtained by downconverting the received tag signal. The local oscillator

(LO) is a Richardson RVC6000 VCO which operates from 4-8 GHz. After the

downconversion stage, the IF tag signal is filtered and amplified since the free-space

loss significantly attenuates the tag signal. The IF amplifier circuits are Mimix

broadband GMX7001 gain blocks which give approximately 22 dB gain at 2 GHz

each (cascaded over 40 dB gain). As discussed earlier, the gain/phase detector

AD8302 provides a 0-1.8 V analog DC voltage output at its two output ports. The first

port corresponds to the amplitude difference between the two IF signals and the

second port corresponds to the phase difference between the two IF signals. Since

only the tag’s IF signal changes depending on the tag’s spectral signature, the use of

the reference signal decoupled from the transmitter path by a 10 dB coupler enables

the detection of amplitude and phase variations in the tag’s spectral signature. The

analog DC outputs of the gain/phase detector are passed to the digital section for

further processing.

The UWB transceiver circuit is the ultimate design for interrogating the chipless tag,

receiving the tag’s response signal and processing it for decoding the spectral

signature of the chipless tag in both amplitude and phase. This is due to the fact that it

has used a most stable transmitter and highly sensitive receiver which comprises the

expensive YIG oscillator, couplers, mixers, filters and the gain/phase detector.

Therefore it is expected that the most robust results would be obtained from the UWB

transceiver. The following section provides the results of the three transceiver

topologies.

144
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

6.5 Results

The measurement results of the three transceivers designed for the chipless tag

RFID reader are presented in this section. The transceivers were tested individually

and in a wired scenario. The wireless field trials of the integrated tag-reader system

will be presented in the next chapter. The wired tests were performed in order to

validate the operation of the RF transceiver circuits only.

The block diagram of the experimental setup used for testing the transceivers for tag

spectral signature detection was shown in Fig. 6-10. The RF output of the transceiver

circuit is connected to the multiresonator circuit through a pair of attenuators at each

port in order to minimize the RF power going into the receiver of the transceiver. The

attenuators are necessary in order to prevent the transmitter output power sending the

receiver into deep saturation or even destroying it. The pair of attenuators provides

approximately 36 dB of attenuation.

Digital/Control Circuit
Transceiver
PC Application
DAC Transmitter Attenuator Multiresonator
RS232 CPU
Receiver Attenuator
ADC

Fig. 6-10 Block diagram of transceiver testing experimental setup for tag detection.

The digital/control circuit is designed to control the transmitting frequency of the

transmitter circuit and digitize the acquired data from the received tag signal. The

digital circuit CPU is an Atmel AT89C52 microprocessor. The CPU sends an 8-bit

digital word to the DAC which is converted to an analogue tuning voltage for the

VCO. The received tag signal is converted to an 8-bit digital word by the ADC. The

145
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

CPU performs data decoding or can transmit data through the RS-232 serial interface

to a software application installed on a PC.

To verify that the developed RF transceiver sections works correctly, an Agilent

performance network analyser (PNA) E8361A was used. The two sets of data were

then compared. Upon obtaining satisfactory agreement between the two results, the

above procedure was implemented to digitize the analog data from the transceiver

circuit.

6.5.1 Gen-1 Transceiver

The following characteristic parameters of the Gen-1 transceiver were investigated

and their effects on the performance of tag detection recorded:

- Transmitter output power

- Transmitting signal higher order harmonic distortion

- Isolation between transmitter and receiver

- Receiver sensitivity

The measured transmitter output power is shown in Fig. 6-11. The RF output power

was measured using Agilent’s E8360 Spectrum Analyzer. The tuning voltage sent to

the Gen-1 transmitter VCO is presented in Fig. 6-11 which shows that the frequency

control is linear. Fig. 6-11 shows that the transmitter output varies from 17.4 dBm at

2.1 GHz to 16.6 dBm at 2.5 GHz. The signal output drops at higher frequencies since

the gain of the power amplifiers used drops as the signal frequency approaches 2.5

GHz. The measured output power of the transmitter VCO varies between 2 dBm (at 2

GHz) and 4 dBm (at 2.5 GHz) as shown in Fig. 6-12. The gain of the VNA-25 power

146
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

amplifier drops by 3 dB between 2 and 2.5 GHz as shown in Fig. 6-13. Therefore,

from Figs 6-12 and 6-13 its is clear that the output power of the transmitter drops by

approximately 1 dB between 2 and 2.5 GHz. The measured return loss and insertion

loss of the LPF are shown in Fig. 6-14. From Fig. 6-14 it is clear that the LPF exhibits

less than 1dB insertion loss and greater than 10 dB return loss below 2.5 GHz.

20 14
Tx Output Power (dBm)

Tuning Voltage (V)

16 12

10
12
Tx Output 8
8 Vtuning
6
4 4

0 2
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-11 Measured Gen-1 transmitter output power and VCO tunning voltage.

5
VCO Output Power (dBm)

0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-12 Measured Gen-1 transmitter VCO output.

147
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

20

Magnitude (dB)
10
0
-10
-20
-30 S11 S21
-40
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 6-13 Measured return loss (S11) and gain (S21) of VNA-25 power amplifier.

0
Magnitude (dB)

-10

-20

-30
S11 S21

-40
0 1 2 3 4

Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-14 Measured return loss (S11) and insertion loss (S21) of LFCN-2500 LPF.

Another important characteristic of the Gen-1 transmitter is the lack of any higher

order distortion products. Figs 6-15, 6-16 and 6-17 show the measured spectrum of

the transmitter output from 0 – 10 GHz when the transmitter output signal frequency

is set to 2, 2.25 and 2.5 GHz respectively. From Figs 6-14, 6-15 and 6-16 it is clear

that the spectrum is “clean” of any higher frequency distortions due to the filtering

section in the transmitter (presented in Section 6-4.1).

148
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Fig. 6-15 Measured Gen-1 transmitter output spectrum from 0 – 10 GHz for signal output at 2 GHz.

Fig. 6-16 Measured Gen-1 transmitter output spectrum from 0 – 10 GHz for signal output at 2.25 GHz.

149
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Fig. 6-17 Measured Gen-1 transmitter output spectrum from 0 – 10 GHz for signal output at 2.5 GHz.

The isolation between the transmitter and receiver circuit determines the amount of

power that “leaks” from the transmitter path to the receiver. The isolation between the

transmitter and receiver was measured by terminating the transceiver’s Tx and Rx

ports with 50 ohm loads, leaving the receiver with no input signal except the leakage

signal through the ground. The power of the signal coming out of the receiver was

measured and used to calculate the isolation between the transmitter and receiver

path. Fig. 6-17 shows the measured isolation above 71 dB.

74
Tx/Rx Isolation (dB)

73

72

71

70
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-18 Measured Gen-1 Transmitter/Receiver isolation.

150
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

The RF signal leakage from the transmitter to the receiver creates a DC offset at the

output of the diode rectifier. This offset needs to be measured in order to recalibrate

the receiver. The measured diode leakage offset is presented in Fig. 6-19. The

nonlinear behaviour of the leakage offset is mostly due to the nonlinear diode detector

rectification since the diode detector is a nonlinear device itself.

Diode Leakage Offset (mV)

150

140
130

120
110

100
90
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-19 Measured Gen-1 diode detector leakage offset.

Oscilloscope

Diode detector
output

RF input
Gen-1
Transceiver

Fig. 6-20 Experimental setup for measuring receiver sensitivity.

The receiver sensitivity was tested using the experimental setup shown in Fig. 6-20.

Agilent’s E8257D signal generator was used to determine the minimal signal power

151
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

levels that can be detected between 2 and 2.5 GHz. The diode detector output was

measured using Tektronix Oscilloscope with a 50 ohm coaxial probe. The receiver

sensitivity determines the minimal received signal input power that can be

successfully received by the Gen-1 transceiver. Fig. 6-21 shows the measured Gen-1

receiver sensitivity. From Fig. 6-21 it is clear that the receiver sensitivity is -53.6 dBm

and smaller. The receiver sensitivity is mostly determined by the leakage signal from

the transmitter. If the received tag signal after amplification is smaller than the

leakage signal at the input of the diode detector, its amplitude variation will not be

noticed at the output of the diode detector. Further improvement of the receiver

sensitivity is possible by increasing the isolation between the transmitter and receiver.

-53.5
Sensitivity (dBm)

-54.5

-55.5

-56.5
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-21 Measured Gen-1 receiver sensitivity.

The Gen-1 transceiver characteristics are summarized in Table 6-6 along with the

minimum specifications established in the design section. From Table 6.6 it is clear

that the Gen-1 transceiver has met all the desired requirements.

152
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Table 6-6 Gen-1 Transceiver pre-design and tested specifications.

Electrical specifications

Specifications Pre-design Tested

Frequency of operation 2 – 2.5 GHz 1.98 – 2.5 GHz

Transmitting Power 15 dBm Above 16.5 dBm

Interrogation Signal Type Frequency sweep Frequency sweep

Tx/Rx Isolation 60 dB Above 71 dB

Receiver Sensitivity -35 dBm -53 - -57 dBm

Max. Power Consumption 2 Watts 1.5 Watts

Commercial

Cost Less than AU $200 (a guide $85

only)

The Gen-1 transceiver was tested by connecting the tag multiresonator (without

antennas) to the Tx and Rx ports as presented in Fig. 6-10. The Gen-1 transceiver was

designed to detect only the amplitude of the spectral signature using a diode detector

at the receiver end. The experimental setup of the transceiver integrated with the

control section is shown in Fig. 6-22.

RS-232
Interface

6-bit
Attenuator Multiresonator

Attenuator
Control Gen-1
section Transceiver

Fig. 6-22 Photograph of Gen-1 testing experimental setup for wired 6-bit tag detection.

The transceiver transmits a linearly-swept frequency variant CW signal from 1.98 to

2.5 GHz. The signal is received after passing through the 5-bit multiresonating circuit.

153
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

An Agilent PNA E8361A network analyser was used to measure the spectral

signature (insertion loss) of the 5-bit multiresonator. Fig. 6-23 shows the measured

spectral signature obtained from the PNA against the detected calibrated spectral

signature using the Gen-1 transceiver. From Fig. 6-23 it is clear that the first three

resonances of the multiresonator exhibit larger amplitude “dips” (nulls) since the gain

of the VNA-25 power amplifier and diode detector leakage offset drop with

frequency, resulting in greater power levels at the lower half of the spectrum. The 5

spiral resonances were detected correctly, thus authenticating the correct operation of

the transceiver.

0 20

Calibrated 8-bit Digitized

-20

Spectral Signature
Insertion Loss

-2

-60
-4
-100

-6
-140

PNA Data Gen-1 Data

-8 -180
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-23 Measured spectral signature of multiresonator using Agilent’s PNA and Gen-1 transceiver.

After achieving satisfactory results from the wired testing of the “00000” tag, tags

with different encoded data -11111 and -10101- were also examined using the same

transceiver setup as shown in Fig. 6-22. The calibrated 8-bit digital spectral signatures

of the three tags (00000, 10101 and 00000) are plotted in Fig. 6-24. As can be seen,

tag 11111 gives no nulls as expected, whereas 10101 yields two nulls and 00000

yields five nulls at the respective resonant frequencies. The distinction in data sets

from the three different tags proves the viability of the chipless tag concept.

154
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

10

Calibrated 8-bit Digitized

-20

Spectral Signature
-50
TagID 11111
-80 TagID 10101
TagID 00000
-110

-140

-170
0 50 100 150
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-24 Different spectral signatures of multiresonator detected using Gen-1 transceiver.

The following section will present the results of the Gen-2 transceiver.

6.5.2 Gen-2 Transceiver

The Gen-2 transceiver was tested by connecting the tag multiresonator to the Tx and

Rx ports as presented in Fig. 6-10. The Gen-2 transceiver is designed to detect the

amplitude and phase of the spectral signature using a gain/phase detector AD8302 at

the receiver end.

The 5-bit multiresonator is interrogated by varying the frequency of the CW signal

from 2 to 2.5 GHz. The gain/phase detector requires two RF inputs in order to detect

the phase and amplitude difference between the two RF signals. One RF input signal

is the received signal passing through the multiresonator while the second RF input is

directly from the transmitter VCO and acts as a reference signal. The amplitude and

phase difference of the two RF signals are displayed as different DC voltage outputs.

The DC voltage relationships with the amplitude and phase differences between the

two RF signals are shown in Figs 6-25 and 6-26. It is clear that the AD8302 has a 60

dB dynamic range for amplitude difference detection. The phase difference detection

155
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

is performed in such a way that a difference of ±180 °gives a DC output of 0V, while

in phase signals give a voltage output of 1.8 V by the AD8302.

DC Output (V) 1.8

1.2

0.6

0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Amplitude Difference (dB)
Fig. 6-25 Measured AD8302 DC Output based on amplitude difference.

1.8
1.5
DC Output (V)

1.2
0.9

0.6

0.3
0
-180 -90 0 90 180
Phase Difference (Degree)

Fig. 6-26 Measured AD8302 DC Output based on phase difference.

Following the successful design and testing of the Gen-1 reader the testing of the

Gen-2 transceiver was performed. The parameters characterized to analyse the Gen-2

transceiver performance:

- Transmitter output power

- Transmitting signal higher order harmonic distortion

- Transmitter/Receiver isolation

- Phase error

156
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

- Receiver sensitivity

The measured Gen-2 transmitter output power is shown in Fig. 6-27. The RF output

power was measured using Agilent’s E8360 Spectrum Analyzer. The output power of

the Gen-2 receiver is 3.3 to 3.5 dB less than the output power of the Gen-1 transmitter

due to the power divider implemented after the VCO in the Gen-2 transmitter to

provide a coherent reference signal for the Gen-2 receiver amplitude/phase detector.

The tuning voltage sent to the Gen-2 transmitter VCO is presented in Fig. 6-27 which

shows that the frequency control is very linear. Fig. 6-27 shows that the transmitter

output varies from 14.3 dBm at 2.1 GHz to 13.4 dBm at 2.5 GHz.

20 14
Tx Output Power (dBm)

12

Tuning Voltage (V)

16
10
12 Tx Output
Vtuning 8
8
6
4 4

0 2
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-27 Measured Gen-2 transmitter output power and VCO tunning voltage.

Figs 6-15, 6-16 and 6-17 show the measured spectrum of the Gen-1 transmitter

output from 0 – 10 GHz when the transmitter output signal frequency is set to 2, 2.25

and 2.5 GHz respectively. The Gen-2 transmitter is designed in the same way as the

Gen-1 transmitter except for the power divider circuit after the Gen-2 VCO. The

power divider is a purely passive circuit which does not produce any intermodulation

157
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

distortion products. Hence, the higher order distortion measurements are the same

with the Gen-2 transmitter as they are with the Gen-1 transmitter.

The measured isolation between the transmitter and receiver is shown in Fig. 6-28.

The Gen-2 Tx/Rx isolation is similar to the Gen-1 Tx/Rx isolation due to the similar

transceiver architecture. The experimental setup for measuring the Tx/Rx isolation

was discussed in Section 6.5.1. From Fig. 6-28 it is clear that the isolation is above 71

dB from 2 to 2.5 GHz.

74
Tx/Rx Isolation (dB)

73

72

71

70
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-28 Measured Gen-2 Transmitter/Receiver isolation.

