7 RELIGION

Chapter contents
Section A Religion and social order
Section B The influence of religion
Exam-style practice questions

Globally, millions of people identify themselves patriarchal and as promoting gender inequality?
as Muslim, Jewish, Hindu or Christian, while What evidence is there to suggest that religious
less conventional beliefs include Scientology and practices can benefit women?
Paganism. Sociologists are not concerned with The chapter also asks whether religion is declining
evaluating these different religious beliefs. Instead,
and becoming less significant in the modern world.
they focus on the significance of religion in society.
Or are different things happening to religions in
This chapter explores religion in its social context.
different societies across the globe?
It begins by examining different ways of defining
religion. It asks why science often enjoys higher The chapter concludes by looking at different
status than other sources of knowledge and belief, accounts of the relationship between religion
such as religion. Sociologists are interested in the and postmodernity. How significant are new
relationship between religion and social class, gender, religious movements and New Age ideas for
ethnicity and age. Are young people, for example, understanding religion today? How do sociologists
less likely to participate in religion than older people? explain the growth of fundamentalist religions?
!>% This chapter suggests answers to these and other
The chapter then focuses on sociological accounts -
. both positive and negative - of the role of religion important questions.

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relationship between religion and social change are
Contents longstanding. Max Weber (1864-1920) argued
7
r Part 1 Religion and society 394 that religious ideas played an important part in the
Part 2 Religion and social order 414 development of capitalism. More recently, religion
has contributed to far-reaching political, economic
Part 3 Gender, feminism and religion 421
and social changes across the world.
Sj
Part 4 Religion as a source of social change 429
The fourth concept is structure and human agency.
Functionalism and Marxism focus on the role of
Section A focuses on the relationship between religion in maintaining the social structure in its
religion and social order. Four of the key concepts present form. Critics argue that these structural
that you were introduced to in Chapter 1 are theories fail to recognise that religion involves
particularly important here. The first of these is individual choice, decision-making and active
power, control and resistance. Many sociologists human agency.
see religion as a significant agency of social control.
Potentially, religions have enormous power to shape Section A is divided into four parts. Part 1 examines
their followers’ ways of thinking and behaving, and to different ways of defining religion and some of the
rLA\ encourage them to accept the status quo. However, difficulties involved in measuring religious belief.
religious movements can sometimes spearhead (lead It looks at both religion and science as examples
or be at the forefront of) resistance to governments. of belief systems and discusses whether they are
Both functionalist and Marxist approaches see compatible. It also explores the relevance of religion
religion as a powerful force in society. Functionalism for different social groups such as women and
sees it as contributing to social order and social young people.
solidarity, and thereby benefiting society. By Part 2 focuses on the relationship between religion
contrast, Marxist accounts see religion as oppressive and social order. It explores functionalist and
and as serving the interests of capitalism. Marxist accounts of the role of religion in society
The second concept is socialisation, culture and and examines their strengths and weaknesses.
identity. Religion seems to be more relevant to some Part 3 explores feminist perspectives on religion
social groups than others. For example, globally, and the relationship between religion, gender
women tend to be more religious than men and and patriarchy.
| this may be due to gender socialisation processes.
Religion is bound up with people’s culture and Part 4 examines debates about the role of religion
J their identities. The vitality of religion among some in promoting or inhibiting change in society. It
3 minority ethnic groups may be due to the group explores Max Weber’s account of the role of
g protecting its cultural heritage and sense of identity. Calvinist Protestantism (a form of Christianity) in
the rise of capitalism. It also discusses the influence
The third concept is social change and
development. Sociological debates about the
of religious movements on political debates and
struggles around the world. m
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 7 RELIGION

PART 1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

Contents How do sociologists define religion? How do
they measure it? Part 1 examines different ways
Unit 7.1.1 Defining and measuring religion 394 of defining religion and some of the difficulties
Unit 7.1.2 Religion and other belief systems 401 involved in measuring religious belief. It looks at
both religion and science as examples of belief
Unit 7.1.3 Religion and different social
systems and discusses whether they are compatible.
groups 406
It also explores the relevance of religion for different
social groups such as women and young people.

Unit 7.1.1 Defining and a god or gods that are above the laws of nature.
Malcolm Hamilton (2001) argues, however, that

measuring religion such definitions are problematic because some belief

systems that are commonly regarded as religions,
such as forms of Buddhism, do not necessarily include
In order to study religion, sociologists must define
a belief in supernatural beings. This highlights the
it. Any definition has to take account of the rich
potential problem of defining and using the concept of
diversity of religions that exists on a global scale.
religion from a Western perspective.
However, sociologists disagree on the question
of what religion means. What are the sources of
Functional definitions of religion
this disagreement? Is there necessarily a clear-cut
boundary between religious and non-religious Functional definitions view religion in terms of the
phenomena? This unit looks at some of the issues functions or roles it performs for individuals or society.
involved in defining religion. It then examines some They focus on what religion does rather than what
it is (Hamilton, 2001). J. Milton Vinger, for example,
of the difficulties in measuring religious beliefs. It
adopted a functional definition of religion as 4a
also explores different types of religious organisation,
system of beliefs and practices by means of which a
such as churches and sects.
group of people struggles with the ultimate problems
Different ways of defining religion of human life’ (1970, quoted in Hamilton, 2001).
However, Hamilton notes several problems with such
Initially, defining religion might seem to be a
a definition. First, it is too broad. For instance, by this
straightforward task. Belief systems such as Judaism,
definition, a political belief system such as communism
Islam and Christianity are clear examples of world could be seen as a religion because of the function
religions. Each has its own set of beliefs and values,
it performs, even though it explicitly rejects religious
its own practices, rituals and symbols. However, it is
beliefs. Second, phrases such as ‘the ultimate problems
difficult to devise a definition that is broad enough of human life’ are open to interpretation. Hamilton
to encompass a wide variety of beliefs without also
points out that for many people the ultimate problems
including phenomena that are not usually considered of life might be ‘simply how to enjoy it as much as
to be religious, such as astrology or fortune telling. possible, how to avoid pain and ensure pleasure’. Many
The different sociological definitions of religion other aspects of social life, apart from religion, address
can be divided into three types: substantive such issues - for example, medicine and leisure.
definitions, functional definitions and social
constructionist approaches. Inclusive and exclusive definitions Alan Aldridge
(2007) distinguishes between more inclusive and
Substantive definitions of religion more exclusive definitions of religion. With inclusive
Substantive definitions focus on the substance or definitions, it is relatively easy for a belief system
content of religion and are concerned with what to qualify as a religion if, for example, it promotes
religion is. A substantive definition, for example, might unity or reinforces social cohesion. Religion is defined
define religion in terms of a belief in the supernatural, broadly and could include devotion to a soccer team
in divine forces, powers or spiritual beings such as or loyalty to a rock band or rap artist. Inclusive or

394
 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

broad definitions would also include political belief

systems such as nationalism, fascism and communism.
Difficulties in measuring
One potential problem with using broad definitions religious belief
is that they would result in religion being found Sociologists are interested in examining the extent
everywhere. With narrower or exclusive definitions, of religious belief in different societies and changes in
the criteria are more restrictive. The focus is on religiosity (the quality of being religious) over time.
the content of religion - for example, a belief in a However, there are difficulties in measuring levels of
supernatural power such as a god or gods. Generally, religious belief.
functional definitions tend to be more inclusive and
» Sociologists do not agree on a single definition of
substantive ones tend to be more exclusive.
religion. The definition they adopt (for example,
an inclusive rather than an exclusive one) will
Activity influence what they class as religious belief, how

ill IT
they measure it and how many people they count
as holding such beliefs.
» Beliefs differ between religions (for instance,
between Buddhism and Christianity), which can
make direct comparisons difficult.
* The lack of reliable evidence about the extent of
religious belief in earlier periods makes historical
: — , comparison difficult when researching changes in
'mm.
religiosity over time.
Mia
» Reliable data may not be available to allow
international comparisons of the nature and extent
Inclusive, functional definitions would classify of religious belief.
devotion to a soccer team as a religion. » Particular measures of religiosity are open to
criticism. For example, can church attendance
1. How far does soccer or football support involve
figures be seen as a reliable indicator of religiosity?
the following characteristics?
Some people may attend a place of worship to
a. Rituals meet up with friends or because it is the norm in
b. Sacred symbols their community to do so rather than because they
c. Faith hold religious beliefs. Others may see themselves as
religious and practise in private, without engaging
d. A sense of group identity and being
in socially recognised religious practices and rituals
bound together
j such as attending a place of worship.
2. To what extent would you see loyal devotion to a » There may be a difference between ‘belonging’ to a
football team as a religion? religion and ‘believing’ in its teachings. For example,
many people profess a religious identity (when
Social constructionist approaches completing a census form, for instance), but this
to the study of religion would not necessarily provide a reliable guide to
Social constructionist approaches are sometimes how many people in a society hold religious beliefs.
referred to as ‘definitions in use’ (Giddens and Sutton, 1 Surveys of social attitudes are often used to measure
2013). James Beckford (2003), for example, focuses the extent of religious belief but there are problems
on the uses that individuals, groups and agencies in relying on evidence from such surveys. For
such as the mass media, schools and the state make example, some people might be reluctant to admit
of religion in everyday life. Research in this area that they have religious beliefs in contemporary
explores what people say and mean when they talk secular societies. Others might be reluctant to deny
about religion and participate in practices that they religious belief in societies where religion remains a
consider to be religious. This approach places more major social force. Another problem is that we do
emphasis on whatever passes for religion in society not know whether all respondents understand terms
and the meanings that people give to it rather than such as ‘belief, ‘religiosity’ and ‘faith’ in the same way.
on questions about what religion is or what it does. Such terms may mean different things to different

