Automobile Engineering

UNIT-1

Automobile

Definition: An automobile is a self-propelled vehicle designed primarily for

transporting people or goods on roads. It operates on wheels and is powered by an
internal combustion engine or electric motor.

Layout:
The general layout of an automobile includes the following systems:

1. Engine: Provides power to drive the vehicle.

2. Transmission System: Transfers power from the engine to the wheels.
3. Chassis: Forms the structural framework supporting the vehicle’s body and
components.
4. Body: The outer structure that encloses passengers and protects internal
components.
5. Suspension System: Absorbs shocks from the road to provide a comfortable
ride.
6. Steering System: Helps control the direction of the vehicle.
7. Braking System: Ensures safe deceleration and stopping.

Classification: Automobiles can be classified based on:

1. Purpose: Passenger vehicles, commercial vehicles, and special-purpose

vehicles.
2. Fuel Type: Petrol, diesel, electric, hybrid, and alternative fuels like CNG or
hydrogen.
3. Body Type: Sedan, SUV, hatchback, truck, bus, etc.
4. Drive Type: Front-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive, all-wheel drive, or four-
wheel drive.
5. Number of Wheels: Two-wheelers, three-wheelers, and four-wheelers.

Chassis:
The chassis is the backbone of the automobile. It supports all major components,
including the engine, transmission system, body, and suspension. It provides rigidity
and strength to withstand various loads during operation.

Engine Components

1. Cylinder Block and Crankcase:

o The main structure of the engine, housing the cylinders, and providing
support for components like the crankshaft.
o The crankcase encloses the crankshaft and serves as the reservoir for
engine oil.
 2. Cylinder:
o A hollow, cylindrical part where the combustion of fuel-air mixture
occurs, converting energy into mechanical motion.
3. Cylinder Head:
o Seals the top of the cylinder. It contains the combustion chamber, intake
and exhaust valves, and spark plug (in petrol engines).
4. Piston and Piston Rings:
o Piston: A cylindrical component that moves up and down in the
cylinder, transmitting force to the crankshaft.
o Piston Rings: Located around the piston, they ensure a tight seal
between the piston and cylinder walls, preventing gas leakage and
controlling oil consumption.
5. Crankshaft:
o Converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion,
driving the vehicle's wheels through the transmission.
6. Connecting Rod:
o Links the piston to the crankshaft, transferring the force from
combustion to the crankshaft.
7. Muffler:
o Part of the exhaust system that reduces noise generated by the expulsion
of exhaust gases.

Engine Classification Based on Arrangement of Cylinders

1. Inline Engine:
o Cylinders are arranged in a single line along the crankshaft.
o Common in small and medium-sized cars.
o Pros: Compact and simple design.
o Cons: Limited power output.
2. V-Engine:
o Cylinders are arranged in two banks forming a "V" shape.
o Common in high-performance and luxury cars.
o Pros: Compact with high power output.
o Cons: More complex and costly.
3. Flat or Boxer Engine:
o Cylinders lie flat and oppose each other on either side of the crankshaft.
o Found in some sports cars (e.g., Subaru, Porsche).
o Pros: Low center of gravity.
o Cons: Wide engine design.
4. Radial Engine:
o Cylinders are arranged like spokes around a central crankshaft.
o Common in aircraft.
o Pros: High power-to-weight ratio.
o Cons: Bulky and rare in automobiles.
Multi-Valve Engines

 Multi-valve engines have more than two valves per cylinder (commonly 4
valves: 2 intake and 2 exhaust).
 Advantages:
o Improved airflow for better combustion efficiency.
o Increased power and torque.
o Better fuel economy and reduced emissions.
 Applications: Widely used in modern cars for better performance and fuel
efficiency.

Exhaust Emissions and Their Control

1. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR):

o Recirculates a portion of exhaust gases back into the combustion
chamber to lower nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions.
o Reduces combustion temperature by diluting the air-fuel mixture.
2. Catalytic Converters:
o Converts harmful exhaust gases (CO, NOx, and HC) into less harmful
substances (CO2, N2, and H2O).
o Types:
 Two-way converters: Reduce CO and HC.
 Three-way converters: Reduce CO, HC, and NOx (used in most
modern cars).