The Gen-2 receiver detects the amplitude and phase variations in the received tag

signal by comparing it to a reference signal provided by the transmitter VCO. It is

important to identify that the phase spectral signature encoding by the tag is more

resilient to noise but the design of a receiver with phase data detection is a greater

challenge. The coherent transceiver architecture of the Gen-2 is characterized by the

phase error which is present due to the phase noise from the VCO and nonlinearity of

the power amplifiers in the receiver circuit. The measured phase error of the Gen-2

receiver is within the boundaries of ± 3 °and is shown in Fig. 6-29. The error is within

reasonable boundaries since the tag decodes phase data variations in the ranges above

158
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

20 degrees. Hence, the phase error induced does not influence the correct detection of

the phase spectral signature.

Phase Error (Degrees) 3

-1

-2

-3
1.98 2.08 2.18 2.28 2.38 2.48

Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-29 Measured Gen-2 transceiver phase error.

The receiver sensitivity was tested using the same experimental setup as used for the

Gen-1 as shown in Fig. 6-21. Agilent’s E8257D signal generator was used to

determine the minimal signal power levels detectable between 2 and 2.5 GHz. The

receiver sensitivity determines the minimal received signal input power that can be

successfully received by the Gen-2 transceiver. Fig. 6-30 shows the measured Gen-2

receiver sensitivity. From Fig. 6-30 it is clear that the receiver sensitivity is below

-57.9 dBm. The Gen-2 receiver sensitivity is greater in comparison to the Gen-1 since

the AD8302 gain/phase detector circuit has greater sensitivity than the diode detector

circuit.

159
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

-57

Sensitivity (dBm)
-59

-61

-63

-65
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-30 Measured Gen-2 receiver sensitivity.

Table 6-7 Gen-2 Transceiver pre-design and tested specifications.

Electrical specifications

Specifications Pre-design Tested

Frequency of operation 2 – 2.5 GHz 1.98 – 2.5 GHz

Transmitting Power 15 dBm Above 13.4 dBm

Interrogation Signal Type Frequency sweep Frequency sweep

Tx/Rx Isolation 60 dB Above 71 dB

Receiver Sensitivity -35 dBm Below -57.9 dBm

Max. Power Consumption 2 Watts 1.6 Watts

Commercial

Cost Less than AU $200 (a guide $135

only)

The Gen-2 transceiver characteristics are summarized in Table 6-7 along with the

minimum specifications set in the design section. From Table 6.7 it is clear that the

Gen-2 transceiver has met all of the desired requirements except for the transmitter

output power. Since receiver sensitivity is greater than the specified -35 dBm this will

not be a problem. Thus, the design and testing of the Gen-2 transceiver has been

finalized.

160
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

The experimental setup of the transceiver integrated with the control section is

shown in Fig. 6-31.

Control Section
Gen-2 Transceiver
Multiresonator
Attenuator

Attenuator

Fig. 6-31 Photograph of Gen-2 testing experimental setup for wired 6-bit tag detection.

The Agilent PNA E8361A network analyser was used to measure the spectral

signature amplitude (insertion loss) and phase (transmission phase) of the 5-bit

multiresonator. Figs 6-32 and 6-33 show the measured spectral signature 000000 in

amplitude and phase obtained from the PNA against the detected calibrated spectral

signature using the Gen-2 transceiver respectively. As with the Gen-1 transceiver

testing, a tag with no resonances (11111) was used as a reference tag for calibration.

Figs 6-34 and 6-35 show the detection of different amplitude and phase spectral

signatures using the Gen-2 transceiver. As can be seen, tag 11111 gives no nulls or

phase jumps as expected, whereas 10101 yields two nulls and phase jumps and 00000

yields five nulls and phase jumps at the respective resonant frequencies. The

distinction in data sets from the three different tags proves the viability of using phase

data detection to verify the amplitude data since the phase data is more resistive to

interference and noise.

161
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

0 10

Calibrated 8-bit Digitized

Insertion Loss (dB)
5

Spectral Signature
-2
0

-4 -5

-10
-6
-15
PNA Data Gen-2 Data
-8 -20
1.98 2.08 2.18 2.28 2.38 2.48
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-32 Measured amplitude spectral signature using Agilent’s PNA and Gen-2 transceiver.

-80 80

8-bit Digitized Calibrated

PNA Data Gen-2 Data
60
Transmission Phase

-100

Spectral Signature
40
(Degrees)

-120 20

-140 0
-20
-160
-40

-180 -60
1.98 2.08 2.18 2.28 2.38 2.48

Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-33 Measured phase spectral signature using Agilent’s PNA and Gen-2 transceiver.

10
8-bit Digitized Calibrated Amplitude

5
Spectral Signature

-5

-10

-15
Tag11111 Tag10101 Tag00000
-20
1.98 2.08 2.18 2.28 2.38 2.48
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-34 Different measured amplitude spectral signatures using Gen-2 transceiver.

162
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

80

8-bit Digitized Calibrated Phase

60 Tag11111 Tag10101 Tag00000

40

Spectral Signature
20

-20

-40

-60

-80
1.98 2.08 2.18 2.28 2.38 2.48
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-35 Different measured phase spectral signatures using Gen-2 transceiver.

The following section will present the results of the UWB transceiver.

6.5.3 UWB Transceiver

The UWB transceiver interrogates the tag by sweeping the RF signal from 5 - 9

GHz in order to detect the tag’s 17 resonant nulls. The upper frequency was limited

by the performance of the 10 dB coupler which worked up to 9 GHz and the mixers

which worked up to 10 GHz. The YIG oscillator generated the interrogation signal

from 5-6 GHz while the E8257D signal generator was used to generate the RF

interrogation signal above 6 GHz. The tag multiresonator was wired to the transmitter

and receiver as shown in Fig. 6-36. After the RF signal passed through the tag it was

encoded with the tag’s unique spectral signature ID and then mixed to a lower IF

frequency using ZX05-14+ mixer circuits at the receiver end. The local oscillator

(LO) signal was generated using RVC6000 VCO in the range of 4-8 GHz. The

spectrum of the received tag signal after downconversion at 1 GHz is shown in Fig. 6-

37. The IF signal is then fed into the AD8302 gain detector for demodulation since it

operates from 0.3 to 2.7 GHz as in the low frequency Gen-2 RFID transceiver.

163
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Tag
RF Signal
Digital Section
LO Signal
Power Supply

Power 10dB
Coupler
Divider

RS-232 Bus
Gain /Phase
Detector
LPFs

ADC IN
Mixers
Gain To ADC
Detector ADC IN Vref
Output Digital Section

Fig. 6-36 Photograph of UWB transceiver experimental setup.

IF Tag
Signal
Gen RF Tag LO
Signal Signal
Gen

Fig. 6-37 Spectrum of receved tag signal after down-conversion.

The IF signal with the tags ID was compared against a IF reference signal and the

magnitude and phase differences are given by the AD8302 as an analog voltage

output which is sent to the digital/control board where it is digitized and further

processed. A 17-bit multiresonator was used to test the UWB transceiver. The

digitized 8-bit normalized amplitude and phase spectral signature of the 17-bit

multiresonator is shown in Fig. 6-38. The 17 bit multiresonator data is normalized in

respect to a tag with no resonances.

164
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

-10

Amplitude Spectral Signature

-20

Phase Spectral Signature

50

8-bit Digitized Calibrated

8-bit Digitized Calibrated

-30
0
-40

-50 -50

-60
-100
-70
Amplitude Data Phase Data
-80 -150
5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 6-38 Digitized amplitude and phase 17-bit spectral signature obtained using UWB transceiver.

From Fig. 6-38 it is clear that the UWB transceiver operates correctly and detects 17

bits of data in both amplitude and phase of the spectral signature. The significance of

the successful operation of the UWB transceiver is that the transceiver architecture

which utilizes downconverting mixer circuits as a CW coherent radar can be used

within the entire UWB spectrum. Hence, a proof-of-concept transceiver circuit for the

UWB chipless tag reader has been successfully designed and tested.

The measured sensitivity of the UWB receiver is shown in Fig. 6-39. From 6-39 it is

clear that the sensitivity of the receiver is increased in comparison to Gen-1 and Gen-

2 circuits. The increase in sensitivity is due to the higher gain of the amplifiers in the

receiver and the increased Tx/Rx isolation which is shown in Fig 6-40. However the

sensitivity is limited to -78 dBm due to the large bandwidth of the receiver and the

limitation of the AD8302 gain/phase detector which can only handle signals above

-60 dBm. The measured sensitivity and Tx/Rx isolation of the receiver circuit satisfy

the requirements set in the pre-design stage.

165
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

Sensitivity (dBm)
-73

-76

-79
5 6 7 8 9
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-39 Measured sensitivity of UWB receiver.

97
Tx/Rx isolation (dB)

94

91

88
5 6 7 8 9
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6-40 Measured Transmitter/Receiver isolation of UWB receiver.

The YIG oscillator (which was used to generate the interrogation signal up to 6 GHz

and was replaced with an Agilent signal generator for signal generation above 6 GHz)

has an upper frequency limit of 6 GHz and a constant output power of 16 dBm. It also

dissipates a significant amount of power (~8 W) and heat and was therefore mounted

on a large heat sink as shown in Fig 6-41. For future designs a YIG oscillator

operating from 5 to 10.7 GHz may be used along with mixers that operate above 9

GHz. Although these two components did not satisfy the required bandwidth, the

concept of the UWB transceiver circuit is proven and can be utilized for amplitude

and phase spectral signature tag detection. The testing and characterization of the

166
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

UWB transceiver with the pre-design requirements are summarized in Table 6-8. The

successful design, testing and characterization of the UWB RFID transceiver for the

UWB chipless tag RFID reader finalize the results section.

Tuning
Voltage
YIG RF Out
Oscillator

Heat Sink

Fig. 6-41 UWB Teledyne YIG oscillator mounted on heat sink.

Table 6-8 UWB Transceiver pre-design and tested specifications.

Electrical specifications

Specifications Pre-design Tested

Frequency of operation 3.1 – 10.7 GHz 5 – 9 GHz (due to
component limitation)
Transmitting Power 15 dBm 16 dBm

Interrogation Signal Type Frequency sweep Frequency sweep

Tx/Rx Isolation 60 dB Above 88 dB

Receiver Sensitivity -35 dBm -78 to -73 dBm

Max. Power Consumption 10 Watts 8.6 Watts

Commercial

Cost Less than AU $2000 (guide $4500

only)

167
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

6.6 Conclusion

In this chapter, the differences between conventional and chipless RFID readers,

transceiver specifications and the design and testing of three transceiver topologies for

the chipless tag RFID readers have been presented. The three transceiver topologies

presented, designed and tested were: Gen-1, Gen-2 and UWB.

The Gen-1 transceiver was designed as a proof-of-concept detection circuit for the

6-bit tag on Taconic PCB substrate. The transceiver was designed to operate between

2 and 2.5 GHz and detected the amplitude spectral signature data of the chipless tag

using a diode detector circuit at the receiver. The transceiver performed a linear

frequency sweep interrogation technique to detect the resonant nulls of the tag.

Successful detection of the tag’s spectral signature confirmed that the transceiver

circuit was operational. Additional testing of the transmitter power output vs

frequency, receiver sensitivity and isolation between the transmitter and receiver were

conducted and results were within the pre-required limitations.

The Gen-2 transceiver was the second transceiver designed to detect the amplitude

and phase spectral signature of the 6-bit tag on Taconic PCB substrate. The

transceiver was designed to operate between 2 and 2.5 GHz and detected the

amplitude and phase spectral signature data of the chipless tag using a gain/phase

detector AD8302. The Gen-2 transceiver architecture was based on coherent CW

radar in order to neutralize any phase errors or frequency drifts coming from the

transmitter’s VCO. The Gen-2 transceiver VCO performed a linear frequency sweep

interrogation technique to detect the spectral signature of the tag. Successful detection

of the tag’s amplitude and phase spectral signature confirmed that the transceiver

168
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

circuit was operational. Additional testing of the transmitter power output vs

frequency, receiver sensitivity and isolation between the transmitter and receiver were

conducted and results were within the required limitations.

The final transceiver to be designed was the UWB transceiver. Since the chipless

RFID tags are designed to operate in the UWB region, a transceiver topology which

can perform frequency sweep interrogation within the UWB spectrum with amplitude

and phase spectral signature detection was designed. The UWB transceiver was

designed to operate between 5 and 9 GHz due to limitations based on the components

that were used (YIG oscillator and mixers). The UWB transceiver successfully

detected the amplitude and phase spectral signature data of the chipless tag using a

gain/phase detector AD8302. The use of downconversion mixers enabled the use of

the AD8302 detector which operates only up to 2.7 GHz. Hence a RVC6000 VCO

was used as a local oscillator to downconvert the received tag signal. The transceiver

architecture was based on coherent CW radar in order to neutralize any phase errors

or frequency drifts from the transmitter’s YIG oscillator and LO VCO. The

transceiver oscillator performed a linear frequency sweep interrogation technique to

detect the spectral signature of the tag. Successful detection of the tag’s amplitude and

phase spectral signature confirmed that the UWB transceiver circuit was operational.

The use of phase data detection by a spectral signature detecting chipless tag RFID

reader is the first of its kind to be investigated, designed and tested. The use of phase

decoding along with amplitude data decoding allows for comparison between the two

for more robust and accurate readings.

169
Chapter 6 Transceiver Design for Chipless RFID Tag Reader

The following chapters will concentrate on the system integration of the chipless tag

and readers in order to complete the system performance evaluation.

170
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

7.1 Introduction

The preceding two chapters have presented the design and results of the two main

components of the RFID system: the chipless tag and the RFID reader transceiver.

The final chipless RFID tag is fully printable and designed on thin flexible laminate

using CPW technology. The tag is detected by a RFID reader. Three different

transceiver circuits have been presented in the previous chapter which interrogated the

chipless tag by a frequency-swept CW interrogation signal.

The system level integration of the chipless RFID tag and reader is presented in this

chapter. The main goal of the system design is integration of the system components

into an operational unit. In this particular case, the RFID reader was installed to detect

and successfully decode the spectral signature of the chipless tag within the reader’s

interrogation zone.

RFID is an application-driven technology. Hence, the application defines the

operational constraints in which the chipless RFID system is to operate. The main

application for this chipless RFID system is to tag the flexible Australian polymer

banknote on a conveyor belt application. The polymer banknote remains attached to

the substrate which is also the conveyor belt which moves at a constant speed. The

fact that the conveyor belt is the polymer banknote substrate itself means that every

banknote (and therefore tag) is oriented the same way and with the same dimension

and condition (flat, straight and not bent) which does not create any orientation or

alignment problems.

171
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

As mentioned earlier, the two main system components are the chipless RFID tag

and the RFID reader. Three different chipless tags were used to test the RFID reader

circuits. The 6-bit proof-of-concept tag operating from 2 -2.5 GHz was used to test the

successful operation of the Gen-1 and Gen-2 reader. The UWB 23-bit CPW tag was

used to test the UWB RFID reader circuit. The Gen-1, Gen-2 and UWB RFID reader

transceiver circuits are integrated with the digital control section to form the RFID

readers.