395
 7 RELIGION

research participants. For instance, some respondents Quantitative data from attitude surveys are suitable
may associate religious belief with participation in for statistical analysis. They make it possible to
established religious practices, while others think of it discover whether there is a correlation - a statistical
in a broader context as belief in transcendental forces link - between two or more variables, for example
or some general sense of spirituality. Moreover, it between belief in a god and social class.
is hard to probe such a deeply personalised subject
A survey provides a broad snapshot but different
as religious belief (in attitude surveys, for instance)
surveys can produce different pictures of religious
without the potential problem of misinterpretation on
belief in the same society, depending, for example, on
the researcher’s part.
how the questions are worded. Surveys about religious
belief tell us little about other aspects of religion such
Activity as the importance of religion in people’s everyday lives.
Questionnaire-based surveys are used in quantitative
research on religious beliefs, including studies of trends Activity
over time. Questionnaires are designed to measure 'Qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews
concepts or variables (see Unit 3.1.2). To do this, are useful for exploring the nature of religious belief
concepts must be operationalised - put into forms but they are less useful for measuring belief.’
that can be measured. One way of operationalising
religious belief is shown by the British Social Attitudes Evaluate this statement.
survey. Respondents had to select the answer which
best fitted their beliefs from six alternatives. Answers
to this question are easily quantified. The first column
Types of religious organisation
Most people who hold religious beliefs express them
of figures shows the percentage of respondents who
through particular religious organisations. Sociologists
chose each alternative and the second column gives
such as Roy Wallis have attempted to classify the
the actual number of respondents.
diverse range of organisations into different types.
Table 7.1.1 Belief in God
Roy Wallis on types of
Year of research 2008
religious organisation
I don’t believe in God. 18% 356 Wallis (1976) classified religious organisations in
I don’t know if God exists and 19% 368 terms of whether they are:
there is no way to find out. * respectable because they support the norms and
I don’t believe in a personal 14% 282 values of the wider society or deviant because their
God but I do believe in some beliefs do not conform to those of most members
kind of higher power. of society
* uniquely legitimate in claiming a monopoly of
I believe in God some of the 13% 255
the religious truth or pluralistically legitimate in
time but not at others.
accepting that other organisations could also have
I have doubts but I feel that 18% 357 legitimate religious beliefs.
I do believe in God. Wallis’ typology (a classification of different types of
I know God really exists and 17% 332 something) is illustrated in Table 7.1.2.
I have no doubts about it.
Table 7.1.2 Wallis’ typology of religious
Not answered 1% 24 organisations
Total 1974
Respectable Deviant
Source: National Centre for Social Research (2016) - British
Uniquely legitimate church sect
Social Attitudes Survey 33.
1. To what extent does this survey measure Pluralistically
denomination cult
religious beliefs from a Western perspective? legitimate

2. Assess the view that, although these data can be Source: R. Wallis. The Road to Total Freedom: A Sociological
seen as reliable, they lack validity. Analysis of Scientology, Heinemann, London, 1976. p.13.

396
 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

The church Sects

The term ‘church’ is associated with Christian Wallis (1976) saw sects as deviant religions that
worship and refers to a large religious organisation are in tension with the wider society, partly because
that represents the main religion of a society. they claim a monopoly of the religious truth. Other
Churches are formal organisations with a hierarchy characteristics of sects that sociologists have
of professional, paid officials. Examples include identified include the following:
the Roman Catholic Church and the Church
1. Sects are smaller than other religious
of England.
organisations.
In principle, a church might try to be universal - to
2. Sect members are mainly drawn from lower
embrace all members of society - and to be, in
social classes and are likely to be in conflict
Wallis’ words, ‘uniquely legitimate’ (the only ‘true’
with the outside world. They reject the
religion). In practice, however, there might be
wider values of society in favour of their own
substantial minorities who do not belong to it.
religious beliefs.
Churches are traditionally likely to be ideologically
3. Members may be expected to withdraw from life
conservative and to support the status quo. This type
outside the sect, perhaps giving up connections
of organisation accepts and affirms life in this world:
with friends and family, and living in a commune.
members can play a full part in social life and are not
They are expected to be deeply committed to
expected to withdraw from society.
the sect’s beliefs and may be excluded if they
Steve Bruce (1996) argues that the definition of a fail to demonstrate their commitment. Members
church discussed above is mainly useful in describing must sacrifice ‘worldly pleasures’ in order to
pre-modern Christian societies where, for example, devote themselves to their religious life. Thus,
Catholic or Orthodox churches tried to be the only sects exercise a relatively strong control over
religion. Religious pluralism in societies undermines individuals’ lives.
the dominance of the church, because it does not
4. Sects do not have a hierarchy of paid officials.
have a monopoly on religious belief.
If central authority exists within a sect, it
usually rests with a charismatic leader, whose
Denominations personality and perceived special qualities attract
Wallis (1 976) defined denominations as the followers.
respectable religious organisations that are
Wallis’ definition of sects is broadly supported by
'pluralistically legitimate’ - they accept other
most other sociologists. However, examples of sects
religious organisations and belief systems.
that do not possess the above characteristics can
Denominations have often broken away from
be found.
a church and exist alongside the original
church and other groups that have broken
away. Examples include Methodist and United Cults
Reformed churches. There is no single definition of cults that all
sociologists accept. Many different religious
Like churches, denominations have a hierarchy
organisations and spiritual beliefs have been
of paid officials and freely admit new members.
described as ‘cults’, including Scientology,
Unlike a church, a denomination does not have
Transcendental Meditation (TM) and the Heaven’s
a universal appeal in society. For example, the
Gate organisation.
United Reformed Church had an average of
33 100 attendances each week in the UK in 2015 Wallis (1976) saw cults as being deviant but
(Faith Survey, 201 5). pluralistically legitimate (see Table 7.1.2). However,
although this definition could cover a wide range
A considerable number of denominations usually
of religious organisations, it does not cover all
exist within a particular society. The USA, for
organisations that are seen as cults.
example, has no established church, but a large
range of denominations. Denominations do not Cults often have customers rather than members and
claim a monopoly on religious truth. They are these customers may have relatively little ongoing
prepared to tolerate and cooperate with other involvement with the organisation once they have
religious organisations. learned the cult’s basic beliefs.

397
 7 RELIGION

Activity
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Wallis’ typology of new religious movements

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• Subud (spiritual training)
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the Indian Guru the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
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It is claimed that when successfully practised,
meditation can lead to stress reduction, If you have access to online sources of data,
self-development and spiritual awareness. If research into any one organisation in each of the
meditation became widespread, the Maharishi four categories in the figure. Briefly describe their
believed that it could combat crime and reduce main characteristics and identify some of the main
unhappiness. The most advanced practitioners, differences between the four movements you
who undertake specialist training called the have chosen.
Sidhi-Program, claim to be able to levitate
while sitting cross-legged. This is known as
yogic flying. World-rejecting new religious movements
The world-rejecting new religious movements have
In what ways does TM differ from church religions,
many of the characteristics of a sect. They are usually
denominations and sects?
unambiguously religious organisations but they are
highly critical of the outside world and may seek social
change. They often have a communal lifestyle with
members living in relative isolation and the organisation
Wallis' account of new having a strong influence over its members. Many are
seen as morally puritanical, for example the Unification
religious movements Church (often referred to as Moonies, due to their
Wallis was among the first sociologists to develop a founder’s name, Sun Myung Moon) is particularly
typology for the increasing range of new religious strict about restricting sex to monogamous marriage.
movements evident since the 1960s (Wallis, 1984). World-rejecting new religious movements vary
His typology relates specifically to Britain in the enormously in size: the Moonies have an international
1970s and 1980s but it has been applied to other following with hundreds of thousands of followers, while
contexts. A version of Wallis’ account is illustrated in other groups are small and locally based.
the image in the Activity box ‘Wallis’ typology of new Despite the differences between world-rejecting
religious movements’. groups, none of them is content with the world as it
Wallis divides new religious movements into three is, and they are hostile to competing religions.
main groups according to whether the movement and
its members reject, accommodate or affirm the world World-accommodating new religious
outside the movement. He notes the existence of movements
some groups (those in the middle circle) that do not The world-accommodating new religious movements
fit neatly into any single category. are usually offshoots of an existing major church or

