WORK, ENERGY, POWER AND MACHINES

Connections
Table of Contents Building on…..
Machines
Revision � Force
� Hooke’s Law-work done in
stretching and compressing a
Specific Objectives spring
� Newton’s Laws of Motion –
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
Kinetic and potential energy,
a) describe energy transformations
effects of force on bodies
b) state the law of conservation of energy
(F=ma)
c) define work, energy, power and state their SI
units Arriving at……
d) define mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and
efficiency of machines � Describing energy – energy
e) solve numerical problems involving work, conversions, forms of energy,
energy, power and machines the law of conservation of
energy.
(20 Lessons) � Defining work, power,
energy.
Content � Describing the terms
1. Forms of energy and energy transformations associated with machines
2. Sources of energy: - renewable, and working out calculations
- non-renewable involving machines.
3. Law of conservation of energy
4. Work, energy and power (work done by resolved Looking forward to….
force not required)
5. Kinetic and potential energy � Current Electricity (ii)
6. Simple machines � Electrostatics (ii)
7. Problems on work, energy, power and machines
2 | MECHANICS

WORK, ENERGY, POWER AND MACHINES

Energy
Energy is a necessary requirement whenever a physical system has to do work. It is a scalar quantity
measured in joules. There are many forms of energy derived from different sources.
Sources of Energy
The following are the main natural sources of energy.
� The Sun
� Wind
� Fuels
� Geothermal
� High Dams and Waterfalls
� Oceans-Tides and waves in oceans
� Nuclear (or Atomic) Energy nuclear fission, nuclear fusion.
Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Resources
Renewable energy is that which is supplied by processes in the environment that can be recycled or
re-used over and over again. The supplies are inexhaustible.

Non-renewable energy is supplied by processes that are exhaustible in nature. The materials once
used up cannot be retrieved.
Renewable resources Non-renewable resources
Solar energy Coal
Geothermal Natural gas
Wave/energy/tidal energy Petroleum
Windmills (aero-generators) Natural gas
Hydropower Nuclear energy
Firewood, charcoal, Biogas
Power alcohol

Forms of Energy
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is a form of energy stored in chemical compounds. It is released during chemical
reactions mostly in form of heat. Chemical energy is found in foods, oils, charcoal, coal, firewood,
biogas and batteries (cells).
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 3
Mechanical Energy
There are two types of mechanical energy, namely, potential energy and kinetic energy.
� A body possesses potential energy due to its relative position or state.
� A body in motion possesses kinetic energy, e.g., running water, wind, a moving bullet, a car in
motion or a person running.
Heat Energy
It is produced by burning fuels, electric current, radiation from the sun and friction, among other
sources.
Wave Energy
Forms of wave energy include light, sound and tidal waves. Wave energy may be produced by
vibrating objects or particles.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is obtained through conversion from other forms of energy using generators.
Transformation and Conservation of Energy
Transformation of energy refers to changing of energy from one form to another.
Any device that facilitates energy transformations is called transducer.
The table below shows typical energy transformation and transducers involved.

Initial form of energy Final form of energy Transducer

Chemical Electrical Battery

Electrical Sound Loudspeaker

Heat Electrical Thermocouple

Solar Electrical Solar cell

Kinetic Electrical Dynamo

Electrical Kinetic Motor

Solar Heat Solar panel

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can
only be changed from one form to another.

1. Work and Energy

Work is said to be done only when an applied force makes its point of application move in the
direction of the force.
work done = force × distance moved by the object in the direction of the applied force
4 | MECHANICS
W=F×d
When there is no displacement (d = 0), no work is done. If the force acts in the direction opposite to
the movement of the object, work is negative.
The SI unit of work is the Joule, J.
1 Nm = 1 joule (J)
Kilojoule (kJ) and megajoule (MJ) are multiples of the joule.
1 kilojoule (kJ) = 103 J
1 megajoule (MJ) = 106 J
Although both force and displacement are vector quantities, work is a scalar quantity.
If the applied force is varying along a given distance, then work done can be obtained by plotting a
graph of force (N) against distance (d) and determining the area under the graph.

Energy is the product of the applied force and the distance through which the object moves.
Energy spent = force × distance
= work done
Therefore, energy = F × d
Energy is measured in joules (J). One joule is the amount of energy spent when a force of one
newton moves an object through a distance of one metre.

Example 1
Calculate the force that moves a box through a distance of 3 m if work done on the box was 1 500 J.
Solution
Work done = force × distance

work done 1 500

force = = = 500 N
distance 3
Example 2
Calculate the work done by a variable force as shown.
Solution
1 1
Work done = � × 4 × 15� − � × 6 × 7.5�
2 2

= 30 – 22.5 = 7.5 N

Potential Energy
Potential energy is possessed by bodies due to their relative position or state.
Gravitational Potential Energy
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 5
Bodies which are able to fall down have stored energy called gravitational potential energy. This
energy depends on the position of the object above the ground.
Consider an object of mass m lifted through a height h,
as shown in (a). The weight of the object, and therefore
the vertical force, is mg. The gravitational potential
energy P.E. is given by;
P.E. = work done
= weight of the object × height = mgh
In (b), the object is lifted from height h1 to h2 above the
ground level.