First, the RFID system was tested in an anechoic chamber, which is a interference

free environment, followed by a second test in a laboratory, which is a noisy

environment. The chipless tag was detected first by using the Agilent’s E8361A PNA

as the reader circuit with two cross-polarized reader antennas connected at the 2 ports

of the PNA. Full 2-port calibration from 2 - 2.5 GHz was performed before the test.

The tag’s spectral signature is detected as the insertion loss between the 2 ports of the

PNA.

The successful chipless RFID system operation is confirmed by the successful

detection of the predefined response (spectral signature) of the chipless tag by the

developed RFID reader. In addition to the hardware design of the tags and the reader,

a Windows-based application software has been developed in order to completely

automate the RFID system. The application software was developed using Visual

Basic 6 in order to plot the received tag’s spectral signature in both amplitude and

phase sent by the reader. The software application controls the RFID reader by

sending calibration, single read (polling) and continuous reading of chipless tags.

172
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

The chapter is organized as follows: Section 7.1 presents the RFID system

overview. Section 7.2 outlines the application and the implementation constraints of

the system to address the specific application for banknote tagging. Section 7.3

describes the hardware and software components to be used in the proposed system.

Following are the field trials with setup and results obtained for three varieties of the

reader presented in Section 7.4. Finally, the conclusions are presented in Section 7.5.

The following section presents the application of the chipless RFID system and its

implementation constraints.

7.2 Application and Implementation Constraints

In this section, the application for which the RFID system has been designed and the

minimum system performance specifications required are presented. The chipless tag

is designed to be printed on the Australian polymer banknote. The RFID reader is

designed to detect the tag at short ranges and to be mounted over a conveyor belt. The

important system constraints and installation requirements are identified as follows:

- tag alignment;

- minimum required reading range; and

- tag reading rate.

In the preceding chapters it has been clearly stated that the chipless RFID system

utilizes two cross-polarized tag antennas and corresponding reader antennas in order

to isolate the interrogation signal and the tag’s response signal. This requirement

imposes stringent alignment and polarization prerequisites for the tag and the reader

antennas. Since the RFID installed on a conveyor belt system is intended for single

tag readings at a time, alignment and polarization requirements must be met for the

173
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

system to operate properly. It is important to remember that the banknotes are

intended to be tagged while still part of the banknote substrate which is the conveyor

belt itself. Hence, every tag is printed correctly and exactly the same way on a

different banknote, with correct polarization, with the same separation between tags

and moving at a constant speed. Fig. 7-1 shows the block diagram of the conveyor

belt application of the RFID system for banknote tagging.

Polymer substrate Vertical

RFID Reader conveyor belt Reader Stand
Circuit Horizontal
Reader Stand
Polymer substrate
conveyor belt RFID Reader
Tx Rx Reader Circuit
Antenna Antenna

Banknote Tx Rx
Direction Banknote Direction
Antenna Antenna
#1
Banknote #3
Vertical Reader #2 Banknotes
Stand with chipless
tags Direction

Side View Top View

Fig. 7-1 Block diagram of conveyor belt application for chipless RFID system.

The maximum reading range of the reader is limited by the reader’s sensitivity and

emitted EM power. However, for successful detection of the tag printed on the

banknote (substrate) a great reading range is not required. Hence, a nominal 10cm

reading range is nominated as the minimum reading range.

The tag reading rate is a property of the RFID reader circuit. The reader needs to

interrogate, detect and decode the tag’s identity before the next tag has entered the

reader’s interrogation zone. The highest read rate of the reader is determined by two

factors:

174
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

- Minimum signal bandwidth; and

- Digital circuit processing capabilities.

The interrogation of the tag is performed using a linear frequency-swept CW signal.

The duration of the transmitted interrogation signal determines its bandwidth i.e an 1

microsecond CW signal has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. Hence, the desired spectral

resolution determines the length of the interrogation signal. For a 1 MHz resolution

over a 5.7 GHz bandwidth the interrogation time would be 5700 * 1 microsecond =

5.7 milliseconds. In other words, 175 tags per second could be read with a resolution

of 1 MHz. This means that the reader would be operational for a conveyor belt

moving at approximately 1 metre per second (60 metres per minute). It is important to

mention that 1 MHz resolution may not be needed which means that the interrogation

time would decrease and hence the conveyor belt speed could increase if required.

Another important limiting factor is the electronics used for the reader supporting

the interrogation speed. Most RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

microprocessors can operate with an instruction cycle of 100 nanoseconds while

digital signal processors (DSP) operate with instruction cycles of up to 1 nanosecond.

Hence, we can conclude that the processing capabilities and speeds of today’s

microprocessors/DSP’s are sufficient to cater for the interrogation of the banknotes on

a conveyor belt.

The following section presents the components of the chipless RFID system.

175
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

7.3 Chipless RFID Tag – Reader System Components

The system specifications and conveyor belt application were presented in the

preceding section. Two chipless RFID systems with components are presented in this

chapter. The first system is a 6-bit proof-of-concept chipless RFID system while the

second RFID system is a UWB chipless RFID system.

Proof-of-Concept
Chipless RFID System

Chipless RFID RFID Reader Windows

Tag Application

6-bit Chipless Gen-1 RFID

Tag Reader

Gen-2 RFID
Reader

Fig. 7-2 6-bit proof-of-concept chipless RFID system components.

The 6-bit proof-of-concept chipless RFID system operates from 2 – 2.5 GHz. The

system components of the proof-of-concept chipless RFID system are shown in Fig.

7-2. The proof-of-concept chipless RFID system comprises a 6-bit chipless RFID tag

which is detected either with a Gen-1 RFID reader (amplitude-only spectral signature

detection) or a Gen-2 RFID reader (with amplitude and phase spectral signature

detection) and a Windows-based software application which controls the RFID reader

via an RS-232 bus and displays the received tag data.

176
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

UWB Chipless RFID

System

Chipless RFID RFID Reader Windows

Tag Application

23-bit UWB RFID

Chipless Tag Reader

Fig. 7-3 UWB chipless RFID system components.

The UWB chipless RFID system operates from 5 – 10.7 GHz. The system

components of the UWB chipless RFID system are shown in Fig. 7-3. The UWB

chipless RFID system comprises a 23-bit chipless RFID tag which is detected using a

UWB RFID reader and a Windows-based software application which controls the

RFID reader via RS-232 bus and displays the received tag data.

The following sections present the chipless tags, RFID readers and implementations

of the two chipless RFID systems.

7.3.1 Chipless RFID Tags

Two chipless tags are used in the reading process: a 6-bit microstrip chipless tag on

standard PCB laminate Taconic TLX-0 and a 23-bit CPW chipless tag on thin and

flexible laminate Taconic TF-290. The design and performance of the chipless tags

has been presented in detail in Chapter 5 and each is shown in Fig. 7-4.

(a) (b)
Fig. 7-4 Chipless RFID tags: (a) microstrip tag with 6 bits of data and (b) CPW tag with 23 bits of data.

177
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

7.3.2 RFID Reader Digital Control Section

The digital section is designed around an 8-bit Atmel AT89C52 microcontroller

which performs the major signal processing and data decoding algorithms. The

architecture of the digital section is presented in Fig. 7-5. A microcomputer system

has been used. The whole concept is based on using a CPU (AT89C52) and the

peripheral components with specific external memory address allocations. The

microcontroller communicates with the peripheral components via an 8-bit digital

data bus and an 8-bit address bus. The data bus is connected to the 8-bit input ports of

DAC, ADC and display buffers. The address bus is sent to the address decoder which

then determines which peripheral unit to activate. Each peripheral unit has a chip

select (CS) pin which activates the specific IC. After activating the peripheral unit,

data are put on the data bus and the write signal is clocked, hence loading the IC with

data from the CPU through the data bus. A photograph of the digital section is shown

in Fig. 7-6. The components used for the short-range RFID reader are:

 AT89S52 8bit CMOS microcontroller – Atmel

 AD7533JN DAC – Analog Devices
 AD817AN High Speed Amplifier – Analog Devices
 AD7819 ADC – Analog Devices
 MAX232 RS232 Driver- Maxim-Dallas
 6 Seven Segment Common Anode Displays
 Buffers and DFF Latches – Texas Instruments
8-bit Data Bus

Address Display
bus data
MAX232 AT89C52 8/3 data
Tx cs
deco wr
Rx
wr der Display
rd data
decoder
cs Control
RS232 Data wr signals to
transmission transmitter
protocol data DAC
cs
wr

data ADC

cs Baseband
rd
signal from
receiver
Fig. 7-5 Block diagram of chipless RFID reader digital control section.

178
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

RS232 Interface Tag ID Displays

DAC

Control signals
to transmitter

Power
supply CPU
regulation

ADC
Baseband
signal from
receiver

Fig. 7-6 Photograph of RFID reader digital section.

The digital board was upgraded with an LCD display, keyboard and two 10-bit

ADC instead of a single 8-bit ADC so that both amplitude and phase difference could

be sampled simultaneously at a higher resolution. The upgraded digital section was

used for the UWB RFID reader since it requires more frequency points and higher

resolution due to its ultra-wide bandwidth operation. A photograph of the upgraded

digital control section is shown in Fig. 7-7. The author would like to acknowledge his

colleague Mr. Michael Zenere for his assistance in developing the upgraded digital

control section.

179
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Fig. 7-7 Photograph of upgraded digital/control section for UWB RFID reader.

The following section presents the integrated RF transceiver and digital section for

the Gen-1, Gen-2 and UWB RFID reader devices.

7.3.3 Chipless Tag RFID Reader Devices

Three transceiver architectures for Gen-1, Gen-2 and UWB readers have been

presented in Chapter 6. In this section the integrated hardware of all three RFID

readers (consisting of both digital and RF sections) is presented. The Gen-1 and Gen-

2 RFID reader are shown in Figs 7-8 and 7-9 respectively. The Gen-2 RFID reader

was used for field trials since it provided both amplitude and phase spectral signature

detection of the tag. The Gen-1 and Gen-2 RFID readers were designed on low cost

FR4 (εr=4.4, h=0.5mm, tanδ=0.02) laminate.

180
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Fig. 7-8 Photograph of Gen-1 RFID reader with diode detector.

Fig. 7-9 Photograph of Gen-2 RFID reader with gain/phase detector.

Fig. 7-10 Photograph of UWB RFID reader circuit.

181
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

A photograph of the UWB RFID reader is shown in Fig. 7-10. This reader was used

to perform field trials for the UWB chipless RFID system operating from 5-10.7 GHz.

The following section presents the interrogation/detection algorithm implemented in

the three RFID readers. The algorithm was implemented using C code.

7.3.4 Chipless RFID Reader Tag Interrogation/Detection Algorithm

The Gen-1 and Gen-2 RFID readers interrogate the chipless tag by sweeping the

frequency spectrum (2-2.5 GHz) in 150-180 samples (amplitude data in 180 points,

phase data in 150 points). The UWB RFID reader sweeps the 5 -10.7 GHz spectrum

in 1025 samples (5 MHz resolution). The interrogation/detection algorithm

implemented in all three RFID readers is presented in Fig. 7-11. It was necessary to

calibrate the RFID readers first by setting up the experiment and then determining the

necessary amplitude and phase data thresholds which determined logics “1” and “0”.

This was done by interrogating a tag with all logic zeros in its ID and recording the

data and then replacing the tag with all logic ones in its ID. Hence, a clear difference

between what is logic “0” and what is logic “1” was created and recorded in the

reader. The calibration procedure enables the detection of a tag in the reader’s

interrogation area by measuring the received signal strength.

182
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Start
Reset all buffers and
initialize interrogation
frequency

Read tag with all zeros in ID

and record amplitude and Calibration
phase data

Read tag with all ones in ID

and record amplitude and
phase data

Tag Create threshold for

amplitude and phase data
interrogation

Initiate tag Tag

reading again Detected?
No
Yes
Initialize tagID and
Interrogation_Freq.

Interrogation Yes
Increase _Freq=LAST? Decoding
Interrogation_Freq++
Tag ID
No
Load DAC with Digital data Compare data with
to set Interrogation threshold values
Frequency
Decode Tag ID
Set Multiplexer and Record
Amplitude Data
Send Data to
Display
Set Multiplexer and Record
Phase Data

Fig. 7-11 Flow chart of the RFID reader ID decoding algorithm.

Tag interrogation starts when the reader detects the received signal strength from a

tag in its interrogation zone. After setting the interrogation frequency by loading the

DAC with an 8-bit digital number corresponding to the necessary analog tuning

voltage for the VCO, the reader software reads data from the ADC. The data are the

digitized values of the analog DC signals created by the gain/phase detector when

comparing the received signal from the tag to the reference signal. The reader

continues interrogating the tag until it reaches the final frequency sample. At this

183
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

point, all the necessary data are collected and the tag ID decoding commences. The

tag ID is decoded by using the threshold values established in the calibration routine.

It is not necessary for the tag to be in the interrogation zone of the reader in order to

perform this operation. After the tag ID has been decoded, it is sent to the display

and/or via RS-232 to the host computer application. The algorithm returns to Tag

Interrogation mode and waits to detect the presence of the next tag.

This section has finalized the RFID reader hardware and software design. The

following section presents the application software on a PC.

7.3.5 Application Software for Chipless RFID System

The application software was designed using Visual Basic 6 and operates on the

Windows XP operating system on a PC. The PC application software is used for

automated data extraction from the reader. This means that there is no need for human

interaction for the reader to interrogate the tag and send data to the PC application

software using the RS-232 protocol where the tag ID and/or the tag data is presented.

The application software algorithm is shown in Fig. 7-12.

The application software starts by opening the port on the PC (COM2) and detects

the RFID reader. If no RFID reader is detected a warning is sent to the user. Once the

reader is detected at the COM port, the application software sends an instruction to

the reader for calibration. The calibration of the reader is performed by reading a tag

with no resonances (all ones) which eliminates the influences of the environment.

Once the reader is calibrated, the application software does not require any more

calibration from the reader. The system is then set in tag detection mode. At any time

184
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

the user can choose to save the tag data received by the reader in an Excel

spreadsheet. If this choice is made, a new Excel file opens for each tag detection made

by the reader and saves the data at a user-defined address on the PC.

Start
Open
communication port

Initiate tag Detect

detection again reader?
No
Yes
Calibrate RFID
reader

Save Yes
Data?

No Create Excel file

and save data

Single
read?
No
Yes

Retrieve data from Retrieve data from

reader reader

Plot received tag Plot received tag

data data

Fig. 7-12 Flow chart of the PC software application algorithm.

The reader operates in single as well as continuous tag interrogation. This is

predetermined by the user by making this choice on the application software menu. A

single read option requires a tag reading/detection to be defined by the user. The

continuous tag detection ensures that the reader is constantly reading and detecting the

tags. This type of interrogation is intended for conveyor belt application where the

tags are constantly moving under the reader antennas. The single tag reading is used

185
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

for system testing and field trials. Fig. 7-13 shows the screen capture of the

application software on the PC. The following section will present the chipless RFID

system field trials.

Interrogation type
buttons Baud rate

Allocated Port

Control Buttons

Raw tag data

Calibrated tag data

0 0 0 0 0 0

000000

Fig. 7-13 Screen capture of PC software application.