398
 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

denomination. For example, neo-Pentecostalist groups an alternative lifestyle with conventional marriage
are variants of Protestant or Roman Catholic religions, and employment.
while Subud is a world-accommodating Muslim group.
Typically, these groups neither accept nor reject Rodney Stark and William
the world as it is; they simply live within it. They Sims Bainbridge
are primarily concerned with religious rather than
According to Stark and Bainbridge (1985), there is no
worldly questions and often want to restore the
clear-cut, definitive way of distinguishing different types
spiritual purity that they believe has been lost in
of religious organisation. For example, not all churches
more conventional churches and denominations.
try to convert all members of society and not all sects
are exclusive. Stark and Bainbridge, therefore, argue
World-affirming new religious that typologies of religious organisations should be
movements abandoned. They claim that religious groups can be
The world-affirming new religious movements may compared in terms of a single criterion: the degree of
not appear to resemble a conventional religion in conflict that exists between them and the wider society.
that they often lack a church, rituals and a theology.
However, they claim to be able to provide access to Sects and cults
spiritual or supernatural powers and, in this sense, Stark and Bainbridge argue that there are different
can be regarded as religions. kinds of religious movement in a high degree of
World-affirming groups accept the world as it is, and tension with their social environment:
they are not particularly critical of other religions. 1. Sects are formed as an offshoot of an existing
They offer followers the potential to be successful by religion as a result of division or schism within
unlocking their spiritual powers. Salvation is seen in
that religion.
terms of a personal achievement and as a solution to
personal problems such as unhappiness or suffering. 2. Cults are new religions, or at least they are new
Individuals usually overcome such problems by in a particular society. Some result from cultural
adopting a technique such as meditation or ‘primal importation, where a religion from other societies
screams’ that heightens their awareness or abilities. is introduced into a society. Examples of imported
cults include Eastern religions introduced into
World-affirming movements seek as wide a membership
the USA. Other cults are entirely new and result
as possible. Rather than attempting to convert people,
from cultural innovation; they are unconnected to
they try to sell them a service. Followers carry on their
existing religions.
normal lives except when undergoing training. There
is little social control over the members or customers. Stark and Bainbridge suggest that cults exhibit
Examples of world-affirming new religious movements different degrees of organisation and can be divided
include Transcendental Meditation (TM) and Erhard into three:
Seminars Training (known as est). 1. Audience cults are the least organised and
involve little face-to-face interaction. Contacts are
The ‘middle ground* often maintained through the mass media and
Wallis appreciated that no religious group would conferences. Many members of the audience for
conform exactly to the categories he outlined. Some, such cults may not know each other. Examples
such as the Healthy, Happy, Holy Organization (3HO), include astrology and belief in UFOs.
combine elements of different types of movement.
2. Client cults are more organised and usually offer
The 3HO is like world-affirming movements in that it
services to their followers. Scientology, for example,
is an offshoot of an established religion, in this case
offers its clients the opportunity to dear ‘engrains’
Sikhism. Like world-affirming movements, it employs
(repressed memories of painful experiences) from the
techniques including yoga that it is claimed will bring
brain with the help of a device called an e-meter.
personal benefits, such as happiness and good health.
Like world-rejecting movements, the organisation 3. Cult movements involve followers much more. They
has a clear concept of God, and members live in try to satisfy all the religious needs of their members
communes or ashrams but hold conventional jobs and, unlike client and audience cults, membership
outside the movement. Occupying the middle ground, of other faiths is not permitted. Some require little
3HO allows its followers to combine elements of more than occasional attendance at meetings and

399
 7 RELIGION

acceptance of the cult’s beliefs, but others shape the

Functional definitions (of religion) Definitions
whole of a person’s life. The Unification Church is an
that focus on the functions or roles of religion -
example of a cult movement.
what religion does rather than what it is.
Inclusive definitions (of religion) Broad
The New Age definitions that include traditional religions
The New Age is associated with alternative forms and other belief systems such as nationalism,
of spirituality that became popular in the 1970s communism and humanism.
and 1980s. The New Age incorporates some Exclusive definitions (of religion) Narrow
world-affirming new religious movements and cults definitions that include traditional religions but
(particularly client cults and audience cults), but exclude other belief systems.
it is also present in the wider culture of Western
Social constructionist approach (to defining
societies in shops, meetings, music, television
religion) Rather than trying to provide a single
programmes, public lectures and so on. This lack
definition, this approach focuses on how religion is
of a tie to particular organisations makes the New
used in daily life.
Age distinctive from most other religious and some
spiritual belief systems. Religiosity The quality of being religious, linked to
beliefs and values.
Examples of New Age beliefs include: an interest in
clairvoyance; belief in ‘spirit guides’; various types of Church The dominant religious organisation in a
meditation and psychotherapy; belief in astrology; society, which is associated with Christian worship
and an interest in self-healing and natural or and usually claims a monopoly of the religious truth.
traditional remedies for ill-health (for example, yoga, Denomination A religious organisation that has
aromatherapy and reflexology). broken away from the main religious organisation
in a society and accepts the legitimacy of other
Paul Heelas (1996) argues that the central feature
religious organisations.
of the New Age is a belief in self-spirituality. People
with such beliefs have turned away from traditional Sect A relatively small religious organisation which
religious organisations in their search for the spiritual is in conflict with other belief systems in a society.
and have begun to look inside themselves instead. Cult To Wallis, a cult is a relatively small
According to Heelas, the New Age values personal organisation with beliefs that are considered
experience above ‘truths’ provided by scientists or deviant by most people but which coexists with
conventional religious leaders. other belief systems in society.
New religious movements Religious/spiritual
organisations and movements such as Seventh-
Key terms Day Adventists, the Unification Church and
Religion Often defined narrowly as a belief Pentecostalism that are of relatively modern
system related to supernatural beings or divine origin and are in some form of opposition to (or
forces. However, there are several ways of defining differentiation from) longer-established, more
religion including substantive, functional and social powerful religious organisations such as the
constructionist approaches. Roman Catholic Church.
Beliefs Ideas or convictions that individuals or World-rejecting new religious movements
groups hold to be true even when they are not Religious movements that developed from the
based on evidence. 1960s onwards and are hostile to the social world
Belief system A set of ideas held by individuals outside the movement.
or groups that help them to interpret and make World-accommodating new religious movements
sense of the world. Religious movements of relatively recent origin
Rituals Religious practices or ceremonies that hold strong religious beliefs but reject
comprising a set of actions that are carried out in mainstream religious doctrine. Nevertheless, they
an established order. allow members to have conventional lives outside
their religious practice.
Substantive definitions (of religion) Definitions
that focus on the substance or content of religion - World-affirming new religious movements
what religion is rather than what it does. Religious movements that developed from

400
 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

the 1960s onwards; they are positive about legitimate, sects as deviant organisations
mainstream society, and their religious practices that claim to be uniquely legitimate, and cults
tend to encourage or facilitate social and as deviant organisations that claim to be
economic success. pluralistically legitimate.
Audience cults Cults that do not require much 8. Wallis distinguished between different types
commitment from followers and involve little of new religious movement (world-rejecting,
face-to-face interaction. world-accommodating and world-affirming) that
Client cults Cults that offer services (courses or emerged since the 1960s.
rituals) to their followers but require little
9. Stark and Bainbridge question other typologies
commitment. of religious organisation and claim that a
Cult movements Cults that involve followers/ single criterion, tension with the wider society,
believers fully and act as full religious organisations. can be used to distinguish different types
New Age A term for a wide range of broadly of organisation.
spiritual beliefs and practices that emphasise the
10. However, Stark and Bainbridge do distinguish
discovery of spirituality within the self. People
three types of cult:
seek spiritual experiences, inner peace or growth
through, for example, meditation, crystal healing i. audience cults that involve little
and/or aromatherapy. face-to-face interaction
Self-spirituality The practice of searching for ii. client cults that offer services to their
spirituality inside oneself. members, and
iii. cult movements that dominate their
followers’ lives.
11. The New Age refers to a range of spiritual
Summary beliefs focusing mainly on the development of
1. Sociologists disagree on how to define religion the self that became popular in the 1970s.
and there are several different definitions of
the concept.
2. Substantive definitions focus on what religion is
and its content, such as belief in supernatural Unit 7.1.2 Religion and other
forces or supreme beings.
3. Functional definitions focus on what religion
belief systems
does and the purposes, functions or roles that Religion and science are both examples of belief
it performs. systems that make claims about the world. In
4. Inclusive definitions define religion in broad many societies, science is often seen as superior
terms. Exclusive definitions are narrower to other belief systems. Science earns its high
in focus. status because of the methods it uses to generate
: knowledge that is generally considered to be
5. Rather than searching for a correct or agreed
objective and based on evidence. This knowledge
definition of religion, social constructionist | is often utilised for the benefit of humankind. For
approaches focus on the uses that individuals,
example, medical research has led to the eradication
groups and agencies make of religion in
of smallpox and the control of leprosy. But does
everyday life.
science really deserve its high status? Is scientific
6. There are difficulties in measuring the extent of knowledge genuinely superior to other sources of
religious belief in different societies. knowledge and beliefs in society? This unit looks
at contrasting views of science and questions some
7. Wallis defined churches as respectable
of the knowledge claims of science. It explores the
organisations that claim to be uniquely
relationship between scientific and religious belief
legitimate, denominations as respectable
systems. It also examines religion and science as
organisations that claim to be pluralistically
examples of ideologies.