At height h1, P.E.1 = mgh.1

At height h2, P.E.2 = mgh.2
The potential energy required to raise the object from h1
to h2 is given by;
P.E. = P.E.2 – P.E.1
= mgh2 – mgh1
= mg(h2 – h1)
The potential energy of a body is given with reference to a certain point.
Example 1
Calculate the work done by a stone mason in lifting a stone of mass 15 kg through a height of 2.0 m.
(Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution
Work done = force × distance
But force = mg = 15 × 10 N = 150 N
Therefore, work don = 150 × = 300 Nm (or 300 J)
Example 2
A boy of mass 40 kg walks up a flight of 12 steps. If each step is 20 cm high, calculate the work done
by the boy.
Solution
The boy applies a vertical force equal to his weight to climb the stairs.
Work done = force × distance
But force = mg = 40 × 10 = 400 m
12 ×20
Height of the stairs = = 2.4 m
100
6 | MECHANICS
Therefore, work done = 40 × 10 × 2.4 = 960 J
Elastic Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy is the work done in compressing or stretching
the spring is equal to the energy stored in such a spring.
In stretching a spring, the applied force varies from zero to a maximum
force F. A sketch of extension against force for a stretched spring is
shown.
0+F F
Average force acting on the spring = =
2 2
Work done = force acting on spring while stretching × extension.
1
= average force × extension = Fe
2
F
But = k (gradient of the line)
e
∴ F = ke
1
Hence, work done = ke2, where k is the spring constant. This is the elastic potential energy stored in
2
the spring.
Example 1
A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by 5 cm. How much work is done in stretching this spring
by 8.0 cm?
Solution
1 1
Work done = ke2 = × 1.5 × 0.82
2 2
= 1.5 × 0.32 = 0.48 J
Example 2
A 10 kg mass falls from a height of 1 m to the top of a spring fixed on the ground as shown below.
When the mass hits the spring, the spring is compressed to 3 cm.
Determine the:
(i) spring constant of the spring.
(ii) velocity at which the mass will rebound from the spring.
Solution
1
(i) F = ke2 e = 7; F = 100 N
2
1
100 = k × 72
2
200 = 49 k
200
k= = 4.08
49
(ii) The loss in PE just as it touches the top of the spring is given by;
PE = mgh = 10 ×10 × 0.9 = 90 J
This PE is used to compress the spring to give it a stored elastic PE.
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 7
Stored PE = 10 ×10 × 0.07 = 7 J
The KE of propulsion is equivalent to the stored elastic energy.
1
∴ mv2 =7
2
7 ×2
v2 = = 1.4
10
v = 1.18 m/s

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy that a body possesses due to its motion.
Consider a body of mass m being acted upon by a steady force F. The body accelerates uniformly
from rest to final velocity u in time t seconds. If it covers a distance s;
s = average velocity × time
initial velocity+final velocity 0+v v
But average velocity = = =
2 2 2
vt
Therefore, s =
2
Kinetic energy is equal to the work done by the force.
Kinetic energy, K.E. = F × s
But F = ma (Newton’s second law)
vt
Therefore, K.E. = ma ×
2
velocity v mv vt 1
Since a = = , K.E. = × = mv 2
time t t 2 2
1
∴ KE = mv 2
2
Generally, the force acting on a body either increases or decreases its kinetic energy, depending on
the direction of the force.

The Work – Energy theorem

Work done by the force = kinetic energy
gained or lost by the body.
= final K.E. – initial K.E.
1 1
= mv 2 − mu2
2 2
This is the work-energy theorem

Example
A car travelling at a speed of 72 km–1 is uniformly retarded by application of brakes and comes to rest
after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1 250 kg, calculate the:
(a) braking force.
8 | MECHANICS
(b) work done in bringing it to rest.
Solution
v−u
(a) F = ma and acceleration a =
t
But u = 72 kmh = 20 ms
–1 –1

0−20
Therefore, a = = –2.5 ms–2
8
Hence, braking force F = 1 250 × –2.5 = –3 125 N
The negative sign implies
(b) Work done = kinetic energy lost by the car
loss of kinetic energy of
1 1
= mv2 - mu2 the car. This is because
2 2
1 1
= × 1 250 ×02 - × 1250 × 202 the braking force acts in
2 2
the direction opposite to
= –2.5 × 105 J
that of motion of the car.

