Special Issue Article

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2016, Vol. 8(1) 1–13
Ó The Author(s) 2016
Electrochemical micromachining: An DOI: 10.1177/1687814015626860
aime.sagepub.com
introduction

Rebecca J Leese and Atanas Ivanov

Abstract
Electrochemical machining is a relatively new technique, only being introduced as a commercial technique within the last
70 years. A lot of research was conducted in the 1960s and 1970s, but research on electrical discharge machining around
the same time slowed electrochemical machining research. The main influence for the development of electrochemical
machining came from the aerospace industry where very hard alloys were required to be machined without leaving a defec-
tive layer in order to produce a component which would behave reliably. Electrochemical machining was primarily used for
the production of gas turbine blades or to machine materials into complex shapes that would be difficult to machine using
conventional machining methods. Tool wear is high and the metal removal rate is slow when machining hard materials with
conventional machining methods such as milling. This increases the cost of the machining process overall and this method
creates a defective layer on the machined surface. Whereas with electrochemical machining there is virtually no tool wear
even when machining hard materials and it does not leave a defective layer on the machined surface. This article reviews the
application of electrochemical machining with regards to micro manufacturing and the present state of the art micro electro-
chemical machining considering different machined materials, electrolytes and conditions used.

Keywords
Micro-electrochemical machining, electrochemistry, micromachining

Date received: 26 August 2015; accepted: 17 December 2015

Academic Editor: Hui Ding

Introduction There has been a drive towards miniaturisation,

which requires new manufacturing methods to produce
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a non- features on this small scale11. ECM has had to respond
conventional manufacturing process which relies on to the growing trend in miniaturisation, as such there
duplicating the shape of the tool electrode into the have been recent developments which use much smaller
workpiece via the anodic dissolution of the work- simple shaped electrodes, such as a disc, rod or tube, to
piece.1–7 In ECM, both the tool electrode and the machine complex shapes by moving the smaller tool
workpiece are submerged in an electrically conductive
electrolyte, usually an aqueous salt solution such as
sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium nitrate
(NaNO3).4,5,8–10 A constant potential is applied Advanced Manufacturing and Enterprise Engineering, School of
between the two electrodes ensuring the workpiece Engineering and Design, Brunel University London, London, UK
becomes the anode (positive electrode). The applied
potential causes a DC current to flow between the elec- Corresponding author:
Rebecca J Leese, Advanced Manufacturing and Enterprise Engineering,
trodes, dissolving the anode material in the process. School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University London, London
The reaction at the cathode is usually hydrogen gas UB8 3PH, UK.
generation. Email: [email protected]

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2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

electrode along a designated path.1,4,12–15 This requires copper ions at the anode surface is much higher than
higher resolution of the dissolution process to achieve the concentration of copper ions in the bulk of the
the required accuracy. As a result, a new ECM tech- solution; hence, the copper ions diffuse away from the
nique was developed, known as pulsed electrochemical anode towards the bulk solution and the copper cath-
machining (PECM). PECM uses high-frequency vol- ode. The concentration of copper ions at the cathode
tage pulses to confine the machining to the areas of the surface is lower than the bulk concentration because
workpiece polarised by the tool electrode.3,4,16–20 copper ions are consumed at the cathode surface. The
Using a pulsed voltage to machine the workpiece copper ions also travel through the solution via migra-
allows the inter-electrode gap (IEG) to be reduced, with tion; migration is the movement of ions due to a
the IEG being proportional to the pulse width.16,17,21,22 potential field.4,9,15,23,27 In the example, the positive
The article will present a review of the electrochemi- copper ions are electrostatically attracted to the nega-
cal processes and will discuss their suitability for the use tively charged cathode. Usually in electrochemical
in micro manufacturing. The structure of the article is experiments examining electrode reactions, a back-
represented in Figure 1. ground electrolyte with a high concentration is used to
mitigate the effects of migration in the solution.23 The
majority of the current is carried by the background
Process overview electrolyte so the effect of migration on the species
ECM is an electrolytic process which works on the being studied is negligible. The third mechanism in
basis of anodic dissolution of the workpiece. which the ions could move through the solution is
Electrolysis is the passing of the current between two convection. Convection is the movement due to exter-
electrodes in an electrically conductive solution, called nal mechanical forces such as stirring or bubbling gas
an electrolyte, which completes the circuit.23–25 A sim- through the solution.4,9,15,23,27 In the case of copper
ple example of an electrolytic process is between an electrolysis, the solution is unstirred and kept at a
impure copper anode and a pure copper cathode in a constant temperature so the ions are not subjected to
temperature-controlled, quiescent solution of copper any large convection effects, be that natural or forced
sulphate (CuSO4) with a constant current source con- convection, for example, stirring the solution.
necting the two electrodes.26 Copper atoms from the The reactions happening at the electrodes during
anode are dissolved and travel through the electrolyte copper electrolysis are as follows
to the cathode where it is subsequently deposited. The
copper ions move through the solution via several At the anode : Cu ! Cu2 + + 2e
mechanisms. The first being diffusion; diffusion is the At the cathode : Cu2 + + 2e ! Cu
movement of ions within a solution influenced by con-
centration gradients. Ions move from areas with These two reactions occur simultaneously. This pre-
higher concentrations to lower concentrations in an vents charge accumulation anywhere within the cir-
attempt to equalise the concentration throughout the cuit.9,23 There are also counter ions in the solution so
solution.4,9,15,23,27 In this case, the concentration of the solution remains uncharged.