BS-6 Phase-1 and Phase-2 Regulations

 BS-6 Phase-1 (introduced in April 2020):

o Drastic reduction in permissible emission levels for pollutants like CO,
NOx, HC, and particulate matter.
o Incorporates advanced exhaust control technologies like EGR, diesel
particulate filters (DPFs), and catalytic converters.
o Introduced sulfur content reduction in fuels (10 ppm).
 BS-6 Phase-2 (Real Driving Emissions - RDE):
o Enforces emission testing in real-world driving conditions, not just in
labs.
o Incorporates on-board diagnostic (OBD-2) systems for continuous
monitoring.
o Ensures compliance under diverse driving conditions.

Emission Control Technologies

1. Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF):

o A solution (urea and deionized water) sprayed into the exhaust stream to
reduce NOx emissions.
 o Works with SCR systems.
2. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR):
o Uses DEF to convert NOx into harmless nitrogen and water.
o Highly effective in reducing diesel engine emissions.
 UNIT-2

ENGINE AND GEARBOX

Fuel Systems

1. Petrol Engine Fuel System:

o Basic components include a fuel tank, fuel pump, carburettor, and fuel
injectors.
o Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI): Delivers fuel directly into the engine’s
combustion chamber using electronically controlled injectors for precise
fuel-air mixture.
2. Diesel Engine Fuel System:
o Basic components include a fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, and
injectors.
o Injectors:
 Distributor Type: Distributes fuel to cylinders via a single pump.
 Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI): Maintains a high-
pressure fuel rail that delivers fuel to injectors, ensuring better
efficiency and lower emissions.

Ignition Systems

1. Conventional Ignition: Uses a distributor, ignition coil, and spark plugs to

generate the spark.
2. Electronic Ignition: Replaces the mechanical distributor with electronic
sensors, improving efficiency and performance.

Engine Cooling Systems

1. Air Cooled Engines: Uses airflow over fins on the engine block to dissipate
heat.
2. Water Cooled Engines: Uses a radiator, water pump, and coolant to maintain
engine temperature.

Lubrication Systems

1. Dry Sump: Stores oil in a separate tank, ensuring continuous lubrication even
at high speeds or steep angles.
2. Wet Sump: Stores oil in the sump (bottom of the engine), commonly used in
most vehicles.

Clutch

1. Necessity: Allows smooth engagement and disengagement of power between

the engine and transmission.
 2. Types of Clutches:
o Single & Multi-Plate Clutch: Single plate is used in cars, while multi-
plate is used for higher torque requirements.
o Centrifugal Clutch: Automatically engages and disengages based on
engine speed, commonly used in scooters.
o Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT): Provides seamless gear
shifts with no fixed gear ratios, enhancing efficiency.
o Fluid Coupling/Torque Converter: Uses hydraulic fluid to transfer
power, commonly found in automatic transmissions.

Gearbox

1. Necessity: Maintains the engine’s efficiency by providing different torque and

speed ratios for various driving conditions.
2. Types of Gearboxes:
o Constant Mesh Gearbox: All gears are always in mesh; clutches are
used for gear changes.
o Synchromesh Gearbox: Allows smooth gear shifting by synchronizing
the speed of gears before engagement.
o Automatic Gearbox: Changes gears automatically without driver input,
ensuring convenience and comfort.
 UNIT-4

Hybrid Vehicles

Need for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles:

 Environmental Concerns: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air

pollution.
 Fuel Efficiency: Lower fuel consumption compared to conventional vehicles.
 Energy Conservation: Use renewable energy and regenerative braking to
conserve energy.

Series and Parallel Architecture of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV):

 Series HEV:
o The internal combustion engine (ICE) powers a generator that charges
the battery, which then powers the electric motor to drive the wheels.
o Ideal for urban driving with frequent stops.
 Parallel HEV:
o Both the ICE and the electric motor can drive the wheels simultaneously
or independently.
o Offers better highway performance.

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV):

 Definition: Vehicles that can charge their batteries externally through a plug-in
source and also rely on an ICE.
 Advantages: Extended electric-only range, lower emissions, and reduced fuel
dependency.

Power Train Components:

 Battery Pack: Stores electrical energy.

 Electric Motor: Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE): Provides additional power when needed.
 Power Control Unit: Manages the flow of energy between components.
Power Split Devices for Hybrid Vehicles:

 Combines power from the engine and the electric motor.

 Manages power distribution to the wheels and battery charging.

