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HSC Biology
Syllabus Notes
-
Module 8 /
Inquiry
Question 1

Overview of Week 13 Inquiry Question –

How is an organism’s internal
environment maintained in response to
changing external environment?

Learning Objective #1 – Construct and

interpret negative feedback loops to
show homeostasis by using a range of
sources including but not limited to:

• Temperature
• Blood glucose level

Learning Objective #2 – Investigate the

various mechanisms used by
organisms to maintain their internal
environment within tolerance limits,
including:

• Trends and patterns in behavioural,

structural and physiological
adaptations in endotherms that
assist in maintaining homeostasis
• Internal coordination systems that
allow homeostasis to be
maintained, including hormones
and neural pathways
• Mechanisms in plants that allow
water balance to be maintained

NEW HSC Biology Syllabus Video –

Homeostasis

Week 13 Homework Questions

Week 13 Curveball Questions

Week 13 Extension Questions

Solutions to Week 13 Questions

Learning Objective #1 -
Construct and interpret
negative feedback loops
to show homeostasis by
using a range of sources
including but not limited
to:

- Temperature
- Blood Glucose Level

What is Homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a

constant or almost constant internal
environment, despite fluctuations in the
external environmental.

The following diagram is a negative feedback

loop for thermoregulation.

That is, the regulation of temperature!

Homeostasis comprise of two stages:

1. Detecting the change (stimulus) from the

stable state.

2. Counteracting the change (stimulus) to

return to the stable state.

A stimulus is a change in the ambient or

internal environment such as increase or
decrease in temperature.

Thermoregulation is an example of
homeostasis mechanism that you would
expect to find in endotherms.

NOTE: The above diagram is labelled

according to thermoreceptors on the skin
detecting an INCREASE in ambient
temperature as being step 1.

Depending on the exam question, you may

number or label in the opposite direction.

• That is, step 1 would involve

thermoreceptors on skin detecting a
DECREASE in ambient temperature. In
that case, the numbering order would
be reversed in direction, however, the
flowchart will look the SAME.

The above mechanism of maintaining core

body temperature within a narrow range is
achieved using a negative feedback
mechanism.

The process of achieving homeostasis

involves a negative feedback loop or
mechanism which entails an effector being
stimulated and performing an action
directed by a control centre to reverse the
original stimulus, effectively minimising the
change (minimising deviation from set point
e.g. core body temperature of 37 C).

Moving on to human’s regulation of blood

glucose level as another example of
homeostasis occurring inside our body.

Let’s examine the negative feedback loop!

Learning Objective #2 -
Investigate the various
mechanisms used by
organisms to maintain
their internal
environment within
tolerance levels,
including:

- Trends and patterns in

behavioural, structural
and physiological
adaptations in
endotherms that assist
in maintaining
homeostasis

- Internal coordination
systems that allow
homeostasis to be
maintained, including
hormones and neural
pathways

- Mechanisms in plants
that allow water balance
to be maintained

As explored in the Preliminary HSC Biology

Course and Module 5, we examined how
adaptations are inherited. However, in Module
6, we explored how favourable mutation can
also give rise to adaptations that assist in the
organism’s (or mutant) survival. If such
mutation occurs in germ-line cells, it is
possible for such mutation to be passed on
to offspring in the next generation and be
inheritable.

Endotherms are organisms uses internal

mechanisms to maintain their core body
temperature within a narrow range, despite
fluctuations in external environment.

• These animals have internal

mechanisms allow the generation or
production of internal heat energy to
regulate their core body temperature.
Hence, the term ‘warm-blooded’
animals.

Ectotherms are organisms that do not have

internal mechanisms

• These animals DO NOT have internal

mechanisms to generate heat and so
they must relate on heat from the
external environment to regulate their
core body temperature. Hence, the term
‘cold-blooded’ animals.

• Indeed, thermoregulation is NOT

possible for ectotherms but performed
by endotherms.

Now, we will move on to tackle the section of

learning objective #2 in which we will
examine some trends and patterns in
behavioural, structural and physiological
adaptations in endotherms that assist in
maintaining homeostasis.

Structural Adaptations

Mountain Pygmy Possum – Lives in cold,

windy, mountainous regions of Australia.

• It has short legs, round body and small

ears to minimise heat loss. This is
because it will minimise the surface area
in which the blood in blood vessel under
the skin is exposed to the cold
temperature of the environment which
will result in heat being carried away
convection (moving air carrying heat
away).