The law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy states that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of a
system is constant.
E = P.E. + K.E. = constant

Deriving the law of conservation of Enery

(a) Using an oscillating pendulum bob
The figure below shows a pendulum released so that it
swings to and fro about a vertical axis.
At point A, the pendulum bob has maximum Potential
Energy, PE = mgh, while kinetic energy, KE = 0.
Total energy at A = mgh + 0
= mgh
When the bob is released from A, and reaches point B,
midway, with velocity vB,
1
PE = mghB while KE = mvB2
2
The total energy is given by;
1
E = mghB + mvB2
2
At C, the bob has attained maximum speed v hence, maximum KE while PE = 0, since h = 0
1
Total energy at C = mv2
2
As the bob rises to D, speed decreases as h increases. Thus, KE decreases as PE increases. At D, the
ball attains maximum PE and KE = 0, since v = 0.
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 9
Assuming no energy losses during the oscillations, energy at one given point remains constant.
(b) Using a body projected vertically upwards
Consider a body of mass m projecting vertically upwards from the
ground to reach point C through B, as shown.
As it rises, KE decreases since the velocity decreases. The PE increases
and becomes a maximum at C where KE = 0. As the body falls, PE
decreases while KE increases.

Variation of KE and PE against the position of the bob

is shown alongside.
Kinetic Energy Curve
The P.E. is not zero initially because the body is
projected from the ground.
The body is projected with speed v, rises to the highest
point where K.E. is zero at C and begins to drop to acquire maximum K.E. as it lands at A.
Potential Energy Curve
The body is projected up from a point above the ground (A), gains potential energy to maximum (C)
before the P.E. drops to zero as body lands at A.
From the explanation;
P.E.A + K.E.A = E
P.E.C + K.E.C = E
P.E.C + K.E.C = P.E.A + K.E.A = E
Therefore;
total energy E = P.E. + K.E. = constant
This is the law of conservation of energy, which states that the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy of a system is constant.

Example 1
A load of mass 100 kg moves from rest at P to a point T
along a frictionless path PQRST, as shown.
(a) Calculate the:
(i) maximum kinetic energy of the load.
(ii) maximum velocity.
(iii) velocity at Q.
(b) State what happens when the load is at T.
10 | MECHANICS
Solution
(a) (i) Maximum kinetic energy occurs when potential energy is a minimum.
Loss in P.E. = gain in K.E.
Loss in P.E. = 100 × 10 × 35 = 35 000 J
∴ Gain in K.E. = 35 000 J
(ii) Maximum velocity occurs at maximum K.E.
1
mv2 = 35 000
2
1
× 100 × v2 = 35 000
2
v2 = 700
v = √700 = 26.5 ms–1
(iii) At Q, the height has dropped 15 m from the P.
Taking velocity at Q as vQ,
Gain in K.E. = loss in P.E.
1
× 100 × vQ2 = 100 × 10 × 15
2
vB2 =300
vQ = √300 = 17.3 ms–1
(b) At T, the load attains maximum PE as kinetic energy falls to zero. Since velocity is zero, the
load momentarily stops and starts to slip back due to the stored potential energy being
converted back to KE.

Example 2
The graph below shows the potential energy against displacements for a body of mass 80g
Potential energy (J)

0.20 P T

0.10 Q S

0.00 0.05 0.1

Displacement m

The body oscillates about point R. Calculate the velocity of the body at:
(i) P and T
(ii) Q and S
(iii) at R
Solution
(i) At P and T potential energy is a maximum and kinetic energy is a minimum. Hence
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 11

velocity is zero (2mks)

(ii) At Q and S P.E has reduced by 0.1J. This equals the K.E
K.E = ½ MV2
0.1 = ½ x 0.8V2
0.1 = 0.4V2
0.1 = V2
V2 = ¼ = 0.25
V = 0.5m/s

(iii) At R, all P.E has been converted to K.E velocity now is a maximum
So, 0.2 = ½ MV2
0.4 = V2
√V = 0.4m/s
V = 0.64m/s
2. Power
Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate of energy conversion. Power is given by;
work done
power =
time taken
It can also be shown that power is a product of force and uniform velocity.
force × distance
Power =
time taken
distance
But velocity =
time taken
∴ Power = Force × uniform velocity
The SI unit for power is the watt (W). Since work done is given in joules and time taken in seconds,
power can also be expressed in joules per second.
Therefore, 1 W = 1 Js–1. Other multiples of watt are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW).
1 kW = 103 W
1 MW = 106 W
The power of an applicance is a measure of how fast it can perform a given task or convert a given
amount of energy. An iron box rated 1 kW converts 1 000 J of electrical energy to heat energy in 1
second. Similarly, a bulb rated 60 W converts 60 J of electrical energy to light and heat in 1 second.
Example
An electric motor rated 2.5 kW is used to lift bales of hay to a store in a dairy farm. A single bale has
mass of 5 kg. If the store is 4 metres above the ground, how many bales can the motor raise in 2
minutes?
Solution
Work done by the motor = power × time
= 2 500 × 2 × 60 = 3.0 × 105 J
Work done = force × distance
12 | MECHANICS
3.0 × 105 = force × 4
30 ×105
Force = = 7.5 × 104 N
4
Weight of 1 bale = 5 × 10 = 50 N
7.5 ×104
∴ Number of bales raised in 2 minutes = = 1 500 bales
50