Figure 1. Flow diagram for the structure of this article.

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Leese and Ivanov 3

Figure 2. Schematic of copper purification process.

Figure 2 shows a schematic of the reactions occur- onto the cathode. This is undesirable in the ECM pro-
ring within the electrolyte during the purification of cess as it would alter the shape of the cathode tool over
copper. time. To avoid this, a cathode material which allows
The impure copper anode is dissolved and hence the electrolytic breakdown of water and the evolution
reduces in mass. The insoluble impurities collect under- of hydrogen is chosen. The hydrogen evolution reac-
neath the anode. No other reactions take place at either tion helps to balance the current flowing from the dis-
electrodes as copper is less reactive than hydrogen, as solution reaction at the anode and the electrolytic
determined in the electrochemical series.25 If a metal breakdown of water produces hydroxide ions. The iron
more reactive than hydrogen had been used, hydrogen ions react with hydroxide ions which have been formed
gas would have been produced at the cathode, that is, if from the electrolytic breakdown of water to form inso-
the standard potential of the half reaction relating to luble metal hydroxides. These precipitate out of the
the working electrode material is negative with respect solution, removing the ions from the solution and pre-
to hydrogen, hydrogen will be formed at the electrode.28 venting them from being deposited onto the cathode.
ECM (removal of material) works on a similar basis This process, however, is not an electrochemical pro-
as described above for the purification of copper. ECM cess, meaning it is a chemical reaction that will happen
utilises the anodic dissolution process used in copper regardless of a current being passed and it does not
electrolysis but confines the current, with different occur at the electrode surface.2,5,29,30
methods, to allow more precise and accurate dissolu- The total current passed is not affected by this reac-
tion. This enables different shapes and contours to be tion. Figure 3 schematically shows the processes occur-
machined using this method. ring during ECM of an iron workpiece in sodium
Here, the controlled anodic dissolution of iron in nitrate.
sodium nitrate electrolyte will be used as an example to The reactions occurring at the electrodes are as
discuss the differences in the process compared to the follows
electrolysis of copper. In order to control the areas on Anode : Fe ! Fe2 + + 2e
the workpiece which are affected by the anodic dissolu-
tion, the gap between the tool and the electrode is Cathode : 2H2 O + 2e ! H2 + 2OH 
reduced to the micrometre range. This is one factor 2H + + 2e ! H2 "
that helps to confine the current to the desired areas,
making the process suitable for micromachining. The The formation of the iron hydroxide happens away
iron ions are dissolved in the same way as the copper from the electrode surface and happens via the follow-
ing electroless reaction
ions; however, the two processes differ once the ions
have been dissolved. In the electrolysis of copper, the Fe2 + + 2OH  ! Fe(OH)2
ions remain in the solution until they are deposited

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4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 3. Schematic for the anodic dissolution of iron.

