Rishi Muni

18 September 2024
Anderson E Block Physics - NNHS
Lab Partners - Wycher Wang, Miranda Newstadt

PENDULUM LAB
AP PHYSICS C: MECHANICS

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1 Introduction
The motion of a pendulum, as it oscillates, is a form of simple harmonic motion
(SHM). The mathematical interpretation for the SHM of a pendulum can be
modeled by the following sinusoidal equation:

x(t) = A cos(ωt)
The variables measure the following quantities: x = x(t) is height of the
pendulum at time t; A is the amplitude of the pendulum, measuring the pendu-
lum’s maximum displacement from its equilibrium position, and ω is the angular
frequency of the pendulum. It is equivalent to the following equation.
2π
ω=
T
Here, a new variable, T , is introduced and it is the period of the pendulum:
the time it takes the pendulum to complete one oscillation. The formula for this
value is shown below and will be used to calculate the value of g, the acceleration
due to gravity, in this lab. Note that l is the length of the pendulum.
s
l
Tp = 2π
g

2 Procedure
In order to determine the value of g, the following procedure was performed.
A pendulum was set up using string, a paperclip, and a protractor. Its period
was then recorded under three separate, varying conditions. The initial angle
of release was varied while the length of the pendulum and its attached mass
were held constant; the mass was varied while the length and initial angle were
held constant; finally, the length was varied while the initial angle and attached
mass were held constant. It is important to note that each trial only measured
the time of one oscillation under the above varying conditions. Averages of
multiple trials that recorded several oscillations were not performed, resulting
in the large amount of error associated with this lab. Note that the data tables
in the below images consist of the raw data collected.
The three steps were conducted such that data was collected over a wide
range of angle, mass, and length values, providing the reliable trends displayed
below. From them, relationships between the period and the string length, at-
tached mass, and initial angle were deduced. Using the period vs. length graph,
which exhibits a square-root relationship, a linearized version was created. This
new graph was then used to calculate the value of g.

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3 Data
3.1 Period vs Angle of a Simple Pendulum

Figure 1: Graph of the period vs angle data collected from this experiment.
The corresponding data table is shown to the right and the linear regression in
s
shown here: T (θ) = 0.0034[ deg ]θ + 1.669[s]. The length and mass were held at
1 m and 41.2g, respectively.

The figure above shows the trials that were conducted in order to determine
the relationship between the angle of release and period. As can be seen in the
table, as the angle measure, in degrees, increases, the time of the period, in
seconds, does not increase significantly. Moreover, the slope of the trend line,
m, is extremely small, indicating that the relationship is a constant one. Due
to the fact that the relationship between the period and angle over this large
span of data is essentially a constant one, it can be concluded that the angle of
the pendulum has no effect on its period. Therefore, this graph was not used
to calculate the value of g.

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3.2 Period vs Mass of a Simple Pendulum

Figure 2: Graph of the period vs mass data collected from this experiment. The
corresponding data table is shown to the right and the linear regression is shown
here: T (m) = 0.00025[ gs ]m + 1.673[s]. The length and angle were held at 1 m
and 20 degs, respectively.

The figure above shows the trials conducted in order to test whether or not
the attached mass would affect the period. As can be seen in the above figure,
the mass values, which range from 5.6 to 500 grams, all produced recorded times
that were fairly similar. Additionally, the linear regression shown in Figure 2
has calculated the slope of the best fit line to be extremely small. With this
information, it is reasonable to conclude that the relationship between mass
and period is constant, indicating the mass has no effect on the period, and will
therefore not be used to calculate the value of g.

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3.3 Period vs Length of a Simple Pendulum

Figure 3: Graph of the period vs length data collected from this experiment.
The corresponding data table √ is shown to the right and the power regression is
shown here: T (l) = 1.654[ √sm ] l. The mass and initial angle were held at 41.2g
and 20 degrees, respectively.

The figure above shows the trials conducted to determine whether or not the
length has an effect on the period. The data values are initially increasing at a
rapid rate and then begin to grow more slowly. This means that as length slowly
increases from zero, the corresponding periods increase rapidly. As the lengths
get larger, however, the corresponding periods grow more slowly. Therefore,
it can be concluded that the length of the pendulum does affect its period.
This is further supported by the power regression shown above. This type of
relationship is not linear, however, and is instead a square-root relationship
(hence the square root regression):
√
T (l) = A l
This relationship means that the√period of a pendulum,
√ T (l), measured in
seconds, is directly proportional to l, measured in meters. In order to use
this information to solve for the value of g, Figure 3 must be linearized according
to the above relationship. Consequently, the value of A, which will become the
slope of the linearized graph, will be found and used to solve for g.

