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Contents
Chapter one: Foundation structure .............................................................................................................. 2
1.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS ON FOUNDATIONS ................................................................................. 2
1.2 GENERAL TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS .............................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Shallow Foundation ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Deep foundation .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Selection of foundation.............................................................................................................. 12
1.3.1 Depth of Footings................................................................................................................ 17
1.3.2 DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL PRESSURE GROSS AND NET SOIL PRESSURES................................ 17
1.3.3 General Requirements of Foundations .......................................................................................... 19

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Chapter one: Foundation structure

1.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS ON FOUNDATIONS
The ultimate support for any structure is provided by the underlying earth or soil material and, therefore,
the stability of the structure depends on it. Since soil is usually much weaker than other common
materials of construction, such as steel and concrete, a greater area or volume of soil is necessarily
involved in order to satisfactorily carry a given loading. Thus, in order to impart the loads carried by
structural members of steel or concrete to soil, a load transfer device is necessary. The structural
foundation serves the purpose of such a device. A foundation is supposed to transmit the structural
loading to the supporting soil in such a way that the soil is not overstressed and that serious settlements of
the structure are not caused. The type of foundation utilized is closely related to the properties of the
supporting soil, since the performance of the foundation is based on that of the soil, in addition to its own.
Thus, it is important to recognize that it is the soil-foundation system that provides support for the
structure; the components of this system should not be viewed separately. The foundation is an element
that is built and installed, while the soil is the natural earth material which exists at the site.

Since the stability of structure is dependent upon the soil-foundation system, all forces that may act on the
structure during its lifetime should be considered. In fact, it is the worst combination of these that must be
considered for design. Typically, foundation design always includes the effect of dead loads plus the live
loads on the structures. Other miscellaneous forces that may have to be considered result from the action
of wind, water, heat ice, frost, earthquake and explosive blasts.

1.2 GENERAL TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

The various types of structural foundations may be grouped into two broad categories—shallow
foundations and deep foundations. The classification indicates the depth of the foundation relative to its
size and the depth of the soil providing most of the support. According to Terzaghi, a foundation is
shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width and deep when it exceeds the width.

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1.2.1 Shallow Foundation

1.2.2.1 Spread footings
Spread footing is basically a pad used to ‘‘spread out’’ loads from walls or columns over a sufficiently
large area of foundation soil. These are constructed as close to the ground surface as possible consistent
with the design requirements, and with factors such as frost penetration depth and possibility of soil
erosion. Footings for permanent structures are rarely located directly on the ground surface. A spread

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footing need not necessarily be at small depths; it may be located deep in the ground if the soil conditions
or design criteria require.

Spread footing required to support a wall is known as a continuous, wall, or strip footing, while that
required to support a column is known as an individual or an isolated footing.

An isolated footing may be square, circular, or rectangular in shape in plan, depending upon factors such
as the plan shape of the column and constraints of space.

If the footing supports more than one column or wall, it will be a strap footing, combined footing or a raft
foundation.

The common types of spread footings referred to above are shown in Fig. Two miscellaneous types— the
monolithic footing, used for watertight basement (also for resisting uplift), and the grillage foundation,
used for heavy loads are also shown.

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1.2.2.2Strap footings
A ‘strap footing’ comprises two or more footings connected by a beam called ‘strap’. This is also called a
‘cantilever footing’ or ‘pump-handle foundation’. This may be required when the footing of an exterior
column cannot extend into an adjoining private property. Common types of strap beam arrangements are
shown in Fig.

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1.2.2.3Combined footings
A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row when the areas required for individual
footings are such that they come very near each other. They are also preferred in situations of limited
space on one side owing to the existence of the boundary line of private property.

The plan shape of the footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal; the footing will then be called
‘rectangular combined footing’ or ‘trapezoidal combined footing’, as the case may be.

1.2.2.4 Raft foundations (Mats)

A raft or mat foundation is a large footing, usually supporting walls as well as several columns in two or
more rows. This is adopted when individual column footings would tend to be too close or tend to
overlap; further, this is considered suitable when differential settlements arising out of footings on weak
soils are to be minimized.