Review Exercise 1
1. A girl of mass 45 kg develops an average power of 250 W when running up a flight of stairs.
Calculate the time she takes to climb up a vertical height of 4.0 m.
2. An object of mass 2.5 kg is released from a height of 5.0 m above the ground.
(a) Calculate the velocity of the object just before it strikes the ground. State the assumption
made in your calculation.
(b) Calculate the velocity at which the stone will hit the ground if a constant air resistance force
of 1.0 N acts on it as it falls.
3. A student climbs up a vertical rope 10.0 metres long in 20 s. If the mass of the student is 50 kg:
(a) deteremine how much work is done by the student.
(b) find the student’s power output during the climb.
4. The graph below shows the potential energy against
displacement for a body a mass of 80 g.
The body oscillates about point R. Calculate the
velocity of the body at:
(a) P and T.
(b) Q and S.
(c) At R.
State the assumptions made.

5. A stone of mass 5 kg moves through a horizontal distance 10 m from rest. If the force acting on
the stone is 8 N, calculate:
(a) the work done by the force.
(b) the K.E. gained by the stone.
(c) the velocity of the stone.
6. A soldier climbs to the top of a watchtower in 20 minutes. If work done by the soldier against
gravity was 90 kJ, determine the average power in climbing.
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 13

3. Machines
A machine is a device that enables work to be done more easily or conveniently. In a machine, a force
applied at one point is used to generate a force at
another point in order to overcome a load.
Terms Associated with Machines
A simple lever shown can be used to illustrate the
terms used in machines.
Effort (E)
This is the force applied to the machine. The unit of effort is Newton (N).
Load (L)
This is the force exerted by the machine. The unit of load is Newton(N).
Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)
This is the ratio of load to the effort, i.e.;
load
M.A. =
effort
M.A. is a ratio of two forces and hence has no units.
If the load is greater than the effort (L > E), then M.A. > 1. If the effort is greater than load, then M.A.
is less than 1 (M.A. < 1). If the load is equal to the effort (L = E), then M.A. = 1.
The mechanical advantage of a machine is dependent on friction between moving parts and the
weight of parts of the machine that have to be lifted when operating it. The greater the friction, the
smaller the M.A.
Velocity Ratio (V.R.)
The velocity ratio of a machine is the ratio of distance moved by the effort DE to the distance moved
by the load (DL).
distance moved by effort
Thus, velocity ratio =
distance moved by load

DE
V.R. =
DL
VR is a ratio of two distances and therefore has no units.
If two machines A and B with velocity ratios V.R.A and V.R.B respectively are combined, the resultant
velocity ratio V.R. will be given by;
V.R. = VRA × VRB
Efficiency (η)
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of work done on the load (work output) to the work done by
the effort (work input). It is usually expressed as a percentage.
work done on load
Efficiency, η = × 100%
work done by effort
14 | MECHANICS
Efficiency is also the ratio of work output to work input, that is;
work output
efficiency = × 100 %
work input
The efficiency of a machine, like M.A., is dependent on friction between moving parts and the
weight of the parts that have to be lifted. For this reason, the efficiency of a machine is always less
than 100 %.
The relationship between M.A., V.R. and Efficiency is as below.
work done on load
Efficiency = ×100%
work done by effort
But work done = force × distance moved by the force.
load ×distance moved by load
Thus, efficiency η = ×100%
effort ×distance moved by effort
load distance moved by load
=� �×� � ×100%
effort distance moved by effort
1
=M.A. × × 100%
V.R
M.A.
= ×100%
V.R.
Example 1
In a machine, the load is moved 2 m when the effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used to raise a
load of 60 N, determine the efficiency of the machine.
Solution
M.A.
Efficiency = ×100%
V.R.
load. 60
M.A = = =3
effort 20
distance moved by effort 8
V.R = = =4
distance moved by load 2
3
Efficiency, η = ×100% = 75 %
4
Example 2
A crane lifts a load 500kg through a vertical distance of 4m in 8 seconds. Determine:
(i) Work done by the crane
(ii) Power developed by the crane
(iii) Efficiency of the crane given that it is operated by an electric motor rated 2.8Kw
(iv) State two effects which contribute to the efficiency being less than 100%
Solution
(i) Work done = P.E gained ;
= mgh
= 500 × 4 × 10 = 20,000J
work done 20000
(ii) Power = = = 2.5 kW; or (2500 watts);
time taken 8

work output 2.5 ×100

(iii) Efficiency = × 100% =
work input 2.8
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 15

= 89.29%;

(iv) – Friction between movable parts

- Sound due to moving parts
- - heat –some of the electrical energy is converted to unnecessary heat

Levers
A lever is a simple machine whose operation relies on the principle of moments. It has three
important parts, namely, effort arm, load arm and the pivot (or fulcrum).