Electrolytes to the increased electrolyte resistance which requires

shorter current paths for a given pulse length.
The electrolyte has three main roles in the ECM pro-
Trimmer et al.35 used 0.05 M hydrochloric acid
cess; it carries the current between the tool and the
(HCl) to create sub-micron resolution structures on a
workpiece,4,25,31 it removes the products of the reaction
nickel (Ni) substrate. This was achieved using 2-ns
from the IEG2,5,9,10,29,31–33 and it removes the heat pro-
pulse duration with a 20-s pulse off time.
duced from the passage of the current.2,4,5,9,10,31,34
Bhattacharyya and Munda36 observed a larger over-
The most common electrolyte used for ECM is a
cut with a more concentrated electrolyte, caused by an
concentrated salt electrolyte, namely, sodium chloride
increase in current density.
or sodium nitrate. These are used as they are relatively
Rathod et al.37 machined micro-grooves with sul-
inexpensive and they do not cause damage to the
phuric acid with concentrations varying between 0.15
machinery.10 An acidic electrolyte could corrode
and 0.30 M. They also observed a decrease in machin-
machinery over time. For electrochemical micromachin-
ing resolution with the increase in electrolyte concen-
ing (ECMM), a less concentrated electrolyte is required
tration. This was explained by an increase in electrical
to enhance the machining precision, by restricting the
conductivity of the electrolyte, increasing the number
current passage through increased electrolyte resistance.
Sodium chloride is regularly used to machine stain- of ions available for reaction.
less steel when a bright surface finish is required. Ma and Schuster38 stated that machining resolution
Sodium chloride does not usually create a passive layer could be improved by increasing the specific electrolyte
on the stainless steel surface which ensures fast, level resistance, that is, reducing the concentration.
machining of the surface. In contrast, sodium nitrate is Thanigaivelan and Arunachalam39 stated with 95%
used for machining stainless steel when close replica- confidence that the electrolyte concentration has an
tion of the tool is of utmost importance. Sodium nitrate effect on the overcut during machining.
is a passivating electrolyte for stainless steel, but in this Jain et al.40 observed a decrease in machining locali-
instance it prevents stray corrosion, ensuring precise sation with an increase in concentration. However,
tool replication. Using sodium nitrate, high current beyond a limit, the machining localisation improved. It
density favours anodic dissolution; however, low cur- was suggested that the ion mobility is hindered due to
rent density favours passivation. This is how sodium the high electrolyte concentration.
nitrate increases machining resolution compared to the Fan et al.41 also observed an increase in machining
same concentration of sodium chloride. overcut as the concentration increased when using
Lower concentration electrolytes are used to improve sodium chloride with hydrochloric acid as the electro-
machining resolution.3,35–41 Resolution is improved due lyte to machine nickel plates.