Operation Modes:

1. Electric Mode: Vehicle runs solely on the electric motor.

2. Hybrid Mode: Combines ICE and electric motor for optimized performance.
3. Regenerative Braking: Recaptures energy during braking to charge the
battery.

Control Strategies for Hybrid Vehicles:

 Energy Management: Balances the use of ICE and electric motor to maximize
efficiency.
 Drive Modes: Includes Eco, Normal, and Power modes to adapt to different
driving conditions.

Electrical System:

Starting System:

 Provides the initial power to start the ICE using a starter motor.

Charging System:

 Includes an alternator and regulator to maintain battery charge and supply

power to electrical components.

Electronic System:

Electronic Engine Management System:

 Uses sensors and actuators to control engine performance and emissions.

Automotive Embedded Systems:

  Definition: Dedicated systems embedded in the vehicle for specific functions
like braking, infotainment, and safety.

Vehicle Security System:

 Includes electronic anti-theft systems, keyless entry, and alarm systems for
enhanced security.

Hybrid and electric vehicles represent the future of sustainable transportation by

combining advanced technologies and efficient power management.
 UNIT-5
ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Design Requirements for Electric Vehicles (EVs)

Electric vehicles are designed to meet specific performance, efficiency, and user
experience criteria. The key design considerations include:

1. Layout of an Electric Vehicle

The EV layout comprises:

 Electric Motor: Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

 Battery Pack: Stores energy to power the motor.
 Controller: Regulates power delivery to the motor.
 Charger: For replenishing the battery pack.
 Transmission System: Transfers power to the wheels.

2. Range

 The distance an EV can travel on a single charge.

 Dependent on battery capacity, driving conditions, and vehicle weight.

3. Maximum Velocity

 The top speed achievable by the vehicle.

 Determined by the motor's power and transmission design.

4. Acceleration

 The time taken to reach a specific speed.

 Relies on motor torque, vehicle mass, and powertrain efficiency.

5. Power Requirement

 Total energy needed for the motor and auxiliary systems.

 Calculated based on vehicle mass, drag coefficient, and desired speed.
6. Mass of the Vehicle

 Includes the chassis, battery pack, motor, and other components.

 Lighter designs improve efficiency and range.

7. Transmission Efficiency

 The efficiency of power transfer from the motor to the wheels.

 Affects overall performance and energy consumption.

Types of Motors in EVs

1. DC Motors:
o Simple design, good speed control, but lower efficiency compared to
newer motors.
2. Permanent Magnet (PM) Motors:
o High efficiency, lightweight, and reliable.
3. Switched Reluctance Motors:
o Cost-effective, robust, and suitable for high-speed applications.

Motor Drives and Speed Controllers

 Motor Drives: Convert DC power from the battery to AC for the motor.
 Speed Controllers: Manage the speed and torque of the motor based on driver
input.

Regenerative Braking

 Converts kinetic energy into electrical energy during braking.

 Improves efficiency and extends battery life.

Battery Parameters in EVs

1. Types of Batteries:
o Lead Acid: Inexpensive, but heavy and less efficient.
 o Nickel-based: Higher energy density than lead-acid but suffers from
memory effects.
o Sodium-based: Suitable for high-temperature applications.
o Lithium-based: Lightweight, high energy density, and commonly used
in modern EVs.
o Metal-Air: Promising future technology with high energy density.

2. Battery Charging:
o Quick charging devices reduce charging time.
o Wireless charging is an emerging technology.
3. Battery Management System (BMS):
o Monitors battery health, temperature, and charge level.
o Ensures safety and prolongs battery lifespan.

Conclusion

The design of electric vehicles focuses on optimizing performance, efficiency, and

sustainability. Advanced motors, efficient batteries, and innovative management
systems play a crucial role in achieving these goals, paving the way for the future of
sustainable mobility.
 UNIT-3

1. Differential

Necessity:
The differential is a crucial component in the drivetrain of a vehicle. It allows for the
differences in wheel speed when turning a corner. This is necessary because the wheels on
the inside of a turn travel a shorter distance than the wheels on the outside.

Constructional Features:

 The differential is typically housed in a casing and contains gears such as the bevel
gear, pinion, side gears, and spider gears.
 It is usually positioned between the drive wheels and connected to the drive shaft.

