CHEMISTRY

OF
WATER
TREATMENT
2ND EDITION

SAMUEL D. FAUST
OSMAN M. ALY

C R C Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Taylor & Francis Group, an inform a business
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Faust, Samuel Denton, 1929-1997

Chemistry of water treatment / Samuel D. Faust, Osman M. Aly.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-57504-011-5 (alk. paper)
1. Water— Purification. 2. Water quality. I. Aly, Osman M. II. Title.
TD433.F38 1998
628.F66—dc20 96-13773

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Publisher’s Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint
but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent.
 In memory o f Dr. Samuel D. Faust

It is with great sorrow, and pride, that this project is brought to fruition. Dr. Samuel D. Faust,
who passed away on February 7, 1997, gave a vote of confidence when he decided that the
second edition of Chemistry of Water Treatment would be published by our company.
His book, written with co-author Dr. Osman Aly, became an important addition to our company.
I regret that Sam never saw the printed book. I have tried to publish it in a manner becoming
of his dedication to the manuscript, and his commitment to the field.

Robert (Skip) A. DeWall, Jr.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Once again, the authors wish to acknowledge the patience of our families who were neglected
during die long hours of preparation. We are indebted also to Mrs. Brenda Ciallello whose superb
mastery of word processors produced the typed manuscript. We are grateful to our professional
colleagues whose works are cited in this text. The authors are appreciative of the vision of
Mr. Robert A. “Skip” DeWall, Jr.; we thank the publishers for their excellent efforts and cooperation
in the production of this second edition.
DEDICATION

The senior author dedicates this text to the hundreds of undergraduates and graduate environ­
mental science students with whom he has been associated at Cook College, Rutgers, The State
University of New Jersey for over forty years. Their dedication to their studies contributed to an
academic career that was beyond gratification.

VII
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Samuel D. Faust

Dr. Faust was Professor of Environmental Sciences at Rutgers University. He received his Ph.D.
in Environmental Sciences and Chemistry from Rutgers University and was a Research Fellow in
Applied Chemistry at Harvard University during the term 1966-67.
Dr. Faust has written three previous books in the water and wastewater treatment areas and
edited several books on the chemistry of aquatic environments. He has published over 100 papers in
research journals, served on the Governor’s Panel on Acid Deposition in New Jersey in 1984, and
was the recipient of Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996 from the Department of Environmental
Sciences of Rutgers University.

Osman M. Aly

Dr. Aly is currently the Director of Environmental Affairs for Campbell Soup Company respon­
sible for directing worldwide environmental policies and programs and acting as Spokesman for
Campbell on environmental matters. Dr. Aly has extensive experience in the water treatment field
and is responsible for the construction of treatment systems in Europe (France, U.K., Germany,
Belgium, Italy), Latin America, Mexico, Australia, and the Far East.
Dr. Aly earned his Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences from Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
New Jersey. He held different teaching and research positions in the environmental field before
joining Campbell.
Dr. Aly is the author of over 50 publications in the environmental field covering the areas of
water and wastewater treatment, and fate of organics in the aquatic environment. He is also co­
author of other textbooks on water quality and treatment and applications of adsorption technology
in water purification.

IX
PREFACE

The qualities of natural and treated water are areas of immense concern in our environment. One
of the highest priority uses of water is, of course, its ingestion to sustaiti life. It is well established
that water is a medium for transmission of enteric diseases and, in recent years, for transmission of
alleged carcinogenic compounds. Consequently, we demand our water to be absolutely “safe” to
drink, i.e., potable. On the other hand, the potability of water is not the only concern since water has
other uses in the home and industry. As water is drawn from many ground and surface sources, it
has diverse qualities which, in turn, dictate the types of treatment, the degree of treatment, and, to
a large extent, the quality of the finished product.
In these days of widespread concern about environmental pollution, we are even more conscious
of our drinking water quality. We expect it to be free form pathogenic organisms, free from scale­
forming substances free from toxic chemicals, free from corrosion and corrosion products, and free
from aesthetically offensive substances. Thus, we speak of the six freedoms of water quality. This
book intends to serve as a reference for professionals and others concerned with water quality and
treatment.
The chemical and, to a lesser extent, microbiological aspects of water quality and treatment are
emphasized. It is an application of these two sciences to these two interrelated parts of our immediate
environment. This volume does not and is not intended to discuss the design of water treatment, per
se. Rather it is intended to demonstrate how chemistry influences the design of water treatment plant,
or, mor appropriately, how it should influence the design. Historically, water treatment plants have
been designed from hydraulic considerations with little regard to chemical aspects. The many chemi­
cal reactions used for removal of pollutants from water simply cannot be forced to occur within
present designs. This traditional approach must be reexamined in view of today’s water quality and
treatment.
These three paragraphs appeared in the first edition of “Chemistry of Water Treatment” that was
published in 1983. These comments are still valid in the 1990s as we approach the twenty first cen­
tury. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1986 and its subsequent amendments have had profound ef­
fects on the treatment of drinking water and its finished product. The six freedoms of water quality
are still appropriate. In the future, more contaminants will be regulated and more treatments will be
needed of which some will be physical and chemical in nature. Current water treatment processes are
being challenged for their abilities to meet the current drinking water standards. Will they be suffi­
cient to meet future demands or will new processes have to be devised? This second edition attempts
to assess the chemical and physical efficacies of current processes to meet the demands of the Safe
Drinking Water Act. Hopefully, this edition will provide the information to those persons respon­
sible, whatever level of the involvement may be, for production of potable water in the 1990s. All
chapters from the first edition have been revised significantly and a new chapter. Aeration Technol­
ogy, has been added. Treatment processes of the future are discussed where appropriate.

Samuel D. Faust
Osman M. Aly
CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality.................................................... 1

Chapter 2. Organic Compounds in Raw and Finished Waters..................................................... 49

Chapter 3. Tastes and Odors in Drinking W ater........................................................................... 93

Chapter 4. Removal of Organics and Inorganics by Activated Carbon................................... 127

Chapter 5. A eration..................................................................................................................... 197

Chapter 6. Removal of Particulate Matter by Coagulation....................................................... 215

Chapter 7. Removal of Particulate Matter by Filtration and Sedimentation............................271

Chapter 8. Removal of Hardness and Other Scale-Forming Substances.................................. 313

Chapter 9. Removal of Inorganic Contaminants..........................................................................353

Chapter 10. Removal of Corrosive Substances.........................................................................435

Chapter 11. Removal of Pathogenic Bacteria, Viruses, and Protozoans.................................483

Index............................................................. ;...............................................................................571

Xlli
ACRONYMS

AA activated alumina
ADI accepted daily intake
ANPRM Advanced Notice for Proposed Rule Making
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BAC biological activated carbon
BAT best available technology
BOM background organic matter
BP 3,4-benzpyrene
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CRW Colorado River water
CUR carbon usage rate
DBP disinfectants/disinfection by-product
DDW distilled-deionized water
DE diatomaceous earth
DOC dissolved organic carbon
DOM dissolved organic matter
DWEL drinking water equivalent level
EBCT empty bed contact time
EDB ethylenedibromide
EEC European Economic Community
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPM electrophoretic mobility
ES effective size
ESWTR enhanced surface water treatment rule
FA fulvic acid
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FTN flavor threshold number
GWSS Ground Water Supply Survey
GAC granular activated carbon
GS-MS gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry
HA Health Advisory
HAAs haloacetic acids
HC hydrocarbon
HF hollow fiber
HMW high molecular weight
lARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
ICR Information Collection Rule
iep isoelectric point
LHH light halogenated hydrocarbons
LMM linearized multistate dose-response model
LOAEL lowest observed adverse effect level
MCL maximum contaminant level
MCLGs maximum contaminant level goals
MWDSC Metropolitan Water District of Southern California
MF membrane filter
mgad million gallons per acre per day
MIB 2-methylisobomeol
MTF multiple tube fermentation
NAS National Academy of Sciences
NDWR National Drinking Water Regulations
NOAEL no observed adverse effect level

XV
NORS National Organics Reconnaissance Survey
NSF National Sanitation Foundation
ntu nephelometric turbidity units
ODW Office of Drinking Water
0MB Office of Management and Budget
PAC powdered activated carbon
PAH polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
PD pore diffusion
PGAC pulverized granular activated carbon
PTA packed tower aeration
PVMPI poly-r-vinyl-N-methyl pyridonium iodide
PWS public water system
RfD reference dose
RSSCT rapid small-scale column test
SCSRC solids contact slurry recirculating clarifier
SDS simulated distribution system
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SMCLs secondary maximum contaminant levels
SOC synthetic organic chemicals
SPW [California] State Project water
SWTR Surface Water Treatment Rule
TFP trihalomethane formation potential
THM trihalomethane
THMFP trihalomethane formation potential
TOC total organic carbon
TOX total organic halide
TTHM total trihalomethanes
UC uniformity coefficient
UF ultrafiltration
USPHS United States Public Health Service
VOC volatile organic chemical
WHO World Health Organization

XVI
CHEMISTRY OF
WATER
TREATMENT
Second Edition
Chapter 1

Criteria and Standards for

Drinking Water Quality

A. History of Drinking Water Standards................................................................................................................................ 3

B. Evolution of Federal Standards..........................................................................................................................................3
1. Early Standards.............................................................................................................................................................. 3
a. 1 9 1 4 ..........................................................................................................................................................................3
b. 1925 ..........................................................................................................................................................................4
c. 1942 ..........................................................................................................................................................................4
d. 1946 ..........................................................................................................................................................................4
e. 1962 ..........................................................................................................................................................................4
2. Safe Drinking Water A c t .............................................................................................................................................. 4
a. Definitions................................................................................................................................................................ 4
b. Interim Primary Standards......................................................................................................................................7
c. Secondary Standards............................................................................................................................................... 7
3. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986 ........................................................................................................ 7
a. General Comments.................................................................................................................................................. 7
b. Drinking Water Priority List (DW PL)...................................................................................................................7
c. MCLGs and M C L s................................................................................................................................................. 7
d. Regulatory Basis of M CLGs...................................................................................................................................8
1. Noncarcinogens................................................................................................................................................. 8
2. Carcinogens......................................................................................................................................................14
e. Regulatory Basis of M CLs....................................................................................................................................16
f Compliance Monitoring Requirements...............................................................................................................16
g. USEPA Process for Establishing Standards........................................................................................................ 16
h. Federal (U.S.) Drinking Water Regulations........................................................................................................ 18
i. USEPA National Primary Drinking Water R egulations.................................................................................... 18
j. Surface Water Treatment Regulations..................................................................................................................18
1. Requirements to Avoid Filtration (SW T R )..................................................................................................25
2. Compliance Requirements for the SW T R .....................................................................................................26
3. Information Collection Rule (ICR)................................................................................................................ 26
4. Enhanced Surface Water Treatment R ule......................................................................................................27
k. Ground Water Disinfection Rule (G W D R )........................................................................................................28
l. Total Coliform R u le .............................................................................................................................................. 29
1. Monitoring Requirements............................................................................................................................... 29
2. Analytical Requirements................................................................................................................................ 29
m. Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) Rule—Phase 1..........................................................................................29
n. Synthetic Organic (SOCs) and Inorganic (lOCs)Chemicals Rule—Phase I I ..................................................29
o. Synthetic Organic and Inorganic Chemicals Rule— Phase V ........................................................................... 30
p. Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products (D/DBP)— Phase V ia ........................................................................ 31
q. Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products— PhaseV Ib ......................................................................................... 31
r. Radionuclide Rule— Phase III.............................................................................................................................. 31
s. Lead and Copper R ule...........................................................................................................................................31
t. A rsenic................................................................................................................................................................... 32
u. USEPA Secondary Drinking Water Regulations................................................................................................ 35
C. International Drinking Water Quality Regulations......................................................................................................... 35
1. Canadian Drinking Water G uidelines........................................................................................................................35
2. World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines.......................................................................................................35
3. European Economic Community (EEC) Drinking Water Directives..................................................................... 35
D. Contaminant Removal Effectiveness............................................................................................................................... 35
E. References..........................................................................................................................................................................46
 1
Criteria and Standards for
Drinking Water Quality

HISTORY OF DRINKING WATER Bacterium coli as an indicator organism.^ There was, how­
STANDARDS ever, previous concern about the levels of contaminants in
drinking water with the 1899 publication^ of the precursor
Man’s quest for pure water is neither a recent nor a mod­ to the present version of Standard Methods for the Exami­
em development. A compilation of medical lore in Sanskrit nation o f Water and Wastewater. Quality criteria and stan­
(circa 2000 bc) reads: “Impure water should be purified by dards initially were confined to drinking water. Recently,
being boiled over a fire, or being heated in the sun, or by however, attempts have been made to apply these concepts
dipping a heated iron into it, or it may be purified by filtra­ to other uses of water such as its recreational and esthetic
tion through sand and coarse gravel and then allowed to uses, its use as a medium for fish and other aquatic life, its
cool.” ^ This statement included the essentials of modem agricultural uses, and its value as an industrial resource.
water treatment; namely, disinfection and sand filtration. It These additional water quality criteria were reported first
also implies that water is a vector for transmission of impu­ in 1968 in the so-called “Green Book” entitled Water Qual­
rities and diseases. Hippocrates, the father o f medicine ity Criteria.^
(460-377 Bc), expressed concern about water quality when
he said that “water contributed much to health,” and as­
serted that rainwater should be boiled and strained, for oth­ EVOLUTION OF FEDERAL STANDARDS
erwise it would have a bad smell and cause hoarseness. In 1893, the U.S. Congress enacted the Interstate Quar­
Herodotus, an early Greek historian, reports that when war­ antine Act, which authorized the United States Public Health
ring, Cyms the Great, King of Persia, took boiled water in Service (USPHS) Director^ “to make and enforce such regu­
silver flagons loaded on four-wheeled carts drawn by mules. ^ lations as in his judgment are necessary to prevent the intro­
This too implies the ancients’ concern for water quality, duction, transmission, or spread of communicable disease
and suggests that the silver flagons were used for their from foreign countries into the states or possessions, or from
disinfective property. one state or possession to any other state or possession.”
History also records some early epidemics of waterborne This act provided the basis for interstate quarantine regu­
diseases; then, the infamous 1854 cholera outbreak in Lon­ lations in 1894. However, the first water-related regulation
don, England, and later, typhoid epidemics in the United was not adopted until 1912, when use of the common drink­
States reported at Butler, Plymouth, New Haven, Nanticoke, ing cup was prohibited on interstate carriers. This led later
and Reading, that involved 39,029 cases with 361 deaths.^ to a consideration of the quality of drinking water on inter­
By the early 1900s, it was fairly obvious that drinking wa­ state carriers.
ter contained physical, chemical, and biological impurities
that impaired its quality. “Modem” water treatment prob­
ably started with the filtration of municipal supplies in Scot­ Early Standards
land in 1804 and in England in 1829 for the Chelsea Water 1914
Company of London.^ By 1900, there were approximately On October 14, 1914, the Department of the Treasury
10 slow sand water filtration plants in the United States.* It promulgated a basis for federal, state, and local monitor­
was not until 1914 that any expression of water quality ing of drinking water on interstate carriers. Two bacterial
standards was noted, with the introduction of testing for standards were established: (a) a total bacterial count on
 Chemistry of Water Treatment