7.4 Field Trials

In this section the field trials of the chipless RFID tags and readers developed in this

project are presented. First, the 6-bit proof-of-concept chipless RFID tag and Gen-1

and Gen-2 RFID readers were tested inside an anechoic chamber (interference-free

environment) and outside the anechoic chamber (interference environment). Finally,

the UWB RFID chipless tag and UWB RFID reader were tested inside and outside the

anechoic chamber. Both systems were tested for reading ranges with amplitude and

phase spectral signature detection. The amplitude and phase spectral signature

detection were then compared in order to establish robustness of the system. Fig. 7-14

186
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

shows the block diagram of the field trials conducted for the 6-bit and 23-bit chipless

RFID system.

Field Trials

Anechoic chamber Laboratory

Reading range Reading range

using PNA using PNA

RFID reader RFID reader

detection detection

Fig. 7-14 Flow chart of the field trials conducted for chipless RFID system.

7.4.1 6-bit Proof-of-Concept RFID Chipless Tag – Reader System Field Trials

The experimental setup comprised the LPDA built on Taconic TLX-0, the vector

network analyzer E8361A as the reader electronics and the chipless tag. The block

diagram and photograph of the experimental setup are shown in Figs 7-15 and 7-16

respectively.

Anechoic
Fiber-glass
stand Vector
Chiples Network
s Tag Interrogation Analyzer
Signal
Tx
Antenna

Encoded
Tag Signal

Rx
Antenna Fibre-glass
EM stand
Absorbers

Fig. 7-15 Chipless RFID system block diagram.

187
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Chipless
Tx Reader Tag
Antenna

Rx Reader
Antenna

(b)
Fig. 7-16 Photograph of chipless RFID system experimental setup.

The experiment was conducted in an anechoic chamber in order to validate the

successful encoding of the tag and its detection at the reader end using the network

analyzer. The chipless tag along with the reader antennas were mounted on fibre-glass

stands and placed into the anechoic chamber. Fig. 7-16 shows that the reader antennas

were cross-polarized in order to minimize cross-talk between the two antennas, thus

improving isolation of the tag signal. Fig. 7-17 shows the measured isolation of the

omni-directional UWB monopole tag antennas and the directive reader LPDAs. From

Fig. 7-17 it is clear that the LPDAs provide greater isolation than the omni-directional

monopoles between 2 and 2.5 GHz.

188
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

45
40

Isolation(dB)
35
30
25 Reader Antennas
Tag Antennas
20
15
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 7-17 Measured isolation between cross-polarized reader and tag antennas.

The LPDA is a preferred candidate for the reader antenna to the UWB monopoles

due to better isolation between the two cross-polarized antennas (Chapter 4), more

directive radiation pattern which creates a stronger LOS component, higher gain and

its low cross-polar components.

We encoded the tag with ID 000000 (reference tag) and placed it from 5 cm to 40

cm (in steps of 5 cm) from the LPDA reader antennas as shown in Fig. 7-16. The

same experiment was conducted using the UWB monopoles as reader antennas.

However, a reading range of only a few centimeters was achieved. The measured

results of the received data are presented in both magnitude and phase with the

variation of the tag to reader distance. Agilent’s E8361A network analyzer was used

in the measurement. The analyzer was calibrated with the output power of the ports

being -28dBm.

The amplitude information in the spectral signature was measured and assessed in

such a way that the tag with the 111111 ID is used as a reference. The amplitude

difference at (5 cm and 20 cm) of the received power due to the tag frequency

189
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

signatures are presented in Figs 7-18 and 7-19 and Table 7-1. Fig. 7-20 shows the

amplitude difference in respect to 111111 ID of the received signal after interrogating

the same tag rotated by 180 degrees, hence creating a polarization mismatch. The

amplitude information was considered completely unreadable and therefore useless.

These results indicate the robustness of the dual polarized reading system and the

importance of alignment of the tag’s antennas and the corresponding reader’s

antennas.
Amplitude Difference(dB)

-2

-4

-6
5
-8 2 24 23 22 21 20
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55

Frequency(GHz)
TagID 000000 TagID 010101
Fig. 7-18 Amplitude variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 5 cm.
Amplitude Difference(dB)

0.5

-1.5

-3.5
25 24 23 22 21 20
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55

Frequency(GHz)
TagID 000000 TagID 010101
Fig. 7-19 Amplitude variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 20 cm.

190
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Amplitude Difference(dB)
1

-1

-2
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55
Frequency(GHz)
TagID 000000 TagID 010101
Fig. 7-20 Received signals by reader for chipless tags at 5cm rotated by 180 degrees (polarization
mismatch between tag and reader antennas).

Table 7-1 Amplitude and phase differences vs reading distance of different bits of Tag000000 and
Tag111111 measured in an anechoic chamber.
(ΔA-amplitude difference in dB, Δθ-phase difference in degrees)
Distance (cm) 25 24 23 22 21 20
ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ

5 -3 14 -6 16 -4 17 -7 17 -4 17 -4 18

10 -1 15 -2 40 -3 30 -2 25 -1 15 -2 42

15 0 14 -1 18 -1 28 -1 16 -1 25 -1 15

20 0 12 -1 14 -2 17 -3 16 -1 26 -1 26

25 0 12 -4 16 -4 24 -3 22 -1 14 -3 23

30 0 10 0 18 -1 15 0 15 -1 21 -2 30

40 0 7 0 9 0 6 -1 12 0 12 -1 10

Table 7-1 shows that tag readability drops with reading distance. The tag was

successfully read with LPDA at distances up to 10 cm but reading ranges over 10 cm

created errors mostly for 25 most significant bit which has the resonant null at ~2

GHz. These errors can be attributed to the high cross-polar level of the tag’s

monopole and impedance mismatch of both tag and reader antennas at that frequency.

Optimization of the antenna design should rectify this problem.

The experiment was performed within the near-field and near far-field of the reader

antennas ( far-field is 38.4 cm at 2.25 GHz using 2d 2 where d is the antenna largest


191
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

dimension in this case 16cm and λ is wavelength). The system was therefore designed

to operate in both near-field and near far-field conditions.

The phase information in the spectral signature was measured and assessed in such

a way that the tag with the 111111 ID was used as a reference. The phase variation of

the received signal (5 and 20 cm) due to the tag frequency signatures is presented in

Figs 7-21 and 7-22 and Table 7-1. Fig. 7-23 shows the phase information when the

tag is rotated by 180° creating complete polarization mismatch with the reader

antennas. The distinct phase difference between the two states is of no use. This result

again indicates the robustness of the system, its immunity to interference and the

importance of alignment of the antennas of the tag and the reader.

Phase Difference(Degrees)

20

15

10

-5
25 24 23 22 21 20
-10
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55

Frequency(GHz)
TagID000000 TagID010101
Fig. 7-21 Phase variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 5cm.

192
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Phase Difference(Degrees)
20

15

10

-5
25 24 23 22 21 20
1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55

Frequency(GHz)
TagID000000 TagID010101

Fig. 7-22 Phase variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 20 cm.

50
Phase Difference(Degrees)

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Frequency(GHz)
TagID 000000 TagID 010101
Fig. 7-23 Phase variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 5cm rotated
by 180 degrees (wrong alignment).

From Table 7-1 we can see that the tag is accurately read by the reader even at 40

cm, which is the far-field. Thus we can conclude that the phase information is more

resilient to noise and can be read from a greater distance when compared to the

amplitude information of the frequency signature. This represents a novelty in data

encoding and data extraction in relation to other chipless spectral signature-based

193
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

RFID systems. Previously reported spectral signature-based chipless RFID systems

are based on examining and encoding the magnitude of the signal [18]-[19].

Following the successful testing of the chipless RFID system inside the anechoic

chamber, the chipless system was setup outside the chamber. The experimental setup

comprises two cross-polarized LPDAs fabricated on Taconic TLX-0 laminate, the

PNA E8361A as the reader and the chipless tag. The experiment was conducted in a

laboratory rather than the anechoic chamber in order to validate the results in a real-

life reflective environment. The block diagram and photograph of the experimental

setup are shown in Fig. 7-24 and 7-25 respectively.

Fiber-glass
stand Vector
Chipless
Network
Tag
Interrogation Analyzer
Signal
Tx
Antenna

Encoded Tag
Signal

Rx Fiber-glass
Antenna stand

Fig. 7-24 Block diagram of the experimental setup using directive LPDA’s as reader antennas (outside
anechoic chamber).

194
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Chipless
Tag

Tx Reader
Antenna

Rx
Reader
Antenna
Fig. 7-25 Photograph of the experimental setup in the laboratory.

We encoded the tag with ID 000000 and placed it 5 to 25 cm from the reader

antennas. The measured results of the received data are presented in both magnitude

and phase with the variation of the tag to reader distance. Agilent’s E8361A network

analyzer was used as the reader. The analyzer was calibrated with the output power of

the ports being -28 dBm. The variation of the received power magnitude due to the

tag frequency signatures is presented in Fig. 7-26 and Table 7-2.

Received Power (dBm)

-36

-38

-40

-42

-44

25 24 23 22 21 20
-46
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Frequency (GHz)
Tag000000 Tag111111
Fig. 7-26 Received power levels by reader for chipless tags at 5cm.

195
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Table 7-2 Amplitude and phase differences vs reading distance of different bits of Tag000000 and
Tag111111 measured outside the anechoic chamber.
(ΔA-amplitude difference in dB, Δθ-phase difference in degrees)
Distance (cm) 25 24 23 22 21 20
ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ ΔA Δθ

5 -2 17 -7 26 -4 30 -7 35 -5 28 -4 16

10 -2 17 -4 31 -2 22 -8 29 -4 39 -9 26

15 -1 25 -5 29 -3 18 -2 23 -2 36 -1 30

20 0 12 -2 19 -4 30 -3 20 0 11 -1 13

25 0 10 -4 16 -4 20 -3 25 -1 18 -3 26

We can see that the tag’s readability reduces with reading distance. The tag was

successfully read at distances up to 15 cm. However, reading distances of 20 cm and

25 cm introduced reading errors at 2 GHz and 2.4 GHz. The reading errors show that

the spectral signature encoded into the magnitude is subject to noise and interference

and can result in reading errors. Hence, we have introduced data encoding into the

phase of the spectral signature which should increase the reading range. The phase

information in the spectral signature was measured and assessed in such a way that

the tag with the 111111 ID was used as a reference. The phase variation with

frequency of the received tag signals is presented in Fig. 7-27 and Table 7-2.
Phase Difference (Degrees)

30

20

10

-10

-20
25 24 23 22 21 20
-30
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Frequency (GHz)
Tag000000 Tag010101
Fig. 7-27 Phase variations of the received tag signal at the reader end for chipless tags at 5cm.

196
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

From Table 7-2 it is clear that the tag is accurately read by the reader (even at 25

cm). Thus we can conclude that the phase information is more resilient to noise and

can be read from a greater distance when compared to the amplitude information of

the frequency signature. This represents a novelty in data encoding and data

extraction in respect of spectral signature-based chipless RFID systems.

The testing of the Gen-2 RFID (amplitude and phase detection) reader (2- 2.5 GHz)

was conducted in an anechoic chamber using log periodic dipole (LPDA) arrays

operating between 1.9 and 2.7 GHz as the reader antennas, as shown in Fig 7-25. The

Gen-2 RFID reader was tested without testing the Gen-1 since it provided an

integrated solution of both amplitude and phase detection. The 6-bit chipless RFID

tag was placed up to 10 cm from the reader antennas, but in this case the tag was

placed between the two reader antennas in order to minimize mutual coupling and

cross-talk between the reader antennas. The RFID reader in operating mode is shown

in Fig. 7-28.

Fig. 7-28 Photograph of RFID reader in operating mode.

The RFID reader interrogates the tag by sweeping the frequency spectrum in 150-

180 samples (amplitude data in 180 points, phase data in 150 points). The flow chart

of the algorithm is presented in Fig. 7-11. It was necessary to calibrate the RFID

197
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

reader first by setting up the experiment and then determining the necessary

thresholds of the amplitude and phase data, which determined logics “1” and “0”.

This was done by interrogating a tag with all logic zeros in its ID and recording the

data and then replacing the tag with all logic ones in its ID. Hence, a clear difference

between what is logic “0” and what is logic “1” was created and recorded in the

reader. The calibration procedure enables the detection of a tag in the reader’s

interrogation area by measuring the received signal strength. The tag spectral

signatures (‘000000’ and ‘110111’) calibrated by the reader in both amplitude and

phase are presented in Figs 7-29 and 7-30 respectively.

Calibrated 8-bit Digital Data

20
bit 1 bit2 bit 3 bit 4 bit 5 bit 6
10

-10

-20
Tag000000
-30
Tag110111
-40
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Frequency Samples
Fig. 7-29 Recorded amplitude of tag’s spectral signature after calibration by RFID reader prototype.

40
Calibrated 8-bit Digital Data

30 bit 1 bit2 bit 3 bit 4 bit 5 bit 6

20

10

-10

-20
Tag010101
-30
Tag000000
-40
0 30 60 90 120 150

Frequency Samples
Fig. 7-30 Recorded phase of tag’s spectral signature after calibration by RFID reader prototype.

198
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

The tag ID is decoded by using the threshold values established in the calibration

routine. After the tag ID has been decoded, it is sent to the display and/or via RS-232

to the host computer application. The algorithm returns to “Tag Interrogation” (Fig. 7-

11) mode and waits to detect the presence of a tag.

The successful reading of the 6-bit proof-of-concept tag by the PNA at distances up

to 40 cm in the anechoic chamber and 25 cm in real life environment has confirmed

that the chipless RFID system is well suited for the polymer banknote tagging

application. The developed Gen-2 reader can successfully detect the tag at the

minimum set distance of 10 cm. The PNA read the tag at a further reading range since

its sensitivity and architecture are more advanced than the Gen-2.

The following section presents the field trials of the UWB chipless RFID system.

7.4.2 UWB RFID Chipless Tag – Reader System Field Trials

The experimental setup in the anechoic chamber consists of the chipless tag, the

vector network analyzer (VNA) PNA E8361A as the reader electronics and horn

antennas as the reader antennas. Horn antennas were used to increase the reading

range of the tag since they have high gain (~11 dBi). The experiment was conducted

in the Monash University Anechoic Chamber in order to validate the successful

encoding of the tag and its detection at the reader end using the network analyzer. The

chipless tag and the reader antennas were mounted on plastic stands and placed into

the anechoic chamber. A block diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 7-

31.

199
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Anechoic chamber

Vector Network
Analyzer Chipless Tag

Reader
Antennas

Fibre-glass
Stand

Fig. 7-31 Block diagram of the anechoic chamber setup.

As the horn antennas covered the frequency range from 7 - 12 GHz, the tag was

interrogated starting from 7 GHz. This resulted in reading 13 bits of the entire 23-bit

data encoded by the tag. However, this was sufficient to prove the successful

operation of the tag and provide a read range estimation using horn antennas. A

photograph of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 7-31.

Chipless
Tag

Tx
Reader
Antenna

Rx
Reader
Antenna

Fig. 7-32 Photograph of the experimental setup in the anechoic chamber of UWB RFID system.

200
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

The use of horn antennas as reader antennas in this experimental setup greatly

increased the reading range of the tag. We attribute this to the greater isolation of the

cross-polarized reader antennas, and their higher directivity and higher gain than those

of the log periodic arrays (presented in Chapter 4). The cross-polar reader antennas

are shown in Fig. 7-33. As can be seen from Fig. 7-34, the isolation between the

reader antennas is well above 65 dB.