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Leese and Ivanov 5

Wu et al.42 favoured a lower concentration electro- environment, usually water or oxygen dissolved in the
lyte in the formation of nano-tips due to over etching in electrolyte via the following reaction49
higher concentrations.
Wang et al.43 stated that the electrolyte concentra- z
M+ H2 O ! MO2z + zH + + ze
tion affected the distribution of the current density, 2
which, in turn, influences the machining resolution, The passive layer is usually formed of metal oxides
with lower concentrations achieving better resolution. and metal hydroxides. In some cases, the passive layer
Jain et al.44 stated that the concentration affects the will form spontaneously and quickly, but in others the
electrolyte conductivity and therefore the current passive layer may only form when an anodic current is
density. passed. This depends on both the electrolyte used and
Ghoshal and Bhattacharyya45 created micro- the metal the workpiece is made from. A passive layer
channels using ECMM. The authors observed the stan- is detrimental to the ECM process as passive layers
dard deviation of the micro-channel width reduced as increase the corrosion resistance of the surface, decreas-
the concentration increased; however, the overcut ing the material removal rate (MRR) and forces the
increased with increased concentration. potential higher in order to machine the surface.22 This
Ayyappan and Sivakumar,46 however, found it bene- is because many passive films form a barrier and they
ficial to use a higher concentration as the surface finish show both low ionic and electronic conductivity at low
was improved. and medium field strengths. If no current can be passed,
either electronically or ionically, no reaction can occur
and machining will stop. Not all passive films are insu-
Formation of passivating layer lating, some may conduct either electronically or ioni-
The choice of electrolyte determines the reactions that cally. The growth of insulating films is a self-inhibiting
happen at both the workpiece and the tool electrode process, and usually a dense, homogeneous film of con-
and also within solution. First, there are two main stant thickness is formed. However, an electrically con-
types of electrolyte; passivating and non-passivating ductive film will grow continuously; the thickness of the
electrolytes.9,10,24,33,47,48 Passivating electrolytes will film will be proportional to the charge passed. Usually,
encourage the development of a passive layer on the a passive film will form a barrier which may be dis-
workpiece. A passive layer is usually formed of metal rupted by a number of factors. When the field strength
oxides and hydroxides which can spontaneously form is high, dielectric breakdown can be observed, causing
upon contact with the electrolyte or once a current is the oxide lattice to break down. Corrosion may weaken
flowing through the system.49 This will depend on both the film, but for ECM this is largely irrelevant as corro-
the electrolyte and the metal involved. Many passive sion usually works on longer time scales than the
films are electrically insulating and form a barrier on experiment time frame. Although the effect of the elec-
the workpiece surface. This is usually detrimental to trolyte on the ECM equipment must be considered as
the machining process and in some cases can com- these components are exposed to the electrolytes used
pletely prevent any dissolution from occurring. This is over extended periods of time. The addition of aggres-
not to say that the formation of all passive layers is sive ions to the electrolyte, such as chloride, may desta-
unwanted. Sometimes the formation of a non- bilise the film by penetrating the film. This has been
insulating passive layer can improve the resolution of observed to result in a more uneven surface finish as the
the machining, obtaining a more precise shape with penetration is not equal across the whole film.49 This
sharper edges and corners2,5,9,10,48,50 by increasing the shows why choosing the correct electrolyte for the
resistance of the surrounding workpiece. This is benefi- material to be machined is important. To achieve the
cial for micromachining. The energy consumption for highest MRRs using the least energy possible, the for-
this method is higher due to the increased potential mation of passive films must be avoided. However, for
required to break through the passive layer.22 A surface precise replication of the tool in the workpiece, it may
is said to be passive if the corrosion resistance is be best to use a passive electrolyte to increase the reso-
increased under conditions where bare metal would sig- lution of dissolution.
nificantly react.22,25,49 Non-passivating electrolytes do During the ECM process, the breakdown of the pas-
not, as the name suggests, form a passive layer. They sive film may be indicated by irregular current peaks,
usually contain aggressive ions, such as chloride, which visible sparks or an audible noise such as a cracking
destabilises the formation of a film.5,9,10,22,25,47 This noise. It is dependent on the composition of the electro-
results in a higher machining rate, but the surface finish lyte and its concentration. However, the breakdown of
is compromised along with the machining resolution.9 the passive film is almost independent of the current
Passive layers are formed on the workpiece from the density, temperature, surface roughness and
workpiece metal itself and components from the hydrodynamics.49