agar plate was not to exceed 100/mL; and (b) not more than Administration, U.S. Geological Survey, and 12 national
one of five 10-mL portions shall show the presence of B. transportation, technical, professional, and trade associa­
coll The latter was less than 2.2/100 mL by the dilution tions. The 1962 standards recommended maximum limiting
technique. Thus, the concept of a maximum contaminant concentrations for alkyl benzene sulfonates (synthetic de­
level (MCL) was bom. tergents), barium, cadmium, carbon-chloroform extract (an
approximate organic content), cyanide, nitrate, and silver.
1925 Radioactivity standards were added (Table 1.1). The 1962
standards were very important precursors for the interim
In order to reflect those water treatment systems with
drinking water standards of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water
excellent records of preventing waterborne diseases, the
Act (SDWA) (Public Law 93-523).
coliform standard was revised to: (a) not more than 10% of
all 10-mL portions shall show the presence of B. coli (i.e.,
less than 1/100 mL) and (b) not more than 5% of all samples Safe Drinking Water Act
shall show the presence of B. coli in three or more of the This act regulating drinking water quality was estab­
five 10-mL portions. The latter did not specify the total num­ lished in a three-step process. First, the U.S. Environmen­
ber of samples, and the fi*equency of sampling within a given tal P rotection A gency (EPA) prom ulgated interim
system (Table 1.1) was established also in 1925 with rec­ regulations based on the 1962 Public Health Service stan­
ommended and tolerance limits. It is interesting to note that dards.^“*®Also included were MCL and minimum monitor­
the 0.3 mg/L standard for iron is still in effect in the 1900s! ing frequencies. These regulations became effective on June
24, 1977,** and included limits for 10 inorganic and 6 or­
1942 ganic chemicals, turbidity, coliform bacteria and radionu­
The USPHS established an advisory committee in 1941 clides. The second step consisted o f a two-year study
to revise the 1925 standards. Deliberations of this group led conducted by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS)
to several significant revisions in the bacteriological and intended to gather basic information on all contaminants in
chemical standards. First, bacteriological samples were to drinking water that may have an adverse impact on man­
be obtained from several locations within a distribution sys­ kind.** In the third step, the EPA promulgated more com­
tem, and the frequency of sampling was to be specified by prehensive regulations, and, in addition, revised primary
the “certifying authority,” i.e., a minimum number, depen­ drinking water regulations following the results of the NAS
dent on population served, to be examined per month. The study and other research activities.
coliform count remained at 1/100 mL. Second, tolerance lim­
its (MCL in the 1900s) were established for arsenic, fluo­ Definitions
ride, lead, and selenium (Table 1.1). The health hazards of
Public Law 93-523 provided some relevant definitions,
metals were recognized, with the expressed omission of
some of which are:^ *®
barium and hexavalent chromium fi*om distribution systems.
Third, recommended limits were established for chloride,
1. “Contaminant” means any physical, chemical, bio­
copper, iron plus manganese, magnesium, phenols, sulfate,
logical, or radiological substances or matter in water.
zinc and total solids. These limits should not be exceeded
2. “Maximum contaminant level” means the maxi­
“when more suitable water supplies are available.” mum permissible level of a contaminant in water
that is delivered to the free-flowing outlet of the
1946 ultimate user of a public water system, except in
Drinking water standards published in 1946 were essen­ the case of turbidity, where the maximum permis­
tially the same as the 1942 standards, with the exception sible level is measured at the point of entry to the
that a tolerance limit was added for hexavalent chromium. distribution system. Contaminants added to the
Also, utilization of salts of barium, C r^, heavy metal glu- water under circumstances controlled by the user,
cosides, and other substances were prohibited in water treat­ except those resulting from corrosion of piping and
plumbing caused by water quality, are excluded
ment processes. Later, use of the membrane filter procedure
from this definition.
for the bacteriological examination of water samples was
3. “Person” means an individual, corporation, com­
authorized by an amendment of the 1946 standards (Fed­
pany, association, partnership, state, municipal, or
eral Register, March 1, 1957).
federal agency.
4. “Public water system” means a system for the pro­
1962 vision to the public of piped water for human con­
An advisory committee was appointed in the early 1960s sumption, if such system has at least 15 service
that included persons from the USPHS, Food and Drug connections or regularly serves an average of at
Table 1.1. Development of the U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards.
A. Bacteriological Constituents
Criterion 1914 1925 1942 1946 1962
Frequency of sampling Not specified Not specified Specified by Regulated jointly by Same as 1946
certifying authority reporting agency and
certifying authority
Minimum number of Not specified Not specified A minimum number. Same as 1942 Same as 1942 except
samples to be dependent on for an Increased
examined In specified population served. number per population
period shall be examined served
each month
Laboratory procedures 1912 Standard 1923 Standard 1936 Standard Current edition of Current edition of
Methods Methods Methods Standard Methods Standard Methods I
Inspection of Not specified Not specified Subject to inspection Subject to Inspection Same as 1946 §
laboratories by certifying authority by certifying and Q.
reporting agencies
B. Physical Constituents II
Recommended Limit Tolerance Limit
(Concentration which should not be exceeded (Concentration in excess of those listed shall
when more suitable water supplies can be made available) constitute grounds for rejection of the supply)
Criterion 1914 1925 1942 1946 1962 1914 1925 1942 1946 1962 I
Color, units — 20, preferably — 20 15 — — 20 20® —
10 i
Odor, threshold Generally — — — Not ___ ___
Not 3, inoffensive
number acceptable objectionable objectionable
Residue: f
Filterable, mg/L — — — — 500 — — — ------ ------

Total, mg/L — — 500 500 — — — 1000 1000 —

Taste — Generally — Not Inoffensive — — Not — —

acceptable objectionable objectionable

Turbidity, units — — — 10 5 — — 10 10® —
Frequency of — Not specified Not specified Not specified At least once — — — —

sampling each week

Minimum number — Not specified Not specified Not specified Not specified ^ — _ _ —

of samples to be
examined in
specified period

CJl
Table 1.1. Development of the U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards (Continued).
C. Chemical Constituents
Recommended limit, mg/L Tolerance limit, mg/L
(Concentration which should not be exceeded (Concentration in excess of those listed shall
when more suitable water supplies are available) constitute grounds for rejection of the supply)
Substance 1914 1925 1942 1946 1962 1914 1925 1942 1946 1962
Alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) — — — — 0.5 — — — — —
Arsenic (AS) — — — — 0.01 — — 0.05 0.05 0.05
— — — — — — b b
Barium (Ba) 1.0
Cadmium (Cd) — — — — — — — — — 0.01
Carbon chloroform extract (CCE) — — — — 0.2 -- — — — —
Chloride (Cl) — 250 250 250 250 — — — — —
Chromium, hexavalent (Cr^^) — — — — — — — b 0.05 0.05
Copper (Cu) — — 3.0 3.0 1.0 — 0.2 — — —
Cyanide (CN) — — — — 0.01 — — — — 0.2
Fluoride (F)'^ — — — — 0.8-1.7" — — 1.0 1.5 1.4-2.4"
e e
?
— — — CD
Iron (Fe) 0.3 0.3 — — —
—
§
Lead (Pb) — — — — — 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.05 Co'

— — e e 0.05 ~ — — — —
Manganese (Mn)
—
Magnesium (Mg) — 100 125 125 — — — — — o
Nitrate (NO3) — — — — 45^ — — — — —
Phenols — — 0.001 0.001 0.001 — — — — —
Selenium (Se) — — — — — — — 0.05 0.05 0.01
Silver (Ag) — — — — — — — — — 0.05
Sulfate (SO4) — 250 250 250 250 — — — — —
Zinc (Zn) — — 15 15 5 — 5.0 — — —

D. Radioactivity, pc/L (Recommended limit^)

Substance 1914 1925 1942 1946 1962
Radium 226 (Ra^^«) 3
Strontium 90 (Sr®®) — 10
Cross beta activity — — 1000^
Alpha emitters
Filtered water only.
Not to be allowed in water in distribution system.
Dependent on annual average maximum daily air temperature over not less than a 5-year period.
Where fluoridation is practiced, minimum recommended limits are also specified.
Iron plus manganese should not exceed 0.3 mg/L.
If NO3 concentration exceeds 45 mg/L public should be warned against use of water for infant feeding.
Water supplies containing concentrations in excess of these limits will be approved if surveillance of total intakes of radioactivity from all sources indicates that such
intakes are within the limits recommended by the Federal Radiation Council for control action.
In absence of strontium 90 and alpha emitters.
 entena and Standards for Drinking Water Quaiity

least 25 individuals daily at least 60 days out of the also established by the USEPA under the 1974 SDWA.^^
year. Such term includes (1) any collection, treat­ These standards are seen in Table 1.3, they represent rea­
ment, storage, and distribution facilities under con­ sonable goals for drinking water quality. States were en­
trol of the operator of such system and used primarily couraged to establish regulations based on these guidelines.
in connection with such system; and (2) any collec­
tion or pretreatment storage facilities not under
such control that are used primarily in connection Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986
with such system. A public water system is either General Comments
a community water system or a noncommunity The SDWA of 1974 and the major amendments of 1986'^
water system.
required the USEPA to establish primary drinking water
The statement, “a system for the provision...
regulations that: (a) apply to public water systems (defined
regularly serves an average of at least 25 individu­
above); (b) “specify contaminants which, in the judgment
als daily at least 60 days out of the year” was used
of the administrator, may have any adverse effect on the
in the definition of a public water system to include
campgrounds, service areas, and other public ac­ health of persons;” and (c) specify maximum contaminant
commodations that are open for slightly less than levels for each substance and treatment techniques for their
three months each year. removal and control. In addition, the 1986 amendments
5. “Community water system” means a public water added six new sections to the SDWA and mandated the
system that serves at least 15 service connections establishment of a variety of new drinking water regula­
used by year-round residents or regularly serves at tions according to specific timetables.
least 25 year-round residents. Significant revisions were made to the National Drink­
6. “Noncommunity water system” means a public ing Water Regulations (NDWR) (Section 1412 of PL 99-
water system that is not a community water system. 339). M aximum contam inant level goals (MCLGs—
nonenforceable health goals) and MCLs must be established
Public water systems were subdivided into community for 83 contaminants (Table 1.4). In addition, MCLGs and
and noncommunity systems in order to relax the require­ MCLs must be established for 25 contaminants selected
ments of noncommunity systems in meeting the regulations. from a priority list to be prepared by the USEPA and up­
The possible health effects of a contaminant in drinking water dated every 3 years (Table 1.5a). Criteria must be estab­
consumed regularly over a long period of time are often quite lished under which filtration is required for public systems
different from those in water that is consumed occasionally. using surface water sources. Also, disinfection is required
Thus, it is not imperative that the water consumed by tran­ of all public water supplies.
sients from noncommunity systems be of the same quality
as the water consumed by residents; that is, precautions
should be taken to prevent the occurrence of contaminants
Drinking Water Priority List (DWPL)
(e.g., nitrate) which may pose a potential health hazard from Under Section 1412(b)(3), the USEPA is required to de­
short-term exposure. velop a list of contaminants that are known or anticipated
Noncommunity systems include: hotels, motels, schools, to occur in public water systems. Hazardous substances
service stations, highway rest areas, campgrounds, and other are defined in the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
public accommodations that have their own water systems Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), and pesticides
with at least 15 service connections, or that serve water to a registered under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Ro-
daily average of at least 25 people. There are an estimated denticide Act (FIFRA) must be considered. Also, the
200,000 noncommunity systems in the United States, but DWPL must include any contaminant removed from the
they are not the principal source of drinking water for their original list of 83 (Table 1.4). The 1991 DWPL is seen in
customers. Table 1.5a from which MCLGs and MCLs must be pro­
mulgated by January 22, 1993 for a minimum of 25 con­
Interim Primary Standards taminants. Table 1.5b gives an updated (1995) list of this
1993 mandate for these 25 contaminants.^^^
Interim standards (Table 1.2) were established in 1975^®
and amended in 1976,^^ 1979,^^ and 1980.^'* These interim
standards were essentially identical to the 1962 USPHS stan­ MCLGs and MCLs
dards, for which the USEPA was criticized severely. Section 1412(b)(3) authorized the USEPA administrator
to publish MCLGs and promulgated MCLs for each con­
Secondary Standards taminant that “may have any adverse effect on human health
Nonenforceable guidelines for contaminants that may and that is known or anticipated to occur in public water
adversely affect the aesthetic quality of drinking water were systems.” The adverse health effect of a contaminant does
 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Table 1.2. National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations.

Contaminant MCL (enforceable)^
Organics
Endrin 0.0002 mg/L
Lindane 0.0004 mg/L
Methoxychlor 0.1 mg/L
Toxaphene 0.005 mg/L
2,4-D 0.1 mg/L
2,4,5-TP silvex 0.01 mg/L
Trihalomethanes (chloroform, bromoform, 0.10 mg/L
bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane)
Inorganics
Arsenic 0.05 mg/L
Barium 1.0 mg/L
Cadmium 0.010 mg/L
Chromium 0.05 mg/L
Fluoride 1.4-2.4 mg/L^ (ambient temp)
Lead 0.05 mg/L
Mercury 0.002 mg/L
Nitrate (as N) 10 mg/L
Selenium 0.01 mg/L
Silver 0.05 mg/L
Sodium and corrosion No MCL, monitoring and reporting only
Radionuclides
Radium 226 and radium 228 5 pCi/L^
Gross alpha particle activity 15 pCi/L*^
Beta particle and photon radioactivity 4 mrem® (annual dose equivalent)
MIcrobials
Conforms <1/100 mL
Turbidity 1 Tu' (up to 5 TU)
Monitoring and reporting for each contaminant also required.
Revised MCL and MCLG for fluoride are 4 mg/L.
5 pCi/L = '-0.19 Bq/L.
15 pCi/L = -0.56 Bq/L.
4 mrem = 4 pSv.
TU = turbidity unit.

not have to be proven conclusively prior to regulation. Table 1.3. National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations.
MCLGs are nonenforceable, health-based goals. They must Contaminant SMCL (nonenforceable)
be set at a level at which there is no known or anticipated
Chloride 250 mg/L
adverse effect on human health, and that allows for an ad­ Color 15 color units
equate margin of safety regardless of cost to reach these Copper 1 mg/L
goals. On the other hand, MCLs are enforceable standards Corrosivity Noncorrosive
and must be set as close to the MCLGs as feasible. Cost of Fluoride 2 mg/L
treatment techniques is a consideration in setting MCLs. Foaming agent 0.5 mg/L
Iron 0.3 mg/L
Manganese 0.05 mg/L
Regulatory Basis of MCLGs Odor 3 (threshold odor number)
Noncarcinogens pH 6.5-8.5
Sulfate 250 mg/L
The process of setting MCLGs for noncarcinogenic com­ Total dissolved solids 500 mg/L
pounds differs from the process employed for carcinogens. Zinc 5 mg/L
For noncarcinogens, MCLGs are based on “no effect” lev­
els for chronic lifetime periods of exposure. A safety factor
is included. For noncarcinogenic toxicity, an organism is
assumed to tolerate and detoxify some amount of a toxic Threshold is defined as that dose of a contaminant required
agent without an ill effect up to a certain threshold amount. to elicit a measurable biologic response. As the threshold is
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality

Table 1.4. Contaminants Regulated in USEPA Rules.^*

Rulemaking Contaminants Regulated Note
VOCs (Phase I) Benzene® MCLGs and MCLs have been established for
Carbon tetrachloride® eight VOCs.
para-Dichlorobenzene®
1,2-Dichloroethane®
1.1 -Dichloroethylene®
1.1.1 -Trichloroethane®
Trichloroethylene®
Vinyl chloride®
Monitoring Only
List 1 The 34 compounds in List 1 must be monitored
Bromobenzene by all systems.
Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Bromomethane
Chlorobenzene
Chlorodibromomethane
Chlorethane
Chloroform
Chloromethane
o-Chlorotoluene
p-Chlorotoluene
Dibromomethane
m-Dichlorobenzene
o-Dichlorobenzene
trans-^ ,2-Dichloroethylene
c/s-1,2-Dichloroethylene
Dichloromethane
1.1- Dichloroethane
1.2- Dichloropropane
1.3- Dlchloropropane
2.2- Dichloropropane
1,1-Dichloropropene
1.3- Dlchloropropene
Ethylbenzene
Styrene
1.1.1.2- Tetrachloroethane
1.1.2.2- Tetrachloroethane
Tetrachloroethylene
1.1.2- Trichloroethane
1.2.3- Trichloropropane
Toluene
p-Xylene
o-Xylene
m-Xylene
List 2 The two compounds in List 2 must be
Ethylene dibromide (EDB) monitored by systems vulnerable to
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP) possible contamination.
List 3 The 15 compounds in List 3 may be
Bromochloromethane monitored by systems at state’s discretion.
n-Butylbenzene
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Fluorotrichloromethane
Hexachlorobutadlene
Isopropylbenzene
p-lsopropylbenzene
Naphthalene
n-Propylbenzene
sec-Butylbenzene
10 Chemistry of Water Treatment

tert-Butylbenzene
1.2.3- Trichlorobenzene
1.2.4- Trichlorobenzene
1.2.4- Trimethylbenzene
1.3.5-Trimethylbenzene
Fluoride Fluoride® MCLG and MCL have been revised.
Surface Water Turbidity® Treatment technique requirements have been
Treatment Rule Heterotrophic plate count® established for surface waters and ground-
Viruses® waters determined to be under the direct
Giardia iamblia^ influence of surface water.
Legioneila^
Total Coliform Rule Total coliform bacteria® Total coliform MCL revised based on
Fecal coliform bacteria presence-absence test.
E. coli
Lead and Copper Lead® Treatment technique requirements have been
Copper® set In place of MCLs.
SOCs and lOCs Inorganics MCLGs and MCLs have been set for 36
(Phase II) Asbestos® contaminants.
Barium®
Cadmium®
Chromium®
Mercury®
Nitrate®
Nitrite®
Selenium®
Volatiles
c/s-1,2-Dichloroethylene®
1,2“Dichloropropane®
Ethylbenzene
Monochlorobenzene®
o-Dichlorobenzene®
Styrene®
Tetrachloroethylene®
Toluene®
trans-^ ,2-Dichloroethylene®
Xylenes (total)®
Pesticides, herbicides, PCBs
Alachlor®
Aldicarb®
Aldicarb sulfone®
Aldicarb sulfoxide®
Atrazine®
Carbofuran®
Chlordane®
DIbromochloropropane (DBCP)®
2,4-D
Ethylene dibromide (EDB)®
Heptachlor®
Heptachlor epoxide®
Lindane®
Methoxychlor®
PCBs®
Pentachlorophenol®
Toxaphene®
2.4.5- TP (Silvex)®
Treatment chemicals Treatment technique has been set in lieu
Acrylamide® of MCLs.
Epichlorophydrin®
Monitoring Only
Organics All systems must monitor unless a vulnerability
Aldrin assessment determines the system Is not
vulnerable.
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 11