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4 Linearization
As deduced above, only the length affects the period of the pendulum, and it
does so in some form of a square-root relationship. Therefore, linearizing the
graph
p in this manner is necessary. Because the period is directly proportional
to (l), the axes will undergo the following transformation.
√
(l, T ) → ( l, T )

4.1 Linearized Period vs Length of a Simple Pendulum

Figure 4: Graph of the linearized period vs length data collected from this ex-
periment. Due to the above transformation, this graph is period vs sqrt(length).
The corresponding data table √ is shown to the right and the linear regression is
shown here: T (l) = 1.648[ √sm ] l + 0.00372[s].

From the graph above, it can be concluded there is a linear relationship

between period and the square root of the length. Fortunately, the calculation
of the slope of this graph is not needed due to the Vernier Graphing Application’s
linear regression, which is shown above. The value of the slope is determined
to be 1.648, with units of √sm . Using this value, the calculation of g is shown
below. Note that the y-intercept (b = 0.00372) is not used in the calculation
below because the relationship between the period and sqrt(length) (the slope)
will be consistent regardless of the value of b. Therefore, it can be ignored.

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4.2 Calculation of g
The basic relationship in figure four is linear:

y = Ax
The physical variables can then be placed back into this relationship:
√
T =A l
Values from Figure 4 can then be substituted into the equation:
s √
T = 1.648[ √ ] l
m
The above equation can be set equal to the period formula for a pendulum,
and the equation can be solved for g.
s
s √ l
T = 1.648[ √ ] l = 2π
m g
√ s
1.648[ √sm ] l l
=
2π g
√ s
1.648[ √sm ] l l 2
( )2 = ( )
2π g
s
1.648 2 s2 l 2
(l)( ) [ ]=( )
2π m g

1.648 2 s2 1
( ) [ ]=
2π m g
1
g= 2
( 1.648 2 )
2π 2 [ sm ]

m
g = 14.536[ ]
s2
Therefore, based on the data collected within this experiment, the calculated
value of g is 14.536[ sm2 ]. Additionally, because gravity is an acceleration, the fact
that the resulting units of the above mathematics are that of acceleration, the
calculations can be trusted. However, this is not the true value of gravity,
indicating that this experiment contains an amount of error.

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5 Error Analysis
5.1 Mathematical Error
In order to quantitatively describe the error associated with this experiment,
an error analysis must be conducted on the value of gravity. As such, the true
acceleration due to gravity and formula for percent error are shown below.

|gactual − gexperimental | m
Errorg = ∗ 100; gactual = 9.81[ 2 ]
gactual s
Substituting the actual and calculated values for g:

|9.81 − 14.536|
Errorg = ∗ 100 = 48.175%
9.81
Therefore, the calculated value of g is 48.175% off of the correct value, indi-
cating that there is a significant amount of error associated with this experiment.

5.2 Sources of Error & Proposed Methods

A variety of sources of error are associated with this lab, the most notable one
being human error. Every trial in this experiment was conducted such that the
time of one period was recorded via a stop watch. Due to the fact that one period
occurs in very short time, the recorded times significantly vary in magnitude as
seen by the raw data. Additionally, the human and instrumental error associated
with measuring the length of the string affects the results, as measurements
taken are not perfect and can vary by a few centimeters. Moreover, while
running the experiment, it is likely that the string length increased incrementally
as it was swung more due to being ineffectively secured. This would result in
artificially high period values, which would explain the shape of figure three and
the calculated error (because if the period vs. length data contains significant
error, its corresponding linearized data does as well). The amalgamation of these
factors is what largely contributed to the error associated with the calculated
value for g.
A more effective method of data collection would have been to record the
time it took for five oscillations to occur, and divide that value by five to get
the time of one oscillation (the period). This step could have been repeated
multiple times for several lengths, with the average of them being used in the
graphing stage. Additionally, length measurements could have been taken more
accurately, and the pendulum string could have been more secure, thus reducing
the error associated with this variable. This would have resulted in a much more
accurate dataset being used and therefore a calculated value of g much closer
to the actual value.

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6 AI Addendum
6.1 Part A
Prompt entered into ChatGPT 4o Mini: “What factors affect the period of a
pendulum?”
According to this model, “the period of a pendulum is directly proportional
to the length. . . the period of a pendulum is inversely related to the acceler-
ation due to gravity. . . the mass of the bob does not affect the period. . . for
small angles, the period is relatively constant and does not depend much on the
amplitude” (GPT 4o Mini).

6.2 Part B
According to Physics LibreTexts, the period of a simple pendulum is affected
by its “length and acceleration due to gravity. The period is completely inde-
pendent of other factors, such as mass... the period is nearly independent of
amplitude, especially if θ is less than about 15◦ ” (LibreTexts). Therefore, the
answers ChatGPT provided for the entered prompt are verifiable and true. It
agrees with the source that length and gravity affect the pendulum, while mass
is a factor that does not. It also agrees with small angles not affecting the
period, while larger ones do.

