Index

SL Name of Experiment Page

No No
1 Design and Analysis of Inverting Amplifier 2-3

2 Design and Analysis of Non-Inverting Amplifier 4-5

3 Design and Analysis of Summing Amplifier 6-8

4 Design and Analysis of Average Amplifier 9-11

5 Design and Analysis of Subtractor Amplifier 11-13

6 Design and Analysis of Integrator Amplifier 13-15

7 Design and Analysis of differentiator Amplifier ⁕⁕⁕ 15-17

8 Design and Analysis of Comparator Amplifier 17-18

9 Design and Analysis of Clipper Circuit 19-21
10 Design and Analysis of Clamper Circuit 21-23
11 Design and Analysis of High Pass Filter Circuit ⁕⁕⁕ 23-26
12 Design and Analysis of Low Pass Filter Circuit 27-28

13 Design and Analysis of Band Pass Filter Circuit 29-31

14 Design and Analysis of Band Stop Filter Circuit 32-33

["***" indicates we perform these experiment all the member of Group-8

in Lab Exam]
[G-8 member Roll: 43,44,45,46,47]
 Experiment No.1

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Inverting Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design an inverting operational amplifier (op-amp) circuit
and analyze its operation. An inverting op-amp amplifies an input signal while providing an
inverted output.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Resistors (for feedback and input voltage)
• Potentiometer (for adjusting gain)
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

An inverting operational amplifier configuration uses the inverting terminal of the op-amp as the
input. The gain of the circuit is determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor (Rf) to the input
resistor (R1). The output voltage is the amplified and inverted version of the input voltage.
Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor values for Rf and R1. The gain (A) of the circuit is given by A = -
Rf / R1.
3. Connect the inverting input of the op-amp to the input voltage source.
4. Connect the non-inverting input of the op-amp to the ground (0V reference).
5. Connect the output of the op-amp to an oscilloscope or a voltage measuring device.
6. Apply a sinusoidal signal from the function generator to the inverting input.
7. Power on the circuit and adjust the gain using the potentiometer.
8. Observe the amplified and inverted output signal on the oscilloscope.
9. Measure the input and output voltages and calculate the gain. Compare it with the
calculated value.

Observation Graph:

Fig 2. Input and output waveforms of inverting amplifier

Input Output

Pk-Pk 483V 483V

Conclusion:

Through this experiment, an inverting op-amp circuit was successfully designed and implemented.
The circuit's behavior was analyzed by observing the output signal on an oscilloscope. The
measured gain was compared with the calculated gain, and the results were found to align,
confirming the proper operation of the inverting op-amp circuit. This experiment demonstrated the
concept of using op-amps for amplification with inversion and showcased their application in
various signal processing tasks.
 Experiment No.2

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Non-Inverting Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design a non-inverting operational amplifier (op-amp) circuit
and analyze its operation. A non-inverting op-amp amplifies an input signal without changing its
polarity.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Resistors (for feedback and input voltage)
• Potentiometer (for adjusting gain)
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

A non-inverting operational amplifier configuration uses the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp
as the input. The gain of the circuit is determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor (Rf) to the
input resistor (R1) plus 1. The output voltage is the amplified version of the input voltage without
inversion.
Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor values for Rf and R1. The gain (A) of the circuit is given by A =
1 + Rf / R1.
3. Connect the non-inverting input of the op-amp to the input voltage source.
4. Connect the inverting input of the op-amp to the output of a voltage divider created by R1
and Rf.
5. Connect the output of the op-amp to an oscilloscope or a voltage measuring device.
6. Apply a sinusoidal signal from the function generator to the non-inverting input.
7. Power on the circuit and adjust the gain using the potentiometer or by selecting appropriate
resistor values.
8. Observe the amplified non-inverted output signal on the oscilloscope.
9. Measure the input and output voltages and calculate the gain. Compare it with the
calculated value.