AO is the effort arm and OB the load arm.

In a lever, the effort arm EA is the
perpendicular distance from the pivot to
the line of action of the effort. The load
arm (LA) is the perpendicular distance
from the pivot to the line of action of the
load.

distance moved by effort DE

Now, V.R. of a lever= =
distance moved by load DL
DE EA
Using concept of similar triangles; =
DL LA
effort arm
Therefore, V.R. =
load arm
There are three classes of levers:
(i) Levers with the pivot between the load and effort. Examples are the crow-bar, pliers,
hammer, beam balance and pair of scissors
(ii) Levers with the load between the pivot and the effort. Examples are wheelbarrows, nut
crackers and bottle openers.
(iii) Levers with the effort between the load and the pivot. Examples are tweezers, sweeping
brooms, a fishing rod and spade.
Example
The figure alongside shows two levers.
(a) Determine the forces FA and FB.
(b) Determine the M.A. and V.R. in each case.
(c) Calculate efficiency in each case.
Solution
(a) Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments.
(i) FA × 3 = 60 × 1
16 | MECHANICS
FA = 20 N
(ii) FB × 5 = 2 × 60
FB = 24 N
60
(b) (i) M.A.= 20 =3
60
(ii) M.A. = =2.5
24
3
(b) (i) V.R. = =3
1
5
(ii) V.R.= =2.5
2
𝑀𝑀.𝐴𝐴.
(c) Since efficiency = ×100%; efficiency η = 100% for each lever.
V.R.

Wheel and Axle

The wheel and axle consists of a large wheel of radius
R attached to an axle of radius r. The effort is applied
on the wheel while the load is attached to the axle.
In one complete turn, the wheel moves through a
distance 2πR while the load moves through 2πr.

2πR R
Therefore, V.R. of wheel and axle = =
2πr r

An example of a wheel and axle is the car steering

wheel. The wheel and axle is also used to draw water from a well.
The screw driver, windlass and some water taps are also examples of the wheel and axle.

Examples
1. A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 280 N by a force of 40 N applied to the rim of the
wheel. If the radii of the wheel and axle are 70 cm and 5 cm respectively, calculate the M.A.,
V.R. and the efficiency.
Solution
280
M.A = =7
40
distance moved by effort 2πR
V.R. = =
distance moved by load 2πr
70
= = 14
5
𝑀𝑀.𝐴𝐴.
Efficiency = × 100%
V.R.
7
= × 100% = 50%
14
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 17

A wheel and axle are used to raise a load of 280N by a force 40N applied to the rim of the wheel. If
the radii of the rim and axle are 70cm and 5cm respectively, calculate:
(i) The mechanical advantage
(ii) The velocity ratio
(iii) The efficiency

Solution
L 280 N R 70 𝑀𝑀.𝐴𝐴. 7
(i) M.A = = =7 (ii) V.R = = = 14 (iii) η = × 100% = × 100%
E 40 N r 5 V.R 14
= 50%
(i) The Inclined Plane
A plank of wood placed to form a slope to ease the loading of
heavy luggage onto the back of a lorry is an example of an
inclined plane.
effort distance
V.R. of the inclined plane =
load distance
length 𝑙𝑙 of plank 𝑙𝑙
= =
vertical height h h
h
But sin θ = ⇒h = 1 sin θ
𝑙𝑙
1 1
Hence, V.R. = =
1 sin 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃
Example
A man uses the inclined plane to lift a 50 kg load through a vertical height of 4.0 m. The inclined
plane makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is 72 %,
calculate:
(a) the effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at a constant velocity.
(b) the work done against friction in raising the
load through the height of 4.0 m. (Take g = 10
Nkg–1)
Solution
1
V.R. = =2
1 sin 30
72
M.A. = efficiency × V.R. = × 2 =1.44
100
load 50 ×10
Effort = = = 347.2 N
M.A. 1.44
(b) Work done against friction = work input – work output
Work output = mgh
50 × 10 × 4= 2000 J
Work input = effort × distance moved by effort
= 347.2 × AC
18 | MECHANICS
4
= 347.2 × = 2777.6 J
sin 30
Therefore, work done against friction = 2777.6 – 2 000
= 777.6 J
(ii) The Screw
The threads of a screw can be considered as a continuous inclined plane wound round a cylindrical
or tapering rod
The distance between two successive threads is called the pitch of the
screw. In one revolution, the screw moves forward (or backward)
through a distance equal to one pitch.

circumference of the screw head

V.R. of screw =
pitch P
2πR
= , where R is the radius of the screw head.
pitch
A screw combined with a lever can be used as a jack for lifting heavy
loads such as cars.