6.3 Part C
The data collected within this lab supports the above statements. The length
vs time data and the derivation for Tp prove that only the length and grav-
ity mainly affect the period. Additionally, the collected mass vs period data
shows a constant trend, indicating that the mass has no effect on it. Finally,
the assumption made while deriving Tp also supports the above claims of how
angle measure affects the period. Therefore, it can be concluded that the AI’s
information is correct and verifiable based on research, math, and real data.

7 Conclusion
Ultimately, the purpose of this lab was achieved through the graphing and
linearization of collected data. By varying several factors of the pendulum and
measuring the corresponding periods, it was confirmed that the period is directly
proportional to the square root of the length. This data was then graphed,
linearized, and the resulting relationship was used to calculate the value of g.
Despite the experimental errors associated with this lab, the calculated value
for g was still reasonable based on the collected data. Overall, this experiment
demonstrated how practical methods can be used to calculate physical constants.
Future investigations should focus on minimizing experimental errors by using
more effective procedures and increasing the amount of data collected, as doing
so would yield results with less error.

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8 Appendix
8.1 Derivation of Tp

Figure 5: Diagram describing the forces that act on a pendulum.

The torque due to gravity is described by the following equation:

τp = −mglsinθ
The torque is directly proportional to the rotational inertia and angular
acceleration of mass m:

Iα = −mglsinθ
The rotational inertia is directly proportional to object’s angular momentum
and inversely proportional to its angular velocity:
L
α = −mglsinθ
ω
The object’s angular momentum is equivalent to its mass times multiplied
by its tangential velocity multiplied by the its radius from the axis of rotation:
mvl
α = −mglsinθ
ω
Furthermore, the tangential velocity is equivalent to the angular velocity
multiplied by the same radius:

ml2 ω
α = −mglsinθ
ω

lα = −gsinθ

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 The angular acceleration is the derivative of angular velocity with respect
to time, and is therefore the second derivative of angular position with respect
to time:

dω ld2 θ
lα = l = = −gsinθ
dt dt2

d2 θ g
= − sinθ
dt2 l

d2 θ g
+ sinθ = 0
dt2 l
Note that in the case of simple pendulums where the initial angle, θ, is
relatively small, θ is essentially equal to sinθ and the error is negligible.

d2 θ g
+ θ=0
dt2 l
Therefore, the following equation is a second order linear differential equation
that can be solved by using the method of undetermined coefficients. As such,
let:

dθ d2 θ
θ(t) = ert ; = rert ; 2 = r2 ert
dt dt
Upon substituting this in, a new equation is formed:
g
r2 ert + ert = 0
l
g
ert (r2 + ) = 0
l
g
(r2 + ) = 0
l
r r
g g
(r + i )(r − i )=0
l l
√
(i is the imaginary constant (i = −1))
r
g
=⇒ r = ±i
l
Therefore, the two homogeneous solutions to the second order linear differ-
ential equation are:
√g √g
θ1 (t) = ei l t ; θ2 (t) = e−i l t
Note that an nth order linear ordinary differential equation is a linear oper-
ator and therefore preserves addition and scalar multiplication:

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 dn y dn−1 y dy
L(x) = + pn−1 (x) + ... + p1 (x) + y(x)p0 (x) = q(x)
dxn dxn−1 dx

L(c1 θ1 ) = 0; L(c2 θ2 ) = 0 =⇒ L(c1 θ1 + c2 θ2 ) = 0

=⇒ θ(t) = c1 θ1 (t) + c2 θ2 (t) = 0

√g √g
θ(t) = c1 ei l t
+ c2 e−i l t

Note that eiπ = cos(θ) + isin(θ), which can be proven through the Taylor
Series expansion of cos(θ) and sin(θ). Therefore, the above solution can be
converted into this form:

r r
g g c
=⇒ θ(t) = c1 cos(( t) + c1 isin( )) + ( pg 2 p )
l l cos( l t) + isin( gl t

Further note
pthat an equation of the form acos(ωθ) + bsin(ωθ) = Ccos(ωθ +
ϕ) where C is (a)2 + (b)2 and ϕ = tan−1 ( ab )). In the above equation, it can
be deduced that a = 1, b = i, and the frequency ω = gl . Recall from section
p

1 that Tp = 2π
ω . Now, by substitution:

2π
T = pg
l

Thus, the formula for the period of a simple pendulum is:

s
l
T = 2π
g

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8.2 Raw Data

Figure 6: Raw data sets collected during the experiment. These can also be seen
in each graph shown above. This data was collected by Rishi Muni, Wycher
Wang, and Miranda Newstadt

8.3 Key
The above calculations describe the derivation of the formula for the period
of the pendulum. Note the following physical variables used: α is angular
acceleration; I is rotational inertia; ω is angular velocity; θ is angular position;
L is angular momentum; g is gravity; l is the length of the pendulum; τp is
torque due to gravity; t is time; vT is the tangential velocity; m is the mass of
the object.

Figure 7: Rubric

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