Observation Graph:

Fig: input and output waveforms of non-inverting amplifier

Input Output

Pk-Pk 576V 576V

Conclusion:

In this experiment, a non-inverting op-amp circuit was successfully designed and implemented.
The circuit's behavior was analyzed by observing the output signal on an oscilloscope. The
measured gain was compared with the calculated gain, and the results were found to match,
confirming the proper operation of the non-inverting op-amp circuit. This experiment showcased
the concept of amplification without inversion using op-amps and demonstrated their utility in
signal processing and amplification applications.
 Experiment No.3

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Summing Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design a summing amplifier circuit using operational
amplifiers (op-amps) and analyze its operation. A summing amplifier combines multiple input
signals with different gains to produce an output that is the weighted sum of the inputs.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Resistors (for input voltage and feedback)
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)
• Signal sources (e.g., function generators)

Circuit Diagram:

Fig:Circuit Diagram Of Summing Amplifier

Formula:

Theory:

A summing amplifier takes multiple input signals and produces an output signal that is the
weighted sum of the inputs. The gain of each input is determined by the ratio of the feedback
resistor (Rf) to the input resistor (R1, R2, etc.).

Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor values for Rf, R1, R2, etc. The gain (A) for each input is given
by A = -Rf / Ri.
3. Connect each input source to its respective input resistor.
4. Connect the non-inverting input of the op-amp to a virtual ground (midpoint of the
resistors).
5. Connect the output of the op-amp to an oscilloscope or a voltage measuring device.
6. Apply different input signals from the function generators to the input resistors.
7. Power on the circuit and observe the output signal on the oscilloscope.
8. Analyze how the output signal is the weighted sum of the input signals.
9. Measure the input and output voltages and calculate the gains for each input. Compare
with calculated values.
Observation Graph:

Fig: Input & Output of Summing Amplifier

Input Output

Pk-Pk 260V 320V

Conclusion:

In this experiment, a summing amplifier circuit was designed and implemented using operational
amplifiers. The behavior of the circuit was analyzed by observing the output signal on an
oscilloscope. The output signal was found to be the weighted sum of the input signals,
demonstrating the operation of a summing amplifier. This experiment highlighted the concept of
combining and scaling multiple signals using op-amp circuits, showcasing their application in
signal mixing and processing tasks
 Experiment No.4

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Average Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design an average amplifier circuit using operational
amplifiers (op-amps) and analyze its operation. An average amplifier calculates the average of
multiple input signals.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Resistors (for input voltage and feedback)
• Capacitors (for AC coupling if required)
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)
• Signal sources (e.g., function generators)

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
An average amplifier calculates the average of multiple input signals. Each input signal is weighted
equally, and the gain for each input is determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor (Rf) to the
input resistor (R1, R2, etc.).

Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor values for Rf, R1, R2, etc. The gain (A) for each input is given
by A = -Rf / Ri.
3. Connect each input source to its respective input resistor.
4. Connect the non-inverting input of the op-amp to a virtual ground (midpoint of the
resistors).
5. Connect the output of the op-amp to an oscilloscope or a voltage measuring device.
6. Apply different input signals from the function generators to the input resistors.
7. Power on the circuit and observe the output signal on the oscilloscope.
8. Analyze how the output signal represents the average of the input signals.
9. Measure the input and output voltages and calculate the gains for each input. Compare
with calculated values.

Observation Graph:

Fig: Input & Output of Average Amplifier

Conclusion:

In this experiment, an average amplifier circuit was designed and implemented using operational
amplifiers. The circuit's behavior was analyzed by observing the output signal on an oscilloscope.
The output signal was found to represent the average of the input signals, demonstrating the
operation of an average amplifier. This experiment showcased the concept of computing the
average of multiple signals using op-amp circuits and highlighted their application in signal
processing and measurement tasks.