Benzo(a)pyrene
Butachlor
Carbaryl
Dalapon
Di“2(ethylhexyl) adipate
Di-2{ethylhexyl) phthalates
Dicamba
Dieldrin
Dinoseb
Diquat
Endothal
Glyphosate
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
3-Hydroxycarbofuran
Methomyl
Metolachlor
Metribuzin
Oxamyl (vydate)
Picloram
Propachlor
Simazine
2.3.7.8- TCDD (dioxin)
Inorganics
Antimony^
Beryllium®
Cyanide®
Nickel®
Sulfate®
Thallium®
SOCs and IOC Inorganics MCLGs and MCLs have been set for 23
(Phase V) Antimony® contaminants.
Beryllium®
Cyanide®
Nickel®
Thallium®
Organics
Benzo(a)pyrene®
Dalapon®
Di-2(ethylhexyl) adipate®
Di-2(ethylhexyl) phthalate®
Dichloromethane (methylene chloride)®
Dinoseb®
Diquat®
Endothal®
Endrin®
Glyphosate®
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene®
Oxamyl (vydate)®
Picloram®
Simazine®
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene®
1,1,2-Trichloroethane®
2.3.7.8- TCDD (Dioxin)®
Radionuclides Radon®
Radium-226®
Radium-228®
Uranium®
Alpha emitters®
Beta and photon emitters®
12 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Arsenic Arsenic (total)®

Sulfate Sulfate
Groundwater disinfection Viruses® Treatment technique is required by SDWA.
Heterotrophic plate count®
D/DBP Disinfectants List of contaminants to be regulated has not yet
Chlorine been finalized, but these are the most likely to
Chloramine be regulated.
Chlorine dioxide
Inorganic By-Products
Chlorate
Chlorite
Bromate
Organic By-Products
Total trihalomethanes
Chloroform
Bromoform
Bromodichloromethane
Dibromochloromethane
Trichloroacetic acid
Dichloroacetic acid
Total haloacetic acids
Chloral hydrate
Balance of the List of contaminants to be regulated has not yet
DWPL.25 been finalized.
(Phase VIb) Inorganics MCLs are expected for at least 13
Boron contaminants.
Manganese
Molybdenum
Zinc
Organics
Acifluorfen
Acrylonitrile
Bromomethane
Cyanazine
Total mixture of 2,4- and 2,6-dinitrotoluene
Ethylene thiourea (ETU)
Hexachlorobutadiehe
1.3- Dichloropropene
1.3- Trichloropropene
® Included In the 1986 SDWA list of 83 contaminants.

exceeded, the extent of the response will be a function of These uncertainty factors are used to account for differences
the dose applied and the length of time exposed. in toxicity response within humans and between humans and
For noncarcinogenic contaminants, the “no effect” level animals. Compensation is made for such factors as intra-
is known as the reference dose (RfD) (previously referred and interspecies variability, the existence of weak or insuf­
to as acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). The RfD represents ficient data, possible synergistic effects, and other factors.
the exposure level that is thought to have no significant The NAS guidelines'^ for the uncertainty factors are:
risk to humans when a contaminant is ingested daily over
a lifetime. Available human and animal toxicity data are • An uncertainty factor of 10 should be used when
revised for a given substance that identifies the highest good acute or chronic human exposure data are
no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) or the lowest- available and supported by acute or chronic data in
observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL). In turn, the RfD other species.
is calculated from: • An uncertainty factor of 100 should be used when
good acute or chronic data are available for one
NOEL or LOAEL species but not for humans.
RfD = mg / kg body weight / day • An uncertainty factor of 1000 should be used when
Uncertainty Factors' acute or chronic data in all species are limited or
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 13

Table 1.5a. 1991 Drinking Water Priority List.^‘

Inorganics SOCs, continued
Aluminum Chlorination-chloramination by-products
Boron (misc.), e.g., haloacefic acids, haloketones,
Chloramines chloral hydrate, MX-2 [3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-
Chlorate 5-hydroxy-2 (SH)-furanone], /V-organochloramlnes
Chlorine Chloroethane
Chlorine dioxide Chloroform
Chlorite Chloromethane
Cyanogen chloride Chloropicrin
Hypochlorite ion o-Chlorotoluene
Manganese p-Chlorotoluene
Molybdenum Dibromoacetonitrile
Strontium Dibromochloromethane
Vanadium Dibromomethane
Zinc DIchloroacetonitrile
Pesticides 1,3-Dichlorobenzene
Asulam DIchlorodIfluoromethane
Bentazon 1,1-Dichloroethane
Bromacil 2,2-Dichloropropane
Cyanazine 1,3-Dichloropropane
Cyromazine 1,1-Dlchloropropene
DCPA (and its acid metabolites) 1,3-Dichloropropene
DIcamba 2,4-Dinltrophenol
Ethylenethlourea 2,4-Dinltrotoluene
Fomesafen 2,6-Dinitrotoluene
Lactofen/acifluorfen 1,2-Dlphenylhydrazine
Metalaxyl Fluorotrichloromethane
Methomyl Hexachlorobutadiene
Metolachlor Hexachloroethane
Metrlbuzin Isophorone
Parathlon degradation product (4-nltrophenol) Methyl ethyl ketone
Prometon Methyl isobutyl ketone
2,4,5-T Methyl-f-butyl ether
Thiodicarb Naphthalene
Trifluralin Nitrobenzene
SOCs Ozone by-products, e.g., aldehydes, epoxides,
Acrylonitrile peroxides, nitrosamines, bromate, iodate
Bromobenzene 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane
Bromochloroacetonitrile 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Bromodichloromethane Tetrahydrofuran
Bromoform Trichloroacetonitrile
Bromomethane 1,2,3-Trlchloropropane
Microbials
Cryptosporidium

incomplete. Other uncertainty factors can be used to When an MCLG for a noncarcinogen is determined, con­
account for other variations in the available data. tributions from other sources of exposure, including air and
food, are considered also. When sufficient data are avail­
A drinking water equivalent level (DWEL) is calculated able from other sources, the MCLG is calculated from:
using the RfD. A DWEL represents a lifetime exposure at
which adverse health effects are not anticipated to occur. MCLG = RfD - food contribution - air contribution
This assumes 100% exposure from drinking water:
In cases where exposure data are not readily available from
DWEL _ RfD, mg / kg day x body weight (70 kg) other sources, the MCLG is determined from:
mg / L UF X 2 L / day (daily consumption of water)
MCLG =
DWEL X percentage drinking water contribution
14 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Table 1.5b. Preliminary List of Contaminants Included in Phase Vib.^

Expected Expected Expected
Contaminant tng/L mg/L BAT
Inorganics
Boron 0.6 to 1 0.6 to 1 LS, IE, RO, NF
Manganese 0.2 0.2 IE, LS, OF
Molybdenum 0.04 0.04 IE, RO, NF
Zinc 2 2 LS, RO, NF
Pesticides
Acifluorfen Zero 0.002 GAC
Bromomethane 0.01 0.01 PTA
Cyanazine 0.001 0.001 GAC
Dicamba 0.2 0.2 GAC
1,3-Dichloropropene Zero 0.0006 GAC, PTA
Ethylene thiourea (ETA) Zero 0.025 GAC
Methomyl 10.2 0.2 GAC
Metolachlor 0.1 0.1 GAC
Metribuzin 0.2 0.2 GAC
Trifluralin 0.005 0.005 GAC
Other SOCs
Acrylonitrile 2,4- and Zero 0.003 PTA
2,6-Dlnitrotoluene
(total mixture) Zero 0.003 GAC
Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) 0.001 0.001 GAC, PTA
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane 0.07 0.07 PTA
1,2,3-Trichloropropane (TCP) Zero 0.0008 GAC, PTA
Unregulated monitoring
Bromacil NA NA NA
Prometen NA NA NA
Methyl-i-butyl-ether NA NA NA
LS—lime-softening; IE—ion exchange; RO—reverse osmosis; NF—nanofiltration; OF—oxidation and filtra­
tion; GAC—granular activated carbon; PTA—packed-tower aeration; NA—not applicable (monitoring only).

A conservative value of 20% is usually used in these situa­ zero-effect exposure dose has been demonstrated for car­
tions. This provides an additional safety factor of 5 that cov­ cinogens. Consequently, the exposure of humans to any
ers most of the regulated contaminants. amount of a potential carcinogen represents some finite level
of risk. However, such a risk could be extremely small at
Carcinogens very low doses.
Since human epidemiology data usually cannot define
A two-phase process determines the MCLG no-effect cause and effect relationships and human health effects data
levels for contaminants that may have cancer-causing po­ are not known for many contaminants, the potential risk to
tential (carginogenicity). First, the toxicological database humans is estimated from the response of laboratory ani­
for noncarcinogenic toxicity is assessed for factors that af­ mals to the contaminant.^® The underlying assumption is that
fect absorption o f the contam inant w hen ingested effects observed in animals may also occur in humans. Need­
(pharamacokinetics-metabolic changes), mutagenicity (ca­ less to say, this is extremely controversial. Nonetheless, the
pacity to cause or induce permanent changes in genetic ma­ USEPA has been guided by the following principles recom­
terial), and reproductive and developm ental effects. mended in 1977 by the NAS:^®
Secondly, the carcinogenic potential is assessed directly by
either long-term bioassay studies with animals (e.g., rodents) Principle 1: Effects in animals, properly qualified,
or indirectly by mutagenicity and other short-term tests. The are applicable to humans.
onset of cancer in humans is difficult to evaluate because it Principle 2: Methods do not now exist to establish a
is a multistage event. Consequently, a threshold effect for threshold for long-term effects of toxic
carcinogens has not been demonstrated experimentally, ac­ agents.
cording to the 1977 report of the NAS Safe Drinking Water Principle 3: The exposure of experimental animals to
Committee. This led to a policy assumption that, indeed, a toxic agents in high doses is a necessary
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 15

and valid method of discovering pos­ fice of Drinking Water considers results of carcinogenicity
sible carcinogenic hazards in humans. evaluations by its own researchers as well as those from the
Principle 4: Material should be assessed in terms of International Agency for Research on Cancer (lARC) and
human risk, rather than “safe” or “un­ the NAS. All of this unnecessarily confuses the issue.
safe.” Nonetheless, MCLGs must be established for those con­
taminants with a potential human health risk. For Category I
These principles serve as a basis for an assessment of (group A or B) substances, the MCLG is set at zero (zero is
such irreversible human health effects as carcinogenicity, not a number, but a concept, as in “none”). This MCLG is
for regulatory purposes. based upon strong evidence of carcinogenicity from the dc(h
In 1986, the USEPA established guidelines for classifi­ propriate toxicological database and upon the scientific con­
cation of contaminants based on the w^eight of evidence of sensus that safe threshold levels for carcinogens have not been
carcinogenicity:^’ demonstrated. Interestingly, this initiative comes from congres­
sional guidance and not from any language in the SDWA.^®
Group A: Human carcinogen (sufficient from epide­
Category II contaminants, possible human carcinogens,
miological studies)
are not regulated as human carcinogens, but are treated more
Group B: Probable human carcinogen
conservatively than Category III noncarcinogens. Two op­
Group Bl: At least limited evidence of carcinogenic­
ity to humans tions are available for Category II substances because the
Group B2: Usually a combination of sufficient evi­ method of establishing MCLGs is much more complex than
dence in animals and inadequate data in the other two categories. These options are: first the MCLG
humans is based on the RfD plus an additional uncertainty factor of
Group C: Possible human carcinogen (limited evi­ 1 to 10 to account for evidence o f possible carcinogenicity:
dence of carcinogenicity in animals in the 1-10; other considerations (such as significance o f the ad­
absence of human data) verse health effect, pharmacokinetic factors, or quality of
Group D: Not classified (inadequate animal evidence available data) may necessitate use of an additional uncer­
of carcinogenicity) tainty factor.
Group E: No evidence of carcinogenicity for humans The second option for calculation of an MCLG is based
(no evidence of carcinogenicity in at least on a lifetime risk from 10“^ (1 in 10^ persons) to 10“^ (1 in
two adequate animal tests in different spe­ 10^ persons) that an individual would get cancer.
cies or in both epidemiological and animal When sufficient chronic toxicity data are available, the
studies) first option is used. An MCLG is based on an RfD and
DWEL following the method described above for Category
These guidelines are used internally by the USEPA to III contaminants. An additional uncertainty factor is added.
classify contaminants of regulatory concern. In turn, a If there are insufficient data to use option 1, then the MCLG
contaminant’s carcinogenicity determines how the USEPA is based on a risk calculation, provided sufficient data are
establishes an MCLG for that compound. A three-category available from lifetime exposure studies in animals that are,
approach is used to set MCLGs based on the weight of in turn, manipulated using a linearized multistate dose-re­
evidence of carcinogenicity via consumption of drinking sponse model (LMM).^^^^ This model uses dose-response
water. These three categories are:
data to calculate a human carcinogenic potency factor (Qi *),
which is used to determine the drinking water concentration
Evidence of
Carcinogenicity associated with theoretical upperbound excess cancer risks
Category via Ingestion Setting MCLG of 10^, 10“^, and 10“^. The equation is:
1 Strong Set at zero
II Limited or Calculate based on Drinking water concentration ^ (10~^)(70kg)
equivocal RfD plus added m g /L (q i* )(2 L /D ) ( 1)
safety margin or
set within cancer
risk range of 10“^ where 10“’' = risk level (x = 4, 5, or 6); 70 kg = assumed
to 10"^ adult body weight; qj * = (pg/kg/day)“’; and 2L/D = assumed
III Inadequate or Calculate RfD adult water consumption rate. It should be noted that there
none
are a large number of uncertainties in establishing MCLGs
for Category II contaminants, the possible human carcino­
The cancer classification listed above does not necessarily gens. For example, the potency factors (q,*) have limited
determine the regulatory category, since the USEPA’s Of­ availability.
16 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Regulatory Basis of MCLs gins on January 1, 1993 and ends on December 31, 2001.
MCLs are enforceable standards by the USEPA and the Within the first cycle, the first compliance period begins Janu­
appropriate state regulatory agencies. Section 1412(b)(4) ary 1,1993 and ends December 31,1995; the second begins
and (5) of the SDWA requires the establishment of MCLs January 1, 1996 and ends December 31, 1988; the third be­
“as close to the MCLGs as feasible, with the use of the best gins January 1, 1999 and ends December 31, 2001.^^ Each
available technology (BAT) treatment techniques, and other state may establish its own monitoring plan and priorities ac­
means that are available, taking cost into consideration.”^^ cording to its own criteria, subject, of course, to USEPA ap­
Also, Section 1412(a)(3) mandates that an MCLG be pro­ proval. Details of these considerations are found in References
posed and promulgated simultaneously with the correspond­ 25,26, and 27. Compliance monitoring requirements for con­
ing MCL. The USEPA accom plishes this for each taminants regulated on January 1, 1993 are summarized in
contaminant by preparing separate support documents on Figure 1.1.^^ Whenever a new regulation is established, the
the occurrence and human exposure, health effects and toxi­ USEPA will require the initial round of monitoring to begin
cology, analytical methods and monitoring, and treatment the first full three-year compliance period 18 months after the
technologies and costs. effective date of promulgation.
An example of this process is the volatile organic chemi­ Monitoring requirements may be reduced and even
cals (VOC) rule that became effective on January 9, 1989 waived in certain situations and for specific contaminants.
(originally published on July 8, \9%1)}^ MCLs were estab­ This is accomplished through each of the states monitoring
lished for eight VOCs that included designation of GAC plans, and with the approval of the USEPA. Details of these
adsorption and packed-tower stripping as BATs for seven of exceptions may be found in References 25 to 28.
the compounds. Packed-tower stripping was selected as the
BAT for vinyl chloride. These determinations were based USEPA Process for Establishing Standards
upon the demonstrated cost and efficiency of the treatment
A flow diagram for the bureaucratic development of regu­
methods. VOCs are regulated as known or probable car­
lations established by the USEPA is seen in Figure 1.2. All
cinogens (Category I) for which the MCLGs are zero. MCLs
of this involves interpretation of the various mandates and
for these compounds, are, of course, not zero, but are based
directives of the SDWA, technical and scientific assessments
upon a “reference risk range” of 10"^ to 10“^. The USEPA
to meet the SDWA requirements, preparation of regulations
considers that MCLs set within this range are “safe” levels
that blend the technical and scientific aspects with policy
and protective of human health. “Safe” generally means that
considerations, review of draft regulations within the agency,
adverse effects on human health are unlikely.
and review by the public draft and proposed regulations.
Technical and scientific assessments (Figure 1.2) re­
Compliance Monitoring Requirements quire support documents for each contaminant that, in turn,
Drinking water utilities are required to monitor raw and is prepared on: occurrence and human exposure, health
finished water supplies for each contaminant regulated by effects and toxicology, analytical methods and monitor­
the USEPA under the SDWA for compliance to their MCLs. ing, and treatment technologies and costs. Also, a regula­
Monitoring requirements vary according to type of contami­ tory impact assessment is prepared for each assessment.
nant, system size, vulnerability to contamination, and other The USEPA has conducted several national surveys of
factors. Consequently, the USEPA standardized monitoring public water systems, of which several have been completed:
in the promulgated Phase II (SOCs and lOCs) regulations.^^
In turn, this was synchronized with the Phase I VOCs re­ Community Water Supply Survey (1969 USPHS)^^
quirements, which are known as the standardized monitor­ National Organics Reconnaissance Survey (1975)^®
National Organics Monitoring Survey (1976-1977)^^
ing f r a m e w o r k .T h is framework was developed for
National Screening Program for Organics ( 1977-1981
source-related contaminants associated with chronic human
Community Water Supply Survey (1978)^^
health effects: VOCs, pesticides, radionuclides, and most
National Rural Water Survey (1978)^^
inorganic chemicals. Nitrate, nitrite, and microbial contami­
Ground Water Supply Survey (1980-1981)^^
nants are not included because they are associated with acute National Inorganics and Radionuclides Survey (1986)^"^
health effects. Also, monitoring for contaminants that are National Pesticides Survey (initiated in 1987)^^
regulated by a treatment technique instead of by an MCL
(lead, copper, turbidity, acrylamide, and epichlorohydrin), These surveys provide the national, statistically based
disinfectants, and disinfection by-products is not included. evaluation of the various contaminants found in raw and
All public water systems are subject to a nine-year com­ finished drinking waters. Unfortunately, some are outdated
pliance cycle, which is, in turn, divided into three three-year and in “unpublished” reports. Nonetheless, these data are
compliance periods. The first nine-year compliance cycle be­ employed as part of the decision process on which contami-
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 17

