HUNDRED YEARS WAR

The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) was a long conflict between England and France,
mainly over who had the right to rule France. It lasted for more than a century and was fought in
several phases.

The main cause of the war was a dispute over the French throne. In 1328, Charles IV of
France died without a male heir. Edward III of England, who was the grandson of the French
king Philip IV, claimed the throne. However, the French nobility chose Philip VI of France, a
cousin of Charles IV, to become king. Edward felt he had a right to the throne and refused to
accept Philip as the rightful ruler of France.

The war began in 1337 when Edward III formally declared himself the King of France. The
fighting was mainly about control of territories in France that were important to both England
and France, especially Flanders, a rich region for trade. The conflict also had economic reasons,
as both kingdoms wanted control of profitable land.

During the early years, the war saw important battles such as the Battle of Crécy (1346), where
the English won a decisive victory, and the Siege of Calais (1347), where England took control
of the French port. The English were able to gain large parts of France, especially in the north.

By 1359, both England and France were exhausted by the war. In 1360, the Treaty of Brétigny
was signed. This treaty ended the first phase of the war, with England gaining control over large
territories in France, including Aquitaine (modern-day southwestern France). In return, Edward
III agreed to renounce his claim to the French throne, although the truce was temporary, and
hostilities would flare up again in later years.

The Treaty of Brétigny marked a significant moment in the war, but peace was short-lived, and
the conflict would continue for several more decades.

CRUSADES AND ITS IMPACT

The Crusades were a series of religious wars fought between Christians and Muslims, primarily
over control of the Holy Land (Jerusalem). The first three Crusades (1096–1192) were key
moments in medieval history, marked by religious fervor, political ambition, and military
conquest.

The First Crusade (1096–1099)

The First Crusade was launched by Pope Urban II in 1095, with the goal of reclaiming
Jerusalem from Muslim rule and securing Christian access to holy sites. Motivated by a mix of
religious zeal and the desire to gain land and power, European knights and peasants responded to
the call. The Crusaders achieved a remarkable victory, capturing Jerusalem in 1099, and
establishing several Christian states in the Levant, including the Kingdom of Jerusalem. This
success was one of the Crusades' most significant outcomes, although the Crusaders' control over
the region was precarious.

The Second Crusade (1147–1149)

The Second Crusade was triggered by the fall of Edessa (a Crusader state) to Muslim forces. Led
by King Louis VII of France and Emperor Conrad III of Germany, the Crusaders failed to
make significant progress. The campaign ended in failure, highlighting the difficulty of
maintaining control over the conquered territories and the growing power of Muslim leaders like
Saladin.

The Third Crusade (1189–1192)

The Third Crusade was called after the powerful Muslim leader Saladin recaptured Jerusalem in
1187. This time, it involved major European monarchs, including Richard I of England
(Richard the Lionheart), Philip II of France, and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of
Germany. Richard I played a pivotal role in the Crusade. Although the Crusaders failed to
recapture Jerusalem, Richard secured important victories, including the Battle of Arsuf in 1191,
and negotiated a treaty with Saladin that allowed Christians to visit Jerusalem.

Results and Importance to Richard I

The Crusades had significant long-term impacts, including increased cultural exchange, the
spread of knowledge, and the strengthening of monarchies in Europe. For Richard I, the Third
Crusade was a defining moment in his reign. Although he did not capture Jerusalem, his military
prowess and leadership earned him fame and respect, solidifying his status as one of the most
celebrated monarchs of medieval Europe. The Crusades also had lasting religious and political
consequences, shaping Christian-Muslim relations for centuries.

WAR OF ROSES

The War of the Roses (1455–1487) was a series of civil wars in England between two powerful
families—the House of Lancaster and the House of York—who both claimed the right to rule
the country. The name "War of the Roses" comes from the symbols of the two families: the red
rose for the Lancasters and the white rose for the Yorks.

The war started due to a struggle for the English throne. The conflict was largely triggered by the
weakness of King Henry VI of the House of Lancaster, who had periods of mental illness and
could not effectively rule the country. This created instability, and both the Yorks and the
Lancasters wanted to take control. The main leaders of the two factions were Richard, Duke of
York for the Yorkists and King Henry VI for the Lancastrians.

Key Events and Battles

The Battle of St. Albans (1455): This was the first major battle of the war, where the Yorkists
gained an early victory. However, the war would drag on for many years.

The Battle of Towton (1461): One of the largest and bloodiest battles of the war, where
Edward IV, the son of Richard, Duke of York, defeated the Lancastrians and became king of
England. This gave the Yorkists control of the throne for a time.