Experiment No.5

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Subtractor Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design a subtractor amplifier circuit using operational
amplifiers (op-amps) and analyze its operation. A subtractor amplifier calculates the difference
between two input signals.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Resistors (for input voltage and feedback)
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)
• Signal sources (e.g., function generators)

Circuit Diagram:
Formula:

Theory:

A subtractor amplifier calculates the difference between two input signals. The gain for each input
is determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor (Rf) to the input resistor (R1 or R2), with
appropriate polarity inversion for one of the inputs.

Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor values for Rf, R1, R2, etc. The gain (A) for each input is given by
A = -Rf / Ri.
3. Connect the inverting input of the op-amp to the first input signal (Input 1).
4. Connect the non-inverting input of the op-amp to the second input signal (Input 2).
5. Connect the output of the op-amp to an oscilloscope or a voltage measuring device.
6. Apply different input signals from the function generators to the input resistors.
7. Power on the circuit and observe the output signal on the oscilloscope.
8. Analyze how the output signal represents the difference between the input signals.
9. Measure the input and output voltages and calculate the gains for each input. Compare with
calculated values.

Observation Graph:
 Input Output

Pk-Pk 588 54

Conclusion:

In this experiment, a subtractor amplifier circuit was designed and implemented using
operational amplifiers. The circuit's behavior was analyzed by observing the output signal on an
oscilloscope. The output signal was found to represent the difference between the input signals,
demonstrating the operation of a subtractor amplifier. This experiment highlighted the concept of
computing the difference between signals using op-amp circuits and showcased their application
in signal processing and mathematical operations.

Experiment No.6

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Integrator Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design an integrator amplifier circuit using operational
amplifiers (op-amps) and analyze its operation. An integrator amplifier produces an output that is
the integral of the input signal.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Capacitor
• Resistors (for input voltage and feedback)
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)

Circuit Diagram:

Fig:Circuit Diagram of Integrator Circuit

Formula:

Theory:

An integrator amplifier produces an output voltage that is the integral of the input voltage. The
integration effect is achieved by using a capacitor in the feedback path. The time constant of the
integrator is determined by the product of the resistance (R) and the capacitance (C).

Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor and capacitor values for R and C.
3. Connect the inverting input of the op-amp to the input signal source.
4. Connect the output of the op-amp to an oscilloscope or a voltage measuring device.
5. Power on the circuit and observe the output signal on the oscilloscope.
6. Apply different input signals from the function generator to the input.
7. Analyze how the output signal represents the integral of the input signal.
8. Measure the input and output voltages and compare them to demonstrate integration.

Observation Graph:

Fig: Input & Output Wave of Integrator

Conclusion:

In this experiment, an integrator amplifier circuit was successfully designed and implemented
using operational amplifiers and capacitors. The circuit's behavior was analyzed by observing the
output signal on an oscilloscope. The output signal was found to represent the integral of the input
signal, demonstrating the operation of an integrator amplifier. This experiment highlighted the
concept of signal integration using op-amp circuits and showcased their application in signal
processing and waveform shaping tasks.

Experiment No.7

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Differentiator Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design a differentiator amplifier circuit using operational
amplifiers (op-amps) and analyze its operation. A differentiator amplifier produces an output that
is the derivative of the input signal.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Capacitor[0.47 mF---1]
• Resistors (for input voltage and feedback)[10k ohm---1]
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)[+-14 V]
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)

Circuit Diagram:
Formula:

Theory:

A differentiator amplifier produces an output voltage that is the derivative of the input voltage.
The differentiation effect is achieved by using a capacitor in the feedback path. The time constant
of the differentiator is determined by the product of the resistance (R) and the capacitance (C).

Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor and capacitor values for R and C.
3. Connect the inverting input of the op-amp to the input signal source.
4. Connect the output of the op-amp to an oscilloscope or a voltage measuring device.
5. Power on the circuit and observe the output signal on the oscilloscope.
6. Apply different input signals from the function generator to the input.
7. Analyze how the output signal represents the derivative of the input signal.
8. Measure the input and output voltages and compare them to demonstrate differentiation.