Example
A car weighing 1 600 kg is lifted with a jack-screw of 11 mm pitch. If the handle is 28 cm from the
screw, find force applied.
Solution
circumference of the handle
V.R. of screw =
pitch
Neglecting friction, M.A. = V.R.
L 2πR
M.A = =
E pitch
1600 2π × 0.28
=
E 0.011
1600 ×0.11
E=
2π × 0.28
22
Taking π = ,
7
1600 ×0.11 ×7
E= =100 N
22 × 2 × 0.28

(iii) Gears
A gear is a wheel with equally spaced teeth or cogs around it.
The wheel onto which the effort is applied is called the driver
wheel while the load wheel is the driven wheel.
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 19

If the driving wheel has n teeth and the driven wheel N teeth, then, when the driving wheel makes
N
one revolution, the driven wheel makes revolutions.
n

revolutions made by the driver wheel

V.R. =
revolutions made by the driven wheel
1 N
= n =
n
N
number of teeth in the driven wheel
Thus, the V.R. of a gear system =
number of teeth in the driving wheel

Example
Alongside is a system of gears for transmitting power. Gear A has 200 teeth and acts as the driving
gear. Gears B and C with 40 teeth and 100 teeth respectively are mounted on the same axle and they
transmit motion to the last gear D which has 50 teeth.
(a) State the direction in which gears C and D rotate if gear A is
rotated in clockwise direction?
(b) Find the velocity ratio of the gear system.
Solution
(a) When gear A rotates in a clockwise direction, gears B and C
rotate in the opposite direction (anticlockwise) since both are on
the same axle. Gear D is driven by gear C and therefore rotates in
clockwise direction.
40 50
(b) V.R.AB = , V.R.CD =
100 100
V.R. = V.R.AB × V.R.CD
40 50
= × = 0.1
200 100
(iv) Pulleys
A pulley is a wheel on an axle with a groove accommodating a string or a rope. There are several
systems of pulleys, the three common ones being the single fixed pulley, single movable pulley and
block and tackle. In all the above arrangements, a single string or
rope is wound around the pulley(s).
Single Fixed Pulley
In a single fixed pulley, the effort moves through the same distance
as the load and therefore the velocity ratio is 1.
Single Movable Pulley
Figure (a) alongside shows a single movable pulley
being used to lift a load. The effort is applied upwards.
20 | MECHANICS
In (b), the added fixed pulley enables the operator to apply the effort downwards.
The V.R. of the two arrangements is however the same.
When the rope in (b) is pulled downwards, say 2 metres, the two sections of the rope supporting the
load shorten by one metre each. This means that the load moves up one metre.

The V.R. for a single moveable pulley is therefore 2.

(V.R. = number of ‘ropes’ supporting the load). Effort in one string is equal to the effort on the other.
2E
M.A. = =2
E
∴ L = 2E

Block and Tackle

A block and tackle is a set of pulleys mounted on a block using a rope
such that one set is movable while the other is fixed.
It is possible to have blocks with three or more pulleys.
When the effort string is pulled, each of the strings supporting the load
1
shortens by of the distance moved by the effort. Thus, the load moves
4
1
through of the distance moved by the effort.
4
1
The velocity ratio V.R. is thus; 1 =4
4
The V.R. of a block and tackle system is equal to the number of strings
supporting the load.
Examples
1. A block and tackle system is used to lift a mass of 200 kg. If this machine has a velocity ratio of
5 and an efficiency of 80 %:
(a) sketch a possible arrangement of the pulleys, showing how the rope is wound.
(b) calculate the effort applied. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution
(a) Possible arrangement of the pulleys.
𝑀𝑀.𝐴𝐴.
(b) Efficiency = × 100%
V.R.
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 21
80 M.A
=
100 5
80 × 5
M.A. = =4
100
𝐿𝐿
But M.A. = and L = mg = 200 × 10 N
𝐸𝐸
200 ×10
Hence, 4=
E
200 ×10
E= = 500 N
4

NB
(i) For the block and tackle system with an
odd number of pulleys, it is convenient to
have more pulleys fixed than movable.
(ii) The velocity ratio is not necessarily equal
to the number of pulleys, where the V.R. of a
single movable pulley is equal to 2.

2. For each system of pulleys below, determine the velocity ratio.

Solution
(a) V.R. = 2
(b) V.R. = 3

2. A man uses a block and tackle mechanism of velocity ratio 6 to lift a car engine
smoothly through a height of 1 m in 5s. The man applies a force of 300N while the
mass of the engine is 120 kg. Determine:
(i) The mechanical advantage of the pulley system.
(ii) its efficiency.
Solution
𝐿𝐿 1200 𝑁𝑁
(i) M.A. = = =4
E 300 𝑁𝑁

𝑀𝑀.𝐴𝐴. 4
(ii) Efficiency = × 100% = × 100% = 66.67%
V.R. 6
Pulley Belts
22 | MECHANICS
Pulley belts have a variety of both industrial and domestic uses. They are found in posho mills,
sewing machines and motor engines.
The figure alongside shows two pulleys P and Q connected by
a belt.
If the radius of pulley P is R and that of pulley Q is r, the belt
turns a distance of 2πR when the effort wheel makes one
revolution.
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑅𝑅
The load wheel makes = revolutions when the effort
2πr r
wheel makes one revolution.