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Science and the Enlightenment Karl Popper

The Enlightenment refers to a range of scientific, Popper (1959) argued that science is an open belief
system. Scientists put forward statements and test
social and philosophical beliefs that developed in
Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. them systematically by observation and experiment.
Enlightenment thinking rejected belief in the Scientific theories are open to testing by peers.
supernatural and in superstition as ways of However, Popper argued that it is impossible to verify
understanding the world. It argued that knowledge a theory (see Unit 3.2.5). In his view, all scientific
could only come from rational ways of thought. knowledge is provisional, ‘for the time being’ (Popper,
1974), rather than certain or true for all time.
Enlightenment thinking is seen as the foundation of
modernity, a phase in human history during which According to Popper, scientific knowledge is
trust was placed in scientific views of the world. distinctive because it is not absolute or sacred truth
For example, it was believed that humankind could and can be questioned and tested. By contrast,
use scientific knowledge to bring about progress, with non-scientific thought, such as religion or
improve people’s lives, fight disease and tackle magic, explanations are not tested. Popper argued
natural disasters. that subjective experiences or strong feelings of
conviction ‘cannot be decided by science’ (Popper,
2002). Someone may be completely convinced of the
Open and dosed belief systems truth of something but this conviction cannot be seen
Science and religion are both sources of knowledge as an objective scientific statement if it cannot be
and beliefs but they differ in important respects. tested. For example, statements such as ‘Cod exists’
Some approaches distinguish between open belief are not scientific because they cannot be tested
systems and closed belief systems. (Bear in mind or falsified. Scientific statements must be open to
that these are not the same as Andrew Sayer’s open testing, falsification, criticism and revision.
and closed systems discussed in Unit 3.2.3.) Robin
Horton (1993), for example, argues that science is
an open system of ideas, as its knowledge claims Activity
are based on evidence. Science operates in an open Drawing on Popper’s ideas, explain one difference
environment and is characterised by questioning, between scientific knowledge and religious thought.
testing and revising ideas. As a result, science is
constantly developing. By contrast, he suggests
that closed systems of ideas such as religion Critical views of science as an
are not open to criticism or to alternative views. open system
Consequently, religion is conservative and does not
Sociologists and philosophers now question how
modify its ideas over time.
far science is an open system. This suggests that
Horton argues, however, that religion and magic scientific knowledge may not be as trustworthy as is
are in some respects similar to science. Each usually assumed.
tries to understand how the world operates in
order to control it for human purposes. Critics Thomas Kuhn and paradigm shifts
disagree, arguing that religion and magic are Kuhn (1962) challenged the view that scientific
fundamentally different from science. For example, discovery is based on rational and critical enquiry
scientific propositions are testable, whereas (see Unit 3.2.3). He saw science as a closed system
religious beliefs are based on faith. The truth of ideas and argued that progress in science is
claims of religion (the beliefs and ideas that neither linear nor gradual. Science is committed to a
followers of a religion hold to be true) cannot be particular paradigm, a set of beliefs shared by a group
tested by rational procedures (Wilson, 1966). of scientists. Kuhn did not agree that scientists are
Unlike non-scientific belief systems, science completely objective or that they accept or reject a
enables people to explain, predict and control paradigm on the basis of evidence alone. For example,
the world. It can also confirm its explanations in they may ignore any evidence that contradicts the
terms of its practical results - for example, by paradigm and resist new ideas. Change in scientific
eradicating diseases or predicting when a volcano knowledge comes about via the replacement of one
will erupt. Religion, however, is unable to confirm scientific paradigm by another during a scientific
its explanations in this way. revolution. For instance, the shift from Newtonian

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mechanics to Einsteinian relativity can be seen as an

example of a paradigm shift, a move from classical to
modern physics involving a radical change in the way
that many scientists viewed the physical world.

Laboratory-based studies of science

Over the last 50 years, traditional views about
science have been challenged. One area of scrutiny
is the practice of science: the way that scientific
knowledge is manufactured or constructed
inside laboratories.
Michael Lynch (1983) conducted research in a
psycho-biological laboratory and his findings suggest
that scientists may be less objective than they claim. Some sociologists undertake laboratory-based
The scientists studied brain functioning by examining studies to explore how scientists construct
thin slices of rats’ brains under microscopes. scientific knowledge.
Photographs and slides of the brain slices were 1. Explain two strengths and two limitations of
examined to see how useful they were in developing using an ethnographic approach to study the
theories of brain functioning. work carried out by scientists in laboratories.
Sometimes, unexplained features were found in 2. Give two arguments for the view that science is
the photographs. There was much discussion in
an open belief system.
the laboratory about whether these features were
artefacts rather than real features of rats’ brains. They
were frequently viewed as errors in the production of Postmodernism and science
the photographs or slides. For example, some were Most postmodernists challenge the objectivity and truth
believed to result from scratching of the specimen of all belief systems. In their view, truth is not something
when it was being sliced. In reaching their conclusion, that exists ‘out there’ waiting to be discovered through
the scientists were influenced by their existing the use of objective scientific methods. Instead, truth is
theories, and the types of feature they were looking for created or constructed by people.
and expected to find. If the visible marks on the slide Postmodernists argue that people no longer place their
or photograph did not fit the scientists’ theories of how trust unquestioningly in science or scientists. People
rats’ brains functioned, they were much more likely to increasingly question the power of science to solve
be dismissed as errors. The scientists’ interpretations global problems such as famine or natural disasters
of the data were guided by their theories. and to produce a better world. In fact, science and
Far from following Popper’s methodology and striving technology can have negative side effects. For example,
to falsify their theories, the scientists tried to use cars and aeroplanes contribute to air pollution and
the evidence to confirm them. Many scientists may global warming. Rather than providing truth, the truth
be reluctant to dismiss perhaps years of research claims of science have been challenged by sceptical
because a single piece of evidence does not support philosophers and historians of science.
the theory that they have developed. Jean-Frangois Lyotard (1984) argued that science and
Steve Woolgar (1988) is sceptical about the religions rest on ‘meta-narratives’ - grand theories,
knowledge claims of science. Fie is interested in ‘big stories’ or myths - that give meaning to other
what goes on in science on a daily basis and what narratives or stories. For example, science provides a
scientists do in laboratories. Fie argues that science meta-narrative or a big story about evolution by natural
is not, in fact, distinct from other forms of social selection. Meta-narratives give a sense of purpose to
activity or knowledge production. There is nothing scientific endeavour and a sense of direction to social
inherently special about ‘the scientific method’ and, life. They suggest that humans can progress, through
in practice, scientists do not necessarily stick to it. In science, towards defeating ignorance and oppression,
Woolgar’s view, science activities are constructive (in and that science can help humans to conquer nature.
that scientific ‘facts’ are constructed in laboratories) Lyotard associated postmodernism with the decline of
rather than descriptive. scientific, religious, political and other meta-narratives.

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An ‘incredulity towards meta-narratives’ develops delusion completely at odds with scientific beliefs.
in postmodern societies. People no longer put their Dawkins rejects Gould’s idea that religion can provide
faith in these big, all-embracing theories about how answers to questions which science cannot. Although he
the world works. They become sceptical that any set accepts that science may not have answers to questions
of beliefs can provide a means of understanding and about the meaning of life, he sees no reason why religion
resolving the problems of humanity. They no longer should be seen as offering any expertise in such areas.
believe that reason can conquer superstition.
Dawkins argues that religion is based on faith. In his
Lyotard’s critics point out, however, that religions and view, faith is an inadequate and positively harmful
other meta-narratives are still powerful forces in some basis for believing in something. It involves believing
countries. They also argue that, although Lyotard without question despite the lack of evidence to
dismissed the possibility of objective knowledge, he support it. This can lead, for example, to violent acts
nonetheless claimed to have accurately described key being carried out on religious grounds (see Part 4).
changes in society such as an increased scepticism
about science. However, if objective knowledge is
not possible, then there is no reason to believe that
Lyotard’s claim about science is any more ‘true’ than
claims made by sociologists who disagree with him.

The relationship between

science and religion
Some commentators see science and religion as
compatible belief systems that can coexist without
tension. Others see them as competing with each
other in terms of how they explain the world. In this
view, they are incompatible because their ideas clash.
People used to believe that the sun went around
Science and religion as compatible the earth. In the 17th century, the Roman Catholic
Science and religion can be seen as compatible for Church convicted Galileo, an Italian astronomer, of
heresy for his hypothesis that the earth revolves
several reasons including the following.
around the sun.
> Stephen Jay Gould (1999, cited in Bainbridge, 2009)
was a scientist who supported evolutionary theories 1. Drawing on Galileo’s experience, explain one
of biology. Nevertheless, he argued that there is no way in which religion can be seen as a closed
conflict between science and religion, because they belief system.
are concerned with different aspects of human life 2. Evaluate the view that science and religion are
and needs. Gould claimed that one type of human compatible belief systems.
i
need is the need to understand the facts about how
nature works. Science has the authority and power to
teach about this. However, humans also have a drive Ideology
to give meaning to their own lives and to find a basis An ideology refers to a set of shared ideas, beliefs or
for their moral views. Religion can fulfil this need values that provide a way of interpreting the world.
without directly conflicting with science. This can result in a partial, false or distorted view of
> Bruce (2011) argues that science and religion reality. In practice, an ideology often legitimises or
can coexist quite easily. Not many people have a justifies the position and actions of powerful groups
great deal of knowledge about scientific methods in society, such as the ruling class or men. Religion
and discoveries. In his view, science is unlikely to can be seen as an ideology.
disprove religious faith if that faith is backed up and Marxist accounts of religion as an ideology
supported by a strong religious community.
Marxists focus on the ideology of the ruling class.
Science and religion as incompatible In this sense, ideology is a viewpoint that distorts
An alternative view is that science and religion are reality and justifies the position of a particular social
fundamentally incompatible. Richard Dawkins (2006) group. Marxists see ruling-class ideology as a set of
argues that belief in ‘supernatural gods’ is simply a beliefs and values that express the interests of the

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 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

bourgeoisie in capitalist society. Ruling-class ideology

legitimises existing power relationships in society. Key terms
Karl Marx saw religion as an ideology in that Knowledge claims Information or statements
religious beliefs uphold the interests of the ruling (for example, claims about what the world is like)
class and justify inequalities of wealth and power that a particular individual, group or belief system
(see Unit 7.2.2). This can be seen in Christian such as science holds to be true but which are
teachings such as ‘blessed are the meek’ (those who nonetheless open to debate.
are gentle and unwilling to disagree with others) Enlightenment The period from the 17th century
and 'the meek shall inherit the earth'. Religious in Europe that emphasised reason, was sceptical
beliefs also make the social order appear natural, about belief systems such as religion and put its
acceptable and inevitable. Marxists link religion to faith in natural science and progress.
false class consciousness in that religious ideas keep Open belief system A set of ideas that makes
the subject class from recognising its own interests knowledge claims based on the testing of
and disguise the true extent of its exploitation. evidence. Consequently, its beliefs develop
By justifying the status quo, religion distorts reality. over time. Science is seen as an open belief
False class consciousness blinds members of the system that tests evidence through observation
subject class to their true situation and their real and experimentation.
interests. In this way, religion diverts people’s Closed belief system A set of ideas that is not
attention from the real source of their oppression open to testing or criticism, so its beliefs tend not to
and helps to maintain the power of the ruling class. change. Religion and magic are seen as examples of
closed belief systems. Religion, for instance, is based
on faith rather than on the testing of evidence.
Truth claims Statements or ideas that particular
individuals, groups or belief systems (such as
religions) hold to be true, and which are not open
to debate.
Artefacts Things produced by the research process
(for example, resulting from a technical error) that
do not exist in the phenomenon being studied.
Meta-narratives Large-scale singular explanations
of society.
Ideology A set of dominant ideas in society
that distort reality and serve the interests of a
particular group, such as men or the ruling class.