Asbestos
One sample at each sampling point No requirements No requirements
Base requirement

No samples required Not applicable Not applicable

Inorganics
Surface water base One sample at each sampling point each year One sample at each sampling point each year One sample at each sampling point each year
requirement

Groundwater base One sample at each sampling point each year

One sample at each samplirtg point each year One sample at each samplir>g point each year
requirement

One sample at each sampling point

VOCs
Base requirement Four quarterly samples at each sampling point

Reduced ntonitoring*^ One sample at each sampling point each year One sample at each sampling point each yeart Or>e sample at each samplir>g point each yearf

Waiver**
State discretion State discretion State discretion
Surface water

One sample at each sampling point Orw sample at each sampling point

Pesticides
Base requirenwnt Four quarterly samples at each sampling point Four quarterly samples at each sampling point Four quarterly samples at each sampling point

Reduced monitoring^
Systems >3,300 Not applicable Two samples at each sampling point two samples at each sampling point

Systems <3,300 Not applicable One sample at each sampling point One sample at each sampling point

Waivertt No samples required No samples required No samples required

Unregulated contaminants Four quarterly samples at each samplir>g point Not applicable Not applicabte
Organics

inorganics One sample at each sampling point Not applicable Not applicable

No samples required Not applicable Not applicable

Figure 1.1. Compliance monitoring requirements for contaminants regulated as of January 1, 1993. Waivers from asbestos
monitoring are available for all systems based on vulnerability assessment. ^ For all systems, states may waive the base
monitoring requirements after three samples lower than the MCL are taken. For all systems, reduced monitoring is allowed,
provided initial monitoring is completed by December 31, 1992, and no contamination was detected. ^ Groundwater systems may
be allowed to reduce monitoring to one sample at each sampling point per three-year compliance period after no detection in three
years of annual monitoring. ® Waivers are allowed, provided initial monitoring is completed by December 31, 1992, and no
contamination was detected. ^ Reduced monitoring is allowed for systems in which contamination has not been detected.^^)

nants should be regulated, and on the potential impact of in the series “Drinking Water and Health.” '^ Data from
their regulation. Obviously, monitoring requirements for human epidemiology studies, animal studies, and some­
these contaminants can be determined by the states, for those times human clinical studies were evaluated. The health
systems that may be affected. The occurrence documents effects assessment attempts to determine toxicology end­
include estimates of human exposure to various substances points. The following subjects are considered: carcinoge­
by such exposures from air and food. nicity, m utagenicity, teratology, pharm acokinetics,
The health effects documents provide a comprehensive absorption factors, and metabolism. Hopefully, all of these
review of available literature on the potential adverse hu­ evaluations lead to cancer risk estimates for carcinogens,
man health effects of the various contaminants in drinking and RflDs for noncarcinogens.
water. Some of these documents were published by the NAS Analytical methods and monitoring techniques are espe­
cially important in the regulation of contaminants in raw and
18 Chemistry of Water Treatment

tial national costs, other impacts, and benefits of proposed

and final regulations.
The reader is directed to Reference 35 for details o f the
intra-agency (USEPA) review process and public participa­
tion in regulation development. These are important in the
regulatory process of contaminants in drinking water.

Federal (U.S.) Drinking Water Regulations

Contaminants to be regulated by the 1986 SDWA amend­
ments are given in Table 1.4. A schedule o f development
for all current and anticipated regulations is summarized in
Table 1.6^^ that lists Federal Register citations for Ad­
vanced Notice for Proposed Rule Making (ANPRM) no­
tices, as well as for proposed and final rules. The dates
Figure 1.2. Development of draft USEPA regulations. Adapted given in Table 1.6 are based upon the USEPA’s regulatory
from Federal Register. agenda. These dates can change at any time, since priori­
ties change within the agency.

finished drinking waters. Many factors are considered in se­

lecting the appropriate analytical methods:
USEPA National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
• reliability (precision and accuracy) of the analytical Table 1.2 shows the interim primary drinking water
results (NIPDW) regulations that were enforceable MCLs until re­
• specificity in the presence of interferences vised. Final MCLGs and MCLs have been established and
• availability and performance of laboratories revised for a number of contaminants. Table 1.7 gives the
• rapidity of analysis for routine use. USEPA primary drinking water regulations that existed in
• cost of analysis 1996 and those that are proposed. Secondary maximum con­
taminant levels (SMCLs) are seen in Table 1.8.
Many documents are available that provide the requisite
guidance.
The treatment and costs document summarizes the avail­ Surface Water Treatment Regulations
ability and performance of the various treatment technolo­ Regulations for filtration, disinfection, turbidity, Giar-
gies that reduce contaminants in raw waters. Treatment costs dia lamblia, viruses, Legionella, and heterotrophic bacte­
have been determined for each best available technology ria (all are subject to primary drinking water regulations)
(BAT) for many sizes of water systems. The BATs are based were promulgated June 29,1989.^^ These regulations, known
upon a number of factors, some of which are: as the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), apply to all
public community and noncommunity water systems that
• have the highest efficiencies of removal employ surface water sources or groundwater sources un­
• are compatible with other types of water treatment der the direct influence of surface water. It is assumed that
processes all surface waters and groundwaters may be at risk from
• are available as manufactured items or components contamination by Giardia lamblia, viruses, and Legionella
• are not limited to application in a particular geo­ (Table 1.7). The USEPA recommends levels of turbidity and
graphic region heterotrophic plate count (HPC) to be as close to zero as
• have integrity for a reasonable service life as a public
possible. To date, MCLGs have not been formally estab­
work
lished for these two constituents.
• are reasonably affordable by large metropolitan or
Instead of MCLs, treatment requirements have been es­
regional systems
tablished for Giardia, viruses, HPC bacteria, Legionella,
• can be mass-produced and put into operation in time
and turbidity. Disinfection with or without filtration must
for implementation of regulations.
achieve at least 99.9% (3-log) removal or inactivation of
The regulatory impact assessment is required under Presi­ Giardia lamblia cysts and 99.99% (4-log) removal or inac­
dential Executive Order 12291 (Figure 1.2). This document tivation of viruses.
is submitted to the Office of Management and Budget Operating criteria have been established for those sys­
(OMB) for review. It contains an evaluation of the poten­ tems that have filtration currently or must install filtration
 36a
Table 1.6. Status of USERA Drinking Water Regulations.
Status of Promulgated USEPA Drinking Water Regulations.^®^
Possible
Final Rule Legal Congressional
Rule Published Status Activity Activity
Analytical Dec. 5, 1994 Rule effective Jan. 6, 1995
Methods (59 FR 62466)
Drinking Water Jan. 14, 1991 Revised list was due January New process for selecting
Priority List (59 FR 1470) 1994; USEPA decided not to contaminants for regulation
revise the list pending SDWA expected to replace current
reauthorization. SDWA requirement to regulate
25 contaminants every 3 years
Fluoride Apr. 2, 1986 Request for new information
published Jan. 3, 1990 §
(55 FR 160); USEPA decided
not to revise existing MCL: g-
0)
public comment on this decision :3
Q.
was requested Dec. 29, 1993: CO
final action delayed pending ST
resources &
Lead and June 7, 1991 USEPA is considering technical U.S. District Court ruled Dec. 6, Provisions limiting lead In certain
Copper (56 FR 26460); changes for proposal and 1994, on lawsuits filed by the materials and submersible pumps
correction notices promulgation In 1995. Natural Resources Defense may be added to SDWA.
published July 15, Council and AWWA; court i
1991 (56 FR 32112), upheld treatment technique
June 29, 1992 approach, ruled in favor of ÎQ
(57 FR 28785), AWWA. i
and June 30, 1994 ?
(59 FR 33860) o
Phase I VOCs July 8, 1987 Analytical methods and S
(52 FR 23690); monitoring revised In Phase
correction notices II; additional changes under
published July 1, 1988 consideration
(53 FR 25108), and
July 1, 1994
(59 FR 34320)
Phase II SOCs Final rule for 33 Changes regarding monitoring Petitions for review were filed Monitoring relief expected for
and lOCs contaminants published triggers and MDLs are under on four contaminants: U.S. small systems
Jan. 30, 1991 consideration. Court of Appeals ruling Aug.
(56 FR 3600); final 21, 1992 upheld USEPAs rule
rule for five in its entirety.
contaminants published
July 1, 1991
(56 FR 30266);
correction notice
 N
O)
published July 1, 1994
(59 FR 34320)
Phase V SOCs July 17. 1992 Changes regarding monitoring
and lOCs (57 FR 31776); triggers and MDLs are
correction notice under consideration.
published July 1,
1994 (59 FR 34320)
Surface Water June 29, 1989 Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule (54 FR 27488) Treatment Rule has been
proposed; separate guidance
for Cryptosporidium to be
developed
Total Coliform June 29, 1989 USEPA considering changes
Rule (54 FR 27547); to the rule
partial stay published
Jan. 15, 1991
(56 FR 1556)
Trihalomethanes Nov. 29 1979 Proposed D/DBP Rule to revise
(44 FR 68624); regulations for trihalomethanes 9CD
BAT established
Feb. 28, 1983
(48 FR 8406); O
analytical methods
revised Aug. 3, 1993
(58 FR 41344)
Status of Proposed USEPA Drinking Water Reguiations.^®^ 5*
0)
2CD
Possible Z3
Proposal Legal Congressional
Ruie Published Status Activity Activity
Disinfectants/ July 29, 1994 USEPA evaluating public Regulation deadlines may be
Disinfection (59 FR 38668) comments included in the reauthorized
By-products SDWA.
Enhanced Surface July 29, 1994 Public comments being Regulation deadlines may be
Water Treatment (59 FR 38832) accepted until May 30, 1996 included in the reauthorized
Rule SDWA.
Information Feb. 10, 1994 USEPA evaluating public Regulation deadlines may be
Collection Rule (59 FR 6332) comments; final rule expected included in the reauthorized
June 1995; monitoring to SDWA.
begin October 1995
Primacy Aug. 8, 1994 USEPA evaluating public
withdrawal (59 FR 40458) comments; final rule due
process June 1995
Table 1.6. Status of USEPA Drinking Water Regulations^^^ (Continued).
Radionuclides July 18, 1991 USEPA preparing final rule to Congress prohibited USEPA
(56 FR 33056) meet court-ordered deadline of from spending FY 1995 money
Apr. 30, 1995; radon to be to promulgate a radon standard.
delayed and regulated separately
Sulfate Dec. 20, 1994 Final rule due May 31, 1996 Congress may allow regulation of
(59 FR 65578) another contaminant of greater
health concern in place of sulfate.
Status of Anticipated USEPA Drinking Water Regulations.^^^ 2
Possible
Anticipated Legal Congressional Q)
:3
CL
Rule Schedule Status Activity Activity Co
Aldicarb, aldicarb Reconsideration Final rules set July 1, 1991 S“
:3
sulfone, and proposal expected (56 FR 30266); MCLs è
aldicarb early 1995 postponed May 27, 1991
sulfoxide (57 FR 22178); USEPA will
revise MCLs upward.
Arsenic Proposal due Nov. USEPA considering new MCL Delay of rule pending National Ì
30, 1995; final rule between 0.002 and 0.020 mg/L; Academy of Sciences study of $■
due Nov. 30, 1997 rule may be delayed because arsenic health effects Is possible.
of uncertainty over health effects. i
Groundwater Proposal due Aug. USEPA releasect draft rule
Disinfection 30, 1995; final July 31, 1992 (57 FR 33960); O
Rule (GWDR) rule due Aug. 30, agency reforming workgroup and e0)
1997 further delay expected; new
approaches to draft rule to be
considered
Monitoring To be determined USEPA workgroup being formed
triggers and to resolve issues regarding
MDLs monitoring triggers and MDLs
Phase VIb SOCs Proposal due USEPA informally released draft New process for selecting
and lOCs Feb. 28, 1995; rule In summer 1994. contaminants for regulation and
final rule due for setting standards is expected.
Feb. 28, 1997
Table 1.7. USEPA Drinking Water Standards and BAT for Regulated Contaminants.36a .~
MCLG MCL
Contaminant Regulation Status mg/L mg/L BAT"

Organics
Acrylamide Phase Final Zero n PAP
Alachlor Phase Final Zero 0.002 GAC
Aldicarb Phase Delayed 0.001 0.003 GAC
Aldicarb sulfone Phase Delayed 0.001 0.002 GAC
Aldicarb sulfoxide Phase Delayed 0.001 0.004 GAC
Atrazine Phase Final 0.003 0.003 GAC
Benzene Phase Final Zero 0.005 GAC, PTA
Benzo(a)pyrene Phase V Final Zero 0.0002 GAC
Bromodichloromethane D/DBP Proposed Zero NA EC
Bromoform 0/DBP Proposed Zero NA EC
Carbofuran Phase 11 Final 0.04 0.04 GAC
Carbon tetrachloride Phase I Final Zero 0.005 GAC, PTA
Chloral hydrate 0/DBP Proposed 0.04 n EC
Phase 11 Final Zero 0.002 GAC Q
Chlordane (I)