Fairy Penguin – Lives in cold, southern seas

of Australia

• Again, it has short legs and round body

similar to the Mountain Pygmy Possum.
They also do not have external ear flaps
which also minimises contact or
exposure with cool surroundings to help
maintain its core body temperature.

Red Kangaroo (Defying the above trend) –

Lives in hot, arid areas of Australia such as
deserts & grasslands.

• They have a lot of blood vessels under

their forearm and paws. This
encourages heat loss via convection to
keep their core body temperature within
a narrow range, despite the hot ambient
surroundings.

Physiological Adaptations

Mountain Pygmy Possum

During long winters, the possum can enter a

state of torpor whereby rate of metabolic
activities and core body temperature are
reduced to conserve energy. When it is in this
state, it is able to tolerate surrounding
temperatures of 2 degrees celsius.

• It can also curl into a ball to minimise

the surface contact in which it is
exposed to the its surroundings in cold
conditions.

Fairy Penguin

Fairy Penguin are able to thermoregulate

their core body temperature as their muscle
glands are activated, resulting in involuntary
shivering to produce heat energy.

Red Kangaroo

The muscle glands can also be activated via

thermoregulation in kangaroos to generate
heat energy in response to cold temperature
stimulus detected by thermoreceptors on
skin and in hypothalamus.

Panting is performed by Kangaroo whereby

heat energy is loss through ventilation. The
process of panting allows water on the
tongue and mouth surface to be evaporated
as the blood under these surfaces are able to
be transferred to the cooler water via
conduction.

Behavioural Adaptations

Mountain Pygmy Possum

• The possums are nocturnal. That is, they

sleep during the day and are active
during the night to escape the high
temperatures of the body to avoid
overheating.

• During the day, they can seek shade in

holes within rocks or gaps under rocks.

Fairy Penguin

• To avoid overheating, Fairy Penguins are

able to move into the cool or cold
waters to lower their core body
temperature or seek shade under rocks.

• The penguins also hug each other to

minimise each penguin’s surface area
exposure to the cold environment.

Red Kangaroo

• Similar to the mountain pygmy possum,

the red kangaroos are also nocturnal.

• They also seek shade to avoid

overheating during the day.

Internal coordination
systems that allow
homeostasis to be
maintained, including
hormones and neural
pathways

It is critical for living organism to respond to

both internal and external environmental
changes.

• It is through responding to external

environmental changes whereby we
can keep our balance when walking on
a footpath. If not, we will have great
difficult walking in a straight line.

• We respond to internal changes to

achieve thermoregulation.

There are two main ways that we use

respond to the environment.

These two ways are through the nervous

system and endocrine systems which are
both internal coordination systems in our
body to help achieve & maintain
homeostasis.

The nervous system is

utilises electrochemical impulses to relay
messages regarding to information such as
the stimulus detected by receptors and
appropriate reaction that is to be performed
by effectors to counteract the stimulus and
maintain homeostasis.

Comparatively, the endocrine

system employs hormones which are
molecules that interact with specific
receptors that are located on or within
a specific target cell or tissue to initiate a
response from the target cell/tissue. It is this
response that allows homeostasis to be
achieved and maintained.

We will first explore the different parts of the

nervous system before diving into the
endocrine system.

The nervous system involves reception of

stimulus, transmission of messages,
interpretation and generation of response(s).
Respectively, these functions can be
performed using receptors, neurons, CNS and
effectors. We will now explore each of these
at a detail as required at HSC Biology level.

A stimulus is a change in the internal or

external environmental.

A receptor is one or a group of specialised

cell that is responsible for detecting stimulus.
They are also activated by the stimulus by
converting physical feedback into
electrochemical pulses or signals.

In a negative feedback mechanism,

an effector is an organ in the organism (such
as a muscle or gland) that is activated by a
neuron to carry out a response to counteract
or oppose the stimulus.

A neuron is a nerve call that consists of a cell

body, dendrites as well as an axon that is
enveloped by a myelin protein sheath.

A neuronal fibre is comprised of many

neurons that are connected together from
one end to another.

A nerve is a collection of neuronal fibres that

is bundled up together.

The CNS, also known as the central nervous

system, is made up of the brain and spinal
cord.