Observation Graph:

Fig:Input & Output Signal of Differentiation

 Input Output

Pk-Pk 6V 1V

Conclusion:

In this experiment, a differentiator amplifier circuit was successfully designed and implemented
using operational amplifiers and capacitors. The circuit's behavior was analyzed by observing the
output signal on an oscilloscope. The output signal was found to represent the derivative of the
input signal, demonstrating the operation of a differentiator amplifier. This experiment
highlighted the concept of signal differentiation using op-amp circuits and showcased their
application in signal processing and waveform analysis tasks.

Experiment No.8

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Comparator Amplifier

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design a comparator amplifier circuit using operational
amplifiers (op-amps) and analyze its operation. A comparator amplifier compares two input signals
and produces a binary output based on their relative magnitudes.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Operational Amplifier IC (e.g., LM741)
• Resistors (for input voltage and feedback)
• Power supply (dual supply or single supply depending on op-amp requirements)
• Signal sources (e.g., function generators)

Circuit Diagram:
Theory:

A comparator amplifier compares two input voltages and produces a binary output. When the
voltage at the non-inverting input is greater than the voltage at the inverting input, the output
goes high. Otherwise, the output goes low.

Procedure:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Choose suitable resistor values for R1, R2, R3, and R4.
3. Connect the inverting input of the op-amp to one of the input signals (Input 1).
4. Connect the non-inverting input of the op-amp to the other input signal (Input 2).
5. Connect the output of the op-amp to an LED or an oscilloscope for visualization.
6. Power on the circuit and apply different input signals to Input 1 and Input 2.
7. Observe the LED behavior or the output signal on the oscilloscope.
8. Analyze how the output switches based on the relative magnitudes of the inputs.

Observation Graph:

Conclusion:

In this experiment, a comparator amplifier circuit was designed and implemented using operational
amplifiers. The circuit's behavior was analyzed by observing the output behavior using an LED or
an oscilloscope. The output signal was found to switch based on the comparison between the input
signals, demonstrating the operation of a comparator amplifier. This experiment highlighted the
concept of voltage comparison using op-amp circuits and showcased their application in threshold
detection and digital signal processing tasks.
 Experiment No.9

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Clipper Circuit

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design and analyze both negative and positive clipper circuits
using diodes. A clipper circuit clips or limits the portion of a signal that goes beyond a certain
voltage threshold.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Diodes (e.g., 1N4148)
• Resistors (for biasing, if needed)
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)
• Oscilloscope or voltage measuring device

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

Negative and positive clipper circuits use diodes to clip the input signal at a certain voltage level.
In the negative clipper, the portion of the input signal below the threshold voltage is clipped, while
in the positive clipper, the portion above the threshold voltage is clipped.
Procedure:
Negative Clipper:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections for the negative clipper circuit.
2. Choose a suitable resistor value for biasing if needed.
3. Connect the input signal source to the input of the negative clipper.
4. Connect the output of the negative clipper to an oscilloscope or voltage measuring
device.
5. Power on the circuit and adjust the input signal frequency and amplitude.
6. Observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope and note the clipping effect.

Positive Clipper:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections for the positive clipper circuit.
2. Choose a suitable resistor value for biasing if needed.
3. Connect the input signal source to the input of the positive clipper.
4. Connect the output of the positive clipper to an oscilloscope or voltage measuring
device.
5. Power on the circuit and adjust the input signal frequency and amplitude.
6. Observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope and note the clipping effect.

Observation Graph:

Analysis:

For the negative clipper, the portion of the input signal below the diode's threshold voltage is
clipped. For the positive clipper, the portion of the input signal above the diode's threshold voltage
is clipped. Compare the input and output waveforms to understand the clipping effect.
Conclusion:

In this experiment, negative and positive clipper circuits were successfully designed and
implemented using diodes. The behavior of the circuits was analyzed by observing the output
waveforms on an oscilloscope. The clipping effect, where portions of the input signal were clipped,
was observed and understood. This experiment highlighted the application of diodes in signal
conditioning circuits and the concept of signal clipping.