Chloroform D/DBP Proposed Zero NA EC

Phase 11 Final 0.07 0.07 GAC
~-
2,4-0 ~
Dalapon Phase V Final 0.2 0.2 GAC
Di(2-ethylhexyl} adipate Phase V Final 0.5 0.5 GAC, PTA
....0
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Phase V Final Zero 0.006 GAC ~
Dibromochloromethane 0/DBP Proposed 0.06 NA EC !ii
Dibromochloro-propane (DBCP) Phase 11 Final Zero 0.0002 GAC, PTA """'
Dichloroacetic acid 0/DBP Proposed Zero NA EC
at
Ill
p-Dichlorobenzene Phase I Final 0.075 0.075 GAC, PTA 3
(I)
a-Dichlorobenzene Phase 11 Final 0.6 0.6 GAC, PTA :a
1,2-Dichloroethane Phase I Final Zero 0.005 GAC, PTA
1, 1-Dichloroethylene Phase I Final 0.007 0.007 GAC, PTA
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene Phase 11 Final 0.07 0.07 GAC, PTA
trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene Phase 11 Final 0.1 0.1 GAC, PTA
Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) Phase V Final Zero 0.005 PTA
1,2-Dichloropropane Phase 11 Final Zero 0.005 GAC, PTA
Dinoseb Phase V Final 0.007 0.007 GAC
Diquat Phase V Final 0.02 0.02 GAC
Endothal Phase V Final 0.1 0.1 GAC
Endrin Phase V Final 0.002 0002 GAC
Epichlorohydrin Phase 11 Final Zero n PAP
Ethylbenzene Phase 11 Final 0.7 0.7 GAC, PTA
Ethylene dibromide (EDB) Phase 11 Final Zero 0.00005 GAC, PTA
Glyphosate Phase V Final 0.7 0.7 ox
Haloacetic acids 0/DBP
(sum of 5: HAA5)b Stage 1 Proposed 0.060 EC
Stage 2 Proposed 0.030 EC + GAC
Heptachlor Phase 11 Final Zero 0.0004 GAC
Table 1.7. USEPA Drinking Water Standards and BAT for Regulated (Continued).
MCLG MCL
Contaminant Regulation Status mglL mglL
Heptachlor epoxide Phase II Final Zero 0.0002 GAC
Hexachlorobenzene Phase V Final Zero 0.001 GAC
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Phase V Final 0.05 0.05 GAC, PTA
Lindane Phase II Final 0.0002 0.0002 GAC
Methoxychlor Phase II Final 0.04 0.04 GAC
Monochlorobenzene Phase II Final 0.1 0.1 GAC, PTA
Oxarnyl (vydate) Phase V Final 0.2 0.2 GAC
Pentachlorophenol Phase II Final Zero 0.001 GAC
Picloram Phase V Final 0.5 0.5 GAC
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Phase II Final Zero 0.0005 GAC
Simazine Phase V Final 0.004 0.004 GAC
Styrene Phase II Final 0.1 0.1 GAC, PTA
2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin) Phase V Final Zero 5 x 10" GAC
Tetrachloroethylene Phase II Final Zero 0.005 GAC, PTA
Toluene Phase II Final 1 1 GAC, PTA
Toxaphene Phase II Final Zero 0.005 GAC
2,4,5-TP (silvex) Phase II Final 0.05 0.05 GAC
Trichloroacetic acid DlDBP Proposed 0.3 NA EC
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Phase V Final 0.07 0.07 GAC, PTA
I, I ,l-Trichloroethane Phase I Final 0.2 0.2 GAC, PTA
1, I ,2-Trichloroethane Phase V Final 0.003 0.005 GAC, PTA
Trichloroethylene Phase I Final Zero 0.005 GAC, PTA
Trihalornethanes Interim Final NA 0.10 AD, PR, SPC
(sum of 4: l7HMs)' DlDBP
Stage 1 Proposed NA 0.080 EC
Stage 2 Proposed NA 0.040 EC + GAC
Vinyl chloride Phase I Final Zero 0.002 PTA
Xylenes (total) Phase II Final 10 10 GAC. PTA
lnorganics
Antimony Phase V Final 0.005 0.006 C-F,d RO
Arsenic Interim Final NA 0.05 NA~
Asbestos (fibers1L > 10 ym) Phase II Final 7 million fibers1L 7 million fiberslL C-F,d DF, DEF, CC
Barium Phase II Final 2 2 IX, RO, L S ~
Beryllium Phase V Final Zero 0.001 IX, RO, C-F,* LS,d AA, IX
Brornate DIDBP Proposed Zero 0.010 DC
Cadmium Phase II Final 0.005 0.005 C-F,d LS,d IX, RO
Chlorite DIDBP Proposed 0.08 1.O DC
Chromium (total) Phase II Final 0.1 0.1 C-F,d LS, (Cr Ill),d IX, RO
Copper LCR Final 1.3 TT CC, SWT
Cyanide Phase V Final 0.2 0.2 IX, RO, CI,
Fluoride Fluoride Final 4 4 AA, RO
Lead LCR Final Zero -IT CC, PE, SVVT, LSLR
Mercury Phase II Final 0.02 0.002 C-F (influent < 10 tig/L),'* LS,'*
GAC, RO (influent <10 pg/L)
Nickel Phase V Final 0.1 0.1 LS,'* IX, RO
Nitrate (as N) Phase II Final 10 10 IX, RO, ED
Nitrite (as N) Phase II Final 1 IX, RO
Nitrate + nitrite (both as N) Phase II Final 10 10 IX, RO
Selenium Phase II Final 0.05 0.05 C-F (Se IV),'* LS,'* AA, RO, ED
Sulfate Sulfate Proposed 500 500 RO, IX, ED
Thallium Phase V Final 0.0005 0.002 IX, AA
Radionuclides
Beta-particle and photon emitters Interim Final 4 mrem
Radionuclides Proposed Zero 4 mrem C-F, IX, RO
Alpha emitters Interim Final 15 pCI/L
Radionuclides Proposed Zero 15 pCI/L C-F, RO
Radium-226 + Radium-228 Interim Final 5 pCl/L
Radium-226 Radionuclides Proposed Zero 20 pCI/L LS,'* IX, RO
Radium-228 Radionuclides Proposed Zero 20 pCI/L LS,'* IX, RO
Radon Radionuclides Proposed Zero 300 pCI/L AR o
Uranium Radionuclides Proposed Zero 20 ng/L C-F,'* LS,'* AX CD
Microbials g.
Co
Cryptosporidium ESWTR Proposed Zero TT C-F, SSF, DEF, DF, D
E. coli TCR Final Zero g D o■-S
Fecal conforms TCR Final Zero g D
Giardia lamblia SWTR Final Zero TT C-F, SSF, DEF, DF, D
cB
I“
Heterotrophic bacteria SWTR Final® TT C-F, SSF, DEF, DF, D
Legionella SWTR Final® Zero TT C-F, SSF, DEF, DF, D
f CD
Total conforms TCR Final Zero D Q)

Turbidity SWTR Final PS C-F, SSF, DEF, DF, D §■

Viruses SWTR Final® Zero TT C-F, SSF, DEF, DF, D §
AA—activated alumina; AD—alternative disinfectants; AR—aeration; AX—anion exchange; CC—corrosion control; C-F—coagulation and filtration; CI2—chlorination;
D—disinfection; DC—disinfection system control; DBF—diatomaceous earth filtration; DF—direct filtration; EC—enhanced coagulation; ED—electrodialysis; GAC—
granular activated carbon; IX—ion exchange; LS—lime softening; LSLR—lead service line replacement; NA—not applicable; OX—oxidation; PAP—polymer addition
practices; PE—public education; PR—precursor removal; PS—performance standard; PTA—packed-tower aeration; RO—reverse osmosis; SPC—stop prechlorination;
SSF—slow sand filtration; SWT—source water treatment; TT—^treatment technique.
Sum of the concentrations of mono-, di-, and trichloroacetic acids and mono- and dibromoacetic acids.
Sum of the concentrations of bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, bromoform, and chloroform.
Coagulation-filtration and lime softening are not BAT for small systems for variances unless treatment Is already installed.
Final for systems using surface water: also being considered for groundwater systems.
No more than 5% of the samples per month may be positive. For systems collecting fewer than 40 samples per month, no more than 1 sample per month may be
positive.
If a repeat total coliform sample is fecal coliform- or E. co//-posltlve, the system is in violation of the MCL for total conforms. The system is also in violation of the MCL
for total coiforms if a routine sample Is fecal coliform- or E. co//-positive and is followed by a total collform-positive repeat sample.
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 25

Table 1.8. USERA Secondary Standards.

Contaminant Regulation Status SMCLs*
Aluminum Phase II Final 0.05 to 0.2
Chloride Interim Final 250
Color Interim Final 155 color units
Copper Interim Final 1
Corrosivity Interim Final Noncorrosive
Fluoride Fluoride Final 2
Foaming agents Interim Final 0.5
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Phase V Proposed 0.008
Iron Interim Final 0.3
Manganese Interim Final 0.05
Odor Interim Final 3 TON
pH Interim Final 6.5-8.5
Silver Phase II Final 0.10
Sulfate Interim Final 250
Total dissolved solids (TD) Interim Final 500
Zinc Interim Final 5
Units of measure are milligrams per liter unless noted otherwise.

because of the SWTR. Turbidity of filtered water must, at 2. Turbidity limits—^to avoid filtration, the turbidity
no time, exceed 5 ntu (nephelometric turbidity units) and level prior to disinfection must not exceed 5 ntu,
must meet the following turbidity limits in 95% of the mea­ based on measurements taken every 4 hours. A
surements from: conventional treatment or direct treatment, system may occasionally exceed 5 ntu and still
0.5 ntu; slow sand filtration, 1 ntu; diatomaceous earth fil­ avoid filtration if the state determines that this
tration, 1 ntu; and other state approved technologies, 1 ntu. turbidity level occurred because of unusual circum­
Turbidity measurements must be made every 4 hours by grab stances, and not more than two such violations have
sampling or continuous monitoring. occurred in the past 12-month period or more than
A residual disinfectant, usually chlorine, in finished wa­ five violations in the past 120 months.
ter entering the distribution system cannot be less than 0.2 3. Disinfection—^toavoid filtration, a system must prac­
tice disinfection and achieve 99.9 and 99.99% inac­
mg/L for more than four hours; furthermore, the residual
tivation of Giardia cysts and viruses, respectively.
disinfectant in the finished water anywhere in the distribu­
This must be demonstrated by the system each day
tion system cannot be undetectable in more than 5% taken
it delivers water to consumers by meeting minimum
in a month and for any two consecutive months. HPC may
CT values in the rule. CT is the product of disinfec­
be measured instead of a disinfectant residual. If the HPC tant residual C (mg/L) times contact time T (min­
measurement is less than 500 colonies/mL, then the site has utes), measured at peak hourly flow determined at
a “detectable” residual for compliance purposes. or prior to the first customer tap. As stated previ­
ously, the disinfectant residual in water entering the
Requirements to Avoid Filtration (SWTR) distribution system must not be less than 0.2 mg/L.
The disinfectant residual in the distribution system
All public water systems are required to filter their sur­
cannot be undetectable in more than 5% of the
face and groundwaters (under the influence of surface wa­
samples in a month, for any two consecutive months.
ter) unless they can meet certain criteria related to source A system may measure for HPC in lieu of disinfec­
water quality and site-specific conditions. These criteria are tant residual in the distribution system. See Chapter
divided into eight areas 11 for additional information and details about dis­
infection and calculation of CT values.
1. Coliform limits—to avoid filtration, the fecal 4. Watershed control—^to avoid filtration, systems must
coliform level prior to disinfection must be less than establish and maintain an effective watershed con­
or equal to 20/100 mL in at least 90% of samples trol program.
taken, or the total coliform level prior to disinfec­ 5. On-site inspection requirements—to avoid fil­
tion must be less than or equal to 100/100 mL in at tration, a system must have an annual on-site
least 90% of samples taken. Sampling frequency is inspection conducted by the state (or third party
based on system size. The calculation is based on approved by the state) to demonstrate that the
the previous 6 months of monitoring results. system is maintaining an adequate watershed
26 Chemistry of Water Treatment

control program and reliable disinfection treat­ No variances from the filtration and disinfection require­
ment. ments of the SWTR are allowed. However, exemptions are
6. Absence of waterborne disease outbreaks—to avoid allowed for all requirements except disinfection residual
filtration, a system cannot have been identified as a requirements at the point of entry to the distribution system.
source of waterborne disease outbreak, or, if it has The reader is directed to References 23, 35, 38, 39 and
been, the system must have been modified suffi­ the appropriate Federal Register Reference 37 for detailed
ciently to prevent another outbreak. information on the extremely complex SWTR.
7. Compliance with the total colifonn MCL—^to avoid
filtration, a system must comply with the total
coliform rule requirements. Information Collection Rule (ICR)
8. Compliance with the total trihalomethane (TTHM) Circa September 1992, a “Reg Neg” committee was es­
MCL—^to avoid filtration, a system must comply tablished by the USEPA to develop, through the process of
with the TTHM regulation. negotiation, a revised standard for trihalomethanes (TTHMs)
(see below), as well as possible standards for additional dis­
infection by-products (DBFs) (see below). It was the intent
Compliance Requirements for the SWTR of this committee to develop regulations that would balance
Surface Water Systems. Unfiltered systems must meet the risks fi'om DBFs with microbial risks. Subsequently, three
monitoring requirements beginning 18 months (December draft rules were developed: information collection rule, dis-
29, 1990) following promulgation (June 29, 1989), unless infectants/disinfection by-products (D/DBP) rule, and en­
the state has determined that filtration is required. Also, hanced surface water treatment rule (ESWTR). The ICR
unfiltered systems must meet the criteria to avoid filtration (Information Collection Rule) is designed to gather the data
beginning 30 months after promulgation (December 29, needed to help establish the requirements for Stage 2 of the
1991), unless the state has determined that filtration is re­ D/DBP rule (see below) and the “interim” ESWTR. The D/
quired or that they are in violation of a required treatment DBF rule essentially addresses the DBF concerns for both
technique. Unfiltered systems must install filtration within surface and groundwaters, whereas the ESWTR addresses
18 months following the failure to meet any one of the crite­ the microbial concerns for surface water only.
ria (cited above) to avoid filtration, or within 48 months The initial draft of the ICR (July 2,1993) is presented in
(June 29,1993) following promulgation. great detail in Reference 39a. Originally, the ICR was sched­
The interim turbidity monitoring and MCL requirements uled for promulgation in December 1993, but there have
have remained in effect for unfiltered systems until 30 months been several delays in this process (see below). In any event,
(December 30, 1991) and for filtered systems (June 29, the ICR has three major components: (a) microbial moni­
1993) until 48 months following promulgation. If a state toring requirements, (b) DBF monitoring requirements, and
determined before December 30, 1991, that an unfiltered (c) testing requirements at bench-scale, pilot-scale, or both.
system must filter, the systems must comply with the in­ The major purpose of microbial monitoring is to provide
terim standard for turbidity (Table 1.2) by June 29, 1993, data that can be used to:
or until filtration is installed, whichever is later.
Groundwater Systems. All systems that use groundwa­ • assess pathogen occurrence (Giardia, Crypto­
ter under direct influence of surface water must meet the sporidium, E. coli or fecal coliform, and enterovi­
treatment techniques under the surface water treatment rule. ruses)
States must determine which community and noncommu­ • improve understanding of microbial health risks and
the effectiveness of treatment for pathogen removal
nity groundwater systems are under the direct influence of
• evaluate the adequacy of the Surface Water Treat­
surface water within 5 years (1994) and 10 years (1999),
ment Rule for microbial removal
respectively, following promulgation. Unfiltered systems
• evaluate the adequacy of the Total Coliform Rule for
under the direct influence of surface water must begin moni­
ensuring microbial quality
toring within 6 months following the determination of di­ • determine whether relationships exist between the
rect influence unless the state has determined that filtration occurrence, removal, or both of protozoan pathogens
is required. Another provision is that systems under direct and viruses
influence of surface water must begin meeting the criteria • evaluate whether different levels of treatment should
to avoid filtration 18 months after determination of direct be required, based on source-water quality^^^
influence, unless the state has determined that filtration is
required. Unfiltered systems must install filtration within Systems that utilize surface water or groundwater under
18 months following the failure to meet any of the criteria to the direct influence of surface water and serve 10,000 to
avoid filtration. 100,000 persons will conduct microbial monitoring (total
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 27

coliform s, E. coli or fecal coliform s, Giardia, and The deadlines described in the previous paragraph were
Cryptosporidium). Systems that serve >100,000 must moni­ not met, and the promulgation was anticipated in June 199S,
tor for viruses in addition to the aforementioned list. Small with monitoring scheduled in October 199S.^^^ This refer­
systems (<10,000 persons) will not be required to monitor ence describes the preparatory work needed for the ICR.
because of resource limitations. Data from medium and large Another delay in the promulgation of the ICR was an­
systems will be extrapolated to estimate pathogen occur­ nounced in August, 199S.^^^ Several technical and devel­
rence in small systems. Large systems will be required to opmental issues have not been resolved fully. Some o f the
monitor finished water if Giardia, Cryptosporidium, or vi­ key issues are: (a) which FWS (public water system) will
ruses are detected in the source water. monitor?, (b) data flow and computer software are under
The major DBF monitoring requirements are designed to: development and testing, (c) the adequacy of some micro­
bial monitoring methods is still questionable (this is espe­
• determine source water characteristics that influence cially true o f the analytical methods for Giardia and
DBF formation Cryptosporidium), and (d) implementation and enforce­
• determine the concentrations of DBFs in drinking ment questions remain. ICR was promulgated in May 1996.
water Monitoring began in July 1997 for 18 months and data are
• refine existing methods for predicting DBF forma­ expected in mid 1999.
tion based on treatment and water quality
• help define cost-effective monitoring requirements
that protect public health. Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
The proposed ESWTR was published in the Federal Reg­
The reader is directed to Reference 39a for the myriad ister on July 29, 1994 as an “interim” rule.^^^ The “final”
basic monitoring requirements for DBFs (five tables!) that rule will be developed at a later date. The “interim” ESWTR
are based upon CI2 as the primary disinfectant. Systems applies to all public water systems using surface water or
that utilize such alternative disinfectants as hypochlorite groundwater under the direct influence of surface water that
solutions, chloramines, ozone, and CIO2 must monitor for serve over 10,000 persons. This proposed ESWTR was de­
DBFs of concern for the particular disinfectant. veloped by the USEFA and the Reg-Neg Committee, with
The third component of the ICR requires bench- or pilot- the conviction that the current SWTR needs revision to pro­
scale testing, or both, with the intent to control DBF precur­ vide additional protection from pathogenic organisms. This
sors. Total organic carbon (TOC) will be utilized as a is essentially applicable to Cryptosporidium, which was not
surrogate for these precursors. TOC removal requirements addressed by the SWTR.
will be on enhanced coagulation (see Chapter 6) or soften­ Some of the significant provisions of the ESWTR are:
ing (see Chapter 8) in Stage 1 of the D/DBF rule. Large
systems (>100,000) may be required to evaluate granular • All systems would be required to conduct a sanitary
activated carbon (GAC) (see Chapter 4) or membranes (see survey of the entire system within 5 years of promul­
Chapter 7) as part of the ICR if “low” TOC limits are es­ gation and to conduct this survey every 5 years
tablished. thereafter. This applies to those systems who wish to
Here again, the reader is directed to Reference 39a for avoid filtration.
details of the testing requirements, which are based on type • An MCLG of zero is proposed for Cryptosporidium.
of disinfectant, TTHM content, haloacetic acid (HAAS) con­ • A watershed protection program must be maintained
tent, and the TOC content of the source water. For example, to minimize the levels of Cryptosporidium.
if CI2 is used, TTHMs >40 mg/L, HAAS >30 mg/L, and • It amends the SWTR definition of groundwater un­
TOC >40 mg/L, then bench- and/or pilot-scale testing will der the direct influence of surface water to include
be required, the extent of which is dependent upon popula­ Cryptosporidium.
tion (>S0,000 or >100,000).
The proposed ICR was published in the Federal Reg­ The proposed “interim” ESWTR may include treatment
ister on February 10, 1994.^^^^ The Reg-Neg committee requirements for viruses, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium. As
had agreed, initially, to propose the ICR in December microbial data from the ICR become available, the USEFA
1993 and to promulgate it in June 1994 so that monitor­ intends to develop risk reduction and cost estimates for the
ing could begin in October 1994.^^^^ However, the USEFA various treatment alternatives listed below in tabular form.
decided in May 1994 to delay promulgation o f the final Alternative A: Enhanced Treatment fo r Giardia. This
ICR until September 1994, and to delay implementation is based on source levels of Giardia. Utilities that serve
to allow more time for training. This delay affected the more than 10,000 persons would be required to achieve
initiation of microbial and DBF monitoring and precur­ greater reductions than the 3-log Giardia reduction cur­
sor removal studies. rently required.
28 Chemistry of Water Treatment