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6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Researchers have been aware of the effect of passive tungsten carbide (WC) in potassium hydroxide
films on the ECM process for a while and have tried to (KOH).42
find ways to avoid or minimise their formation. The Non-aqueous electrolytes eliminate the oxygen
most common technique employed is to use a non- sources that form the passive films.53 This is beneficial
passivating electrolyte. Others have used a bipotentio- for passivating metals, but the conductivities of non-
stat to enable potential control of both the workpiece aqueous electrolytes are low due to the difficulties dis-
(anode) and the tool electrode (cathode).17 This means solving salts in them.23
the potential of the anode can always be held at a Sjöström and Su54 used ethylene glycol as the elec-
potential where the formation of a passive film is unfa- trolyte to machine titanium using a micro-sized tool.
vourable and the potential pulses from the tool are This eliminated heavy gas production allowing smaller
superimposed over the potential of the anode. Because IEGs to be used.
the anode is held at a potential where the formation of Fushimi et al.55 studied the effects of various chlor-
a passive layer occurs, the total charged passed is used ide containing salts in ethylene glycol for the dissolution
for metal removal rather than removing the passive of titanium. They found that increased water content
layer and underlying metal. This had the effect of increased the likelihood of a passive film forming on
increasing the MRR. This, however, is not necessarily the titanium surface.
the best option for ECMM; while high MRRs are The concentration of the electrolyte can also affect
important for processing times, it can compromise the machining quality and rate.1,3,5 An electrolyte with
machining resolution. For micromachining, resolution a higher concentration can carry more current as there
is highly important. are more ions available within the solution.4,5,23 This
means that the machining rate will be higher as the
amount of material removed is proportional to the
Reasoning for selecting an electrolyte amount of current passed over time.2,33,56 The current
lines extend further into the solution when the concen-
There are four options for electrolytes:
tration is higher as the resistance of the electrolyte is
reduced. This means the reaction at the workpiece can
1. Neutral aqueous salts occur further away from the tool electrode which
2. Aqueous acids decreases the resolution of the machining process.17
3. Aqueous bases or alkalis This issue has been overcome by the use of pulsed
4. Non-aqueous electrolytes potential waveforms allowing the use of high concen-
tration electrolytes to maintain high machining rates.17
Aqueous salts are usually the first choice as they are Schuster et al.1 applied voltage pulses of only nano-
generally inexpensive and tend not to cause damage to second duration with the intention of achieving micro-
the machinery setup. However, when aqueous salt solu- metre resolution. They experimentally achieved a
tions do not provide an environment in which dissolu- resolution of 1.4 mm with a 30-ns pulse.
tion can occur, acidic or basic electrolytes can be used. When an alloy or sintered mixture of metals is used
Acidic electrolytes are advantageous as the reaction as a workpiece, choosing an appropriate electrolyte can
products remain dissolved in the solution because the be difficult. One electrolyte may be a good choice to
hydroxide ions produced at the cathode are neutralised machine one component of the alloy or mixture but
by the high hydrogen ion (H + ) concentration. This may hinder the dissolution of the other components
allows the IEG to be made as small as possible as it leading to an unevenly machined surface. A way to
does not get clogged with solid reaction products (metal combat this is to use a mixed electrolyte. This has been
hydroxides).3,12,51 As a result, acidic electrolytes are successfully demonstrated by Choi et al.51 in the
preferred in ECMM. Sparks are also less likely to occur machining of a tungsten carbide with cobalt binder
when using an acidic electrolyte due to the minimisa- (WC–Co) material. It was demonstrated that while
tion of sludge in the IEG. sodium nitrate was a good electrolyte for the tungsten
Rathod et al.37 used sulphuric acid as the electrolyte element, it encouraged the formation of an oxide film
to machine micro-grooves in a stainless steel workpiece. on the cobalt element. Sulphuric acid was added to the
Alkaline electrolytes, such as sodium hydroxide electrolyte at a concentration of 0.2 M which helped dis-
(NaOH), are generally avoided as these can promote solve the cobalt binder allowing for even machining of
the formation of a passive film on the workpiece52 and the surface. Others have also demonstrated successful
the high hydroxide concentration enhances the precipi- machining processes using mixed electrolytes.5,10,57,58
tation of metal hydroxides. This means the IEG has to The electrolyte also serves the purpose of removing
be larger to prevent the space becoming clogged with the reaction products from the machining gap.14 The
the precipitate. Although some metal systems do show gap in ECM between the tool and the workpiece is very
preferential dissolution in basic solutions, for example, small, just a matter of micrometres, to enhance the