The brain is involved regulating and

coordination the internal environment of the
organism. However, it is the hypothalamus
that plays the biggest role in such regulation
and coordination.

• The hypothalamus is involved in

interpreting the stimulus detected by the
receptors in the form of electrochemical
signals and decide on an appropriate
response to be carried out by relevant
effectors to counteract the stimulus in a
negative feedback mechanism. This
interpretation of signals is performed
using large numbers of interneurons in
the CNS.

• The hypothalamus is also involved in

relaying the appropriate response to be
carried out to effectors in the form of
electrochemical signals.

The spinal cord provides the neural pathway

through which information detected by
receptors pertaining to stimulus can be
relayed to the brain in the form of
electrochemical impulses via interneurons. It
is also the pathway through which
information regarding the appropriate
response generated from the brain is relayed
to effectors in the form of electrochemical
impulses.

The PNS, which is short for Peripheral Nervous

System, are essentially a network of nerves
that can be further divided into two
categories which are sensory nerves and
motor nerves. Recall that a nerve is essentially
bundle of neuronal fibres whereby the fibres
themselves are made up of many neurons or
nerve cells joined together end-to-end.

The role of sensory neurons (making up the

sensory nerves) is to relay information
detected by receptors about a stimulus, in
the form of electrochemical impulses, to the
CNS. Comparatively, the role of motor
neurons is to transmit information regarding
the appropriate response to be performed by
effectors that is generated from the CNS (e.g.
hypothalamus).

• NOTE: Together, the CNS and PNS makes

up the nervous system which provides
neural pathways through which
receptors can interact and coordinate
with effectors to help achieve &
maintain homeostasis.

The way the receptor relays information

about a stimulus is that it conveys physical
feedback into electrochemical signals which
are carried by neurons in nerves (i.e. neural
pathways) to the CNS. It is at the CNS where
the stimulus is interpreted and an
appropriate response message is produced
and sent in the form of electrochemical
message.

This message is transmitted via effector

neurons to effectors resulting in the effector
to be activated upon receiving the nerve
impulse (the electrochemical message). This
activation or stimulation of the effector
results it to carry out the appropriate
response instruct by the CNS to counteract or
oppose the stimulus in a negative feedback
mechanism.

The generation of
electrochemical signals
So, how are message regarding the stimulus
(sent from receptors to CNS) conveyed in the
form of electrochemical signals?

Similarly, how is the message regarding the

appropriate response (sent from CNS to
effectors) delivered in the form of
electrochemical impulses?

Let’s see how this electrochemical impulse is

produced, shall we? Let’s go!

So a nerve impulse is essentially a

wave electrical charges (or depolarisation)
that is propagated along a nerve cell’s axon
as well as to another nerve cell.

NOTE: Neurotransmitters are required for the

wave of electrical charges to be passed from
one neuron to another. When the
electrochemical signal reaches the end of a
neuron, it converted into a chemical known
as a neutrotransmitter. This enables the
signal to travel across synapses between
neurons.

These charges are generated as a result

of sodium ions moved into the nerve cell.
Hence, the we can refer to nerve impulses are
essentially electrochemical impulses.

Now, let’s explore the mechanism behind the

movement of sodium into neuron or nerve
cell.

When the neuron is not stimulated (i.e. not

propagating a wave of electrical charges), it
is at its rest (normal) state.

At this state, there is an electrical difference

(or potential) across the cell membrane of
the neuron. When the neuron is at rest or
unstimulated, we call this electrical difference
as the ‘resting potential’ of the neuron’s
membrane. Since there are more negatively
charged organic ions inside the neuron and
more sodium ions outside the neuron’s cell
membrane, the rest potential of the
neuron’s membrane is negative which
ranges from -40mV to -90mV.

When the neuron is stimulated by a stimulus

(such as a change in temperature) that is of
high enough intensity, it will result in sodium
pumps in the cell membrane to open. As a
result of this, sodium ions will diffuse across
the cell membrane and into the neuron due
to concentration difference. As a result, the
membrane potential will be equalised to zero
millivolts.

If the membrane potential exceeds the

-55mV threshold due to sodium ions flowing
into the neuron, an action potential will be
generated.

• NOTE: Sometimes, a membrane

potential may also be produced if the
change (decrease) in membrane
potential is greater than 15mV.