Tx Antenna

Rx Antenna

107mm

100mm Tx Antenna
Polarization

Rx Antenna
Polarization

Fig. 7-33 Photograph of cross-polarized horn antennas used at reader end with 10cm separation.

-60
-65
Isolation (dB)

-70
-75
-80
-85
-90
7 8 9 10 11
Frequency(GHz)
Fig. 7-34 Measured isolation between cross-polarized reader horn antennas.

We encoded the tag with ID ‘0x000000’and placed it from 5 cm to 70 cm (in steps

of 5 cm) away from the horn reader antennas as shown in Fig. 7-32. The PNA was

calibrated with the output power at the ports being -28 dBm. Both amplitude and

201
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

phase data were retrieved when interrogating the tag. The chipless RFID tag was

detected using a reference tag “0x111111” which carried no resonances. Hence, when

the two results were compared the encoded resonances from tag ID ‘0x000000’ were

successfully detected. The normalized magnitude and phase of tag ID”0x000000” at

10 cm are presented in Figs 7-35 and 7-36 respectively. The measured results vs

distance of tag from reader antennas are shown in Fig. 7-37.

Normalized Magintude (dB)

-5

-10

-15

-20 MSB
LSB
-25

-30
7 8 9 10 11
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 7-35 Normalized magnitude variation vs frequency of chipless RFID tag with
ID”0000000000000” from 7 – 10.7 GHz.

150
Normalized Phase (Degrees)

100

50

-50
LSB
-100
MSB
-150
7 8 9 10 11
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 7-36 Normalized phase variation vs frequency of chipless RFID tag with ID”0000000000000”
from 7 – 10.7 GHz.

202
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Accurately Read Tag (%)

100
Maximum
80 number of
bits =13

60

40

20

0
5 15 25 35 45 55 65
Distance (cm)
Amplitude Data (anechoic chamber) Phase Data (anechoic chamber)
Amplitude Data (Laboratory) Phase Data (Laboratory)
Fig.7-37 Number of successfully detected bits vs distance of tag from reader antennas from 7 – 10.7
GHz (maximum of 13 detectible bits).

From Fig. 7-37 it is clear that in the anechoic chamber the tag can be detected

further away (up to 70 cm) when using phase data detection than when using

amplitude data detection. This is attributed to the greater robustness of phase when

compared to amplitude. The successful interrogation of the tag in both amplitude and

phase was conducted up to 50 cm. This result shows an improvement in the reading

range detection of 300% in amplitude data and 75% in phase data (up to 70 cm)

compared with the results reported in the previous section. The increased reading

range in amplitude was greatly influenced by the increase of the cross-polar isolation

of the tag antennas, increased isolation between the reader horn antennas and higher

gain of the reader antennas (~11dBi over the entire band).

The chipless tag was placed in a laboratory setup (outside the anechoic chamber

Fig. 7-38) in order to measure the detection range of this particular setup when

exposed to environmental influences.

203
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Chipless
Tag Tx Antenna

Rx Antenna

Vector
Tag Stand Network
Analyzer

Fig. 7-38 Photograph of the experimental setup in the laboratory.

Fig. 7-37 shows that the tag was read accurately in both amplitude and phase up to

15 cm when placed in a laboratory as shown in Fig. 7-38. The phase data were

detectable at greater reading ranges (up to 35 cm) than the amplitude data due to

robustness of the phase data. Fig 7-37 clearly shows that the reading range dropped by

50% outside the anechoic chamber due to interference from the environment.

However, it should be mentioned that the detection procedure was a simple

comparison of tag data with no resonances and tag data with all resonances. The

reading range could be improved by using signal processing techniques (such as

matched filtering) to isolate the tag signal from the noise and interference and thus

increase the reading range [163].

Following the successful long range reading of the tag under test using two horn

antennas and the PNA, the developed UWB RFID reader was installed in the system.

The RF section of the UWB reader operating between 2 and 2.5 GHz was upgraded to

work in the UWB spectrum as shown in Fig. 7-39. The entire RFID reader is shown in

Fig. 7-10 consisting of the upgraded digital and RF sections and horn antennas. The

digital board was upgraded with a LCD display and 2 10-bit ADC instead of 1 8-bit

ADC so that both amplitude and phase data could be sampled simultaneously at a

204
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

higher resolution.

Tunning 10 dB Tx
voltage Coupler Antenna
YIG
Osc.

From
DAC
LO Rx
Power Antenna
Divider

To
Mixer ADC

IF Power
Gain/ Amp.
LPF Amps Phase Information
Detector Phase
LPF Information
Mixer

Fig. 7-39 Block diagram of 2nd Gen UWB RF section.

The UWB transceiver consists of a transmitter and receiver path. The transmitter is

in the form of a Teledyne YIG oscillator which generates an interrogation signal of

constant 15 dBm power to the Tx antenna. The RFID reader interrogates the tag by

sweeping the RF signal from 7 – 10.7 GHz. The readings are performed from 7 to

10.7 GHz due to the cutoff frequency of the horn antennas at 7 GHz. This results in

reading a tag of 13 bits from 7 to 10.7 GHz by the UWB RFID reader.

The UWB chipless RFID system experimental setup is shown in Fig. 7-38. In this

experiment the reader performed wireless interrogation and detection of the tag. The

same digital section and decoding algorithm as shown in Fig. 7-11 was used to

interrogate, detect and decode the tag. The 10-bit digital amplitude and phase spectral

signatures of the tag are shown in Fig 7-40. The received 13-bit tag signal is

normalized in respect to a tag with no resonances. The 13 amplitude nulls and phase

jumps of tag data are detected between 7 and 10.7 GHz as expected. Table 7-3 shows

the amplitude and phase difference between the reference tag (all ones) and the tested

205
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

tag with all resonances present (all zeros). From Table 7-3 it is clear that the 10-bit

digital data difference is large enough to be distinguished by the RFID reader’s

threshold detection algorithm presented in Fig. 7-11. The tag was detected up to 15

cm using the UWB RFID reader. The significance of this successful reading using the

UWB RFID reader is that it is the first UWB RFID reader which has been developed

to detect the chipless RFID tag spectral signature in both amplitude and phase.

-10
Amplitude Spectral Signature

Phase Spectral Signature

-20

Digital
Normalized 10-bit Digital

Signature
50

8-bit Digital
-30

10-bit
0
-40

Spectral
Normalized
-50 -50

Normalized
Phase
-60
-100
-70
TagAmpl Phase Data
-80 -150
7 8 9 10 11
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 7-40 Normalized 8-bit digitized tag amplitude and phase spectral signature obtained from wireless
readings using UWB RFID reader prototype.

Table 7-3 Amplitude and phase differences vs frequency between Tag000000 and Tag111111
(ΔA-amplitude difference in 10-bit digital data, Δθ-phase difference in 10-bit digital data)
Frequency (GHz) Data Bit Amplitude Difference Phase Difference
7.18 212 60 59
7.46 211 76 140
7.8 210 58 59
8.04 29 58 28
8.3 28 77 24
8.5 27 59 30
8.76 26 74 170
9.1 25 94 192
9.38 24 62 55
9.7 23 58 41
10.02 22 52 32
10.38 21 71 42
10.7 20 74 70

206
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

With the successful detection of the tag by the UWB RFID reader at distances

greater than 10 cm the field trials of the chipless RFID tag-reader system have been

finalized. The chipless RFID system has been successfully tested inside and outside

the anechoic chamber and yielded satisfactory results by detecting the chipless tag

using an in-house-built RFID reader.

7.5 Conclusion

In this chapter we have presented the results of field trials of a novel fully printable

chipless RFID system which can be used for tracking low cost items such as note

bills, envelopes and other paper/plastic products, items and documents. The chipless

RFID tags uses multiresonators to encode data into the spectral signature. By

interrogating the tag by a multi frequency signal it is possible to detect the variations

in the magnitude and phase of the received tag signal and decode the tag’s ID.

First, the proof-of-concept chipless RFID system was tested. The chipless RFID tag

was interrogated using Agilents PNA E8361A inside an anechoic chamber. The

results yielded a reading range of up to 40 cm using phase data of the spectral

signature while accurate readings of the tag using amplitude spectral signature were

conducted up to 10 cm. Field trials were then arranged outside the anechoic chamber

where the influences of reflections and multipathing reduced the reading range of the

system up to 25 cm. Finally, the 6-bit proof-of-concept chipless RFID system was

completed using the Gen-2 RFID reader instead of the PNA for amplitude and phase

spectral signature detection. The chipless tag was successfully detected at 10 cm using

the Gen-2 RFID reader which was the minimum required reading range set.

207
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

Future work will be concentrated on improved accuracy of reading, developing the

chipless system on plastic substrates and RFID reader development with anti-collision

protocols.

The UWB chipless RFID system which utilizes a fully printable chipless CPW

RFID tag which can be used for tracking low cost items such as banknotes, envelopes

and other paper/plastic products, items and documents and UWB RFID reader has

been tested successfully. The chipless RFID tag operates between 5 and 10.7 GHz of

the UWB spectrum. By exciting the tag with a wideband signal it was possible to

detect variations in the magnitude and phase of the received tag signal and decode the

tag’s ID at distances up to 70 cm in a noise-free environment and up to 35 cm in a

laboratory (noisy) environment. It was necessary to calibrate the reader with a

reference signature ID with no resonances when performing amplitude and phase data

decoding.

A prototype UWB RFID reader operating successfully between 5 – 10.7 GHz has

been presented. The reader is a short range prototype. The lower frequency range

RFID reader has successfully detected and decoded a 6-bit chipless tag at 10 cm using

a software code which utilizes calibration, threshold detection and amplitude and

phase data decoding for tag ID extraction. A UWB reader with upgraded RF and

digital section and same software algorithm detected a 13-bit tag. Wired readings of

the tag using the UWB reader showed that it is possible to detect all 23 bits of the tag

if an antenna operating between 5 and 10.7 GHz is used. The UWB RFID reader is

the first UWB RFID reader to be built which can wirelessly interrogate and detect a

chipless RFID tag using amplitude and phase spectral signature detection. The reader

208
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

relies on calibration in order to provide accurate readings of the tag and can be

mounted on conveyor belt applications.

The spectral signature-based chipless RFID system is the first of its kind to use

phase to encode data which increases the reading range and accuracy and provides the

reader with the ability to interrogate magnitude and phase and compare them to

confirm the ID of the interrogated tag. It is necessary to use a reference signature ID

of 111111 when performing amplitude and phase data decoding.

The achievements that have been accomplished while developing and testing the

chipless RFID tag and RFID reader and their integration into a chipless RFID system

can be summarised as follows:

- Phase data of the chipless tag enhances the detection performance and reading

range;

- A thorough investigation of the RFID system properties such as tag and reader

antenna cross-talk, amplitude and phase tag data extraction, robustness of data

processing and data display;

- Integrated and compact Gen-1 and Gen-2 reader modules which can also be

handheld;

- A RFID reader calibration process for data decoding based on use of a reference

tag with no resonances (all ones). The calibration reduces the impact of environmental

interference and system noise;

- Interference-free (anechoic chamber) and laboratory tests to prove the system

functionality and reader performance;

- A novel approach of utilizing the UWB spectrum for more tag data bits;

209
Chapter 7 Chipless RFID Tag - Reader System

- Flexible CPW tag on thin laminates which can be transferred to plastic and/or

paper and its successful detection by the RFID reader;

- Integration of multidisciplinary engineering fields such as microwave engineering,

antenna design, digital circuit design, application software and reader algorithm

programming into a RFID system level design.

- Successful reading ranges in the anechoic chamber of up to 70 cm are a unique

achievement for a fully-passive chipless RFID system.

- Successful field trials of the chipless tags readers place the development in the

forefront of the chipless RFID world.

The system has great potential if printed on plastic substrate using transparent

conductive (silver) ink for low cost item tracking. It represents a cheap and

economical way of potentially replacing the barcode due to the fact that the chipless

tags are not comprised of any silicon-based circuits or semiconductor devices.

210
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

The work presented in this thesis has been concerned with the design of chipless

RFID tags and RFID readers for low cost item tracking. The motivation for this work

can be explained as follows. The growing tendency today is to replace barcodes with

RFID tags. Given the limitations of the optical barcode, RFID provides unique ID

codes for individual items that can be read at a longer distance. Hence, the obstacles

of reading range and automation would be addressed by the use of RFID. However,

the cost of RFID tags currently makes them unaffordable as an alternative to

barcodes.

In recent years chipless RFID has been proposed as a low cost and competitive

replacement for the barcode. The recently-reported chipless RFID tags are printed

resonators [59], chemical fibres [53] and TFTC [49] organic tags. However, these

reported chipless tags have been stagnating in the prototype stage and have limitations

in terms of reading range, size, data capacity, data encoding, frequency of operation

and finally, fabrication challenges. For example, printed resonators have size

restrictions, chemical fibres have reading ranges up to a couple of millimetres, while

TFTC has very low electron mobility and can only operate in the KHz range and at

best MHz frequency range.

Another aspect of chipless RFID system development which has been ignored so far

by researchers is the design of RFID readers for chipless tags. Since chipless RFID

tags use unconventional methods for data encoding such as spectral signatures,

conventional “off-the-shelf” RFID readers are not suitable for the new development.

Hence, RFID readers needed to be developed from scratch.

211
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

In response to this situation, the research work accomplished in this thesis has

concentrated on the design and development of low cost, fully-printable chipless

RFID tags and dedicated RFID readers. The chipless RFID system is proposed for

tagging the Australian polymer banknote in a conveyor belt setup. Two varieties of

chipless RFID tags, on conventional Taconic TLX-0 laminate and thin flexible

Taconic TF-290 laminate, have been designed and tested to fulfil the objectives of this

thesis. A chipless RFID tag–reader system which can detect the tag has been

presented.

The project work and the scholarship of the PhD candidate have been fully

supported by the Australian Research Council’s (ARC) large Discovery Project grant

DP0665523 “Chipless RFID for Barcode Replacement”. The work associated with the

design and development of this chipless RFID system has formed a substantial part of

a large ARC grant project, which has been awarded to the candidate’s supervisor

Senior Lecturer Dr. Nemai Chandra Karmakar. This project commenced at the start of

2006 and was successfully completed by the end of 2009. One outcome of the project

is the present PhD thesis.

8.1 Fulfilling the Thesis Objectives

As the main goals of this thesis project, fully-printable chipless RFID tags on

conventional PCB and thin flexible laminates, which encode data using spectral

signatures, and dedicated RFID readers to detect chipless RFID tags, have been

developed. The chipless RFID system, comprising the chipless tags and RFID readers,

has been fully tested and is designed specially for tagging the Australian polymer

banknotes.

212
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

The development and successful testing of the chipless RFID system meets the

demand for a fully-printable ultra-low cost tag and a RFID reader which can detect

these tags while mounted over a conveyor belt. The salient feature of the novel

chipless RFID tag is its fully-printable single-layered design in a compact and low

cost format. It has significant amount of data encoding capability (up to 35 bits were

designed). The dedicated chipless tag RFID reader is a novel mixed signal circuit. The

salient features of the developed chipless tag RFID reader are its UWB operation and

capability to decode frequency signatures into a 1:1 correspondence of binary data

bits without the requirement of any handshaking algorithm between the reader and the

tag.