Summary
1. Science is seen as an open system of ideas,
because its knowledge claims are based on
testing and revision. Religion is seen as a closed
system, as its beliefs are based on faith and it is
not open to testing.

2. Popper saw science as an open belief system

that is based on falsification. Religious beliefs
are not scientific statements, because they
cannot be tested.

3. Kuhn saw scientists as conservative rather than

as completely objective. Progress in science
comes about during a scientific revolution when
one paradigm replaces another.

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described religion in capitalist societies as the

4. Sociological research inside science laboratories
'opium of the people’. He saw it as acting like a drug
highlights the processes involved in the
by giving its followers a false sense of well-being
manufacture of scientific knowledge.
and distorting reality. Marx argued that religion
5. Postmodernism suggests that science is a started in the subject classes as a way of coping
meta-narrative rather than the truth. Lyotard with oppression, but it was later adopted by the
argues that people have lost faith in science ruling classes as a way of justifying their advantaged
and scientists. position in society. Marx, therefore, argued that all
classes believed in religion, although for different
6. Science and religion are seen as compatible
reasons. As the subject class (the proletariat
because they are concerned with completely
in capitalist societies) developed greater class
different aspects of human life. They are seen
consciousness, they could potentially lose some of
as incompatible because belief in gods conflicts
their religious beliefs. This leaves open the possibility
with scientific beliefs.
that higher classes (particularly the ruling class,
7. The term ‘ideology’ refers to a set of shared or the bourgeoisie under capitalism) might become
beliefs and values that provide a way of more religious than subject classes.
interpreting the world which results in a partial -
and usually distorted - view of reality. Max Weber, class and religious beliefs
8. Marxists see religion as ideological and link Sociologists highlight the links between social
it to false class consciousness. Religious ideas class and different types of religious organisation.
keep the proletariat from recognising its true This idea originated in the work of Weber (cited in
interests in capitalist society and help to Christiano, Swatos and Kivisto, 2008) who believed
maintain ruling-class power. that different classes tended to develop different
types of religious belief and that this was linked to
different religious organisations.

Unit 7.1.3 Religion and different | Weber distinguished between different theodicies
(religious explanations) for suffering on earth.
social groups » Some religions have a theodicy of misfortune,
which claims that wealth and worldly success are
Religious organisations and movements tend to
indicators of evil. This type of belief tends to be
attract more members or believers from some
associated with religious organisations that are
groups than others. The main social divisions linked
popular with lower social classes.
to religious belief and participation are social class,
gender, ethnicity and age. This unit examines the » By contrast, a theodicy of good fortune suggests
relationship between social groups and religiosity, that worldly success indicates virtue. This is
i associated more with higher classes.
asking questions such as how does social class
influence religious belief? Why do women appear Weber, however, did not suggest that religious
to participate more than men in most religions and beliefs were simply dictated by class position.
spiritual groups? How closely is ethnicity associated Instead, particular classes and status groups
with differences in religious affiliation? And do people I played an active role in creating and recreating
get more religious as they age? beliefs. They were influenced by their class position
and class interests, but these did not directly
Social class and religiosity determine their beliefs.
Evidence suggests that different types of religion
tend to appeal to different social classes. However, Activity
the evidence is not clear-cut and there is no
Briefly explain how Weber recognised that religion
straightforward relationship.
involves human agency.

Marxist theories of social class

and religion Social class and social mobility
According to Marxists, religious participation Drawing on USA-based research, Stephen Hunt
and social class are closely related. Marx (1844) (2004) notes that generally sociologists argue that

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 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

upwardly mobile groups and individuals tend to Hunt argues that New Age beliefs (for example,
belong to religious organisations with more liberal different types of meditation) are supported by
beliefs - for example, about sexuality. However, those ‘who have sufficient time and means to pay
conservative or fundamentalist beliefs are likely for a narcissistic journey of self-discovery’ They are
to be supported by those who feel that their stake particularly supported by middle-class people in
in society might be threatened by upwardly mobile ‘expressive’ professions (such as artists and writers)
social groups. Lower social classes who feel excluded who have university-level education. Hunt also claims
tend to support sects that offer some religious that, in the USA, occult practices and superstitious
compensation for their low status and reject beliefs are more popular with lower classes, who have
mainstream norms and values. limited education and live in rural areas.

Social class and religious organisations to appeal to the deprived because membership
Evidence suggests a link between different types offers a way of coping with disadvantage by
of religious organisation and their members’ finding meaning and a sense of self-worth within
social class. the sect. Wallis (1984) argued that in the 1960s
and 1970s, sects also began to appeal to the
» Churches aspire to include members from all ‘relatively deprived’ middle class of affluent
social classes. Because of its size, members of a students who were seeking compensation for their
church are drawn from all classes in society, but lack of a spiritual life.
the upper classes are particularly likely to join
» World-affirming new religious movements (Wallis,
because churches are often closely connected to the
1984) such as TM are positive about mainstream
established political order. For example, the Roman
society. Their religious practices tend to facilitate
Catholic Church in the Middle Ages had important
social and economic success. Client cults (Stark and
political, educational and social functions.
Bainbridge, 1985) such as Scientology offer services
» Denominations tend to be slightly anti­ to their followers but require little commitment.
establishment, as they have broken away from Both world-affirming new religious movements and
the religious mainstream. However, Wallis (1984) client cults appeal to the successful and affluent who
noted that they are respectable organisations and want to become even more successful.
therefore appeal most to the upper working class > Cult movements such as the Unification Church
and the lower middle class. They are not usually involve their followers or believers fully and
closely identified with the upper classes. are similar to sects in opposing mainstream
1 Sects have traditionally recruited the most society. Consequently, they tend to attract the
disadvantaged people in society. They require disadvantaged or relatively deprived.
members to give up their previous life, so those » According to Heelas (1996), New Age movements
with much to lose are unlikely to join. They tend tend to appeal to the middle class (particularly

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women). Like Hunt (2004), Bruce (2002) believes According to this view, women are less involved
that they attract those in expressive professions in the labour force than men and more involved
such as the media, teaching and counselling who in raising children. Not only do women have
believe in self-improvement. more time for church-related activities but their
lower-level involvement in paid work also gives
Evaluation
them a greater need for the sense of personal
In the USA, detailed data are available on social identity which religion can provide. Some US
class, religious belief and participation. However, research suggests that religion is seen as a
there is a shortage of such data in many other household activity. Socialising children by taking
countries. It is therefore difficult to assess the them to church can be regarded as an extension
accuracy of claims about class and different religious of female childcare roles.
organisations. Consequently, most of the claims
discussed here should be treated as hypotheses
rather than as well-supported theories. Furthermore,
class intersects with other social divisions, particularly
gender, ethnicity and age, in shaping religious belief
and participation.

Gender and religiosity

Statistical evidence suggests that women tend to be
slightly more religious than men on a global scale. The
Pew Research Center (2016) estimated that globally,
83.4 per cent of women identified with a faith group
compared with 79.9 per cent of men. In 61 of 192
countries, women were at least two percentage points
A woman and child at a church.
more likely than men to express a religious affiliation,
but there were none in which the reverse was true. 1. Do you agree that women in your society are
more religious than men? Explain your answer.
Alan S. Miller and John P. Hoffman -
Risk and religion 2. To what extent do women and men have
Miller and Hoffman (1995) note two main types different structural locations in your society?
of sociological explanation for women’s greater Do women lack a sense of occupational
religiosity. identity? Do they have more time than men for
activities related to religion?
1. Differential socialisation
According to the differential socialisation view,
These two explanations are not mutually
‘females are taught to be more submissive,
exclusive. Indeed, the socialisation of females
passive and obedient and nurturing than are
and males tends to lead to them occupying
males and these attributes are associated
different social locations, which in turn reinforces
with higher levels of religiosity’ (Miller and
gender differences. However, Miller and Hoffman
Hoffman, 1995). These characteristics are more
argue that these explanations cannot fully
often found in traditional religious beliefs. For
explain the gender differences in religiosity. They
example, religions such as Christianity emphasise
quote research which suggests that, even when
obedience to God and characteristics such as
socialisation and structural location are taken into
being loving, which are associated with female
account, women are still more religious than men.
gender roles. Male roles place less emphasis on
They argue, therefore, that a third factor, attitude
these characteristics. This theory is supported
to risk, is also important. There is nothing to lose
by USA-based evidence discussed by Miller and
by being religious. However, not being religious
Hoffmann which indicates that men who are
can be seen as risk-taking behaviour because
submissive, passive, obedient and nurturing tend
it risks condemnation to hell after death. Using
to be more religious than other men.
survey-based research from the USA, Miller and
2. The structural locations of women and men Hoffman show that men tend to be less averse
(their location in the social structure) to risk than women. Furthermore, both men and