O ption 1. Option 2. Surface water (or groundwater under the di­

rect influence) systems that serve 10,000 or more people
No. of GiardiahOOL Required treatment level (%) must achieve, through disinfection alone, a 4-log (99.99%)
<1 99.9 (3-log). inactivation of viruses.
1-9 99.99 (4-log). Alternative E: No Change in Existing SWTR. Under this
10-99 99.999 (5-log).
>99 99.9999 (6-log). alternative the existing SWTR requirements for Giardia and
viruses would not change. This alternative would give EPA
O ption 2. additional time to fully develop and evaluate the microbial
data collected under the Information Collection Rule, while
No. G/ard/a/100L Required treatment level (%) accumulating additional data on pathogen occurrence, treat­
10-99 99.99 (4-log). ment performance, and health effects, since the current
100-999 99.999 (5-log). SWTR has not been in effect long enough to evaluate pro­
>1000 99.9999 (6-log). jected improvements in drinking water quality and public
health benefits.
Alternative B: Specific Treatment fo r Cryptosporidium. The reader is directed to Reference 39f for the rationale
All community and noncommunity public water systems of the ESWTR.
using any surface water source or groundwater under the
direct influence of surface water that serve over 10,000 per­
sons would be required to reduce Cryptosporidium densi­ Ground Water Disinfection Ruie (GWDR)
ties. The 1986 amendments to the SDWA require the USEPA to
promulgate disinfection requirements for all public water sup­
O ption 1. plies. These requirements were discussed above for surface
water supplies and for those groundwater supplies under the
Required treatment
No. CryptosporidiumhOOL level (%) direct influence of surface water. A draft rule for the disinfec­
<1 99.9 (3-log). tion of groundwaters was published in 1992.^^^ The GWDR
1-9 99.99 (4-log). will apply to community and noncommunity systems. Major
10-99 99.999 (5-log). provisions of the draft rule were summarized previously.^^^
>99 99.9999 (6-log). Several delays have postponed the proposed rule until August
of 1995, with the final rule due August 30, 1997 (Table 1.6).
O ption 2. The GWDR will include requirements for disinfection of source
watei], distribution system disinfection, qualified operators,
Required treatment treatment techniques, MCLGs, natural disinfection require­
No. CryptosporidiumhOOL level (%)
<1 99 (2-log). ments, monitoring and analysis, reporting, and provisions for
1-9 99.9 (3-log). variances and exemptions.
10-99 99.99 (4-log). The USEPA has chosen viruses as the target organism for
>99 99.999 (5-log). the GWDR. This is “because viruses are generally considered
to be more mobile in groundwater and more resistant to disin­
O ption 3. fection than bacteria.” An MCLG of zero would be estab­
lished for viruses with no MCLG for heterotrophic plate count
Required treatment (HPC) bacteria. The USEPA is considering inclusion of
No. CryptosporidiumhOOL level (%) Legionella in this rule. Since such protozoan pathogens as
<10 99 (2-log).
10-99 99.9 (3-log). Giardia and Cryptosporidium are not normally found in
>99 99.99 (4-log). groundwater, they are not included in this rule.
Criteria are given for chemical disinfection of source
A lternative C: 2-log (99%) Rem oval o f C rypto­ water and for “natural disinfection,” details of which are
sporidium. Systems that filter must achieve at least 2-log given in References 39g and 39h. There are prequaliiying
removal of Cryptosporidium between the source water and conditions for avoidance of chemical disinfection of source
the first customer. water via natural disinfection.^^* An apparent contradiction
Alternative D: Specific Disinfection Treatment for Vi­ to the latter is that each community water system would be
ruses. Option 1. Surface water (or groundwater under the required to maintain a disinfectant residual of at least 0.2
direct influence) systems that serve 10,000 or more people mg/L at the entry point to the distribution system at all times.
must achieve, through disinfection alone, at least 0.5-log A detectable disinfectant residual or an HPC concentration
inactivation of Giardia. of less than 500/mL in the water within the distribution would
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 29

be required. Other requirements are summarized in Refer­ month. Details of repeat sampling requirements are found
ence 39h. in References 23, 35, and 40.

Total Conform Rule Analytical Requirements

The 1986 SDWA amendments included a revised total A 100-mL standard sample volume must be used for to­
coliform rule that was promulgated finally in 1989."^^ This tal coliforms, regardless of the analytical method. Analyses
revised rule established an MCLG for total coliforms (in­ for these organisms may utilize the 10-tube multiple tube
cluding fecal coliforms and E. Coli) at zero and an MCL fermentation (MTF) technique, the membrane filter (MF)
based on the presence-absence (P-A) of total coliforms. technique, the P-A coliform test, or the minimal media
The latter represents a major change from the 1974 interim ONPG-MUG test (the Colilert test).^^’^^ The 5-tube MTF
standards, which estimate a coliform density. technique (20-mL sample portions) or a single culture bottle
The MCL for water distribution systems testing at least containing MTF medium may be used if a 100-mL water
40 samples per month permits no more than 5% of the sample is employed.
monthly samples to be positive for total coliforms. Those At the time the total coliform rule was promulgated,"^^ no
distribution systems analyzing less than 40 samples per methods had been approved by the USEPA for E. Coli. Test­
month may have no more than one positive sample per month. ing for this microorganism is allowed by the rule in lieu of
Also, the new rule does not allow substitution of chlorine fecal coliforms. This has distinct advantages over the fecal
residual monitoring as did the 1974 rule. All state primary coliform test. Subsequently, the USEPA approved two E.
agencies were required to adopt rules at least as stringent as Coli tests. One of these is a test protocol whereby E. Coli
the federal rule no later than December 31,1990. In recog­ can be transferred successfully from ONPG-positive cul­
nition of limited financial and human resources, the USEPA tures to EC-MUG medium. This transferability protocol was
allowed states to negotiate an extension of up to 2 years approved for compliance monitoring in 1992."^^ Simply, this
(until December 1992) to adopt new coliform rules under means that the MMO-MUG test for total coliforms can be
the revised primary rule.'^^ used in combination with EC-MUG medium for E. Coli. A
second test protocol was developed by the USEPA that evalu­
Monitoring Requirements ated the performance of the MMO-MUG test when low den­
sities of stressed E. Coli are present. Acceptance of this test
All public water systems must sample according to a
was announced by the USEPA in early 1992.^^
written sample-siting plan that is subject to review and re­
vision by the state. The population served determines the
monthly routine monitoring requirements (Table 1.9). Non­ Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) Rule—Phase I
community water systems using groundwater and serving The VOC regulation established MCLGs and MCLs for
less than 1,000 persons may sample less frequently than eight compounds (Tables 1.4 and 1.7): benzene, carbon tet­
once a month (quarterly) until a sanitary survey is conducted. rachloride,/?-dichlorobenzene, 1,2-dichloroethane, 1,1-
After June 29, 1994, this category of noncommunity water dichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene,
systems must monitor at least once a year. In another cat­ and vinyl chloride. After proposals, reproposals, amend­
egory, noncommunity water systems using surface water or ments, etc., the final VOC rule was published in 1987"^ and
groundwater under the direct influence of surface water must corrections to the final rule were published in 1988."^^ The
monitor at the same frequency as a same-sized community VOC requirements pertain to both community water sys­
water system. tems and nontransient, noncommunity water systems, and
Repeat sample monitoring requirements under the new have been in effect since early 1989. Monitoring (Figure
rule are quite extensive and detailed (Table 1.10). Example: 1.1) is a significant aspect of this VOC rule. Deadlines for
for each routine sample that tests positive for total all system sizes have expired for initial VOC monitoring.
coliforms, a set of three or four repeat samples must be However, all states should have adopted VOC regulations
analyzed, one of which must come from the same tap as by 1994.
the original sample. Two repeat samples in the set must be
collected from within five service connections of the origi­
nal sample, with one upstream and one downstream. Re­ Synthetic Organic (SOCs) and Inorganic (lOCs)
peat sam ples m ust be collected w ithin 24 hours o f Chemicals Rule—Phase II
notification of the original result, except, of course, when New drinking water regulations for 38 SOCs and lOCs
the state waives this requirement. There are contingencies (Table 1.4) were finalized by the USEPA for 33 of these
for positive results in the repeat samples and for utilities contaminants in 1991."^^ Rules for the remaining five com­
that routinely collect less than five routine samples per pounds (barium, pentachlorophenol, aldicarb, aldicarb sul-
30 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Table 1.9. Routine Sampling Requirements Under the Total Coliform Rule.^
Minimum Number Minimum Number
of Routine of Routine
Population Samples Population Samples
Served per Month Served per Month
25-1,000^ 1 59,001-70,000 70
1,001-2,500 2 70,000-83,000 80
2,501-3,300 3 83,001-96,000 90
3,301-4,100 4 96,001-130,000 100
4,101-^,900 5 130,001-220,000 120
4,901-5,800 6 220,001-320,000 150
5,801-6,700 7 320,001-450,000 180
6,701-7,600 8 450,001-600,000 210
7,601-8,500 9 600,001-780,000 240
8,501-12,900 10 780,001-970,000 270
12,901-17,200 15 970,001-1,230,000 300
17,201-21,500 20 1,230,001-1,520,000 330
21,501-25,000 25 1,520,001-1,850,000 360
25,001-33,000 30 1,850,001-2,270,000 390
33,001-41,000 40 2,270,001-3,020,000 420
41,001-50,000 50 3,020,001-3,960,000 450
50,001-59,000 60 3,960,001 or more 480
Includes public water systems that have at least 15 service connections but serve fewer than 25
people.

Table 1.10. Monitoring and Repeat-Sample Frequency After a Total-Coliform-

Positive Routine Sample.^^
Number of Routine Number of Repeat Number of Routine
Samples per Month Samples^ Samples Next Month^
1 or less 4 5/month
2 3 5/month
3 3 5/month
4 3 5/month
5 or more 3 See Table 1.13
^ Number of repeat samples in the same month for each total-coloform-positive
routine sample.
^ Except when the state Invalidates the original routine sample, substitutes an on-site
evaluation of the problem, or waives the requirement on a case-by-case basis.

foxide, and aldicarb sulfone) were reproposed^^ and final­ seven organic chemicals under the Phase II rule."^^ How­
ized, also in 1991 MCLGs and MCLs are found in Table ever, they deferred to the odor SMCL of TON 3, rather
1.7 for these 38 SOCs and lOCs. MCLs for all Phase II than set individual SMCLs over and above their MCLs for
contaminants took effect on July 30, 1992, except the five health reasons.
compounds that became effective on January 1, 1993."^^
Monitoring requirements are established according to the
standardized framework seen in Figure 1.1.
Synthetic Organic and inorganic Chemicais
Secondary MCLs, related to aesthetic effects, were set
Ruie--Phase V
for two substances under Phase II (Table 1.8). An SMCL The Phase V rule will set regulations for 6 lOCs and 18
was established for aluminum at 0.05 to 0.2 mg/L to pre­ SOCs (Table 1.4). A proposed rule was published in 1990"^^
vent post-precipitation of Al(OH )3 and discoloration of and finalized in 1992 {FR, 57, 31776, July 17, 1992), with
drinking water in distribution systems. An SMCL of 0.1 implementation in early 1994. The MCLGs, MCLs, and an
mg/L for silver was set for prevention of skin discoloration SMCL are seen in Tables 1.7 and 1.8. The standardized
(argyria). Also, the USEPA considered setting SMCLs for monitoring ifamework^^ will be used for the Phase V com-
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 31

pounds, whose effective date is anticipated to be January agulation or enhanced softening for TOC removal that can
1993 to December 1995. be avoided if certain criteria are met); and (g) compliance
monitoring for DBPP removal will be calculated quarterly.
Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products The reader is directed to References 39f and 50a for details
(D/DBP)—Phase Via of these and other provisions of the revised D/DBP rule.

The D/DBP rule has been rewritten by the Reg-Neg

Committee^^^’^^^ that differs significantly from its original Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products—
version that was published in 1991.^^ This revised D/DBP Phase VIb
rule was developed concurrently with the ICR and the The USEPA must regulate at least 25 contaminants un­
ESWTR (see above), and will be implemented in two stages. der the D/DBP rule and Phase VIb [36] from the DWPL
The D/DBP rule addresses complex and interrelated is­ that was published in 1991^^’^^ (Table 1.5a). The prelimi­
sues. The risk of microbial disease outbreaks must be bal­ nary list of these 25 contaminants is seen in Table 1.5b, a
anced against the risks associated with disinfectants and their final list is expected to be published in mid 1998.
by-products. Stage 1 will be promulgated and implemented
over a time frame that was started in March 1994 and, hope­
fully, will be completed in January 2002.^®^ Stage 2 occurs Radionuclide Rule—Phase III
over the same period of time as Stage 1, but will be renego­ The radionuclide rule will establish MCLGs and MCLs
tiated following collection of additional occurrence and treat­ for radon-222, radium-226, radium-228, natural uranium,
ment data under the ICR. The D/DBP rule will apply to all and beta particles and photon emitters. Since all of the ra­
community and nontransient, noncommunity water systems dionuclides are classified as known human carcinogens,
that add a chemical disinfectant during any part of the drink­ MCLGs will be set at zero. Interim regulations for some of
ing water treatment process. these substances are seen in Table 1.2. Proposed MCLGs
The advisory committee that negotiated the revised D/DBP and MCLs are given in Table 1.7. A formal proposal was
mle will set MCLGs for nine DBPs (Table 1.7) in Stage 1 and published in July 1991,^^ with a final rule expected in April
revise in Stage 2 if necessary. Also, Stage 1 will establish the 1993. The proposed rule will apply to all community water
MCL for TTHMs at 0.080 mg/L (Table 1.7), which will be systems and nontransient noncommunity water systems.
lowered to 0.040 mg/L in Stage 2 for PWSs that serve more The U.S. Congress has delayed promulgation of a final
than 10,000 persons using surface water or groundwater un­ radon standard through the fiscal year 1995 because of the
der the direct influence of surface water. Stage 1 also will set controversy over the proposed radon s t a n d a r d . T h e
an MCL for the total HAA5 at 0.060 mg/L (Table 1.7), which USEPA is expected to proceed with regulation of all radio­
will be lowered to 0.030 mg/L in Stage 2. In addition, MCLs nuclides except radon; that was removed from the “pack­
will be set in Stage 1 for bromate, 0.010 mg/L, and for chlo­ age” for various reasons. This means that the final MCLs
rite, 1.0 mg/L (Table 1.7). for Ra^^^ and Ra^^^ could be lower than those seen in Table
Other provisions of the revised D/DBP rule are: (a) com­ 1.7. A proposed MCL of 300 pCi/L for radon is seen in
pliance monitoring for TTHMs and HAA5 based on system Table 1.7 also.
size; (b) compliance monitoring for bromate (ozone) and
chlorite (CIO2 ) for certain systems using these disinfectants;
(c) analytical methods for DBPs, (d) BATs for meeting the Lead and Copper Rule
MCLs for DBPs (Stage 1 BAT is enhanced coagulation or The revised lead and copper rule is, perhaps, the most
GAC, whereas Stage 2 is enhanced coagulation or soften­ controversial o f the 1986 SDWA amendments. The new
ing and GAC); (e) goals and limits will be established for rules were the subject of intense discussions. They were
disinfectant residuals of chlorine, chloramine, and chlorine hailed by many water utilities as a positive step forward,
dioxide: criticized by many as deficient or illegal, and defended by
the USEPA as the best approach for minimizing exposure to
Disinfectant Residual MRDLG^ mg/L MRDL^ mg/L lead and copper in drinking water. After several proposals,
Chlorine (free chlorine) 4 4.0 the final rule was published July 7, 1991,^^ and corrections
Chloramines (as total chlorine) 4 4.0 were issued on July 15, 1991.^"^
Chlorine dioxide 0.08 0.8 The new rule applies to all community water systems and to
® MRDLG = maximum residual disinfectant goal nontransient, noncommunity systems. The interim MCL for
^ MRDL = maximum residual disinfectant limit) lead (Table 1.2) was replaced by a treatment technique require­
ment (Table 1.7) consisting of corrosion control, public educa­
(f) treatment technique requirements for removal of DBP tion, and lead service line removal.^^ Human health effects of
precursors (DBPPs) will be established (either enhanced co­ lead and copper are documented in References 53 and 55.
32 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Table 1.11. Lead and Copper Monitoring Schedule.^^

Monitoring Period Location Frequency
Initial monitoring Targeted high-risk interior taps Every six months^-^
After installation of corrosion control Targeted high-risk interior taps Two consecutive six-month monitoring periods
After state specifies water quality Targeted high-risk Interior taps Two consecutive six-month monitoring periods*^
limits for optimal corrosion control
Reduced monitoring Targeted high-risk Interior taps Once a year^
Targeted high-risk Interior taps Once every three years'^
Large systems collect water samples from taps for two six-month monitoring periods before conducting comparative corrosion
control treatment studies.
Small and medium-size systems collect water samples from taps until the samples exceed the lead or copper action level,
triggering the treatment technique requirement.
Systems meeting the lead and copper action level or maintaining optimal corrosion control treatment specified by the state for
two consecutive six-month monitoring periods may reduce tap water sampling to once a year and collect the reduced number
of samples indicated in Table 1.12.
Systems meeting the lead and copper action level or maintaining optimal corrosion control treatment specified by the state for
three consecutive years may reduce the frequency of collecting tap water samples to once every three years and collect the
reduced number of samples Indicated In Table 1.12.