Working of Limited Slip Differential (LSD):

 The LSD is designed to reduce the difference in speed between the two wheels of the
same axle.
 When one wheel begins to slip or lose traction, the LSD transfers more torque to the
wheel with better grip, improving stability and traction.

2. Axles

Constructional Features:

 An axle is a shaft that connects two wheels together, allowing them to rotate.
 It is usually made of high-strength steel to support the vehicle’s weight and handle
rotational forces.
 Rear axles are often housed in a differential casing.

Types of Rear Axles:

 Full Floating Axle: The axle is supported by bearings at both ends, not relying on the
differential housing for support.
 Semi-Floating Axle: The axle is supported by bearings at the housing end, with the
other end connected to the wheel.

3. Tires

Tire Construction:

 Tires consist of layers, including the tread, sidewall, beads, and carcass.
 The tread provides traction, the sidewall provides structural support, and the beads
help the tire stay firmly mounted on the wheel.
Radial Tires:

 Radial tires have a construction where the tire’s fabric cords run radially
(perpendicular) to the direction of travel, providing better fuel efficiency and longer
life compared to bias-ply tires.

Tire Specifications:

 Tire specifications include the width, aspect ratio, and diameter, which help determine
the tire’s size and its performance characteristics.

Tire Rotation:

 Tire rotation is the process of changing the position of tires on the vehicle to ensure
even wear. It helps increase the lifespan of the tires and improves performance.

4. Wheel Alignment and Balancing

Importance of Castor, Camber, Toe-in, Toe-out, and Balance Weight:

 Castor: Refers to the angle of the steering pivot, affecting the vehicle's straight-line
stability and turning capability.
 Camber: The vertical tilt of the wheels. Positive camber means the top of the wheels
tilts outward, while negative camber means the top tilts inward.
 Toe-in and Toe-out: Describes the angle of the wheels in relation to each other. Toe-
in means the front of the wheels points toward the vehicle’s centerline, and toe-out
means they point outward.
 Balance Weight: Weights placed on the wheels to ensure even rotation and smooth
operation, preventing vibrations and uneven tire wear.

5. Suspension System

Types of Suspension Systems:

 MacPherson Strut: A type of front suspension that combines a shock absorber and a
coil spring into one unit, providing efficient space and weight savings.
 Wishbone Suspension: A suspension system with two arms shaped like a "V",
providing better handling and ride comfort.
 Air Suspension: Uses compressed air to inflate air springs, providing an adjustable
ride height and a smoother, more adaptable ride.
6. Vehicle Control Systems

Steering System:

 Steering Gearbox: A mechanism that transfers the driver’s steering input to the
wheels. There are different types like the rack and pinion, recirculating ball, and
worm gear.
 Power Steering: A system that uses hydraulic or electric actuators to assist the driver
in steering, making it easier to turn the wheel.

Brake System:

 Necessity: Brakes are essential for stopping or slowing down a vehicle.

 Types of Brakes:
o Drum Brakes: Use a drum and brake shoes that press against the inner
surface of the drum to create friction.
o Disc Brakes: Use brake pads that squeeze against a rotating disc to create
friction, providing better performance than drum brakes.
o Parking Brakes: A brake that can be engaged to hold the vehicle stationary
when parked.
o Power Brakes: Use vacuum or hydraulic assist to make braking easier and
more effective.

Working Principle of Air and Hydraulic Brakes:

 Air Brakes: Air is compressed and stored in a tank, then released to apply pressure to
the braking system, commonly used in large vehicles.
 Hydraulic Brakes: Use brake fluid to transfer pressure from the brake pedal to the
brake pads, applying force to the wheels to stop the vehicle.

ABS (Anti-lock Braking System):

 ABS prevents wheel lockup during braking, allowing the driver to maintain steering
control. It uses sensors to monitor wheel speed and modulates brake pressure to avoid
skidding.

EBD (Electronic Brakeforce Distribution):

 EBD optimizes brake force between the front and rear wheels based on load
conditions, enhancing braking efficiency and vehicle stability.

Conclusion

The Transmission, Suspension, and Vehicle Control Systems are critical for the safe,
comfortable, and efficient operation of a vehicle. These systems work together to ensure
smooth handling, stability, and performance across a range of driving conditions. From the
differential and axles to braking and steering systems, each component plays a vital role in
enhancing the overall driving experience.