Either way, if the membrane potential

exceeds -55mV or have a change in
membrane potential of greater than 15mV, a
wave of electrical charge to be produced
and propagated along the neuron.

The generation and propagation of the wave

of electrical charge is an ‘all or
nothing’ event. That is, if the -55mV threshold
is not exceeded (or depolarisation is less than
15mV), there will be no nerve impulse
generated.

This effectively prevents insignificant events

to continuously triggering nerve impulses and
making the body overly sensitive.

A neuron cannot generate and propagate a

new wave of electrical charge until the prior
wave of electrical charge is complete.

After the wave of electrical charge has been

propagated across the axon of the nerve cell,
the sodium pump will close and positively
charged potassium ions will diffuse out of the
cell due charge difference inside (positive)
and outside the cell (negative).

This diffusion process will eventually arrive to

an equilibrium where the concentration of
potassium ions inside and outside the cell are
equal which will become the neuron’s resting
potential, ranging from -40mV to -90mV.

The neuron will ‘fire’ an impulse again when

the axon of the neuron is stimulated by
another stimulus that depolarises its cell
membrane potential (or resting potential) by
more than 15mV or increasing it above
-55mV.

The workings of the

Endocrine System

Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands

(and some minor glands) into and
transported by blood.

These glands secrete hormones as a

response to a specific stimulus. This stimulus
can be divided into three categories being
humoral, neural or hormonal.

1. Humoral: The changing concentration

of specific chemicals in the chemical
can result in the glands secreting
hormones.

2. Neural: The stimulation of the glands via

neurons can result in the secretion of
hormones.

3. Hormonal: Hormones can be secreted

by the pituitary gland to control the
amount of hormones secreted by other
endocrine glands.Therefore, the pituitary
gland is known as the ‘master gland’

We have already mentioned in the above

section that hormones interact with specific
receptors that are located on or within a
specific target cell or tissue to initiate a
response from the target cell/tissue. It is this
response that allows homeostasis to be
achieved and maintained.

• NOTE: Most of the cells in our body have

surface receptor proteins that can
interact with different hormones.

By interacting with the receptors of the target

cell or tissue, the hormone is could:

• Alter the cell membrane permeability to

certain substances or

• Modify the metabolic pathway of the cell

(e.g. cause the cell to start or stop
producing certain enzymes) or

• Influence the rate of cell division.

The hypothalamus joins the nervous and

endocrine systems together.

This is because, in the nervous system, the

hypothalamus interprets the stimulus
detected by the receptor. In the endocrine
system, the hypothalamus is responsible for
controlling the endocrine glands as it
connects to the pituitary gland.

As mentioned above, we learnt how the

pituitary gland (the ‘master gland’) is
responsible for controlling the amount of
hormones secreted by other endocrine
glands.

Hormones' role in
internal coordination
system to achieve
homeostasis!

Hormones are molecules that is produced

and secreted to initiate cellular reactions
in specific target cells, tissues or organs in the
body of an organism.

Osmoregulation is regulation of water and

salt (or solute) concentration in the blood to
achieve homeostasis. To achieve this, the
Aldosterone and Anti-Diuretic Hormones are
used. Let’s explore them.

Hormone: Aldosterone

1. Low water in Blood = Low blood pressure.

2. Release Aldosterone (by adrenal glands).

3. More sodium ions in urine flowing in kidney

are re-absorbed back the blood in capillaries
surrounding kidney.

4. Water in urine flowing in kidney is

reabsorbed back into the blood via osmosis.

Explanation of steps and how Aldosterone

works:

Aldosterone is produced and secreted by the

adrenal glands which is located above the
kidneys. We have two kidneys and so we have
two glands. There are stretch receptors that
are located in the blood vessels. When these
receptors detect a drop in blood pressure, it
will cause cells (or granular cells) in the
kidney to secrete an enzyme called renin.

This enzyme is able to catalyse a reactions

that cause the adrenal glands to secrete
aldosterone.

This hormone is able to act on the distal

tubules, resulting in sodium ions to be actively
reabsorbed back into the blood from the
kidney (e.g. sodium ions in the urine flowing in
kidney). As a result, the blood in the capillaries
surrounding the kidney’s distal tubule will
have a higher solute concentration due to the
active re-absorption of sodium ions as a
result of aldosterone. This will result in water
travelling via osmosis from the urine in the
kidney back into the blood, i.e. reabsorbed or
conservation of water. This effectively
increases the blood level and thus blood
pressure of the organism, achieving
homeostasis via osmoregulation.