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1.2.2 Deep foundation

According to Terzaghi, if the depth of a footing is less than or equal to the width, it may be considered a
shallow foundation. However, if the depth is more, the footings are considered as deep footings Meyerhof
(1951) developed the theory of bearing capacity for such footings.

1.2.2.1 Pile foundations

A pile foundation is a type of deep foundation used in civil engineering to transfer the load of a structure
to a deeper, more stable layer of soil or rock when the surface soil is not strong enough to support the load
Pile foundations are intended to transmit structural loads through zones of poor soil to a depth where the
soil has the desired capacity to transmit the loads. They are somewhat similar to columns in that loads
developed at one level are transmitted to a lower level; but piles obtain lateral support from the soil in
which they are embedded so that there is no concern with regard to buckling and, it is in this respect that

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they differ from columns. Piles are slender foundation units which are usually driven into place. A pile
foundation usually consists of a number of piles, which together support a structure. The piles may be
driven or placed vertically or with a batter.

Structure: Pile foundations consist of long, slender columns made from materials like concrete, steel, or
timber

Function: They work by either end bearing (transferring load to a solid layer at the bottom) or skin
friction (using friction along the sides of the pile)

Applications: Pile foundations are typically used for large structures, in areas with high groundwater
levels, or where the soil is compressible or prone to erosion

Types: There are different types of pile foundations, including end-bearing piles, friction piles, and
combined piles

End-Bearing Piles: These piles transfer the load directly to a strong soil or rock layer at the bottom. Think
of them like stilts for a house, carrying the weight down to a solid base.
Friction Piles: Instead of relying on a strong base, these piles transfer the load through friction between
the pile's surface and the surrounding soil. Imagine the pile as a giant screw, gripping the soil around it.
Combined Piles: These use both end-bearing and friction to support the load, offering a mix of benefits
from both types.
Materials:
Concrete Piles: Often precast and driven into the ground, they are strong and durable but can be costly.
Steel Piles: Made from steel pipes or H-piles, they can be driven to great depths and have high load
capacities. They’re also more resistant to bending.
Timber Piles: Commonly used for lighter loads and temporary structures, they are more cost-effective but
less durable compared to concrete and steel.
Installation Methods:
Driving: Piles are hammered into the ground using a pile driver. This method is noisy but effective for
many soil types.
Boring: Holes are bored into the ground, and then the piles are placed into these holes, often filled with
concrete. This method is quieter and causes less vibration.
Advantages:

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Load Capacity: They can support very large loads, making them ideal for large buildings, bridges, and
other heavy structures.
Versatility: They can be used in various soil conditions, including waterlogged areas or unstable soil.
Durability: Especially true for concrete and steel piles, which can last for decades without significant
degradation.
Disadvantages:
Cost: They can be expensive due to materials and installation methods.
Noise and Vibration: Installation can be disruptive, especially in urban areas.
Complexity: Requires specialized equipment and expertise.

1.2.2.2Pier foundations

A pier foundation is another type of deep foundation used to support structures. Unlike pile foundations,
which use slender columns driven deep into the ground, pier foundations use larger, more robust columns
known as piers.
Pier foundations are somewhat similar to pile foundations but are typically larger in area than piles. An
opening is drilled to the desired depth and concrete is poured to make a pier foundation. Much distinction
is now being lost between the pile foundation and pier foundation, adjectives such as ‘driven’, ‘bored’, or
‘drilled’, and ‘precast’ and ‘cast-in-situ’, being used to indicate the method of installation and
construction. Usually, pier foundations are used for bridges.

Structure: Piers are typically made from concrete or masonry and are wider than piles.
Function: They transfer the load from the structure above to a solid layer of soil or rock beneath. Piers are
constructed by digging a hole and then filling it with reinforced concrete.
Applications: Often used in bridge construction and for buildings with heavy loads where the topsoil is
not strong enough to support the structure.
Types: There are two main types of piers: drilled piers (caissons) and poured concrete piers.

Piers are essential in ensuring stability and strength for heavy structures, especially in challenging soil
conditions.