An extremely significant portion of the revised lead and exceed the lead action level must deliver the USEPA-devel-
copper rule is the monitoring requirement of every 6 months. oped public education program (Table 1.15) to their cus­
Two 6-month monitoring periods are required per calendar tomers within 60 days. The public education program informs
year (Table 1.11),^^ organized according to system size (Table the public about adverse health effects of lead and explains
1.12).^^ Samples of tap water are required at high risk loca­ the procedures people can adopt to reduce exposure to lead
tions, that is, homes in which lead solder has been installed in their drinking water. This includes flushing the tap, cook­
since 1982, or that have lead pipes or lead service lines. Samples ing with cold water rather than hot, checking for lead solder
(1 L) of first-drawn tap water must be taken (usually by resi­ in new plumbing, and having their water tested for lead.
dents) fi*om a cold water tap in the kitchen or the bathroom. This program must remain in effect by the water system for
Water must have been allowed to lie motionless in the distri­ as long as the lead action level is exceeded.
bution pipes for at least six hours before collection. The reader is directed to References 53 to 55 for details
Treatment technique requirements are initiated when ac­ of the new lead and copper rule. Chapter 8 documents the
tion levels for lead (0.015 mg/L) or copper (1.3 mg/L) are treatment techniques for optimal corrosion control.
exceeded and measured in the 90th percentile at the
customer’s tap. Treatment consists of optimal corrosion con­
trol, source water treatment, public education, and lead ser­
Arsenic
vice line replacement. An action level is not an MCL, but Currently, arsenic has an interim primary drinking water
represents a concentration above which the utilities must quality standard of 0.05 mg/L. The promulgation of an
reduce lead and copper and inform consumers about actions MCLG and an MCL has been delayed because the USEPA
they can take to lower exposure to these metals in water. sought additional technical information about adverse hu­
Additional water quality monitoring is required for man health effects.^^^’^^ Subsequently, the USEPA is under
those water systems that exceed the lead or copper action a court-ordered deadline to propose revised regulations for
levels. The constituents are given in Table 1.13 that are arsenic no later than November 30,1995, with the final rule
used to identify optimal treatment, and, if treatment is due two years later (Table 1.6).
installed, to determine whether or not a system remains The USEPA, however, has completed its human health
in compliance. This water quality monitoring is, of course, assessment for noncancer effects and has determined a ref­
related to system size and population (Table 1.14), and erence dose (RfD) of 0.0003 mg/kg/d.^^ The drinking wa­
is implemented in accordance with the schedule in Table ter equivalent level (DWEL) is calculated to be 10.5 mg/L
1.11. States must specify the levels of these water qual­ (see above). If based on noncancer effects, the anticipated
ity constituents that reflect optimal corrosion control and, MCLG would be 0.002 mg/L (assuming a 20% exposure
if maintained for three consecutive years, the monitoring from drinking water).
schedule may be modified. The carcinogenicity of arsenic is under review by the
There is a significant public education requirement in the USEPA. Initial indications are that arsenic will be classi­
revised lead and copper rule. All public water systems that fied as a group A human carcinogen (see above), with an
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 33

Table 1.12. Tap Sampling Requirements for Lead and Copper.

System Size Number of Sampling Sites Number of Sampling Sites
Population Initial Base Monitoring Reduced Monitoring
>100,000 100 50
10,001 to 100,000 60 30
3,301 to 10,000 40 20
501 to 3,300 20 10
101 to 500 10 5
100 5 5

Table 1.13. Water Quality Monitoring Schedule (Other than Lead and Copper).^
Monitoring Period Constituents Location Frequency
Initial monitoring pH, alkalinity, orthophosphate or silica,^ Taps and at entry point(s) Every six months
calcium, conductivity, temperature to the distribution system
After installation of pH, alkalinity, orthophosphate or silica,^ Taps Every six months
corrosion control calcium^
pH, alkalinity dosage rate and concentration Entry point(s) to the Biweekly
(if alkalinity is adjusted as part of distribution system
corrosion control). Inhibitor dosage rate
and inhibitor residual
After state specifies pH, alkalinity, orthophosphate or silica,^ Taps Every six months
water quality limits and calcium‘s
for optimal corrosion pH, alkalinity, dosage rate and concentration Entry point(s) to the Biweekly
control (If alkalinity Is adjusted as part of distribution system
corrosion control), inhibitor dosage rate
and inhibitor residual^
Reduced monitoring pH, alkalinity, orthophosphate or silica,^ Taps®’^ Every six months
and calcium
pH, alkalinity dosage rate and concentration Entry polnt(s) to the
(if alkalinity Is adjusted as part of distribution system
corrosion control), inhibitor dosage rate
and inhibitor residual‘s
Small and medium-size systems have to monitor water quality only during monitoring periods in which the system exceeds the
lead or copper action level. Large systems must monitor water quality during each monitoring period.
Orthophosphate must be measured only when an inhibitor containing a phosphate compound is used. Silica must be measured
only when an inhibitor containing silicate compound is used.
Calcium must be measured only when calcium carbonate stabilization Is used as part of corrosion control.
Inhibitor dosage rates and inhibitor residual concentrations (orthophosphate or silica) must be measured only when an inhibitor
is used.
Systems maintaining optimal corrosion control treatment specified by the state for two consecutive six-month monitoring periods
may reduce tap water quality monitoring to once a year and collect the reduced number of samples Indicated in Table 1.14.
Systems maintaining optimal corrosion control treatment specified by the state for three consecutive years may reduce tap water
quality monitoring to once every three years and collect the reduced number of samples indicated In Table 1.14.

Table 1.14. Tap Sampling Requirements for Water Quality (Other than Lead and Copper). 55

System Size Number of Sampling Sites Sampling Sites

Population Initial Base Monitoring Reduced Monitoring
>100,000 25 10
10,001 to 100,000 10 7
3,301 to 10,000 3 3
501 to 3,300 2 2
101 to 500 1 1
100 1 1
Table 1.15. Public Education Program Requirements.®®
Actions Required
System Condition Within 60 Days Repeat Frequency
Community water Fails to meet lead action level^ 1. Insert notices containing all of the mandatory Every 12 months as long as
written language and mandatory alert language lead action level is exceeded
2. Submit all of the mandatory written language Every 12 months as long as
to major daily and weekly newspapers. lead action level is exceeded
3. Delivery pamphlets and/or brochures Every 12 months as long as
containing the mandatory written language lead action level is exceeded
on the health effects of lead and steps that
can be taken in the home to reduce exposure
to lead in drinking water to the following:
• public schools and/or local school boards
• city or county health department
• women, Infants, and children and/or
Head Start program(s) whenever available
9
• public and private hospitals and/or clinics CD

• pediatricians g
Co'
• family planning clinics
• local welfare agencies 0
4. Submit the mandatory public service Every six months as long as
announcement to at least five of the radio and lead action level is exceeded 1
television stations that reach the largest
audiences in the community served. s'
Meets the lead action level during No actions required No actions required 0)
the most recent six-month CD
monitoring period :3
Nontransient, Fails to meet lead action level® Deliver educational materials containing At least once each calendar
noncommunity the mandatory written language on background year that the system exceeds
systems information, health effects of lead, and steps the action level
that can be taken in the home to reduce
exposure to lead in drinking water by:
• placing informational posters in a public
place or common area in each of the
buildings served by the system
• distributing Informational pamphlets and/or
brochures on lead in drinking water to each
person served by the system
Meets the lead action level during No actions required No actions required
the most recent six-month
monitoring period
A water system failing to meet the lead action level must offer to sample the tap water of any customer who requests it. The system is not required to pay for
collecting or analyzing the sample, nor Is the system required to collect and analyze the sample Itself.
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 35

MCLG of zero.^^ Epidemiologic studies indicate a signifi­ World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines
cant health risk of 10^ cancer risk at about 0.002 mg/L.^^ The WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality is
In any event, the MCL must be set as close to the MCLG as concerned mostly with the protection of public health
feasible, using best available technology and taking cost into throughout the world.^^ Hopefully, this will eliminate or
consideration. Several scenarios for setting the MCL are reduce to a minimum those constituents in drinking water
possible. If DATs can lower arsenic contents (see Chapter that are known to be hazardous to the health and well-be­
9) to below the practical quantitation level (PQL), then the ing of a community and/or country. Tables 1.17 to 1.21
MCL will be set at the PQL of 0.002 mg/L.^^ However, if present a summary of these guideline values. WHO’s intent
the individual cancer risk greatly exceeds 1 in 10,000 at the is that individual values should not be used directly from
PQL, then the USEPA would have to specify a treatment these tables. Rather, these values should be used and inter­
technique to lower concentration to be within the agency’s preted from the information contained in Chapters 2 to 5 in
range of acceptable risk. The SDWA amendment mandates Reference 59 and, of course, within national policies and
the proposal of arsenic MCL by January 1, 2000, which authorities of the various countries.
must be promulgated by January 1, 2001.

European Economic Community (EEC)

USEPA Secondary Drinking Water Regulations Drinking Water Directives
Table 1.8 lists those contaminants that may adversely The EEC issued a council directive in 1980 that related
affect the aesthetic quality (taste, odor, and appearance) of to water quality intended for human consumption.^^ The
drinking water. Secondary maximum contaminant levels EEC directive provided for the establishment of standards
(SMCLs) are given for each constituent. These are not en­ for toxie chemicals and bacteria that present a human health
forceable by the federal government, but states are encour­ hazard, as well as the definition of physical, chemical, and
aged to adopt and enforce them. Apparently there is some biological parameters for various uses of water, including
latitude in these standards, since states may establish higher human consumption. Member states of the EEC were di­
or lower levels that depend on “local conditions,” provided rected to initiate laws, regulations, and administrative pro­
that public health and welfare are not affected adversely. It visions for compliance with the directives on water standards
should be noted that hexachlorocyclopentadiene has a pro­ (Table 1.22) by July 1985.^^
posed SMCL o f 0.008 mg/L, which is, presumably, due to a
taste or odor in drinking water. This compound also has an
MCL of 0.05 mg/L (Table 1.7). CONTAMINANT REMOVAL EFFECTIVENESS
A list of contaminants, water treatment processes, and a
INTERNATIONAL DRINKING WATER QUALITY range of removal efficiencies is given in Table 1.23.^^ Con­
REGULATIONS taminants are grouped as primary, secondary, and proposed
regulations. Subjectively, the removal efficiencies are rated
Canadian Drinking Water Guidelines on a percentage basis. This table of information is offered
A shared federal-provincial responsibility for drinking as a general guideline for, perhaps, selection of a water
water quality occurs in Canada. Generally, provincial gov­ treatment process for a specific and/or a group of contami­
ernments are responsible for adequacy and safety of water nants. There are a number of factors that influence removal
supplies, whereas the Federal Department of National Health efficiencies. A partieular treatment process may not be ef­
and Welfare develops quality guidelines and conducts re­ fective in and of itself for removal of a contaminant. How­
search. Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality are ever, many of the processes are employed together in a
developed jointly through a federal-provincial mechanism. sequence in a treatment plant that may achieve effective re­
These guidelines are not legally enforceable unless promul­ moval. Nonetheless, the reader will have a general idea of
gated as regulations by the appropriate provincial agency. the capabilities of various processes. More detailed infor­
The current guidelines were revised in 1989^^ and are listed mation is given in subsequent chapters through case studies
in Table 1.16. of various treatment scenarios.
36 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Table 1.16. Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines.^

Microbiological Characteristics
1. No sample should contain more than 10 total coliform organisms per 100 mL, none of which should be fecal conforms; and
2. No consecutive samples from the same site should show the presence of coliform organisms; and
3. For community drinking water supplies:
(a) not more than 10 percent of the samples based on a minimum of 10 samples should show the presence of coliform
organisms; and
(b) not more than one sample from a set of samples taken from the community on a given day should show the presence
of coliform organisms.
Turbidity
The maximum acceptable concentration for turbidity is 1 ntu for water entering a distribution system. A maximum of 5 ntu may
be permitted if it can be demonstrated that disinfection is not compromised by the use of this less stringent value. An aes­
thetic objective of 5 ntu has been set for the point of consumption.
Chemical and Physical Characteristics^
Parameter MAC*^ IMAC^ AO*^ Status
Aldicarb 0.009
Aldrin + dieldhn 0.0007 Under review
Ammonia^ Proposed
Arsenic® 0.025
Asbestos^
Atrazine 0.06
Azinphos-methyl 0.02
Barium 1.0 Proposed
Bendlocarb 0.04
Benzene 0.005
Benzo(a)pyrene 0.00001 Under review
Boron 5.0
Bromoynil 0.005
Cadmium 0.005
Calcium‘S Proposed
Carbaryl 0.09
Carbofuran 0.09
Carbon tetrachloride 0.005
Chlordane 0.007 Under review
Chloride <250 Proposed
Chlorpyrifos 0.09
Chromium 0.05
Color <15 tcu^
Copper <1.0
Cyanazine 0.1
Cyanide 0.2 Under review
Diazinon 0.2
Dicamba 0.12
1.2- Dichlorobenzene 0.2 <0.003
1.4-Dichlorobenzene 0.005 <0.001
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane 0.03 Under review
(DDT) + metabolites
1.2-Dlchloroethane 0.005 Proposed
Dichloromethane 0.05
2.4- Dichlorophenol 0.9 <0.0003
DIchlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4-(2,4-D) 0.1 Under review
Diclofop-methyl 0.009
Dimethoate 0.02
Diquat 0.07
Diuron 0.15
Ethylbenzene <0.0024
Fluoride 1.5 Under review
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 37

Table 1.16. Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines^ (Continued).