In order to fulfil the objectives of the thesis, three main tasks were identified at the

start: 1) Chipless RFID tag development, 2) Chipless tag RFID reader development

and 3) Chipless RFID system integration. All three tasks had been successfully

completed and presented in the preceding chapters of this thesis.

Prior to the design and development of the chipless RFID tag and reader devices, a

comprehensive literature review of RFID tags and readers was conducted. The goal of

the literature review was to identify the niche areas of design and development in

RFID in which novel research could be carried out. The comprehensive literature

review of chipless RFID tags and readers revealed that chipless tags which are fully

printable, multi-bit with ease of data encoding were not currently available. Some

work had been carried out on capacitively tuned dipoles [59] and fractal Hilbert

curve-based [60] tags but without the ability of data encoding. The comprehensive

review of RFID readers revealed that conventional RFID readers were dedicated for

213
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

HF (13.56 MHz) and UHF (915 MHz) RFID chipped tags. These readers use ASK

and PSK modulation techniques in contrast to the spectral signature modulation of the

chipless RFID tag. These findings steered the research toward the development of a

novel multiresonator-based chipless RFID tag and dedicated RFID reader both

operating over the UWB frequency band. The review was concluded with the

proposed chipless RFID tag and RFID reader and their design specifications.

Based on the tag and reader specifications, it was clear that the chipless RFID tag

comprises two main components: UWB antenna and multiresonator. The

multiresonating circuit consisted of cascaded spiral resonators which operate at

different resonant frequencies. Each resonant frequency corresponded to a single data

bit. The spiral resonator was chosen as the main encoding element since it exhibits

compact size, high Q and small bandwidth in comparison to other planar resonators

which exhibited stop-band performance [164]. A comprehensive theoretical and

parametric study of the spiral resonator on microstrip technology using standard PCB

laminate (Taconic TLX-0) resulted in the development of optimal layout parameters

of the spiral resonator. Following the optimized design of the spiral resonator on PCB,

the spiral resonator was designed on thin 90 µm flexible laminate (Taconic TF-290).

The microstrip spiral resonator exhibited a dramatic drop in Q factor which was

completely unacceptable for implementation in the chipless tag. The reduction in Q

factor was due to the increase in dielectric loss. The substrate thickness was

electrically very small in comparison to the wavelength of the propagating EM signal

and increased metallic losses which reduced the coupling between the spiral resonator

and microstrip line.

214
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

The use of CPW spiral resonators on thin flexible laminate TF-290 solved the issue

of low Q factor. A comprehensive parametric study of the CPW spiral resonator was

conducted in order to optimize the performance of the spiral resonator. Following the

successful optimization of the CPW spiral resonator, the spiral resonators were

cascaded to form a multiresonating circuit. The multiresonator is used to encode the

unique spectral signature of the chipless RFID tag. A parametric study of cascaded

spiral resonators has shown that mutual coupling between spirals is minimal for spiral

resonator separation of 3mm.

Spectral signature encoding is used to encode data by the tag. Spectral signature

requires a one to one (1:1) correspondence of the frequency spectrum behaviour to the

tag’s multiresonator layout. In particular, each spiral resonator had a 1:1

correspondence with a data bit, which meant that each data bit had a predetermined

spiral resonant frequency. To the best of the candidate’s knowledge, spectral signature

encoding utilizing both amplitude and phase of the spectral signature is the first of its

kind and has not been reported previously. The spiral resonance was represented by a

null in the amplitude and abrupt jump in the phase which encoded logic “0”.

Encoding logic “1” was represented by the absence of an amplitude null and phase

jump.

A fully novel “spiral shorting” concept of data encoding is presented in this thesis.

The spiral resonator is shorted by shorting the spiral turns with a single trace. When

shorted, the spiral resonator has a resonant frequency which is outside the operating

band of the chipless RFID tag, hence resulting in the absence of the resonance. This is

characterized as a logic “1” bit in the spectral signature. The removal of the shorting

215
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

between the spiral turns introduces the resonance of the spiral resonator which is a

representation of logic “0”. This novel data encoding technique provides a new

manufacturing advantage of the chipless RFID technology over other reported

chipless RFID tags in terms of minimum layout modifications and the use of laser

etching for mass tag encoding.

Following the successful design of the multiresonator, the design of the UWB

monopole antennas for the chipless RFID tags was carried out. UWB disc-loaded

monopole antennas exhibit omni-directional radiation patterns over their operating

band and have an efficient and compact layout. The monopoles were designed using

microstrip and CPW technology. CPW proved to have an advantage over microstrip

since the monopole’s layout was single-layered and hence easy to print.

The RFID reader antennas designed and reported in this thesis were log periodic

dipole antennas (LPDA’s). They exhibit wide bands of operation, high gain and

directional radiation patterns. The use of directional high gain antennas as reader

antennas has been justified in order to provide spatial diversity of the interrogation

zone through which the chipless tags move on a conveyor belt.

In Chapter 5, the integration of the UWB monopole antennas (Chapter 4) and

multiresonators (Chapter 3) has been performed to form the chipless RFID tag. Three

chipless tags were designed: (i) a 6-bit proof-of-concept chipless RFID tag operating

from 2 -2.5 GHz, (ii) a 35-bit microstrip UWB chipless RFID tag on conventional

PCB laminate and (iii) a 23-bit CPW UWB chipless RFID tag on a flexible thin

laminate. The proof-of-concept tag validated the concept of the novel chipless RFID

216
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

tag. The 35-bit and 23-bit tags showed that multiple data bits were encoded using the

novel chipless tag concept. The CPW 23-bit chipless RFID tag showed that the design

is transferable from laminate to plastic since the TF-290 has extremely similar

electrical characteristics to the polymer substrates used for the Australian polymer

banknote. The chipless tags were wirelessly interrogated inside an anechoic chamber

and successfully detected using an Agilent PNA as the reader electronics. Both

amplitude and phase of the spectral signature were detected. The successful reading of

the chipless tags confirmed the viability of the chipless RFID system.

Following the successful design of the chipless RFID tags, the design of a chipless

RFID reader was completed. The architecture of an RFID reader is composed of the

reader antennas (LPDAs), RF transceiver electronics and a digital section. Three

different RF transceiver architectures were designed for the dedicated chipless tag

RFID readers: (i) Gen-1, (ii) Gen-2 and (iii) UWB transceivers. The Gen-1 and Gen-2

RF transceivers operated between 2 and 2.5 GHz and were designed to interrogate the

6-bit proof-of-concept RFID tag. The Gen-1 transceiver was the first circuit to be

designed and had only amplitude detection capabilities of the spectral signature using

a diode detector. The Gen-2 transceiver was upgraded using a gain/phase detector in

the receiver to detect the amplitude and phase of the tag’s spectral signature. Finally,

the UWB RF transceiver circuit was designed by upgrading the Gen-2 transceiver to

operate in the UWB region. Since the gain/phase detector circuit operated up to 2.7

GHz, downconversion mixers and local oscillator were implemented to downconvert

the received signal from UWB to below 2.7 GHz. All three transceiver architectures

were tested using a wired tag in order to characterize the performance of the RF

transceivers. The RF transceivers were characterized by measuring the transmitter

217
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

output power and higher order mode distortion, isolation between the transmitter and

receiver and receiver sensitivity. All three transceiver circuits met the predetermined

characteristics which meant that system level integration was ready to be carried out.

Finally, the chipless RFID tags and RFID readers were integrated into a chipless

RFID system. The frequency signature-based system is the first of its kind to use

phase to encode data with increased reading range. The Gen-1 and Gen-2 prototype

RFID readers operated successfully between 2 - 2.5 GHz and the UWB RFID reader

operating between 7 – 10.7 GHz was used to detect the chipless tags. The readers

were short range prototypes and are proof-of-concept circuits/devices. The lower

frequency range RFID readers, Gen-1 and Gen-2, successfully detected and decoded a

6-bit chipless tag at 10 cm using a software code which utilizes calibration, threshold

detection and amplitude and phase data decoding for tag ID extraction. A UWB

reader with upgraded RF and digital section and the same software algorithm detected

a 13 bit tag at 15 cm. The reading range of the system was tested using an Agilent

PNA as the reader. By exciting the tag with a wideband signal it was possible to

detect variations in the magnitude and phase of the received tag signal and decode the

tag’s ID at distances up to 70 cm in a noise-free environment and up to 35 cm in a

laboratory (noisy) environment. The UWB RFID reader is the first UWB RFID reader

to be built for wireless interrogation and detection of chipless RFID tags using

amplitude and phase spectral signature detection. The reader relies on calibration in

order to provide accurate readings of the tag, and can be mounted on conveyor belt

applications.

From the results presented in this thesis, we conclude that the objectives of the

218
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

thesis have been fulfilled. The chipless RFID system presents an ultra low cost

solution for low cost item tagging. In summary, the project has resulted in many

significant contributions to the areas of RFID tag design, antenna design, mixed signal

circuit design and microwave engineering in general. The research work presented in

this thesis has generated much interest from industry and researchers both within

Australia and overseas. Three large ARC Linkage Grants, which are worth more than

AUD $2 million, frequent visits from industry partners and academic researchers from

Australia and overseas, two Australian and international patents and many refereed

journal and conference proceedings papers indicate the extent to which the goals of

the research have been fulfilled.

8.2 Future Work and Open Issues

Given the potential high demand on RFID technology in terms of reading range and

applications some open issues and further areas of interest remain to be addressed in

future projects. So far, the RFID tag has been designed to operate in predefined

alignment situations and applications since the polarization of the antennas is crucial

for successful reading. Further studies could focus on developing planar circularly-

polarized tag antennas which would remove the present stringent alignment

requirements. Another improvement which could be considered is making the tag

operate with a single antenna instead of two which would dramatically reduce the size

of the chipless tag. Further size reduction of the chipless tag can be achieved by using

sub-millimetre-wave and millimetre-wave frequency bands. New applications for

chipless tags (such as tram and train ticketing) could be established by extending the

capacity of the chipless tags to 124 bits.

219
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Work

The RFID readers presented in this thesis are short range reader prototypes. System

level testing using the PNA showed that the tag can be read up to 70 cm. Future work

should focus on developing a long range RFID reader by using phased or switched

beam antenna arrays as reader antennas and transceivers with higher receiver

sensitivity. Novel applications of the chipless RFID system could be expanded by

anti-collision protocols implemented in the RFID reader. The basis of these anti-

collision protocols should be on space division multiple access (SDMA) and time

division multiple access (TDMA) protocols.

220
References

References

[1] K. Finkenzeller, “RFID Handbook - 2nd Edition”, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.,
2003.
[2] U. Kraiser, W. Steinhagen, “A low-power transponder IC for high-performance
identification systems”, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 30, no. 3,
pp:306-310, March 1995.
[3] S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, “Modern RFID readers”, Microwave Magazine,
internet article,
Available:<http://www.mwjournal.com/article.asp?HH_ID=AR_4830>
(Accessed August 2009)
[4] H. Stockman, "Communication by Means of Reflected Power", Proceedings of
the IRE, pp: 1196-1204, October 1948.
[5] B. O’Neill, “Canadian Wall-Marts implement RFID to eliminate out-of-stocks”,
AcessmyLibraty Flexible Packaging Internet Article, January 2008.
Available:<http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-
33829113_ITM> (Accessed August 2009)
[6] Transponder News, “EAS systems”, Internet article, Dec 2000. Avaialble:<
http://www.transpondernews.com/easbasic.html> (Accessed September 2009)
[7] Document Tracking Systems, “Using RFID to track Documents”, Whitepaper of
Intensecomp Pte Ltd., Dec 2000, Availabe:<
http://www.intensecomp.com/wtp_docutracking.html> (Accessed September
2009)
[8] National Livestock Identification System, official website,
<www.nlis.mla.com.au>
[9] S. D’Hont, The Cutting Edge of RFID Technology and Applications for
Manufacturing and Distribution”, Texas Instruments white paper,
<http://www.ti.com/rfid/docs/manuals/whtPapers/manuf_dist.pdf> (accessed
March 2006)
[10] S. Preradovic, N. Karmakar, I. Balbin, “RFID Transponders”, IEEE
Microwave Magazine, vol. 9, no. 5, pp:90-103, Oct. 2008.
[11] P. Harrop, The price-sensitivity curve for RFID”, IDTechEx internet article,
August 2006.
Available:<http://www.idtechex.com/products/en/articles/00000488.asp>
(accessed May 2008).
[12] J. Collins, “Alien cuts tag price”, RFID Journal internet article, April 2004.
Available:<http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/857/1/1/ >(accessed
April 2008).
[13] R. Das, “Chipless RFID – The end game”, IDTechEx internet article, February
2006. Available:<http://www.idtechex.com/products/en/articles/00000435.asp>
(Accessed: December 2006)
[14] S. Mukherjee, “Chipless radio frequency identification by remote
measurement of complex impedance”, Proc. 10th European Conference on
Wireless Technology, pp. 249-252, Munich, Germany, Oct. 2007.
[15] C. S. Hartmann, “A global SAW ID tag with large data capacity”, Reprint
form Proceedings of 2002 IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, vol. 1, pp:65-69,
Munich, Germany, October, 2002,
Available:http://www.rfsaw.com/pdfs/Global_SAW_ID_Tag_lg.pdf

221
References

[16] L. Zheng, S. Rodriguez, L. Zhang, S. Botao, L-R. Zheng, “Design and

implementation of a fully reconfigurable chipless RFID tag using Inkjet
printing,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems ISCAS 2008,
pp: 1524-1527, Washington, USA, May 2008.
[17] S. Shrestha, M. Balachandran, M. Agarwal, V. V. Phoha, K. Varahramyan, “A
chipless RFID sensor system for cyber centric monitoring applications,” IEEE
Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 57, no. 5, pp: 1303-
1309, May 2009.
[18] J. McVay, A. Hoorfar, N. Engheta, “Space-filling curve RFID tags”, 2006
IEEE Radio and Wireless Symposium, pp: 199-202, San Diego, USA, 17-19 Jan.
2006.
[19] Jalaly, D. Robertson, “Capacitively-tuned split microstrip resonators for RFID
barcodes”, 2005 European Microwave Conference, vol. 2 pp:4, Paris, France, 4-
6 Oct. 2005.
[20] S. Preradovic, I. Balbin, N. C. Karmakar, G. F. Swiegers, “Multiresonator-
based chipless RFID system for low-cost item tracking”, IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 57, no. 5, pp: 1411-1419, May 2009.
[21] R. R. Fletcher, “Low-cost electromagnetic tagging: design and
implementation”, PhD Thesis, September 2002.
Available<www.media.mit.edu/physics/publications/theses/97.02.fletcher.pdf>
[22] D. A. Hodges, H. G. Jackson, “Analysis and design of digital integrated
circuits – 2nd Edition”, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA, 1988.
[23] J. R. Baker, H. W. Li, D. E. Boyce, “CMOS circuit design, layout and
simulation”, IEEE Press, New York, USA, 1998.
[24] S. Natarajan, “A 32nm logic technology featuring 2nd –generation high-k +
metal-gate transistors, enhanced channel strain and 0.171µm² SRAM cell size in
a 291Mb Array”, IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting 2008 IEDM
2008, pp:1-3, San Francisco, USA, 15-17 Dec. 2008.
[25] S. Harma, V. P. Plessky, C. S. Hartmann, W. Steichen, “SAW RFID tag with
reduced size”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2006, pp:2389-2392, Vancouver,
Canada, Oct. 2006.
[26] Y. Y. Chen, T. T. Wu, K. T. Chang, “A COM analysis of SAW tags operating
at harmonic frequencies”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2007, pp: 2347-2350,
New York, Oct. 2007.
[27] S. Harma, V. P. Plessky, L. Xianyi, P. Hartogh, ”Feasibility of ultra-wideband
SAW RFID tags meeting FCC rules ”, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics,
Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, vol. 56, no. 4, pp:812-820, April 2009.
[28] S. Harma, V. P. Plessky, X. Li, ”Feasibility of ultra-wideband SAW tags”,
IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2008, pp:1944-1947, Beijing, China Nov. 2008.
[29] P. Brown, P. Hartmann, A. Schellhase, A. Powers, T. Brown, C. Hartmann, D.
Gaines, “Asset tracking on the international space station using global SAW tag
RFID technology”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2007, pp:72-75, New York,
Oct. 2007.
[30] V. P. Plessky, S. N. Kondratiev, R. Stierlin, F. Nyffeler, ”Saw tags : new
ideas ”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 1995, vol. 1, pp:117-120, Cannes, France,
Nov. 1995.
[31] T. Han, W. Wang, H. Wu, Y. Shui, “Reflection and scattering characteristics
of reflectors in SAW tags”, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics
and Frequency Control, vol. 55, no. 6, pp: 1387-1390, June 2008.