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Leese and Ivanov 7

resolution of the machining as explained above. This heated above 40°C, the surface quality on the machined
gap can very quickly become blocked with the solid part was reduced. Hence, it is clear to see that the tem-
metal hydroxides which are formed when the dissolved perature needs to be controlled to enable good-quality
metal ions react with the hydroxide ions in solution. It machining to take place.
is imperative to remove this precipitate from the IEG The temperature of the electrolyte affects the con-
to prevent a short circuit occurring or causing damage ductivity; electrolytic conductivity is temperature
to either the workpiece or the tool electrode through dependent.4,18,34 At higher temperatures, the conductiv-
sparking. This is done by pumping the electrolyte ity of the electrolyte is raised. Having a higher electro-
through the gap to flush any precipitate or gas bubbles lytic conductance allows a higher current to be passed
from the gap at a rate of 5–50 m s21.2,4,10,14 This is car- through the electrolyte when applying the same poten-
ried out in different ways; the most popular way is to tial between the two electrodes due to the relationship
expand the IEG, pump electrolyte through in a pulse
before closing the gap to its previous position.9,17,22,27 V = IR
There is no electrolyte flowing while the electrodes are This is because as the resistance of the electrolyte is
at their closest positions. Another method is to con- decreased, the current increases to compensate for the
stantly pump the electrolyte through the system, but resistivity drop. On the other hand, the same amount
this requires a much sturdier tool electrode to prevent of current may be passed using a lower potential when
the tool from being misplaced or bent by the electrolyte the resistance is lower due to the same relationship.
flow. Flushing the electrolyte through the gap also This is beneficial as the same machining rate can be
reduces the thickness of the static diffusion layer at the achieved using less energy, increasing energy efficiency.
electrode surfaces. This is beneficial as it increases the However, using a higher machining rate reduces
machining rate by reducing the time it takes ions to dif- machining time and hence reduces costs associated with
fuse to the electrode surface from the bulk solution and time and allows a higher throughput of products.
vice versa.4,10,23,59 Researchers have found that using a higher voltage,
however, does decrease the machining resolu-
Electrolyte and current interaction tion15,37,39,51 but improves the surface finish.48

The third role of the electrolyte is to remove excess heat

from the reaction zone.5 Joule heating is the heat IEG
released when the current is passed through a conduc- In ECM, the IEG is of great importance. Many
tor.4,5,18,59 The heat produced is proportional to the researchers have created models of the IEG as a way to
square of the current and the electrical resistance predict how material will be removed, necessary as
according to Joule’s first law ECM is a non-contact process.6,18,41,62–65

Q = I 2 Rt
Electrostatic field intensity
where Q is the amount of heat, I is the electric current
The amount of the material removed in ECM is depen-
flowing through the electrolyte, R is the electrical resis-
dent on the amount of current (I) that is passed at a
tance of the electrolyte and t is the time the current is
particular point on the surface over time (t) and the
passed for. The heat is generated due to the resistance
charge (Q) that is passed as stated in Faraday’s
encountered when passing the current through the
law5,18,33,59
electrolyte.
There are several reasons as to why it is important ð
to remove the heat from the IEG. One being to prevent Q = I dt = mnF
the electrolyte from boiling in the gap;4,18,41,60,61 this
creates bubbles in the gap,4,51 increasing the resistance where m is the number of moles of reactant consumed
across the gap and can cause sparks to occur between or product formed, n is the number of electrons
the two electrodes. This damages both the tool and the required for the conversion and F is the Faraday con-
workpiece and can prevent any further machining tak- stant. The rate of the material removal is dependent on
ing place33,34 or confuse the control algorithm for the the current density that is, a higher current density
tool positioning/movement which is normally based on results in a higher MRR. The current density is depen-
the constant electrolyte properties. dent on the potential ‘felt’ at the surface.4,5,25 The
Another reason the temperature of the electrolyte potential at the workpiece surface is lower than that
needs to be controlled is to ensure the surface finish is applied by the cathode due to potential losses.4
of an acceptable standard. It was reported in a review Figure 4, from Engineer on a Disk,66 shows how the
article by J Bannard5 that when the electrodes were potential changes through the solution with respect to

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8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 4. Potential profile within the inter-electrode gap. Redrawn from Engineer on a Disk.66