Drilled Piers (Caissons):

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Construction: These involve drilling a large diameter hole into the ground, reaching stable soil or
rock. The hole is then filled with concrete, often with a reinforcing steel cage.

Use: Commonly used in heavy structures such as bridges and tall buildings, where the surface
soil is not strong enough to support the load.

Advantages: High load-bearing capacity, can be installed in various soil conditions, and minimal
vibration during installation.

Poured Concrete Piers:

Construction: Unlike drilled piers, these are constructed by pouring concrete into a pre-dug
hole. They can be either shallow or deep, depending on the load requirements.

Use: Typically used in residential buildings and light commercial structures.

Advantages: Less expensive compared to drilled piers, simpler installation process, and can be
customized for different load conditions.

Both types are crucial for ensuring the stability of structures, particularly in areas with poor
surface soil conditions. They provide strong, durable support by transferring the load to deeper,
more stable soil or rock layers.

1.2.2.3 Caissons (Wells)

A caisson is a structural box or chamber that is sunk into place or built in place by systematic excavation
below the bottom. Caissons are classified as ‘open’ caissons, ‘pneumatic’ caissons, and ‘box’ or ‘floating’

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caissons. Open caissons may be box-type of pile-type. The top and bottom are open during installation for
open caissons. The bottom may be finally sealed with concrete or may be anchored into rock.

Pneumatic caisson is one in which compressed air is used to keep water from entering the working
chamber, the top of the caisson is closed. Excavation and concreting is facilitated to be carried out in the
dry. The caisson is sunk deeper as the excavation proceeds and on reaching the final position, the working
chamber is filled with concrete. Box or floating caisson is one in which the bottom is closed. It is cast on
land and towed to the site and launched in water, after the concrete has got cured. It is sunk into position
by filling the inside with sand, gravel, concrete or water. False bottoms or temporary bases of timber are
sometimes used for floating the caisson to the site.

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1.3 Selection of foundation

The type of foundation most appropriate for a given structure depends upon several factors: (i) the
function of the structure and the loads it must carry, (ii) the subsurface conditions, (iii) the cost of the
foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure. These are the principal factors, although
several other considerations may also enter into the picture.

There is usually more than one acceptable solution to every foundation problem in view of the interplay
of several factors. Judgment also plays an important part. Foundation design is enriched by scientific and
engineering developments; however, a strictly scientific procedure may not be possible for practicing the
art of foundation design and construction.

The following are the essential steps involved in the final choice of the type of foundation:

1.Information regarding the nature of the superstructure and the probable loading is required, at least in a
general way.

2.The approximate subsurface conditions or soil profile is to be ascertained.

3.Each of the customary types of foundation is considered briefly to judge whether it is suitable under the
existing conditions from the point of view of the criteria for stability—bearing capacity and settlement.
The obviously unsuitable types may be eliminated, thus narrowing down the choice.

4.More detailed studies, including tentative designs, of the more promising types are made in the next
phase.

5.Final selection of the type of foundation is made based on the cost—the most acceptable compromise
between cost and performance.

The design engineer may sometimes be guided by the successful foundations in the neighborhoods.
Besides the two well-known criteria for stability of foundations—bearing capacity and settlement—the
depth at which the foundation is to be placed, is another important aspect. For small loading on good
soils, spread footings could be selected. For columns, individual footings are chosen unless they come too
close to one another, in which case, combined footings are used.

For a series of closely spaced columns or walls, continuous footings are the obvious choice. When the
footings for rows of columns come too close to one another, a raft foundation will be the obvious choice.
In fact, when the area of all the footings appears to be more than 50 percent of the area of the structure in
plan, a raft should be considered. The total load it can take will be substantially greater than footings for
the same permissible differential settlement.

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In case a shallow foundation does not answer the problem on hand, in spite of choosing a reasonable
depth for the foundation, some type of deep foundation may be required. A pier foundation is justified in
the case of very heavy loading as in bridges. Piles, in effect, are slender piers, which are used to by pass
weak strata and transmit loading to hard strata below.