222
References

[32] T. Han, W. Wang, J. M. Lin, H. Wu, H. Wang, Y. Shui, “Phases of carrier

wave in a SAW identification tags”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2007,
pp:1669-1672, New York, Oct. 2007.
[33] N. Saldanha, D. C. malocha, “Design parameters for SAW multi-tone
frequency coded reflectors”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2007, pp:2087-2090,
New York, Oct. 2007.
[34] S. Harma, C. Kim, S. M. Balashov, V. P. Plessky, “Properties of narrow metal
reflectors used in reflective array compressors and surface acoustic wave tags”,
IEEE/MTT-S International Microwave Symposium 2007, pp:2051-2054,
Honolulu, Hawaii, June 2007.
[35] D. Puccio, D. Malocha, N. Saldanha, ”Implementation of orthogonal
frequency coded SAW devices using apodized reflectors”, IEEE International
Frequency Control Symposium and Exposition 2005, pp:892-896, Vancouver,
Canada, Aug. 2005.
[36] S. Harma, W. G. Arthur, C. S. Hartmann, R. G. Maev, V. P. Plessky, “Inline
SAW RFID tag using time position and phase encoding”, IEEE Transactions on
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, vol. 55, no. 8, pp:1840-
1846, August 2008.
[37] S. Harma, V. P. Plessky, C. S. Hartmann, W. Steichen, “Z-path SAW RFID
tag”, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control,
vol. 55, no.1, pp:208-213. January 2008.
[38] S. Harma, W. G. Arthur, R. G. Maev, C. S. Hartmann, V.P. Plessky, “Inline
SAW RFID tag using time position and phase encoding”, IEEE Ultrasonics
Symposium 2007, pp:1239-1242, New York, Oct. 2007.
[39] J. Liu, J. Yao, “Wireless RF identification system based on SAW”, IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 55, no. 2, pp:958-961, Feb. 2008.
[40] N. Saldanha, D. C. Malocha, “Low loss SAW RF ID tags for space
applications”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2008, pp:292-295, Beijing, China,
Nov. 2008.
[41] L. Wei, H. Tao, S. Yongan, “Surface acoustic wave based radio frequency
identification tags”, IEEE International Conference on e-Business Engineering
2008, pp:563-567, Xi’An, China, Oct. 2008.
[42] J. Yao, J. Liu, B. Gao, “The realization of a passive identification tag
transmitter based on SAW”, 4th International Wireless Communications,
Networking and Mobile Computing 2008, pp:1-4, Dalian, China, Oct. 2008.
[43] J. Liu, J. Yao, “A new wireless RF identification system”, The Sixth World
Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation 2006, pp:5191-5195, Dalian,
China, June 2006.
[44] S. Schuster, S. Scheiblhofer, A. Stelzer, A. Springer, “Model based wireless
SAW tag temperature measurement”, Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference
APMC 2005, pp:4-7, Suzhou, China, Dec. 2005.
[45] E. L. Tan, Y. W. M. Chia, “Green’s function and network analysis of quasi-2D
SAW ID-tags”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2000, pp:55-58, San Juan, Puerto
Rico, Oct. 2000.
[46] D. Enguang, F. Guanping, “Passive and remote sensing based upon surface
acoustic wave in special environments”, Microwave and Optoelectronics
Conference 1997, vol 1. pp:133-139, Natal, Brazil, Aug. 1997.
[47] D. Puccio, D. C. Malocha, N. Saldanha, D. R. Gallagher, J. H. Hines,
”Orthogonal frequency coding for SAW tagging and sensors”, IEEE

223
References

Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, vol. 53, no.

2, pp:377-384, Feb. 2006.
[48] G. Buckner, R. Fachberger, “SAW ID tag for industrial application with large
data capacity and anticollision capability”, IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium 2008,
pp:300-303, Beijing, China, Nov. 2008.
[49] R. Das, P. Harrop, Chip-less RFID forecasts, technologies & players 2006 –
2016, IDTechEx internet article,
Feb.2006.<http://www.idtechex.com/products/en/view.asp?productcategoryid=9
6> (accessed March 2006)
[50] A. Chamarti, K. Varahramayan, “Transmission delay line-based ID generation
circuit for RFID applications”, IEEE Microw. Wireless Compon. Letters, vol.
16, no. 11, pp:588-590, Nov. 2006.
[51] J. Vemagiri, A. Chamarti, M. Agarwal, K. Varahramyan, ”Transmission line
delay-based radio frequency identification (RFID) tag ”, Microw. Opt. technol.
Lett., vol. 49, no. 8, pp. 1900-1904, 2007.
[52] S. Shretha, J. Vemagiri, M. Agarwal and K. Varahramyan, “Transmission line
reflection and delay-based ID generation scheme for RFID and other
applications”, Int. J. Radio Freq. Identification Technol. Appl., vol. 1, no. 4,
pp:401-416, 2007.
[53] R. Das, Chip-less RFID – The end game, IDTechEx internet article, Feb. 2006
<http://www.idtechex.com/products/en/articles/00000435.asp>(accessed
February 2006)
[54] M. Glickstein, Firewall protection for paper documents, RFID Journal internet
article, Feb. 2004, <http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/790/-
1/1/>(accessed February 2006)
[55] J. Collins, RFID fibers for secure applications, RFID Journal internet article,
March 2004. <http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/845/-
1/1/>(accessed April 2006)
[56] K. C. Jones, “Invisible tattoo ink for chipless RFID safe, company says”, EE
Times white paper, October 2007
<http://eetimes.eu/industrial/196900063>(accessed June 2009)
[57] J. Dowe, “SOMARK’s chipless RFID ink tattoo field demo brings the
company closer to launch”, MoreRFID internet article, Feb. 2008.
<http://www.morerfid.com> (accessed June 2009)
[58] Somark Innovations, “Platform technology capabilities”, white paper, 2007
<http://somarkinnovations.com/technology/> (accessed June 2009).
[59] Jalaly, I. D. Robertson, “RF barcodes using multiple frequency bands”, IEEE
MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest 2005, pp:4-7, Long beach,
USA, June 2005.
[60] J. McVay, A. Hoorfar, N. Engheta, “Theory and experiments on Peano and
Hilbert curve RFID tags”, Proceedings of the Wireless Sensing and Processing,
vol. 6248, pp:624808, San Diego, USA, Aug. 2006
[61] Tagsense, Inc., “Chipless RFID products”, data sheet,
<http://www.tagsense.com/ingles/products/product_chipless.html> (accessed
October 2006).
[62] Mark Palmer, “Build an effective RFID architecture” , RFID Journal internet
article, Feb 2004.
Available:<http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/781/1/82/> (accessed
June 2007)

224
References

[63] D. M. Pozar, “Microwave engineering – 3rd Edition”, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2005.
[64] P. Salonen, L. Sydanheimo, “A 2.45 GHz digital beam-forming antenna for
RFID reader, IEEE 55th Vehicular Technology Conference, vol. 4, pp. 1766-
1770, Birmingham, Alabama, USA, May 2002.
[65] S. K. Padhi, N. C. Karmakar, C. L. Law, S. Aditya, “A dual polarized aperture
coupled microstrip patch antenna with high isolation for RFID applications,
2001. IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium, vol. 2,
pp. 2-5, Boston, USA, July 2001.
[66] G. Marocco, “Gain-optimized self-resonant meander line antennas for RFID
applications”, Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, vol. 2, pp. 302-305,
2003.
[67] R. Hornung, “ARLON FoamClad based microstrip patch antennas and arrays
for RFID readers”, ARLON internet white paper, August 2005. Available:
<http://www.arlon-
med.com/Foamclad%20for%20RFID.pdf#search='microstrip%20antennaRFID
%20reader'> (accessed May 2006)
[68] CHIPSILICON Pty. Ltd, Product information internet site, 2006.
<http://info.chipsilicon.com:8080/chipsilicon/products/> (accessed May 2006)
[69] Omron Canada Inc., “Microwave RFID system V690 data sheet”, product data
sheet, 2005. Available:<http://www.omron.com> (accessed March 2006)
[70] Alien Technology Corporation, BAP ALR-2850 reader data sheet, 2005.
Available:<http://www.alientechnology.com/products/rfid_readers.php>
(accessed February 2006)
[71] AVANTE International Inc., “AVANTE Handheld RFID Reader product
info”, web site, 2006. Available:<http://www.avantetech.com> (accessed March
2006)
[72] Dallas Semiconductor MAXIM, “Application note 83: Fundamentals of RS-
232 Serial Communications”, application note, March 2001.
Available:<www.maxim-dallas.com> (accessed March 2006).
[73] Feig Electronic Gmbh, “Product information internet site”, web site,
2006.Available:<http://www.feig.de> (accessed March 2006)
[74] Idesco, “IR8000 reader data sheet”, product data sheet, May 2005.
Avaialbe:<http://www.idesco.fi> (accessed March 2006)
[75] Smart Code Corporation, “Product information internet site”, web site, 2006.
Available:<http://www.smartcodecorp.com/products/ rfid_readers.asp>
(accessed April 2006)
[76] Samsys Technologies Inc., “UHF reader MP9320 v2.8e data sheet”, product
data sheet, 2005. Available: <http://ww.samsys.com> (accessed March 2006)
[77] Thingmagic Corporation, “Product information internet site”, web site, 2006.
Available:<http://www.thingmagic.com/html/prod.htm> (accessed February
2006).
[78] Symbol Corporation, “XR480 RFID reader data sheet”, product data
sheet,2006. Available:<http://www.symbol.com/XR480> (accessed March
2006)
[79] TAGSYS Corporation, “Product information internet site”, web site, 2006.
Available: <www.tagsys.com/html/rfid-53.html> (accessed March 2006)
[80] Tagmaster, “LR-3 reader product data sheet”, product data sheet, 2006.
Available:<http://www.tagmaster.com> (accessed March 2006)

225
References

[81] RF Code, Inc, “Mantis II Active RFID reader data sheet”, product data sheet,
2006. Available: <http://www.rfcode.com/433mantis_reader.asp> (accessed
April 2006).
[82] Identec Solutions, Inc., “i-CARD CF Mobile reader data sheet”, product data
sheet, 2006. Available:<http://www.identecsolutions.com/i-cardCF.asp>
(accessed March 2006)
[83] SAVI Technology Inc., “SAVI Mobile reader SMR-650 data sheet”, product
data sheet, 2005. Available:<http://www.savi.com/products/ds.smr650.pdf >
(accessed March 2006)
[84] V. Naware, G. Mergen, L. Tong, “Stability and delay of finite-user Slotted
ALOHA with multipacket reception”, IEEE Transactions of Information
Theory, vol. 51, issue 7, pp: 2636-2656, July 2005.
[85] C. Nak-Gwon, L. Hyuek-Jae, L. Sang-Hoon, K. Seong-Jeen, “Design of a
13.56MHz RFID system”, ICACT 2006 The 8th International Conference of
Advanced Communication Technology, vol. 1, Phoenix Park, Korea, February
2006.
[86] ActiveWave Inc., “Product information data internet site”, web site, 2006
Available:<http://www.activewaveinc.com/products_rfid_readers.html>
(accessed March 2006)
[87] R. Page, “A low power RF ID transponder”, Grand Prize Winner 1993 RF
Design Awards Contest, Wenzel Associates, 1993.
Available:<http://www.wnzel.com/pdffiles1/pdfs/rays.pdf> (accessed February
2006).
[88] BALOGH RFID, “HYPER X LMB-6012 RFID reader data sheet”, product
data sheet, January 2003. Available:
<http://www.balogh.cc/HyperX/Support/PDF/LMB6012-6013.pdf> (accessed
March 2006)
[89] RFSAW, Inc., “RFSAW RFID system data sheet”, product data sheet, 2003.
Available:< www.rfsaw.com> (accessed April 2006)
[90] Impinj, “The Gen 2 story: Charting the path to RFID that just works”, internet
white paper, 2005
Available:<http://www.impinj.com/files/MR_GP_ED_00001_Gen2Story.pdf>
(accessed June 2007)
[91] EPC Global, “EPC radio-frequency identity protocols Class-1, Generation-2
UHF RFID protocol for communications at 860 MHz-960 MHz – version
1.0.9”, Internet article, EPCglobal Inc, Jan. 2005
Available:<http://www.epcglobalinc.org/standards/Class_1_Generation_2_UHF
_Air_Interface_Protocol_Standard_Version_1.0.9.pdf> (accessed June 2007)
[92] Alien Technology, “EPCglobal Class 1 Gen 2 RFID specification”, internet
whitepaper, 2005.
Available:<http://www.alientechnology.com/docs/AT_wp_EPCGlobal_WEB.pd
f> (accessed June 2007)
[93] EE Times Asia, “RFID solution enables single universal RFID reader”,
internet article, January 2006.
Available:<http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800403199__NP_798750a5.HTM>
(accessed June 2007).
[94] P. Salonen, M. Keskilammi, L. Sydanheimo, M. Kivikoski, “An intelligent
2.45 GHz beam-scanning array for modern RFID reader”, IEEE International
Conference on Phased Array Systems and Technology, pp. 407-410, Dana Point,
USA, May 2000.