the distance between the electrodes. As can be seen comparison to the exit due to the increased length of
from Figure 4, the smaller the inter-electrode distance, time the material is exposed to the electric field.
the smaller the applied potential has to be to reach the
machining potential as the ohmic drop caused by
PECM
the electrolyte resistance is reduced. This is used to the
researchers’ advantage. There is preferential dissolution One way to minimise the overcut produced in ECM is
of the material which is closer to the tool electrode due the application of a pulsed voltage rather than a con-
to the higher potential creating a higher current density stant potential.1,6,8,12,17,37,41,51,54,70,73,75–78 Using a
at that point. This is a very important point to be con- pulsed voltage allows the IEG to be reduced, which, as
sidered when the process is used for micro manufactur- already discussed, facilitates higher machining resolu-
ing.3,67,68 Using a smaller IEG exploits this known tion, by restricting the areas on the workpiece which
behaviour, with greatly increased machining rates on are sufficiently charged for anodic dissolution to occur.
the workpiece at positions closest to the tool electrode. Electrochemical reactions are exponentially depen-
Using a small IEG along with pulsed voltage allows dent on the potential drop in the double layer.1,14,17,22
greater machining resolution to be achieved, something During ultra-short potential pulses, the EDLs are
demonstrated by Schuster et al.1 charged and discharged periodically. The time constant
Figure 4 shows a large potential drop at the elec- (t) for charging the double layers is small enough for
trode surfaces. This is due to the presence of an electri- significant charging at only very small electrode separa-
cal double layer (EDL).22,23,51,69 An EDL is formed tions in the nano- to micrometre range. The time con-
when a potential is applied to an electrode causing the stant defines the length of time for the EDL to be fully
electrode surface to become charged. This attracts charge and is dependent on electrode separation and
oppositely charged ions and dipoles in the electrolyte to the electrolyte resistance. It is defined by the following
the electrode surface. The organisation of these ions equation
and dipoles at the surface determines the distribution
t = cDL rd
potential as a function of distance from the electrode
surface.23 where cDL is the double-layer capacitance, r is the elec-
When a constant potential is applied, the material trolyte resistance and d is the maximum electrode
on the workpiece which is most strongly polarised by separation.
the tool is dissolved first. As time is passed, the material This means reactions are confined to the polarised
further away from the tool is machined. It is for this regions which are very close to the tool electrode
reason that a tool with insulated sides is important to surface. The time constant, describing the time taken
produce a hole with minimal tapering.3,12,17,22,37,43,70–74 for the double layer at a working electrode to charge or
If the sides of the tool were not insulated, the hole pro- discharge, is the product of the electrolyte resistance
duced would be tapered, with a larger opening in along the current path and the double-layer capacitance

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Leese and Ivanov 9

current; this current is responsible for the electrochemi-

cal reactions that occur at the electrode surface. It is
this current that is used to monitor the IEG distance,
as Faradaic current only starts flowing once the EDL is
fully charged.41,78,79

Material removal efficiency

With a higher current being passed, the current density
is increased which means the amount of energy reaching
the electrode surface per unit of time is increased. This,
in turn, increases the rate of material removal. This is
beneficial due to reduced machining times. However, if
the current density is too high, the surface finish can be
compromised.3,59 Sparks can occur between the tool
and workpiece if the current is too high or the IEG is
too small. Sparks cause damage to both the tool and
the workpiece
In electrolysis, the amount of substance that reacts is
proportional to the current passed and the length of
time the current is passed for, that is, the charge that is
Figure 5. Electrical model of the inter-electrode gap proposed passed. It is also proportional to the valency of the reac-
by Kozak. Redrawn from Kozak et al.80 tant or how many electrons are needed in the reaction.2
The amount of material removed is calculated through
and therefore varies linearly with the separation between the following equation
the electrodes.1,14,18,22,69 Using a shorter potential pulse
requires the use of a smaller IEG to reduce the resistance ItA
m=
encountered in the electrolyte, allowing sufficient charg- Fn
ing of the double layer on the working electrode surface. where m is the amount of material removed, I is the cur-
L Cagnon et al.22 achieved a precision of 200 nm using a rent passed, t is the time passed, A is the atomic weight,
5-ns pulse on stainless steel. F is the Faraday constant and y is the valency.
Pulses longer than 1 ms are also used; however, the If there is only one reaction happening at the work-
resolution is no longer dependent on the double-layer piece electrode, one can expect the current efficiency to
charging but dependent on the diffusion layer. Over be close to 100% or 100%. Lower current efficiencies
time, the diffusion layer grows, using the material can indicate another reaction taking place simultane-
farther from the cathode.23 ously or that the products reach a higher valency than
predicted, that is, Fe3 + is formed rather than Fe2 + .
In some cases, current efficiencies higher than 100%
Models of the IEG have been reported. This is possible as current efficien-
Models of the IEG in ECM are complex, combining cies in ECM are defined as the ratio of the observed
many different factors including influences of the elec- mass change to the theoretical mass change predicted
trolyte properties; the electrolyte properties are affected from Faraday’s I law assuming 100% current efficiency
by gas bubble formation and the electrolyte tempera- for the anodic dissolution
ture and concentration. These are, in turn, affected by
the electrolyte flow rate through the IEG. Dm = kDI+ Dt
Models agree that the IEG can be pictured as two
where k is the electrochemical equivalent of the work-
parallel plate capacitors which represent the EDLs at
piece material which equals the mass of ions carrying
the electrode surfaces.79 Kozak et al.80 added non-
1 C of electric charge over the time period Dt. When
linear resistors in parallel with the capacitors, as can be
there is preferential dissolution at grain boundaries, the
seen in Figure 5. The current passed during each poten-
material can be removed without actually being subject
tial pulse can be split into two currents. The first is the
to anodic dissolution itself.
charging current; this provides the energy needed to
rearrange the ions in the EDL to counter the charge at
Limitations of ECMM
the electrode surface due to the potential change.23,69
This current does not lead to any chemical change As discussed, ECM is a difficult-to-control process due
or any material removal. The second is the Faradaic to stray corrosion. Resolution has been improved