Experiment No.10

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Clamper Circuit

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to design and analyze both positive and negative clamper
circuits using diodes. A clamper circuit shifts the DC level of an input signal to a desired voltage
level.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Diodes (e.g., 1N4148)
• Capacitor
• Resistors (for biasing, if needed)
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)
• Oscilloscope or voltage measuring device

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit Diagram of Clamper Circuit

Theory:

Positive and negative clamper circuits shift the DC level of the input signal by using a capacitor
and a diode. The capacitor charges or discharges through the diode to change the voltage level of
the signal.

Procedure:
Negative Clipper:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections for the positive clamper circuit.
2. Choose a suitable capacitor value.
3. Connect the input signal source to the input of the positive clamper circuit.
4. Connect the output of the positive clamper circuit to an oscilloscope or voltage measuring
device.
5. Power on the circuit and adjust the input signal frequency and amplitude.
6. Observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope and note the voltage shift.

Positive Clipper:

1. Set up the breadboard and connections for the negative clamper circuit.
2. Choose a suitable capacitor value.
3. Connect the input signal source to the input of the negative clamper circuit.
4. Connect the output of the negative clamper circuit to an oscilloscope or voltage measuring
device.
5. Power on the circuit and adjust the input signal frequency and amplitude.
6. Observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope and note the voltage shift.

Observation Graph:
Analysis:

Both positive and negative clamper circuits shift the DC level of the input signal. The positive
clamper shifts the waveform upwards, while the negative clamper shifts it downwards. The
capacitor charges or discharges through the diode during different parts of the input waveform.

Conclusion:

In this experiment, positive and negative clamper circuits were successfully designed and
implemented using diodes and capacitors. The behavior of both circuits was analyzed by observing
the output waveforms on an oscilloscope. The voltage shift effect due to the charging and
discharging of the capacitor through the diode was observed in both cases. This experiment
showcased the application of clamper circuits in changing the DC level of a signal and highlighted
the concept of capacitor charging and discharging in signal processing.

Experiment No.11

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of High Pass Filter Circuit

Objective:

This lab experiment aimed to design and characterize an R-C passive high pass filter, which
allows higher-frequency signals to pass through while attenuating lower frequencies. The design
process involved selecting appropriate resistor and capacitor values to achieve the desired cut-off
frequency. The output voltage of the filter was then measured and recorded for different input
frequencies to observe its filtering behavior.

Apparatus:
• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Capacitor [10 microF---1]
• Resistors [465 ohm---1]
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)
• Oscilloscope or voltage measuring device
Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit Diagram of High Pass Filter

Formula:

The filter's performance is determined by the values of the resistor (R) and capacitor (C)
used in its construction. The cut-off frequency, which is the frequency where the output voltage
drops to -3 dB, can be calculated using the formula:

Theory:

Passive filters are essential components in electronic circuits used to modify the frequency
response of signals. The high pass filter allows higher-frequency signals to pass through while
attenuating lower frequencies.

Procedure:
1. Connect the function generator's output to the input of the R-C high pass filter circuit.
2. Connect the output of the R-C filter circuit to channel 1 of the oscilloscope.
3. Ensure all connections are secure and the circuit is correctly assembled on the breadboard.
4. Set the function generator to produce a sine wave signal with an amplitude of [specify
amplitude] and no DC offset.
5. Start with a conservative estimate for the values of R and C, or use values obtained from a
previous experiment or design calculations.
6. Sweep the input frequency of the function generator from high frequencies to low
frequencies in increments of [specify increment] and note down the corresponding input and
output voltages.
7. Take at least [specify number] readings for a comprehensive analysis.
8. Repeat the measurements for different combinations of R and C values to compare their
effects on the filter's performance.