The Battle of Tewkesbury (1471): Another major Yorkist victory, which led to the death of the
Lancastrian prince, Edward of Lancaster, and further solidified Edward IV’s reign.

After Edward IV's death in 1483, his young son, Edward V, was supposed to inherit the throne,
but there was a power struggle. Richard III, Edward IV's brother, seized the throne, but his
reign was unpopular, and he was eventually defeated.

The final battle was the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), where Henry Tudor (of the House of
Lancaster) defeated Richard III. Henry Tudor became Henry VII, and to unite the two warring
factions, he married Elizabeth of York, thus creating the Tudor dynasty.

The War of the Roses ended with the establishment of the Tudor family on the throne. Henry
VII ruled for 24 years, and his reign brought stability after decades of conflict. The war
weakened the power of the nobility and shifted power more directly to the monarchy, helping to
shape the future of England.

KING JOHN AND THE MAGNA CARTA

King John (reigned 1199–1216) is often remembered as one of England's most unpopular
monarchs. His reign was marked by failed military campaigns, heavy taxation, and conflicts with
the church and his barons (noblemen). These issues led to widespread dissatisfaction, and
ultimately, to a crucial event in English history: the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215.

King John inherited the throne after the death of his brother, Richard the Lionheart. John faced
numerous challenges, including losing territories in France that had been held by England for
centuries. His failed attempts to regain these lands angered many of his nobles, who lost both
land and income.

To fund his wars and military expenses, King John imposed heavy taxes on his barons and the
common people. Additionally, his disputes with the Church—especially his conflict with Pope
Innocent III—weakened his authority. John even had to accept the pope’s authority over the
English Church, which further humiliated him.

The Magna Carta (1215)

By 1215, King John had angered so many of his barons that they rebelled. They captured London
and demanded that John sign a document limiting his power. This document became known as
the Magna Carta, or "Great Charter."

The Magna Carta, signed on June 15, 1215, established several key principles:

 Limited the king’s power: It made clear that the king was not above the law.
 Protection of rights: It guaranteed certain rights to the church, the barons, and free men,
including protection from illegal imprisonment.
 Fair taxation: It stated that taxes could not be raised without the consent of the
kingdom's council.

Although King John initially agreed to the Magna Carta, he quickly tried to break it, leading to
more conflicts. However, the Magna Carta became a foundational document for later
developments in English law and democracy, influencing constitutional principles in England
and other countries.

Before Edward I, English governance was heavily centered around the king’s Royal Council,
which advised him on matters of law, finance, and war. This council, made up of the king's
closest advisers, mostly consisted of nobles, clergy, and high-ranking officials. Over time,
especially after the Magna Carta (1215), the idea that the king should consult a broader group
of people, including barons and clergy, began to take shape. The Magna Carta demanded that
the king could not levy taxes without the consent of the kingdom’s council, an early form of
parliamentary control.

Edward I’s Role

Edward I played a key role in transforming this advisory council into a more formal and
representative body. Unlike his predecessors, Edward sought to involve both the nobility and
common people in the decision-making process. He needed support for his military campaigns
and required taxation, which required broader consent.

The Model Parliament of 1295

Edward I’s Model Parliament of 1295 is regarded as the defining moment in the evolution of
Parliament. For the first time, knights of the shire (representing counties) and burgesses
(representing towns and cities) were summoned to Parliament, alongside the clergy and the
nobility. This marked the inclusion of the commons, allowing the general population a direct
voice in national affairs.

The Model Parliament was both an advisory body and a decision-making assembly. It had the
power to grant taxes, pass laws, and discuss important national issues, such as war and taxation.
The participation of common people—represented by elected knights and burgesses—marked a
significant shift from the earlier feudal system, where only the aristocracy had a voice.

The Model Parliament of 1295 is seen as the beginning of the bicameral system in English
governance, with the House of Commons (commoners) and the House of Lords (nobility and
clergy). Although Parliament’s power would continue to evolve, Edward I’s reforms created a
more balanced system of governance, where taxation and laws required the consent of both the
king and his subjects, setting the stage for the development of a constitutional monarchy.

FEUDALISM IN ENGLAND

The feudal system in England was fully established after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when
William I (William the Conqueror) defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. To maintain
control over his newly acquired kingdom, William introduced a strict hierarchical system of land
ownership and loyalty.

Under the feudal system, the king was at the top, owning all the land in the kingdom. He granted
large portions of this land, called fiefs, to his most trusted followers—barons and nobles—in
exchange for military service and loyalty. These barons became the king’s vassals and had to
provide soldiers or other services when called upon.