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 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

women who are more risk averse have higher levels the type of religion that has retained an appeal for
of religiosity. They conclude that women’s greater some women varies by social class. Working-class
concern about risk is an important additional factor, women tend to retain a belief in forms of religion
alongside socialisation and structural location, in and spirituality in which they are more passive.
explaining women’s greater religiosity. They believe in a powerful God, or in ‘obscure forces
beyond their control’, such as fortune telling and
Evaluation The argument put forward by Miller
superstition. By contrast, middle-class women have
and Hoffman that women have more time for
more experience of controlling and improving their
church-related activities is highly debatable given
own lives. Consequently, they tend to follow religions
that a great deal of research suggests that women
that allow more individual autonomy, and forms of
spend more time on housework and childcare than
spirituality which facilitate personal development.
men. Furthermore, rates of female participation in
They are attracted to New Age beliefs that promote
the labour market are high in nations such as the
self-growth and development.
USA and the UK, making it questionable whether
women lack a sense of occupational identity.
Linda Woodhead - female religiosity
and secularisation
Steve Bruce - religion and
Woodhead (2005) believes that processes of
secularisation secularisation and the decline in Christianity have
Bruce (1996) suggests that religion tends to have influenced Western societies, but they can only
an affinity with aspects of femininity that make be understood with reference to gender. From the
women 'less confrontational, less aggressive, less 19th century, modernisation led to a process of
goal oriented, less domineering, more cooperative rationalisation in which people calculated the best
and more caring’. This affinity applies to traditional and most rational means to achieve given objectives
religion and is particularly strong with New Age rather than relying on faith or tradition to guide their
spiritual beliefs. Many women are attracted to the actions. This had a ‘corrosive effect’ on religion, as it
‘healing, channelling and spirituality’ side of New Age left little room for the non-rational faith required by
beliefs because these are more in keeping with female religion. However, this process largely affected men.
gender roles. The minority of men involved in the New The housewife role became increasingly important
Age tend to be more interested in the paranormal for middle-class women and this isolated them to
than in the more feminine aspects of the movement. some extent from rationalisation. Women were not
Bruce argues that women are more attracted to ‘absorbed into rationalized values’ and so were less
traditional religions than men because ‘the churches likely than men to become disillusioned with the
have always been interested in the control of sexuality church’s teachings.
and in the instruction of the next generation, both Church attendance among men declined and
matters which are concentrated on the domestic women became the majority of those involved in
hearth and in which women have a major role to play’. churches. Churches became ‘increasingly feminized
According to Bruce, there is a division in the modern or domesticized’. They placed more emphasis
world between the public sphere (of paid work, politics on 'love, care and relationships’ and less on God
and so on) and the private sphere (the domestic as an all-powerful and punitive ruler. However,
world of the family and personal life). Bruce believes they continued to reinforce male power through
that as a result of secularisation (the decline in the paternalistic images of God as a ‘loving father’. As
significance of religion in society - see Unit 7.5.1), churches became feminised, they lost prestige and
religion has become less important in the public sphere became even less appealing to most men.
and increasingly confined to the private sphere. Since
women are more involved with the private sphere than Religion and different spheres of life
men, and religion has become a largely private matter,
By the 1970s in Western societies, many married
women have tended to become more religious than
women were returning to the labour force and were
men. As religion has declined generally, men with their
increasingly exposed to the rationalised culture of
predominantly public-sphere social roles have lost their
paid work. This led to a rapid decline in churchgoing
religiosity more quickly than women.
among women. Woodhead believes that the changes
To Bruce, within an overall pattern of decline, religion in women’s lives largely account for the decline of
has declined less among women than men. However, Christian churches and denominations in Western

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Activity

Comforting hands from heaven and dramatic lightning.

1. Explain why these two images can be seen as representing feminine and masculine views of a Christian God.
2. If churches emphasise the message given in the first image, how could that account for gender differences in
church attendance?
3. To what extent do these images present a Western, Christian bias?

countries since the 1970s. However, women are still parent and so on). New Age beliefs allow this
more interested than men in religion and spirituality, tension to be bypassed because they create a new
for a number of reasons. ‘type of selfhood in which identity is not dictated
by social position and experience, but discovered
1. Women are still less involved in the public world
from within’. The contradiction between roles in
of work than men. More women than men work
primary and secondary institutions is resolved by
part-time and women are still much more likely to
seeking your identity in the individual sphere.
have the main responsibility for childcare.
2. Woodhead argues that there are three rather than
two spheres in contemporary societies. These are:
Religion and ethnicity
Most evidence suggests that members of minority
> primary institutions such as those associated ethnic groups in Western countries such as Britain
with work and politics are more likely than majority ethnic groups to see
> secondary institutions associated with caring themselves as religious; religions that are mainly
for others, including the family and religion followed by minority ethnic groups are more likely
> an individual sphere in which people are to be practised by believers; and their religion is
concerned with their own autonomous and I more likely (in most respects) to influence their lives.
individual selves. : However, there are exceptions to these tendencies.

Religion remains relevant to those women whose

i John Bird - explanations for high
lives are based in secondary institutions. Given this,
levels of religiosity
women are still more likely than men to be involved in
churches and denominations. Bird (1999) identifies five important reasons for the
higher levels of religiosity among minority ethnic
3. New Age beliefs also tend to be dominated by
groups in Britain:
women. Woodhead argues that this helps to
resolve a contradiction between ‘traditional’ 1. Many ethnic groups ‘originate in societies
female roles in the home and more ‘masculine’ with high levels of religiosity’. For example,
roles in the workplace. In paid work, your sense Bangladesh and Pakistan have high levels of
of self largely derives from your position or job, religious observance and belief. First-generation
whereas in family roles your sense of self is more immigrants tend to bring these high levels of
concerned with relationships with others (as wife, religiosity to the UK.
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 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

2. For minority ethnic groups, religion can 'act as a attempt to continue socialising their children into
basis for community solidarity’ Solidarity based their culture and also to gain acceptance in US
on religious affiliation can perform important society. She describes how, in 'Houston, Texas, the
social functions for new migrants, giving them Vietnamese community has created their Temple with
'a point of contact in a new country, a source of many features reminiscent of Vietnam’ However, the
marriage partners, social welfare and so on’. Temple is also used as a community centre, assisting
people to integrate into US society - for example,
3. Bird argues that ‘Maintaining a religious
by facilitating networking to help people find jobs. In
commitment is also a way to maintain other
such centres, minority ethnic groups can ‘negotiate
aspects of cultural identity such as language,
a Buddhist religious identity and work to have it
art, patterns of marriage, cooking and so on.’
accepted as legitimate in their new community’.
Religion and minority ethnic cultures can be
mutually reinforcing.
Activity
4. The importance of religion can be maintained
through socialisation and ‘there is often strong
family pressure to maintain religious commitment’. arttii *- ■V
5. Some minority ethnic groups might also have strong
religious beliefs because it helps them cope with
oppression. Disadvantaged minority ethnic groups
tend to be working-class, and their religious beliefs
)

k
m
can be seen as a response to their position in the
social structure. Bird suggests that Pentecostalism i
might perform a dual function for British African '
Caribbeans. First, it can be ‘a way to adjust to a
society in which (they) face discrimination and social
injustice’. Pentecostalism can act as the ‘opium of A Buddhist Temple in Houston, Texas.
the people’ (see Unit 7.2.2). Second, it can also
help people to combat disadvantage by improving Explain how centres such as Vietnamese Buddhist
their social and economic position. For example, Temples in US cities can be seen as linked to
Ken Pryce (1979) pointed out that Pentecostalism cultural defence and cultural transition.
encouraged hard work and thrift, which could result
in Pentecostalists gaining greater economic security.
Decline or revival in ethnic
Steve Bruce - cultural defence and minority religions?
cultural transition Bruce argues that, over time, minority ethnic groups in
Bruce argues that minority ethnic groups are more many Western societies become more integrated and
likely to engage in religious activity than the ethnic are increasingly influenced by the wider secular society.
majority, mainly due to social reasons. The vitality of As a consequence, their religious beliefs will decline.
religion is largely a response to the social situation of George Chryssides (1994) argues that, in Britain, the
minority ethnic groups rather than an expression of religions of immigrant groups and their descendants
deep religious commitment. Bruce sees the strength of have had three main paths open to them:
minority ethnic religions as caused by either: » Apostasy, when a particular set of religious beliefs
1. cultural defence, where an ethnic group is is abandoned in a hostile environment. For example,
protecting its sense of identity and maintaining a Sikh might convert to Christianity.
ethnic pride through religion; or > Accommodation, when religious practices are adapted
2. cultural transition, where an ethnic group uses to take account of the changed situation. For example,
religion to cope with the upheaval of migration. a Sikh might remove his turban because he believes it
These two processes can work together as could improve his chances at a job interview.
immigrant minority ethnic groups try to both adapt > Renewed vigour, when the religion is reasserted
and defend their religious/cultural heritage. For more strongly as a response to actual or perceived
example, Meredith McGuire (2002) describes how hostility towards it. For example, parents might insist
Vietnamese-American Buddhists simultaneously on strong religious orthodoxy from their children.