Calculations:
Observation Graph:

Observation Table:

Input Frequency (Hz) Input Amplitude Output Amplitude

53.04 2V 1.6mV

34.28 2V 1.414V
Analysis:

Theoretical Analysis:

The theoretical cutoff frequency for the RC high-pass filter was calculated using the formula:

fc=34.28 Hz

This theoretical value indicates that frequencies below 34.28 Hz will be significantly attenuated,
while those above this frequency will pass through with minimal attenuation.

Experimental Observations:

During the experiment, the input signal amplitude was kept constant at 2.0 V peak-to-peak (Vpp). The
output amplitude was measured at various input frequencies. At frequencies below the cutoff
frequency (e.g., 10 Hz, 20 Hz), the output amplitude was significantly attenuated. The gain decreased,
and at these frequencies, the filter acted as a low-pass filter, blocking lower frequencies.

At the cutoff frequency (fc≈34Hz,fc ≈34Hz), the output amplitude was reduced to 70.7% of the input
amplitude, which aligns with the expected behavior for a high-pass filter. This point corresponds to a
-3 dB point in the Bode plot.

For frequencies above the cutoff frequency (e.g., 50 Hz, 100 Hz), the output amplitude closely
matched the input amplitude, confirming that the filter passes higher frequencies with minimal
attenuation.)..

Conclusion:

In this experiment, The filter successfully attenuates low frequencies (below fc) and allows higher
frequencies to pass through with minimal attenuation, as expected.
The experimental values of output amplitude and gain at different frequencies matched the theoretical
predictions, confirming the effectiveness and correctness of the high-pass filter circuit.
This experiment demonstrates the ability of RC circuits to selectively pass higher frequencies while
blocking lower ones, which is a key property used in signal processing applications, such as audio
filters, communication systems, and noise reduction.
 Experiment No.12

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Low Pass Filter Circuit

Objective:

The objective of the Low pass filter lab is to test the effect of changing the resistance in a low pass
filter circuit. A low pass filter circuit, consisting of one resistor and one capacitor is created and
tested. The Frequency of the electronic signal is then swept while the Amplitude is measured to
capture any affects.

Apparatus:
• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Capacitor [1 microF---1][10 microF---1]
• Resistors [10k ohm---1][465 ohm---1]
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)
• Oscilloscope or voltage measuring device

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit Diagram of Low Pass Filter

Formula:

The filter's performance is determined by the values of the resistor (R) and capacitor (C)
used in its construction. The cut-off frequency, which is the frequency where the output voltage
drops to -3 dB, can be calculated using the formula:
Theory:

A low pass filter is an electronic circuit which attenuates and input signals which are above a
certain cutoff frequency. These filters are often used in audio applications, also known as a
treble cut filter. Here we test how the resistor in a low pass filter affects.

Experimental Procedure:

Set Up:

1. Using a split alligator wire, hook up a waveform generator to the positive and negative
terminals of the shown circuit.

2. Attach the multi-meter positive terminal in between the resistor and capacitor, as well as its
negative terminal to the ground.

Procedure:

1. Using the given “Frequency Sweep” lab view program, sweep the frequency of the input
signal from 10 to 100000 Hz

2. At a certain point on the generated graph will be a vertical red line. Record the x position of
this line as the experimental cutoff frequency

Calculations:

Theoretical Cutoff Frequency

Using R=10kΩ and C=1μF:
fc=15.92 Hz

Using R=465 and C=10μF:

fc=34.28 Hz

Observation Graph:
Analysis:

Plot the output voltage (in dB) against frequency on a logarithmic scale to observe the frequency
response of the filter.

Conclusion:

The experimentally observed cutoff frequency was consistent with the theoretical calculation within
acceptable tolerances. The low-pass filter attenuates higher frequencies as expected, with a -3 dB
point at the cutoff frequency.

The results validate the design and functionality of the RC low-pass filter.