Chemical and Physical Characteristics^
Parameter MAC^ IMAC*^ AO^ Status
Gasoline^
Glyphosate 0.28
Heptachlor + heptachlorepoxide 0.003 Under review
Iron <0.3 Proposed
Lead 0.01 Proposed
Lindane 0.004 Under review
Magnesium^ Proposed
Malathion 0.19
Manganese <0.05 Proposed
Mercury 0.001
Methoxychlor 0.9
Metolachlor 0.05
Metribuzin 0.08
Monochlorobenzene 0.08 <0.03 Proposed
Nitrate 45.0 Proposed
Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA)® 0.40
Odor Inoffensive
Paraquat 0.01
Parathion 0.05
Pentachlorophenol 0.06 <0.03
pH 6.5-8.5
Phorate 0.002
Picloram 0.19 Proposed
Selenium 0.01
Simazine 0.01
Sodium <200 Proposed
Sulfate <500 Proposed
Sulfide (as H2S) <0.05 Proposed
Taste Inoffensive
Temephos 0.28
Temperature <15°C
Terbufos 0.001
2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol 0.1 <0.001
Toluene <0.024
Total dissolved solids <500 Under review
Triallate 0.23
Trichloroethylene 0.05 Proposed
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 0.005 <0.002
2,4,5-(2,4,5-T)-Trichlorophenoxyacetic 0.28 <0.02
acid
Trifluralln 0.045 Proposed
Trihalomethanes 0.35 Under review
Turbidity 1 ntu <5 ntu
Uranium 0.1
Xylenes <0.3
Zinc <5.0 Proposed
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. Health and Welfare Canada, Ottawa (4th ed., 1989).
Units are given in milligrams per litre unless otherwise noted.
MAC = maximum acceptable concentration, IMAC = interim maximum acceptable concentration, AO aesthetic objective.
Data indicate no need to set numerical guideline.
New limit approved since publication of 1989 guidelines,
tcu = true color unit.
38 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Table 1.17. World Health Organization Guidelines for Microbiological and Biological Quality.^
Guideline
Organism Unit Value Remarks
I. Microbiological Quality
A. Piped Water Supplies
A.1. Treated water entering
the distribution system
Fecal conforms number/100 mL 0 Turbidity <1 ntu; for disinfection with chlorine,
Coliform organisms number/100 mL 0 pH preferably <8.0; free chlorine residual
0.2-0.5 mg/L following 30 min (minimum)
contact
A.2. Untreated water entering
the distribution system
Fecal conforms number/100 mL 0
Conform organisms number/100 mL 0 In 98% of samples examined throughout the
year—in the case of large supplies when
sufficient samples are examined
Conform organisms number/100 mL 3 In an occasional sample, but not in consecutive
samples
A.3. Water in the distribution1 system
Fecal conforms number/100 mL 0
Conform organisms number/100 mL 0 In 95% of samples examined throughout the
year—in the case of large supplies when
sufficient samples are examined
Conform organisms number/100 mL 3 In an occasional sample, but not In consecutive
samples
B. UnpIped Water Supplies
Fecal conforms number/100 mL 0
Conform organisms number/100 mL 10 Should not occur repeatedly; if occurrence is
frequent and If sanitary protection cannot be
improved, an alternative source must be
found if possible
C. Bottled Drinking Water
Fecal conforms number/100 mL 0 Source should be free from fecal contamination
Conform organisms number/100 mL 0
D. Emergency Water Supplies
Fecal conforms number/100 mL 0 Advise public to boil water In case of failure to
meet guideline value
Conform organisms number/100 mL 0
Enteroviruses NGV"
Biological Quality
A. Protozoa (pathogenic) NGV"
B. Helminths (pathogenic) NGV"
C. Free-living organisms (algae, others) NGV"
NGV = no guideline value set.
 Criteria and Standards for Drinking Water Quality 39

Table 1.18. World Health Organization Guidelines for Inorganic Constituents of Health Significance.^^
Constituent Guideline Value^ Remarks
Arsenic 0.05
Asbestos NGV'’
Barium NGV
Beryllium NGV
Cadmium 0.005
Chromium 0.05
Cyanide 0.1
Fluoride 1.5 Includes both natural fluoride and deliberately added fluoride.
Local or climatic conditions may necessitate adaptation.
Hardness NGV
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.001
Nickel NGV
Nitrate 10
Nitrite NGV
Selenium 0.01
Silver NGV
Sodium NGV
® All values are in mg/L.
^ NGV = No guideline value set.

Table 1.19. World Health Organization Guideiines for Organic Constituents of Health Significance.^^
Constituent Guideiine Value^ Remarks
Aldrin and dieldhn 0.03
Benzene 10'’
Benzo(a)pyrene O.OI”
Carbon tetrachloride 3^^ Tentative guideline value®
Chlordane 0.3
Chlorobenzenes NGV" Odor threshold concentration between 0.1 and 3 pg/L
Chloroform 30'’ Disinfection efficiency must not be compromised when
controlling chloroform content
Chlorophenols NGV Odor threshold concentration 0.1 pg/L
2,4-D 100®
DDT 1
1,2-Dichloroethane 10'’
1,1-Dlchloroethene 0.3'’
Heptachlor and 0.1
heptachlor epoxide
Hexachlorobenzene 0.01'’
Gamma-HCH (lindane) 3
Methoxychlor 30
Pentachlorophenol 10
Tetrachloroethane^ 10'’ Tentative guideline value®
Trichloroethane^ 30'’ Tentative guideline value®
2,4,6-Trlchlorophenol 10'’ ® Odor threshold concentration, 0.1 pg/L
Trihalomethanes NGV
^ All values are in pg/L.
^ These guideline values were computed from a conservative hypothetical mathematical model which cannot be experimentally
verified, and values should therefore be interpreted differently. Uncertainties involved may amount to two orders of magnitude
(i.e., from 0.1 to 10 times the number).
When the available carcinogenicity data did not support a guideline value, but the compounds were judged to be of importance
in drinking water and guidance was considered essential, a tentative guideline value was set on the basis of the available health-
related data.
NGV = No guideline value set.
May be detectable by taste and odor at lower concentrations.
These compounds were previously known as 1,1-dichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and trichloroethylene, respectively.
40 Chemistry of Water Treatment

Table 1.20. World Health Organization Guidelines for Aesthetic Quality. 59

Constituent Guidelines Value^ Remarks

Aluminum 0.2
Chloride 250
Chlorobenzenes and ngv> These compounds may affect taste and
chlorophenols odor
Color 15 tcu'"
Copper 1.0
Detergents NGV There should not be any foaming, taste,
or odor problem
Hardness 500 (as CaCOg)
Hydrogen sulfide Not detectable by consumers
Iron 0.3
Manganese 0.1
Oxygen, dissolved NGV
pH 6.5-8.5
Sodium 200
Solids, total dissolved 1000
Sulfate 400
Taste and odor Inoffensive to most consumers
Temperature NGV
Turbidity 5 ntu“ Preferable <1 for disinfection efficiency
Zinc 5.0
® Unless otherwise specified, all units are mg/L.
^ NGV = No guideline value set.
^ ntu = nephelometric turbidity unit.
^ tcu = true color unit.
Table 1.21. World Health Organization Guidelines for Radioactive Constituents.^^
Constituents Guideline Value” Remarks
Gross alpha activity 0.1 If the levels are exceeded, more detailed
radionuclide analysis may be necessary.
Gross beta activity 1 Higher levels do not necessarily imply that
the water Is unsuitable for human
consumption.
Units are Bq/L.
Table 1.22. EC Drinking Water Directive-List of Parameters. 61
Maximum
Admissible
Unit of Guide Level Concentration
Parameter Measurement (GL) (MAC) Comments
Organoleptic
Col or mg/L, Pt-Co scale 1 20
Turbidity mg SiOz!L 1 10
Odor Dilution number 0 2 at 12oc To be related to the taste tests
3 at 25oC
Taste Dilution number 0 3 at 12oc To be related to the odor tests
3 at 25°C
Physicochemical
Temperature oc 12 25 ()
Hydrogen ion pH unit 6.5-8.5 Maximum admissible value 9.5 ~
(!)

Conductivity 11S/cm at 20°C 400 iil·

Chlorides mg CI/L 25 Q)
:::>
Sulfates mg S0 4 /L 25 250 0..
Cl)
Silica mg Si0 2 iii
Calcium mg Call 100 :::>
Magnesium mg Mg/L 30 50 2-
Sodium mg NaiL 20
a.
(I)

Potassium mg KIL 10 12 0'

...,
Aluminum mg AIIL 0.05 0.2 0
Total hardness See lower portion of table s·
Dry residue mg/L after drying at 180°C 1,500 s-
CQ
Dissolved oxygen Percent 0 2 saturation
Free carbon dioxide mg COziL ~
Substances undesirable in excessive amounts Cii
...,
Nitrates mg NOiL 25 50 D
s::
Q)
Nitrites mg N02/L 0.1
Ammonium mg NH 4 0.05 0.5 ~
Kjeldahl nitrogen mg N/L 1 Excluding N in N02 and N0 3
Potassium permanganate mg 0 2/L 2 5 Measured when heated in acid medium
oxidizability
Total organic mg C/L The reason for any increase in the usual
carbon (TOC) concentration must be investigated.
Hydrogen sulfide 11g S/L Undetectable
organoleptically
Substances extractable mg/L dry residue 0.1
in chloroform
Dissolved or emulsified ).Lg/L 10 After extraction by petroleum ether
hydrocarbons, mineral oils
Phenols (phenol index) 11g C6 H5 0H/L 0.5 Excluding natural phenols that do not
react with chlorine
~
"""
 Boron 1,000 11\.l
"""
11g B/L
Surfactants (reacting with 11g/L (lauryl sulfate) 200
methylene blue)
Organochlorine Haloform concentrations must be as low as
compounds not covered possible.
by pesticides and related
products
Iron 11g Fe/L 50 200
Manganese 11g Mn/L 20 50
Copper 11g Cu/L 100 At plant Above 3,000 11g/L, astringent taste,
3,000 At supply point discoloration, and corrosion may occur.
Zinc 11g Zn/L 100 At plant Above 5,000 11g/L, astringent taste,
5,000 At supply point discoloration, and corrosion may occur.
Phosphorus 11g P20JL 400 5,000
Fluoride 11g F/L
8-12"C 1,500 MAC varies according to average temperature
25-30"C 700 in geographical area concerned.
Cobalt 11g CoiL
None
Q
Suspended solids <D
Residual chlorine 11g CIIL 3(ij•
Barium 11g BaiL 100
~
Silver 11g Ag/L 10 If silver is used nonsystematically to process 0
the water, a MAC value of 80 11g/L may be ....
authorized. ~
Toxic substances <D
.,
Arsenic 11g AsiL 50
Beryllium 11g BelL
~
Q)

Cadmium 11g Cd/L 5 §"

CD
Cyanides 11g CNIL 50 ~
Chromium 11g Cr/L 50
Mercury 11g Hg!L 1
Nickel 11g Ni!L 50
Lead 11g Pb/L 50 (in running water)
Antimony 11g Sb/L 10
Selenium 11g Se/L 10
Vanadium 11g V/L
Pesticides and 11g/L Pesticides and related products means
related products insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,
Separate 0.1 PCBs, and PCTs,
Total 0.5
Polycyclic aromatic 11g/L 0.2
hydrocarbons
Table 1.22. EC Drinking Water Directive—List of Parameters®^ (Continued).
Maximum Admissible Concentration (MAC)
Volume of Sample Guide Level Membrane Filter
Parameter mL (GL) Method Multiple Tube Method (MPN)
Microbiological
Total conforms® 100 0 MPN <1
Fecal conforms 100 0 MPN <1 2

Fecal streptococci 100 0 MPN <1 S'

Sulfite-reducing Clostridia 20 MPN <1 Q)'
0}
Total bacteria counts for :3
Q.
water supplied for human Co
consumption S'
37°C 1 10 g-
22°C 1 10 I
Total bacteria counts for
water in closed containers
37X 1 5 D
22X 1 §■
20 :3'
Unit of Minimum Required «Q
Parameter Measurement Concentration Comments i
Softened water intended for
human consumption^ O
Total hardness mg Ca/L 60 Calcium or equivalent cations §
Hydrogen ion pH The water should not be aggressive.
Alkalinity mg HCO3/L 30 The water should not be aggressive.
Dissolved oxygen The water should not be aggressive.
® Provided a sufficient number of samples is examined (95% consistent results)
^ If, owing to its excessive natural hardness, the water Is softened before being supplied for consumption, Its sodium content may. In exceptional cases, be higher than
the values given In the MAC column. An effort must be made to keep the sodium content as low as possible, and the essential requirements for the protection of public
health may not be disregarded.

Ca5
Table 1.23. General Effectiveness of Water Treatment Processes for Contaminant Removal.®
Ion Exchange Membrane Processes Adsorption
Coagulation
Aeration Processes, Chemical
Contamination and Sedimentation, Lime Reverse Ultra Electro- Oxidation Activated
Categories Stripping Filtration Softening Anion Cation Osmosis Filtration dialysis Disinfection GAC PAC Alumina
A. Primary contaminants
Total conforms P G-E G-E P P E E — E F P P-F
Giardia lamblia P G-E G-E P P E E — E F P P-F
Viruses P G-E G-E P P E E — E F P P-F
Legionella P G-E G-E P P E E — E P P P-F
Turbidity P E G F F E E — P F P P-F Q
2. Inorganics CD

Arsenic (+3) P F-G F-G G-E P F-G __ F-G P F-G P-F G-E 3
C/}*
Arsenic (+5) P G-E G-E G-E P G-E — G-E P F-G P-F E
Asbestos P G-E — — — — — — P — — — o
Barium P P-F G-E P E E — G-E P P P P
Cadmium P G-E E P E E — E P P-F P P
Chromium (+3) P G-E G-E P E E — E F F-G F P cB“
Chromium (+6) P P P E P G-E — G-E P F-G F P
Cyanide P — — — — G — G E — — — s'
91
Fluoride P F-G P-F P-F P E — E P G-E P E S
CD
Lead P E E P F-G E — E P F-G P-F P
Mercury (inorganic) P F-G F-G P F-G F-G — F-G P F-G F P
Nickel P F-G E P E E — E P F-G P-F P
Nitrate P P P G-E P G — G P P P P
Nitrite F P P G-E P G — G G-E P P P
Radium (226 and 228) P P-F G-E P E E — G-E P P-F P P-F
Selenium (+6) P P P G-E P E — E P P P G-E
Selenium (+4) P F-G F G-E P E — E P P P G-E
3. Organics
VOCs G-E P P-F P P F-E F-E F-E P-G F-E P-G P
SOCs P-F P-G P-F P P F-E F-E F-E P-G F-E P-E P-G
Pesticides P-F P-G P-F P P F-E F-E F-E P-G G-E G-E P-G
THMs G-E P P P P F-G F-G F-G P-G F-E P-F P
THM precursors P F-G P-F F-G — G-E F-E G-E F-G F-E P-F P-F
Table 1.23. General Effectiveness of Water Treatment Processes for Contaminant Removal^^ (Continued).
Ion Exchange Membrane Processes Adsorption
Coagulation
Aeration Processes, Chemical
Contamination and Sedimentation, Lime Reverse Ultra Electro- Oxidation Activated
Categories Stripping Fiitration Softening Anion Cation Osmosis Filtration diaiysis Disinfection GAC PAC Alumina
B. Secondary contaminants
Hardness P P E P E E G-E E P P P P O
Iron F-G F-E E P G-E G-E G G-E G-E P P P S'
03"
Manganese P-F F-E E P G-E G-E G G-E F-E P P P Q)
Color P F-G F-G P-G — — — — F-E E G-E G :3
Q.
Taste and odor F-E P-F P-F P-G — — — — F-E G-E G-E P-F CO
Total dissolved solids P P P-F P P G-E P-F G-E P P P P S'
Chloride P P P F-G P G-E P G-E P P P —
§-
Copper P G G-E P F-G E — E P-F F-G P —

Sulfate P P P G-E P E P E P P P G-E

Zinc P F-G G-E P G-E E — E P — — —

TOC F P-F G — G-E G G-E P-G G-E F F-G —

Carbon dioxide G-E P-F E P P P P P P P P P :s'

Hydrogen sulfide F-E P F-G P P P P P F-E F-G P P CQ
Methane G-E P-E P P P P P P P P P P
C. Proposed contaminants i

VOCsG-E P P-F P P F-E F-E F-E P-G F-E P-G P

SOCsP-F P-G P-F P P F-E F-E F-E P-G F-E P-E P-G O
c:
— — —
Q}
Disinfection P-E P-F P-F P F-G F-G F-G F-E F-G
by-products
Radon G-E P P P P P P P P E P-F P
Uranium P G-E G-E E G-E E — E P F P-F G-E
Aluminum P F F-G P G-E E — E P — — —

Silver F-G G-E P G — — — P F-G P-F — —

P—poor (0 to 20% removal); F—fair (20 to 60% removal); G—good (60 to 90% removal); E—excellent (90 to 100% removal); “— -not applicable/insufficient data.
Note: Costs and local conditions may alter a process’s applicability.
46 Chemistry of Water Treatment

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ter, Cincinnati, OH, in preparation.
1. Baker, M.N., The Quest for Pure Water (New York:
35. Cotruvo, J.A. and C.D. Vogt, Water Quality and Treat­
American Water Works Association, 1948).
ment, Chapter 1 (Denver, CO: Am. Water Works Assoc,
2. Rosenau, M.J., Preventative Medicine and Hygiene, 5th
1990).
ed. (New York: Appleton-Century, 1935).
36. Pontius, F.W., J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 84(3):36
Klein, L., Aspects of Water Pollution (New York: Aca­
(1992) ; 84(8):30 (1992); 85(2):42 (1993).
demic Press, Inc., 1957).
36a. Pontius, F.W., J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 87(2):48
4. Public Health Reports, 29:2959 (1914).
(1995).
5. Special Commission AAAS. “A Method, in Part, for the
37. Federal Register, 54(124):27486 (1989).
Sanitary Examination of Water, and for the Statement of
38. Von Huben, H., Surface Water Treatment: The New
Results, Offered for General Adoption,” J. Anal Chem.
Rules (Denver, CO: Am. Water Works Assoc., 1991).
3:398 (1889).
39. Letterman, R., Filtration Strategies to Meet the Surface
6. “Water Quality Criteria,” Federal Water Pollution Con­
Water Treatment Rule (Denver, CO: Am. Water Works
trol Administration, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Assoc., 1991).
Washington, DC, 1968.
39a. Pontius, F.W., J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 85(10): 16
7. “Interstate Quarantine Act of 1893,” U.S. Statutes at
(1993) .
Large, Ch. 114, 27:449, February 15, 1983.
39b. Federal Register, 59(28):6332 (Feb. 10, 1994).
8. “Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, 1962,”
39c. Pontius, F.W., J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 8 6 (6 ): 12
Public Health Service Pub. No. 956, U.S. Government
(1994) .
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1962.
39d. Pontius, F.W., J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 87(1): 19
9. Federal Register, 40(51): 11990 (1975).
(1995) .
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Removal of Corrosive Substances

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