number of revolutions made by effort

V.R. =
number of revolutions made by load
1 revolution r
= R =
� �revolution R
r
radius of driven pulley
Thus, velocity ratio =
radius of driving pulley

Examples
1. The figure below shows the rear wheel of a bicycle and the crank wheel P, connected to the
sprocket wheel Q by a chain. If wheel P has 50 teeth while Q has 20 teeth and the radius of the
rear wheel is 35 cm, calculate the distance travelled by the bicycle in one revolution of the
crank wheel.
Solution
When the crank wheel makes one revolution, the sprocket
50
wheel makes revolutions.
20
The rear wheel and the sprocket wheel make the same
number of revolutions.
Distance moved by rear wheel = number of revolutions × circumference of the wheel
50 22
= × × 35 × 2 = 550 cm
20 7

2. A bicycle has wheels 66 cm in diameter. Its crank wheel has 44 teeth and the rear sprocket has
16 teeth. The crank radius is 16.5 cm.
(i) Determine the radius of the rear sprocket.
(ii) The bicycle moves when the rear sprocket is made to move. Hence determine the velocity
ratio.
Solution
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 23
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁.𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(i) V.R. = =
2πr 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁.𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
16.5 44
=
r 16
16.5 ×16
r= = 6 cm
44
𝑅𝑅 16.5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
(ii) V.R. =
r
= 6 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
= 2.75
Hydraulic Lift
When the effort piston moves downwards, the load piston is
pushed upwards.
Volume of liquid that leaves effort cylinder = volume of liquid
that enters load cylinder.
distance moved by effort × cross-sectional area of effort
piston = distance moved by load × cross-sectional area of the
load piston.

distance moved by effort

Thus,
disance moved by load
cross−section area of the load piston
= = V.R.
cross−section area of the effort piston
Assuming that the pistons have circular cross-sections.
𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 𝑅𝑅2
Hence, V.R. = = , where R and r are the radii of the load piston and the effort piston
πr2 r2
respectively.

Exampl
The figure below shows a hydraulic press supporting a load F. If A and B are areas of cross-
section of the pistons, and the lengths of the arm are as given, find Fo; the force that the small
piston exerts on the liquid; the M. A.; and the efficiency of the machine
Solution
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 𝐹𝐹
=
A B
𝐹𝐹 × 𝐴𝐴 70 × 10 × 0.05
FA = = = 35 N
B 0.2
By the principle of moments;
Fo × 1 = FA × 0.2
35 × 0.2
Fo = =7N
1
𝐿𝐿 700
M.A. = = = 100
E 7
24 | MECHANICS
𝑅𝑅 2 0.22
Velocity ratio of the hydraulic press; V.R.H = = = 400
r2 0.012
1
Velocity ratio of the lever V.R.L = =5
0.2
Velocity ratio of the combined machines; V.R. = V.R.H x V.R.L = 400 × 5 = 2 000
𝑀𝑀.𝐴𝐴. 100
Efficiency = × 100 = × 100 =5 %
V.R. 2 000

Review Exercises
1. 2006 Q7
Figure 5 shows two pulleys systems being used to raise different loads. The pulleys identical.

State one reason why system B may have a higher efficiency than system A. (1 mark)

2. 2008 Q18; 2016 Q16

(a) Define the term velocity ratio of a machine. (1 mark)

(b) Figure 12 shows part of a hydraulic press. The plunger is the position where effort is
applied while the Ram piston is the position where load is applied. The plunger has
cross section area, a m2 while the Ram piston has cross section area, A m2.

When the plunger moves down a distance d, the Ram piston moves up a distance D.
(i) State the property of liquid pressure on which the working of the hydraulic
press works. (1
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 25

mark)

(ii) Derive an impression for the velocity ratio (V.R) in terms of A and a.
(4 marks)

(c) A machine of velocity ratio 45, overcomes a load of 4.5 x 103N when an effort of
135N is applied.
Determine:
(i) The mechanical advantage of the machine; (2 marks)
(ii) Efficiency of the machine; (2 marks)
(iii) The percentage of the work that goes to waste. (1 mark)

3. 2009 Q16
(a) Define the term efficiency of a machine (1 mark)

(b) Figure 9 shows a drum of mass 90 kg being rolled up a plane inclined at 250 to the
horizontal. The force F applied is 420N and the distance moved by the drum along the
plane is 5.2 m

Determine:
(i) The work done by the effort; (3 marks)
(ii) The work done in raising the drum; (3 marks)
(iii) The efficiency of the inclined plane as a machine. (2 marks)

4. 2010 Q15
(a) A cyclist initially at rest moved down a hill without pedalling. He applied brakes and
eventually stopped. State the energy changes as the cyclist moved down the hill.
(1 mark)

(b) Figure 7 shows a mass of 30kg being pulled from point P to point Q with a force
of 200N parallel to an inclined place. The distance between P and Q is 22.5m.
In being moved from P to Q the mass is raised through a vertical height of 7.5m.
26 | MECHANICS

(i) Determine the work done:

I. by the force; (2 marks)
II. on the mass; (2 marks)
III. To overcome friction. (2 marks)

(ii) Determine the efficiency of the inclined plane. (2 marks)

(c) Suggest one method of improving the efficiency of an inclined plane. (1 mark)

5. 2011 Q15
Figure 10 shows a simple pendulum of length 80cm. The pendulum bob, whose mass is 50 g,
oscillates between points A and B, through its rest position C. A and B are both 10 cm higher
than C.