411
 7 RELIGION

Chryssides acknowledges that minority ethnic religions to see whether a cohort was more or less religious
have faced difficulties in Britain. They have had to than other cohorts and whether their attitude to
establish places of prayer and deal with situations : religion changed as they aged,
in which religious observation might be difficult. Voas and Crockett found little evidence that people
However, he argues that the general pattern has been became markedly more religious with age, or that
characterised by accommodation and renewed vigour specific cohorts were becoming less religious. Instead,
rather than apostasy. Buildings have been bought and they concluded that in Britain ‘change has occurred
converted into mosques and temples, and religious because each generation has entered adulthood less
beliefs and practices have been retained or adapted religious than its predecessors’ This was partly because
rather than abandoned. For example, many Muslim each generation was less likely to socialise their children
women have found ways to dress modestly while into religious beliefs than the previous generation.
incorporating Western elements into their clothing.
Voas and Crockett’s conclusions may not apply to all
Age, generation and religiosity types of religious and spiritual beliefs. For example,
Heelas et al. (2005) claim that New Age spiritual
Evidence suggests that, in most countries, the young
beliefs are growing rapidly despite few young people
tend to be less religious than the old. For example,
being involved, because people do not usually start
the World Values Survey (discussed in Burkimsher,
to engage with such spiritualities until middle age.
2008) found that younger people (classified as those
under 30 years) were less likely to say they attended Marion Burkimsher (2008) identified similar patterns
places of worship than older people (those aged 50 across many, but not all, countries. She examined
or over) in the majority of countries surveyed. statistical evidence from the European Values Surveys
of 2002, 2004 and 2006 and the World Values
Reasons for age differences in religiosity Surveys of 1995 and 2004. She found that evidence
David Voas and Alasdair Crockett (2005) identified from ‘stable developed countries’ (including Western
three possible explanations for age differences in Europe) suggested that recent generations were less
religiosity. The differences could be due to age, a religious than earlier generations. Although there
period effect or the progressive decline of religion. was generally a trough in religiosity among people
1. Age. Many commentators have suggested that in their early 20s, and a slight increase in their late
people tend to get more religious as they get older 20s, attendance did not generally increase after the
and see themselves as coming closer to death. age of 30. There was, therefore, little evidence of
Religious belief might also be affected by life events increased religiosity as people aged.
such as having children. Parents might return to However, in some ex-communist countries in Eastern
active involvement in religion because they think it Europe and in much of Africa, there is evidence of
is important for their children’s socialisation. increased religiosity among the young. In the USA,
2. A period effect. Those born in a particular period youth attendance fell between 1980 and 1995 but
(a cohort) might be particularly likely or unlikely rose again between 1995 and 2000. Furthermore,
to be religious because of specific events or social Puerto Rico, Mexico and Brazil have all had rising
changes during the era in which they grew up. rates of attendance among the young.
For example, Peter Brierley (2006) notes the
rapid decline in churchgoing among the young Key terms
in the 1990s and argues that Those in Theodicy of misfortune A religious explanation
“Generation Y”, defined by some as those born in for suffering which claims that wealth and worldly
the 1980s, have been found to have little spiritual success are indicators of evil.
interest, being rather focused on “happiness”.’ Theodicy of good fortune A religious explanation
3. The progressive decline of religion could mean that for suffering which claims that wealth and worldly
each generation is less religious than the previous success are indicators of virtue.
one. Supporters of this view generally favour the Fundamentalist beliefs A set of religious beliefs
secularisation thesis (see Unit 7.5.1). that advocates returning to the ‘fundamental’
original teachings of a particular religion.
Evidence
New Age movements Diverse and loosely
Voas and Crockett examined data from the British
organised groups that became popular in the 1970s
Social Attitudes survey to consider which of these
and 1980s, within which people seek spiritual
theories was most plausible. The data allowed them

412
 7.1 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

experiences focusing primarily on the development Summary

of the self. They are sometimes viewed as a subset
1. Marxists believe that religion originates
of new religious movements. Examples include est,
among subject classes to help them cope with
Heaven’s Cate and Dianic Wicca.
oppression, but it is also adopted by the ruling
Differential socialisation The contrasting ways classes to justify their position.
in which females and males are brought up within
and outside the family. 2. Weber argued that different theodicies
appealed to different social groups. A theodicy
Structural location The position of different social
of misfortune attracts lower classes and a
groups within the social structure - for example,
theodicy of good fortune attracts higher classes.
the greater involvement of men in full-time paid
employment than women. 3. Hunt argues that socially mobile groups tend
Attitude to risk The extent to which individuals to join liberal religious organisations and social
are willing to expose themselves to social groups who feel under threat tend to join more
practices, beliefs and situations that carry a conservative organisations.
possibility of danger. 4. Churches aspire to attract members from all
Public sphere The social world outside the family classes but tend to be predominantly middle-
and personal life. and higher-class institutions because they
Private sphere The social world inside families generally support the establishment.
involving personal relationships. 5. Denominations tend to appeal to the upper
Secularisation A process involving a decline in the working class and lower middle class, while
social significance of religion. sects generally attract the disadvantaged or
Modernisation The process of moving from the relatively deprived.
traditional society to a modern developed society. 6. World-affirming new religious movements
Rationalisation A process in which people appeal to the affluent. The New Age mainly
calculate the most efficient means to achieve given attracts middle-class professionals, particularly
objectives rather than relying on faith or tradition women in expressive professions.
to guide their actions.
7. Statistical evidence suggests that women tend
Primary institutions Institutions associated with to be more religious than men in all types of
work and politics. religious organisation in most countries.
Secondary institutions Institutions associated with
8. Miller and Hoffman explain gender differences
caring for others, such as the family and religion.
in terms of gender socialisation, the structural
Individual sphere The sphere of social life locations of men and women, and men’s
concerned with individual identity. greater willingness to take risks.
Cultural defence An ethnic group using religion to
9. Bruce argues that secularisation has led to religion
reinforce and maintain ethnic identity and pride.
being largely confined to the private sphere, in
Cultural transition An ethnic group using religion which women are more involved than men.
to cope with social change and migration.
10. Woodhead believes that secularisation has
Apostasy Abandoning a set of religious beliefs in
impacted on men more than women, which has
a hostile environment.
resulted in churches becoming feminised and
Accommodation Adapting religious beliefs in appealing to women more than men. New Age
response to a changed environment. beliefs appeal to women because they help
Renewed vigour An increase in the intensity of women to develop a new sense of selfhood
religious feelings in response to perceived hostility. which bypasses the contradiction between their
Age The length of time a person has lived. family and work roles.
Period effect The effects of being born in a 11. The religion of minority ethnic groups in
particular era on social beliefs and practices. countries such as Britain is closely connected
Cohort A group of people born in a particular with the ethnicity and countries of origin of
time period. first-generation immigrants. Most minority

413
 7 RELIGION

ethnic groups in Britain tend to be more than older people. Voas and Crockett
religious than their White counterparts. suggested that the statistical patterns could
be due to people getting more religious
12. Bird explains higher levels of religiosity among
as they age, a period (or cohort) effect
minority ethnic groups in terms of ethnic
or secularisation.
origins, community solidarity, cultural identity,
socialisation and oppression. 15. Data from the British Social Attitudes survey
suggest that, in Britain, secularisation is the
13. Bruce argues that religion acts as a form
main cause of age differences in religiosity.
of cultural defence or a way of coping with
However, Heelas claims that New Age beliefs
transition to a new society. In his view,
are growing rapidly, despite relatively few
minority ethnic religions in the UK will decline
young people being involved.
over time. However, Chryssides suggests that
they can develop in three ways: apostasy, 16. Burkimsher found that secularisation is
renewed vigour or accommodation. affecting most industrialised countries, but in
Eastern Europe and Africa there is evidence of
14. Statistical evidence suggests that, in most
young people becoming more religious.
countries, young people are less religious

END-OF-PART QUESTIONS
I 0 I 1 I Describe two types of definition of religion. [4 marks]
1 0 I 2 | Explain two limitations of the view that science is an open belief system. [6 marks]
I 0 1 5 1 ‘Science and religion are incompatible belief systems.'
Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6 marks]

PART 2 RELIGION AND SOCIAL ORDER

significance of religion in society. What is religion
Contents really about beneath the surface? How does it
Unit 7.2.1 Functionalist accounts of religion 414 shape relationships between people? Does religion
Unit 7.2.2 Marxist accounts of religion 418 perform a positive or negative role in society?
This part examines how functionalist and Marxist
perspectives address questions about the role and
Religions, one of the most important belief
function of religion in society and its relationship to
systems in contemporary societies, are a key area
social order.
of sociological interest. Sociologists focus on the

religion in society and its contribution to meeting

Unit 7.2.1 Functionalist accounts society’s needs. This unit examines some of the main

of religion functionalist theories of religion.

In the functionalist view, society has functional £mile Durkheim s account of religion,
prerequisites or basic needs such as value consensus
(broad agreement on society’s values) which must
the sacred and the profane
be met if it is to survive over time. Functionalism Durkheim (1912) argued that all religious beliefs
examines social institutions such as religion in terms divide the world into two completely separate parts:
of their functions. It focuses on the positive role of the sacred (things that are set apart and forbidden)

414
 7.2 RELIGION AND SOCIAL ORDER

and the profane (ordinary, everyday things).