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10 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

through the application of micrometre-scale IEGs to the doped silicon materials. A wide range of semicon-
enhance the current distribution on the workpiece to ductor materials are being used more commonly in
areas in close proximity to the tool electrode. The appli- electronic equipment, some of which are brittle and dif-
cation of voltage pulses has also improved machining ficult to machine with conventional machining pro-
resolution by restricting the areas of the workpiece cesses. It is proposed to determine whether ECM is a
which become sufficiently charged to facilitate anodic suitable machining method for some of these semicon-
dissolution. ductors, including indium antimonide (InSb) and gal-
The maximum resolution achieved with ECMM is lium arsenide (GaAs).
200 nm through the application of 5-ns pulses.22 Another interesting field is the machining of super-
It is also imperative for users to accurately measure conductors. Most high-temperature superconductors
the IEG throughout machining. The IEG affects are based on the perovskite crystal structure with inter-
machining resolution, as previously discussed. nal layers throughout the structure which are crucial to
Researchers have proposed differing methods for IEG the superconductivity of the material. Traditionally,
control from a fuzzy logic approach,81 monitoring the contact machining techniques can damage these layers
machining current,73,82 periodically checking the IEG through the application of physical pressure on the
through electrical conductivity measurements,36 moni- material. ECM is an ideal technique for machining
toring the potential between the two electrodes83 and superconductors as it is a non-contact, stress-free and
using ultrasound as a way to probe the machining heat-free technique. Also, there has been no work, to
gap.84 Without proper gap monitoring, there is a risk the author’s knowledge, investigating the effect of crys-
the tool will contact the workpiece, causing either a tal structure, comparing the results obtained in ECM
short circuit or a spark which can damage the electro- for polycrystalline, monocrystalline and amorphous
des and deteriorate the surface finish. materials. This would be of interest with the aim to
Machining accuracy is also affected by tool clamp- developing more precise machining results and manu-
ing. Micro-tools are necessary for ECMM, but holding facturing of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS)
these tools in place is difficult while knowing their exact devices as well as testing the boundaries of archived
position. This has been somewhat overcome by on- roughness and feature size.
machine fabrication of the tools.85
Stray machining also affects the process’s ability to Declaration of conflicting interests
create sharp edges and corners. Insulating the tool has
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
helped somewhat in minimising tapering of micro-
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
holes, as has the application of a dual-pole tool.86 article.

Conclusion and discussion Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial
From the review process described above, it was shown
support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
that already many researchers have successfully demon- this article: The research reported in this article was sup-
strated the use of ECM in manufacturing micro fea- ported by the European Commission within the project
tures on surfaces through the use of a pulsed potential ‘Minimizing Defects in Micro-Manufacturing Applications
in combination with a small IEG. Features as small as (MIDEMMA)’ (FP7-2011-NMP-ICT-FoF-285614).
0.5 mm have been produced with ECM38 indicating
ECM is a viable technique for micro manufacturing.
However, it is unknown what methodology to be References
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