(a) (i) Indicate with an arrow, on the path ACB, the direction of the greatest
velocity of the bob as it moves from A to B. (1
mark)
(ii) State the form of energy possessed by the pendulum bob at point A.
(1
mark)
(b) Determine:
(i) the velocity of the bob at point C; (3 marks)
(ii) the tension in the string as the bob passes point C.
(take acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m/s2) (3
marks)
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 27

(c) After some time, the pendulum comes to rest at point C. State what happens to the
energy it initially possessed. (1 mark)

6. 2011 Q18
(a) Figure 15 shows a metal bolt which is threaded.

Explain how a metre rule can be used to measure the pitch (distance between adjacent
peaks) of the threading. (2 marks)

(b) Figure 16 shows a screw jack whose screw has a pitch of 1 mm, and has a handle of 25
cm long.

Determine the velocity ratio of the jack. (3 marks)

(c) A bullet of mass 60g travelling at 800ms-1 hits a tree and penetrates a depth of 15 cm
before coming to rest
(i) Explain how the energy of the bullet changes as it penetrates the tree.

(1mark)
(ii) Determine the average retarding force on the bullet. (3 marks)

7. 2012 Q12
State two reasons why the efficiency of pulley system is always less than 100%.
(2
marks)
28 | MECHANICS
8. 2013 Q16 (c)
Figure 10 shows a pulley system used to raise a load by applying an effort of 500 N.

State the:
(i) Velocity ratio of the system (1 mark)
(ii) Purpose of the pulley 2 (1 mark)
(iii) Maximum load that can be raised. (3 marks)

9. 2014 Q16
Figure 10 shows a trolley of weight 20N pulled by a force of 4 N from the bottom to the top
of an inclined plane at a uniform speed.

(a) (i) State the value of the force acting downwards along the inclined plane.
(1
mark)
(ii) Explain how the value in part (a) (i) is obtained. (2 marks)

(b) For the system, determine the:

(i) Mechanical advantage; (3 marks)
(ii) Velocity ratio; (3 marks)
(iii) efficiency. (2 marks)

10. 2015 Q15

(a) Figure 8 shows a 200 g mass placed on a frictionless surface and attached to a spring.
 Work, Energy, Power and Machines 29

The spring is compressed and released. Given that the elastic potential energy of the
compressed spring is 2.7 x 10-2 J, determine the maximum speed with which the block
moves after it is released. (4 marks)

(b) In a wheel and axle system, state the advantage of having a large wheel diameter
compared to the axle diameter for a frictionless system. (1
mark)

(c) A body is released from a height h. Sketch a graph of potential energy against kinetic
energy as the body falls to the ground. (2
marks)

(d) Figure 9 shows a hydraulic lift system. The radius of the small piston is 3 cm
while that of the larger piston is 9 cm. A force of 90 N is applied to the smaller
piston.

Determine the:
(i) Maximum load that can be lifted; (3 marks)

(ii) Efficiency of the system. (3 marks)

11. 2018 Q16

(a) An electric crane uses 8.0 × 104 N of energy to lift a load of 2.0 × 104 N in 4 s.
(i) Determine the:
(I) power developed by the crane; (3 marks)
(II) height to which the load is lifted; (2 marks)
(III) efficiency of the crane whose motor is rated 2.5 × 104 W.
(2 marks)
30 | MECHANICS
(iii) State two forms of energy transformation that lead to the crane's inefficiency.
(2 marks)

(b) A stone is dropped from the top of a building to the ground. On the axes provided,
sketch a graph of potential enemy against time for the stone.

(1 mark)

12. 2019 Q15

(a) Figure 6 shows a bottle top opener being used to open a bottle

Indicate on the diagram the direction of the load and the effort (2 marks)

(b) State two ways in which an inclined plane can be made to reduce the applied effort
when pulling a load along the plane (2 marks)

(c) A block and tackle system has three pulleys in the upper fixed block and two pulleys in
the lower movable block.
(i) Draw a diagram to show how the system can be set up in order to lift a load
and indicate the position of the load effort. (3 marks)

(ii) State the velocity ratio of the setup. (1 mark)

(iii) In such a block and tackle system, an effort of 200 N is required to lift a load of
600 N. Determine its efficiency. (3 marks)