Hormone: Anti-Diuretic Hormone

(ADH)

1. Low Water in Blood = High solute

concentration.

2. Release Anti-Diuretic Hormone (by pituitary

gland)

3. More water in urine flowing in the kidney is

re-absorbed back into the blood in capillaries
surrounding the kidney.

Explanation of steps and how ADH works:

ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and

stored in the pituitary glands. When
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect
an increase solute concentration in the blood,
it causes the pituitary gland to secrete ADH
into the blood stream to reach the kidneys.

It is at the kidneys whereby ADH acts on the

distal tubules and collecting duct to increase
their permeability to water. This increases the
amount of water reabsorbed back into the
blood from the kidney (water is present in the
urine passing through kidney). As a result, the
amount of water in the blood increases.

The amount of ADH secreted will decrease

when the solute concentration in the blood
returns to normality. This allows homeostasis
in between water and salt (or solute)
concentration in the blood to be achieved, i.e.
osmoregulation.

NOTE: ADH does not directly influence or

control the solute concentration in the blood.
The hormone only indirectly affects the solute
concentration in blood by controlling the
amount of water being reabsorbed back into
the blood from urine in the kidney.

NOTE: The secretion of ADH does not come to

a stop, it only decreases or increases. The
same is for Aldosterone, i.e. secretion of
aldosterone does not come to a stop.

Mechanisms in plants
that allow water balance
to be maintained

Alrightie, to wrap up this week’s notes, we will

explore some mechanisms in plant that
allows them to avoid dehydration ~

Crassulecean Acid Metabolism

Pathway: The Stag Horn Fern is able to use
the crassulecean acid metabolism pathway
which allows it to close its stomata during the
day and open it during night to acquire
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. This
effectively minimises water loss via the
stomata during the day where the sun is up,
hitting the plant with its heat energy. This is
possible because plants has large vacuoles
in which it can store the carbon dioxide and
used during the day when there is sunlight.

Leaf Fall: The eucalyptus tree are able to drop

their leaves during summer where it is hot
and dry. This effectively minimises the total
surface area in which the tree is exposed to
the ambient environment so that less heat is
absorbed. By minimising the heat that is
absorbed, the rate of transpiration is lowered
and, thus, such leaf fall mechanism by the
eucalyptus tree reduces its risk of
dehydration.

Hanging leaf orientation: The eucalyptus

tree has its leaves hanging in a vertical
position so it reduces the surface area in
which the leaves are exposed to the sun’s
heat at its zenith. This effectively reduces the
heat that is absorbed during the hottest time
of the day and so it reduces the tree’s risk of
dehydration.

Controlled stomata opening and

closing: The eucalyptus tree is able to control
the time at which its stomata are opened
and closed. During early morning and late
afternoon, where the ambient temperature is
cool and the sunlight is less intense, it is able
to open its stomata to to obtain carbon
dioxide necessary for photosynthesis to
occur. This controlled manner of stomata
opening and closing at the most suitable
time allows the plant to avoid dehydration.

Curling of leaves: The Flax Lily plant is able to

curl their leaves when temperature is high.
Since its stomata are on the upper-side of its
leaves, when the plant’s leaves curl up, the
stomata will not longer be exposed to the
external environment conditions. This
effectively reduces the air flow across the
stomata which would otherwise encourage
transpiration. Also, since the coiling of the
leaf will trap a thin layer of humid air in the
coil (i.e. between the leaf’s surface and the
stomata) which help reduces transpiration.
This because an increase in humidity reduces
diffusion of water vapour out of the plant’s
stomata.

Thick, waxy cuticle: Eucalyptus and Banksia

plants have thick cuticle that insulates water
from excessive sunlight as it reduces the
internal temperature. By doing so, the thick
cuticle reduces the rate of evaporation.

Shiny Leaves: Eucalyptus plants have shiny

leaves that help reflect sunlight and therefore
help reduce the spike in internal temperature
due to heat energy from sunlight. Again, this
minimises the rate of transpiration and
therefore serves to help minimise
dehydration.

Hairs on leaf and stem: The paper daisy

plant have hairs on its leaves and stem that
help trap a thin layer of humid air. This
increase in humidity reduces diffusion of
water out of the plant’s cell which helps
reduce transpiration.

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