226
References

[95] T. Nakamura, J. Seddon, “Omron develops world’s first antenna technology

that boosts UHF RFID tag read performance”, Omron Corporation press
releases, 2006. Available:<http://www.omron.com/news/n_270306.htmlC>
(accessed June 2007)
[96] Profibus-DeviceNet-Ethernet IP-Modbus-Remote I/O, http://www.rfidinc.com
(accessed June 2007)
[97] Texas Instruments, Inc., “Series 2000 Micro reader data sheet”, product data
sheet, 2002. Available:<http://www.ti.com/rfid/docs/manuals/pdfSpecs/RI-STU-
MRD1.pdf >(accessed June 2006)
[98] Sentinel ID Systems, Inc., “Product information internet site”, web site, 2006.
Available:<http://www.sentinelid.com/products.html> (accessed March 2006).
[99] M. Reynolds, C. Weigand, “Design considerations for embedded software-
defined RFID readers”, internet white paper, August 2005. Available:
<http://www.thingmagic.com/html/508EWTF2.pdf#search='508EWTF2'>
(accessed April 2006).
[100] Electronic Engineering Times, “Anadigm rolls universal RFID reader”,
internet site, June 2005.
Available:<http://www.eetasia.com/ART_8800368056_499491_a7168a56.HTM
> (accessed March 2006)
[101] Anadigm Inc., “RangeMaster solution for RFID tag readers”, Anadigm
product data sheet, 2005. Available:<http://www.anadigm.com/_doc/GF041100-
0001.pdf#search='anadigmrangemaster'> (accessed March 2006).
[102] Atmel. Inc., “8-bit Microcontroller with 8K bytes in-system programmable
flash”, data sheet. Available<
http://www.atmel.com/dyn/resources/prod_documents/doc1919.pdf>
[103] Analog Device, Inc., “RF/IF Gain and phase detector AD 8302”, data
sheet.Available<http://www.analog.com/static/imported-
files/data_sheets/AD8302.pdf>
[104] J. Joubert, “Spiral microstrip resonator for narrow-stopband filters”, Proc. IEE
– Microwave, Antennas, Propag., vol. 150, no. 6, pp: 493-496, Dec 2003.
[105] N. C. Karmakar, S. M. Roy, I. Balbin, “Quasi-static modelling of defected
ground structure”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
vol. 54, no. 5, pp:2160-2168, May 2006.
[106] S. M. Roy, N. C. Karmakar, “Analysis of different DGS configurations in
terms of microstrip discontinuities”, International Conference on Electrical and
Computer Engineering, pp:544-547, Dhaka, Bangladesh, December 2006.
[107] M. N. Mollah, N. C. Karmakar, “A novel hybrid defected ground structure as
low pass filter”, IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International
Symposium 2004, vol. 4, pp:3581-3584, Monterey, USA, June 2004.
[108] D. Woo, T. Lee, “Suppression of harmonics in Wilkinson power divider using
dual-band rejection by asymmetric DGS”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, vol. 53, no. 6, pp:2139-2144, June 2005.
[109] J. Lim, J. Park, Y. Lee, D. Ahn, S. Nam, “Application of defected ground
structure in reducing the size of amplifiers”, IEEE Microwave and Wireless
Component Letters, vol. 12, no. 7, pp: 261-263, July 2002.
[110] D. Woo, J. Lee, T. Lee, “Multi-band rejection DGS with improved slow-wave
effect”, 38th European Microwave Conference, pp: 1342-1345, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, October 2008.

227
References

[111] Y. Lee, J. Sun, “CPW band-stop filter with tapered-shaped defected ground
structure”, Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference 2007 APMC 2007, pp:1-4,
Bangkok, Thailand, December 2007.
[112] Y. Lee, K. Nae, E. Lee, H. Ron, J. Jung, Y. Han, J. Jung, S. Baek, M. Jung, H.
Cho, H. Oh, Y. Seong, J. Park, “ASK modulator for RFID system using a novel
variable DGS resonator”, 37th European Microwave Conference EuMC 2007,
pp:381-384, Munich, Germany, October 2007.
[113] K. Ma, K. Yeo, J. Ma, M. Do, ”An ultra-compact planar bandpass filter with
open-ground spiral for wireless application”, IEEE Transactions on Advanced
Packaging, vol. 31, no. 2, pp:285-291, May 2008.
[114] H. Lim, J. Lee, S. Lim, D. Shin, N. Myung, “A novel compact microstrip
bandstop filter based on spiral resonators”, Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference
APMC 2007, pp:1-4, Bangkok, Thailand, Dec. 2007.
[115] Y. Lee, J. Lim, C. Kim, D. Ahn, S. Nam, “A compact-size microstrip spiral
resonator and its application to microwave resonator”, IEEE Microwave and
Wireless Components Letters, vol. 12, no. 10, pp:375-377, Oct. 2002.
[116] K. Yoon, H. Lee, J. Park, J. Lee, “Design of high-Q resonator for satellite
broadcasting application”, IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society
International Symposium AP-S 2008, pp:1-4, San Diego, USA July 2008.
[117] Z. Jiang, P. S. Excell, Z. M. Hejazi, “Calculation of distributed capacitance of
spiral resonators”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
vol. 45, no. 1, pp:139-142, January 1997.
[118] Z. Hejazi, P.S. Excell, Z. Jiang, “Accurate distributed inductance of spiral
resonators”, IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, vol. 8, no. 4,
pp:164-166, April 1998.
[119] A. P. S. Khanna, Y Garault, “Determination of loaded, unloaded and external
quality factors of a dielectric resonator coupled to a microstrip line”, IEEE
Transactions of Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. MTT-31, pp:261-264,
March 1983.
[120] B.P. Wen, “Coplanar waveguide: a surface strip transmission line suitable for
nonreciprocal gyromagnetic device applications”, IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 17, no.12, pp:1087-1090, December
1969.
[121] FCC, First Report and Order 02-48, February 2002.
[122] K. Y. Yazdandoost, R. Kohno, “Ultra wideband antenna”, IEEE
Communication Magazine, vol. 42, no. 6, pp:S29-S32, 2004.
[123] X. Chen, P. J. Massey, “Operating principles and features of UWB monopoles
and dipoles”, The Institution of Engineering and Technology Seminar on Ultra
Wideband Systems, Technologies and Applications 2006, pp:131-152,
Stevenage, UK, April 2006.
[124] X. Chen, L. Guo, J. Liang, C. Parini, “On the performance of UWB monopole
antennas”, IEEE International Conference on Ultra-Wideband ICUWB 2007,
pp:210-213, Singapore, Sep. 2007.
[125] X. Chen, J. Liang, P. Li, L. Guo, C. Chiau, C. Parini, ”Planar UWB monopole
antennas ”, Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference APMC 2005, vol. 1, pp:1-4,
Suzhou, China, May 2005.
[126] A. Alipour, H. R. Hassani, “A novel omni-directional UWB monopole
antenna”, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 56, no. 12, pp:
3854-3857, Dec. 2008.

228
References

[127] Q. Wu, J. Ronghong, J. Geng, M. Ding, “Printed omni-directional UWB

monopole antenna with very compact size”, IEEE Transactions on Antennas
and Propagation, vol. 56, no. 3, pp:896-899, March 2008.
[128] G. Quintero, A. K. Skrivervik, “Analysis of planar UWB elliptical dipoles fed
by a coplanar stripline”, IEEE International Conference on Ultra-Wideband
ICUWB 2008, vol. 1, pp: 113-116, Hannover, Germany, Sep. 2008.
[129] M. Mudroch, P. Cerny, P. Hazdra, M. Mazanek, “UWB dipole antenna
optimization with neural network tuned algorithm”, 3rd European Conference on
Antennas and Propagation EUCAP 2009, pp:1491-1494, Berlin, Germany,
March 2009.
[130] G. Whyte, F. Darbari, I. McGregor, I. Glover, I. Thayne, “Different feeding
geometries for planar elliptical UWB dipoles, and the excitation of leakage
current”, 38th European Microwave Conference EuMC 2008, pp:1382-1385,
Amsterdam, Netherlands, Oct. 2008.
[131] V. Gonzalez-Posadas, C. Martin-Pascual, J. L. Jimenez-Martin, D. Segovia-
Vargas, ”Lumped-element balun for UHF UWB printed balanced antennas ”,
IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 56, no. 7, pp: 2102-2107,
July, 2008.
[132] E.E. Angelopoulos, A. Z. Anastopoulos, D. I. Kaklamani, A. A. Alexandridis,
F. Lazarakis, K. Dangakis, “Circular and elliptical CPW-Fed slot and microstri-
fed antennas for ultrawideband applications”, IEEE Antennas and Wireless
Propagation Letters, vol. 5, no. 1, pp:294-297, December 2006.
[133] Y. Kuo, K. Wong, “Printed double-T monopole antenna for 2.4/5.2 GHz dual-
band WLAN operations”, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation ,
vol. 51, no. 9, pp: 2187-2191, Sep. 2003.
[134] J. Jung, K. Seol, W. Choi, J. Choi, “Wideband monopole antenna for various
mobile communication applications”, Electronic Letters, vol. 41, no. 24,
pp:1313-1314, Nov. 2005.
[135] K. Chung, J. Kim, J. Choi, “Wideband microstrip-fed monopole antenna
having frequency band-notch function”, IEEE Microwave and Wireless
Components Letters, vol. 15, no. 11, pp:766-768.
[136] Y. J. Chon, K. H. Kim, S. H. Hwang, S. Park, “A miniature UWB planar
monopole antenna with 5GHz band-rejection filter”, 35th European Microwave
Conference, pp:1911-1914, October 2005, Paris, France.
[137] H. Chen, H. Chen, “A CPW-fed dual-frequency monopole antenna”, IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 52, no. 4, pp:978-982, April
2004.
[138] J.-Y. Chan, T.-M. Kuo, “CPW-fed wideband planar monopole antenna for
operations in DCS, PCS, 3G, and Bluetooth bands”, Electronics Letters, vol. 41,
no. 18, pp:991-993, September 2005.
[139] Y. Kim, D.-H. Kwon, “CPW-fed planar ultra wideband antenna having a
frequency band notch function”, Electronic Letters, vol. 40, no. 7, pp:403-405,
April 2004.
[140] W. Wang, S. S. Zhong, S. Chen, “A novel wideband coplanar-fed monopole
antenna”, Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, vol. 43, no. 1, pp: 50-52,
October 2004.
[141] S. H. Lee, J. K. Park, J. N. Lee, “A novel CPW-fed ultra-wideband antenna
design”, Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, vol .44, no. 5, pp:393-396,
March 2005.

229
References

[142] C.A. Balanis, “Antenna theory: analysis and design”, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1982.
[143] K. V. S. Rao, P. V. Nikitin and S. M. Lam, “Antenna design for UHF RFID
tags: a review and a practical application”, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, vol 53, issue 12, pp:3870-3876, Dec. 2005.
[144] P. V. Nikitin, K. V. S. Rao, “Reply to “Comments on ‘Antenna design for
UHF RFID tags: A review and a practical application’”,” IEEE Transactions on
Antennas and Propagation, vol. 54, no.6, pp: 1906-1907, June 2006.
[145] RFSAW Inc, “The global SAW tag – a new technical approach to RFID”,
internet white paper, 2004. Available:<
http://www.rfsaw.com/pdfs/SAW%20RFID%20Whitepaper.pdf> (accessed:
October 2009).
[146] RFSAW Inc, “Model 501 SAW RFID Reader System”, product data sheet,
2004. Available:< http://www.rfsaw.com/pdfs/Data_501_4.pdf> (Accessed
October 2009)
[147] WJCommunications Inc, “A compact RFID reader platform for UHF and
microwave applications”, Microwave Journal, vol. 47, no. 5, pp: 42-48, April
2004.
[148] F. Mohd-Yasin, M. K. Khaw, M. B. I. Reaz, “Radio frequency identification:
Evolution of reader and antenna circuit design”, Microwave Journal, vol. 49, no.
5, pp:89-95, May 2007.
[149] M. J. Uddin, A. N. Nordin, M. I. Ibrahimy, M. B. I. Reaz, T. Z. A. Zulkifli, M.
A. Hasan, “Design and simulation of RF-CMOS spiral inductors for ISM band
RFID reade circuits”, IEEE Workshop on Microelectronics and Electron
Devices 2009, pp: 1-4, April 2009.
[150] G. K. Balachandran, R. E. Barnett, “A high dynamic range ASK demodulator
for passive UHF RFID with automatic over-voltage protection and detection
threshold adjustment”, IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference CICC
2009, pp: 383-386, San Jose, USA, Sept. 2009.
[151] G. De Vita, G. Iannaccone, “Ultra low power RF section of a passive
microwave RFID transponder in 0.35µm BiCMOS”, IEEE International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems ISCAS 2005, vol. 5, pp: 5075-5078, Kobe,
Japan, May 2005.
[152] Mayordomo, R. Berenguer, I. Fernandez, I. Gutierrez, W. Strauss, J. Bernhard,
“Simulation and measurement of a long-range passive RFID system focused on
reader architecture and backscattering communication”, 38th European
Microwave Conference EuMC 2008, pp:1058-1061, Amsterdam, Netherlands,
October 2009.
[153] T. Osinski, “Why buy EPCglobal-Certified products”, RFID Journal internet
article, April 2009, Available:<
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/4781/1> (Accessed: October 2009).
[154] IDX Inc, “Cashless payment system”, Product data sheet, August 2009,
Available:<
http://www.idxinc.com/Wickets/downloads/Casino%20Account%20Based%20
Wickets%20Brochure.pdf> (accessed: October 2009).
[155] Z. N. Chen, X. Qing, H. L. Chung, “A universal UHF RFID reader antenna”,
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 57, no. 5,
pp:1275-1282, May 2009.
[156] Tropos Networks Inc, “Receiver sensitivity – a technology brief”, internet
article, July 2007, Available:<

230
References

http://www.tropos.com/pdf/technology_briefs/tropos_techbrief_rx_sensitivity.p
df> (accessed: October 2009).
[157] W. Lim, S. Park, W. Son, M. Lee, J. Yu, “RFID reader front-end having
robust Tx leakage canceller for load variation”, IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 57, no. 5, pp:1348-1355, May 2009.
[158] K. Penttil, L. Sydnheimo, M. Kivikovski, “Implementation of Tx/Rx isolation
in an RFID reader”, Int. J. Radio. Freq. Identification Technol. Appl., vol. 1, no.
1, pp: 74-79, 2006.
[159] S. L. Karode, V. F. Fusco, “Feedforward embedding circulator enhancement
in transmit/receive applications”, IEEE Microw. Wireless Compon. Lett., vol. 8,
no. 1, pp: 33-34, Jan. 1998.
[160] J. H. Jung, J. H. Kim, S. M. Kim, K. C. Lee, “New circulator structure with
high isolation for time division duplexing radio systems”, IEEE Veh. Technol.
Conf., vol. 4, pp: 2766-2769, Stockholm, Sweden, Sep. 2005.
[161] K. Choi, Y. Eo, S. Jung, I. Kwon, H. Lee, Y. Kim, “A fully integrated CMOS
RF transmitter for UHF mobile RFID reader applications”, 37th European
Microwave Conference EuMC 2007, pp:1648-1651, Munich, Germany, Oct.
2007.
[162] W. Lim, J. Yu, “Balanced circulator structure with enhanced isolation
characteristics”, Microw. Opt. technol. Lett., vol. 50, no. 9, pp:2389-2391, Sep.
2008.
[163] C. Hartmann, P. Hartmann, P. Brown, J. Bellamy, L. Claiborne, W. Bonner,
“Anti-collision methods for global SAW RFID tag system”, IEEE Ultrasonics
Symposium, vol. 2, pp:805-808, Montreal, Canada, August 2004.
[164] S. M. Roy, “A frequency encoded chipless RFID tag”, PhD Thesis, Dept. of
Electrical & Computer Systems Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne,
October 2008.

231