The barons, in turn, granted portions of their land to lesser lords or knights, who also became
vassals. The knights had the responsibility of protecting the land and serving in the king’s army.
At the bottom of the system were the peasants or serfs, who worked the land. They did not own
land and were bound to the estate of a lord, giving a portion of their crops in return for protection
and the right to live on the land.

The feudal system reinforced a strong, centralized monarchy while ensuring the king had control
over his nobles, who were required to support him militarily and economically.

BLACK DEATH OR BUBONIC PLAGUE

The Black Death, or bubonic plague, was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history,
striking Medieval England in 1348. It was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which was
transmitted by fleas that lived on rats. The plague likely arrived in England through trade routes,
brought by ships from infected areas of Europe.
The disease spread rapidly and killed an estimated one-third to one-half of England's
population, causing widespread fear and panic. Symptoms included fever, chills, fatigue, and
painful, swollen lymph nodes (called buboes), which could turn black as the infection spread. In
some cases, the disease caused septicemia or pneumonia, both of which were often fatal.

The Black Death had profound social, economic, and cultural effects on England. The massive
death toll resulted in a labor shortage, which led to higher wages for surviving workers and a
shift in the feudal system. Peasants, in particular, gained more bargaining power as their labor
became more valuable. The plague also contributed to a breakdown of social structures, with
people fleeing cities, abandoning their families, and turning to religious or superstitious
explanations for the disaster.

Despite the horrific toll, the Black Death eventually led to significant changes, helping to
reshape English society and economy in the centuries that followed.

UNIVERSITIES OF OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE

The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, two of the oldest and most prestigious educational
institutions in the world, have roots that trace back to the early medieval period. Both
universities were born out of the intellectual and religious life of England, and their origins are
intertwined with the rise of scholasticism and the growth of the medieval European university
system.

University of Oxford

The exact date of the foundation of Oxford University is unclear, but it is believed to have
developed around the 12th century. The first documented reference to Oxford as a place of
learning appears in the 12th century when scholars began gathering there for study, likely due to
the presence of religious schools and the influence of the Church. It grew into a major center of
education, with its first known faculty of theology established by the early 13th century.

The university was formally recognized in the early 13th century, and it attracted students and
scholars from all over Europe. Oxford’s colleges, such as Balliol (founded in 1263) and Merton
(founded in 1264), began to emerge, and the university system became more formalized with
teaching centered around the tutorial system. Over the centuries, Oxford's reputation for
scholarship grew, particularly in the fields of theology, law, and philosophy.

University of Cambridge

The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209 by a group of scholars who fled Oxford after
a dispute with the townspeople. These scholars sought a safer environment for academic study,
and they established Cambridge in the city of Cambridge. Like Oxford, Cambridge’s early
development was deeply influenced by the Church, and it too became a center for teaching
theology, law, and philosophy.

Both universities continued to grow in the Middle Ages, with Cambridge's colleges—such as
Peterhouse (founded in 1284)—emerging in the 13th and 14th centuries. By the late medieval
period, Oxford and Cambridge had become the leading educational institutions in England, and
they played a major role in the intellectual and political life of the country.

In short, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge grew out of the intellectual and religious
contexts of medieval England, evolving from informal gatherings of scholars into formal
institutions that would shape English education and thought for centuries to come.

JOHN WYCLIFFE AND THE LOLLARDS

John Wycliffe (c. 1320–1384) was an English theologian, philosopher, and early critic of the
Catholic Church. Often called the “Morning Star of the Reformation,” Wycliffe is best known
for his strong opposition to Church corruption, particularly the wealth and power of the clergy,
and his advocacy for the Bible to be translated into vernacular English so that ordinary people
could read it for themselves. At the time, the Bible was only available in Latin, making it
inaccessible to most English people.

Wycliffe’s ideas were revolutionary, challenging the Church’s authority and teachings. He
argued that scripture should be the supreme authority, rather than the Pope or Church tradition.
His followers, known as the Lollards, spread his teachings across England in the late 14th
century. The Lollards were a reformist group that criticized the Church's wealth, the use of
indulgences, and other practices they saw as unbiblical.

Wycliffe's translation of the Bible into English, though incomplete, was a landmark achievement
and paved the way for later translations, such as William Tyndale’s in the 16th century.
Although Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his writings banned by the
Church, his ideas significantly influenced later religious reform movements, including the
Protestant Reformation. The Lollards, although persecuted, kept his ideas alive for generations