Experiment No.13

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Band Pass Filter Circuit

Objective:

To design and analyze the performance of a band-pass RC filter, calculate its theoretical lower
and upper cutoff frequencies, and verify its behavior experimentally.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Capacitors: C1=1μF, C2=1μF
• Resistors: R1=10kΩ, R2=10kΩ
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)
• Multimeter
• Oscilloscope or voltage measuring device

Theory:

A band-pass filter allows signals within a specified frequency range to pass while attenuating
frequencies outside this range. It is formed by combining a high-pass filter and a low-pass
filter.
Formula:

The filter's lower cutoff frequency (fL​) and upper cutoff frequency (fH) are calculated using the
following formulas:

fL=1/2πR1C1

fH=1/2πR2C2

Bandwidth=fH−fL
Circuit Diagram:
​

Fig: Circuit Diagram of Band Pass Filter

Procedure:
Circuit Setup
• Build a band-pass filter by cascading a high-pass filter and a low-pass filter on a
breadboard.
• The high-pass filter uses R1​ and C1, while the low-pass filter uses R2​ and C2.
• Connect the input of the signal generator to the high-pass filter and the output of the
low-pass filter to the oscilloscope.

Theoretical Calculations

• Calculate the lower cutoff frequency (fL​) and upper cutoff frequency (fH) using the
formulas provided.
• Determine the expected bandwidth of the filter.
Experimental Verification
• Apply a sine wave input signal to the filter, sweeping the frequency from 1 Hz to 1
MHz.
• Record the output voltage at various frequencies using the oscilloscope.
• Identify the frequencies at which the output voltage is -3 dB below the peak value.
Analysis
• Plot the output voltage (in dB) against frequency on a logarithmic scale.
• Identify the passband, bandwidth, and attenuation characteristics.
Calculations:

Observation Graph:

Conclusion:

• The experimentally determined lower and upper cutoff frequencies match the theoretical
values within acceptable tolerances.

• The filter successfully allowed signals within the passband (approximately 15.9 Hz to 15.9
kHz) to pass while attenuating frequencies outside this range.

• The observed bandwidth agrees with the calculated value.

 Experiment No.14

Experiment Name: Design and Analysis of Band Stop Filter Circuit

Objective:

To design and analyze the performance of a band-stop (notch) filter, calculate its theoretical
cutoff frequencies, and verify its behavior experimentally.

Apparatus:

• Breadboard
• Connecting wires
• Capacitors: C1=1μF, C2=1μF
• Resistors: R1=10kΩ, R2 =10kΩ
• Signal source (e.g., function generator)
• Multimeter
• Oscilloscope or voltage measuring device

Theory:

A band-stop filter blocks signals within a specific frequency range while allowing signals
outside this range to pass. It can be constructed using combinations of low-pass and high-
pass filters.

Formula:

The filter's lower cutoff frequency (fL​) and upper cutoff frequency (fH) are calculated using the
following formulas:

fL=1/2πR1C1

fH=1/2πR2C2

Bandwidth=fH−fL

​
Circuit Diagram:
 Fig: Circuit Diagram of Band Stop Filter

Procedure:

Circuit Setup
• Design a band-stop filter by combining a low-pass filter (using R1​,C1​) and a high-
pass filter (using R2​,C2​) in parallel.
• Connect the output of the low-pass and high-pass sections to the oscilloscope.
Theoretical Calculations
• Calculate the theoretical lower cutoff frequency (fL) and upper cutoff frequency (fH)
using the formulas above.
• Determine the bandwidth of the stopband.

Experimental Verification
• Use a sine wave input signal, varying the frequency from 1 Hz to 1 MHz.
• Measure the output voltage at various frequencies using the oscilloscope.
• Identify the frequencies at which the output voltage drops significantly.
Analysis:
• Plot the output voltage (in dB) against frequency on a logarithmic scale.
• Identify the stopband and measure its width.

Observation Graph:

Conclusion:

The experimentally measured lower and upper cutoff frequencies agree well with theoretical
calculations.The band-stop filter successfully attenuated frequencies within the stopband, while
frequencies outside the range were passed.