As an alternative to raft foundation, the economics of bored piles is considered. After the preliminary
selection of the type of the foundation is made, the next step is to evaluate the distribution of pressure,
settlement, and bearing capacity.

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1.3.1 Depth of Footings

The important criteria for deciding upon the depth at which footings have to be installed may be set out
as follows:

1. Footings should be taken below the top (organic) soil, miscellaneous fill, debris or muck. If the
thickness of the top soil is large, two alternatives are available:

(a) Removing the top soil under the footing and replacing it with lean concrete; and

(b) Removing the top soil in an area larger than the footing and replacing it with compacted sand and
gravel; the area of this compacted fill should be sufficiently large to distribute the loads from the footing
on to a larger area.

2. Footings should be taken below the depth of frost penetration. Interior footings in heated
buildings in cold countries will not be affected by frost. The minimum depths of footings from this
criterion are usually specified in the load building codes of large cities in countries in which frost is a
significant factor in foundation design. The damage due to frost action is caused by the volume change of
water in the soil at freezing temperatures. Gravel and coarse sand above water level, containing less than
3% fines, cannot hold water and consequently are not subjected to frost action. Other soils are subjected
to frost-heave within the depth of frost penetration.

3.Footings should be taken below the possible depth of erosion due to natural causes like surface water
runoff. The minimum depth of footings on this count is usually taken as 30 cm for single and two-storey
constructions, while it is taken as 60 cm for heavier construction.

4.Footings on sloping ground be constructed with a sufficient edge distance (minimum 60 cm to 90 cm)
for protecting against erosion

1.3.2 DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL PRESSURE GROSS AND NET SOIL PRESSURES.

The figure below shows a footing supporting a single column. When the column load, P, is applied on the
centroid of the footing, a uniform pressure is assumed to develop on the soil surface below the footing
area. However, the actual distribution of soil pressure is not uniform but depends on many factors,
especially the composition of the soil and the degree of flexibility of the footing. For example, the
distribution of pressure on cohesionless soil (sand) under a rigid footing is shown. The pressure is
maximum under the center of the footing and decreases toward the ends of the footing. The cohesionless
soil tends to move from the edges of the footing, causing a reduction in pressure, whereas the pressure
increases around the center to satisfy equilibrium conditions. If the footing is resting on a cohesive soil
such as clay, the pressure under the edges is greater than at the center of the footing. The clay near the

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edges has a strong cohesion with the adjacent clay surrounding the footing, causing the nonuniform
pressure distribution.

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1.3.3 General Requirements of Foundations

For a satisfactory performance, a foundation must satisfy the following three basic criteria:

 Location and depth criterion.

 Shear failure criterion or bearing capacity.
 Settlement.

1.4 Design loads for foundation

Loads on Foundation

The basic requirement to be satisfied in structural design is that the foundation must be strong enough to
support all the possible types of loads to which a building is liable to be subjected. Hence assessment of
the design load is essentially the first step that should be taken before determining the type of foundation.
The loads coming on the foundation of a structure can be classified into three different categories.

Dead load:

This is the sum of loads comprising the self-weight of the structure, footing, foundation and load of
materials used for the various components of a building such as walls, floors, roofs etc. All permanent
loads are included in dead loads. These loads can be calculated by finding weights of the cubical contents
of the different materials used in the structure.

Live load:

This is the movable load on the floor and hence it is variable. It is also known as super imposed load. It
includes the load of persons standing on a floor, weight of the materials temporarily stored on a floor,
weight on roof etc.

Wind load:

In case of tall buildings, the effect due to wind should be considered. The exposed sides of walls and
roofs of the buildings are subjected to wind pressure. Wind pressure or wind loading is based on the
measurements of wind velocities and characteristics of the structure acting as obstruction. In designing a
structure and its foundation, separate as well as combined effect of imposed loads and wind loads are
considered. The cross- walls and floors play an important part in stiffening the structure against wind
pressure. In a building whose height is less than three times its width and it is adequately stiffened by
cross-walls and floor, the effect of wind pressure is neglected. In case, the building is situated in coastal
areas, the height of the building should not exceed two times the effective width for no wind effects.

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