However, the ‘sacred’ are not simply things such as Activity
gods or spirits. According to Durkheim, anything i
could potentially be sacred, including a tree or a
rock. What sacred things have in common is the tj

reverential attitudes (feelings of great respect and

awe) that they inspire among believers. '•4.V
5
m
Durkheim argued that sacred objects such as trees do
not have any intrinsic qualities that make them sacred.
Consequently, they must be symbols. In order to II \
/
understand the role of religion in society, he believed
that it is necessary to examine the relationship
between sacred symbols and what they represent.
Durkheim examined reports of totemism, the religion
of Australian Aboriginal groups. Aboriginal society is
|kva
divided into clans. Each clan has its own unique totem,
usually a plant or an animal such as a kangaroo. The Among many Roman Catholics around the world,
statues of angels are seen as sacred.
totem is a sacred symbol and ritual observances
separate it from profane or ordinary things. A Sarah Dunlop and Peter Ward (2014) asked young
representation of the totem - the totemic emblem or Polish Catholics living in England to take photographs
image - is placed or painted on objects or people. The of what is sacred to them. Their photographs included
totemic emblem is also surrounded by rituals and is images of churches, statues and people.
considered more sacred than the totemic object itself. If you were asked to take photographs of what is
The totem provides clan members with their shared sacred to you, what would you include?
name. This means that clan members themselves
possess sacred qualities because of their sacred name. Durkheim emphasised the importance of collective
worship. The social group comes together in religious
Durkheim argued that the totem is the symbol of
rituals full of drama and reverence. Together, its
both God and society. From this, he argued that God
members express their faith in their common values
and society are, in fact, the same thing. He suggested
and beliefs. In this highly charged atmosphere, the
that, in worshipping god, people are actually
integration of society is strengthened.
worshipping society. Society is more important and
powerful than the individual. Durkheim argued that
‘Primitive man comes to view society as something
sacred because he is utterly dependent on it.’ People
invent a sacred symbol such as a totem because
it is easier for someone to 'visualize and direct his
feelings of awe toward a symbol than towards so
complex a thing as a clan’.

Religion and the collective conscience

Durkheim viewed religion as performing valuable
functions for society. He argued that social life would be
impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs
An Aboriginal teenager being painted with his
that form the collective conscience. Without them, he
totem for a ceremony to mark his initiation as an
argued, there would be no social order or social control.
adult member of the community.
In short, there would be no society. Religion performs
a key function by reinforcing the collective conscience. 1. Why do you think Aboriginal teenagers are painted
The worship of society strengthens the values and with a totem as part of their initiation ceremony?
moral beliefs that form the basis of social life. In this
2. What functions might this ceremony perform
way, religion acts like a cement that binds members of
for the group?
society together and promotes social solidarity.

415
7 RELIGION

Evaluation of Durkheim 1. How might the example of the Western Wall be

1. Critics argue that Durkheim studied only a small used to support Durkheim’s account of religion?
number of Aboriginal groups, which were not typical.
It might be misleading to generalise about Aboriginal 2. Why might some feminists use this example to
beliefs and religion as a whole from this sample. support the view that religion is patriarchal?

2. Andrew Dawson (2011) suggests that some of

the fieldwork data that Durkheim relied on were
of doubtful validity. Other critics argue that Talcott Parsons’ account of religion
totemism is not a religion. Parsons (1937, 1964, 1965) argued that religious
3. Durkheim’s views on religion are more relevant beliefs provide guidelines for human action and
to small, non-literate societies whose members standards against which people’s conduct can
share a common belief and value system. They be evaluated. In a Christian society, for instance, the
are less relevant to modern societies with diverse Ten Commandments show that many of the norms
subcultures, social and ethnic groups, and a wide of the social system can be integrated (or brought
range of religious beliefs, rituals and institutions. together) by religious beliefs. For example, the
commandment Thou shalt not kill’ integrates diverse
Despite these criticisms, many sociologists recognise norms such as how to drive a car, settle an argument
Durkheim’s contribution to an understanding of religion. and deal with the suffering of the aged. The norms
William E. Paden (2009) argues that Durkheim’s that direct these areas of behaviour prohibit
observations about the importance of religion for manslaughter, murder and euthanasia, but they are
social solidarity remain valid in many circumstances all based on the same religious commandment.
today. The symbolic importance of the Western (or
In this way, religion provides general guidelines for
Wailing) Wall in Jerusalem for Jews is an example of the
conduct, which are expressed in a variety of norms.
continuing symbolic importance of sacred objects.
By establishing general principles and moral beliefs,
religion helps to provide the value consensus that is
necessary for social order and stability.

Religion and social order

Parsons saw religion as addressing particular
problems that occur in all societies and disrupt
| social life. These problems fall into two categories.
The first relates to ‘the fact that individuals are "hit”
by events which they cannot foresee and prepare
for, or control, or both’ One such event is death,
particularly premature death. Parsons saw religion as
a mechanism for adjustment to such events and as a
means of restoring the normal pattern of life.
The second problem area is that of ‘uncertainty’.
This refers to endeavours in which a great deal
of effort and skill has been invested, but where
unknown or uncontrollable factors can threaten
a successful outcome. One example is humanity’s
inability to predict or control the effect of weather
upon agriculture. Parsons argued that religion
provides a means of coming to terms with such
situations through rituals which act as ‘a tonic to
self-confidence’. In this way, religion maintains social
stability by relieving the tension and frustration that
could disrupt social order.

416
 7.2 RELIGION AND SOCIAL ORDER

Religion and problems of meaning choice and decision-making, and sees religion as
involving active agency.
Parsons argued that religious beliefs give meaning
to life; they answer questions about humanity and 4. From a feminist perspective, functionalism fails
the world we live in. One of the major functions of to examine the role of religion in maintaining
religion is to 'make sense’ of all experiences, no patriarchy and female oppression. From a
matter how meaningless they appear. One example Marxist perspective, it fails to examine religion’s
is the question of why some people experience role in maintaining capitalism.
suffering. Religion provides answers to this: suffering
tests a person’s faith; it is a punishment for sins;
and those who endure suffering with strength Key terms
will be rewarded in heaven. In this way, suffering The sacred and the profane Durkheim’s
becomes meaningful. distinction between things that are set apart and
inspire reverential attitudes among followers (the
Parsons (1965) saw a major function of religion as
sacred) and ordinary, everyday things (the profane).
providing meaning to events that people do not
expect or feel ought not to happen. This allows them Totemism A form of religion practised by the
to adjust to these events. On a more general level, this Australian Aboriginal peoples in which a sacred
adjustment promotes order and stability in society. totem (usually a plant or animal) symbolises the clan.
Rational choice theory An approach that
Evaluation of the functionalist assumes most people are naturally religious, that
perspective religious belief is based on rational choices and
1. Critics argue that the functionalist perspective that religion meets individuals’ needs.
over-emphasises the role of religion in
maintaining social order and stability. It
underplays dysfunctional or negative aspects of Summary
religion and neglects the many instances where
1. Functionalism focuses on the positive role
religion can be seen as a divisive and disruptive
of religion and its contribution to meeting
force. Functionalism gives little consideration to
society’s needs.
hostility between different religious groups within
the same society, such as Shia and Sunni Muslims 2. Durkheim argued that, in worshipping god,
in Iraq, Hindus and Muslims in India or Catholics people are actually worshipping society. Religion
and Protestants in Northern Ireland. In such is functionally important in reinforcing the
cases, religious divisions can be seen as a direct collective conscience and promoting social order
threat to social order. and social solidarity.
2. The functionalist approach focuses on religion 3. Critics question the validity of the data that
as a conservative force in society and does not Durkheim used, the relevance of his views to
explore religion as a radical force that is linked to modern, diverse societies and his account of
social change. (See Part 4 of this chapter.) religion as the worship of society.
3. Functionalism tends to see religion as a product 4. Parsons linked religion to value consensus, order
of socialisation and to assume that people will and stability in society. Religious beliefs give
be socialised into the religious culture of their meaning to life and make sense of all experiences,
society. However, other approaches adopt a regardless of how meaningless they appear.
more individualistic stance. For example, rational
5. Critics argue that functionalists pay insufficient
choice theory sees religion as meeting the
attention to dysfunctional aspects of religion and
needs of individuals rather than those of social
its role in generating conflict, division
groups or society as a whole. This theory argues
and change.
that there are rational choices behind belief in
religion - people believe in religion because there 6. Unlike functionalism, rational choice theory
is something in it for them. Unlike functionalism, sees religion as involving individual choice,
rational choice theory focuses on individual decision-making and active agency.

417
 7 RELIGION

in capitalist society and prevent the proletariat from

Unit 7.2.2 Marxist accounts recognising its own interests.
of religion In order to achieve true happiness and fulfilment,
religion and the social conditions that produce
While functionalism focuses on the positive role of it must be abolished. In Marx’s future classless
religion in society, Marxism is critical of religion in communist society, religion would not be necessary
all class-based societies. Marxists identify two main because the social conditions that produce it, such as
classes in capitalist society: the ruling class and the alienation and exploitation, would no longer exist.
subject class. The ruling class - the bourgeoisie -
own the forces or means of production, while the Religion as 'the opium of the people’
subject class - the proletariat - only own their Marx described religion as 'the opium of the people’
labour power and are forced to sell their labour to (Marx, in Bottomore and Rubel, 1963). He argued
the bourgeoisie in order to survive. The relationship that religion acts as a drug to dull the pain produced
between these two classes is based on exploitation, by oppression (see Unit 7.1.3). It helps to make
as the proletariat’s wage is much less than the profits life more bearable for the proletariat and therefore
that the bourgeoisie makes. dilutes demands for change. As such, religion merely
Marxists see capitalist society as made up of numbs or stuns its followers rather than bringing
the economic base which largely shapes the them true happiness and fulfilment.
superstructure. They see beliefs (including religious
From a Marxist perspective, religion can dull the pain
beliefs) and values in society as forming a ruling-class
of oppression in the following ways:
ideology. This produces false class consciousness (a
distorted picture of society that disguises class-based 1. It promises a paradise of eternal bliss in life after
exploitation) and the subject class are not aware death. Engels argued that Christianity appeals to
that they are being exploited. At the same time, false oppressed classes because it promises 'salvation
class consciousness legitimates the ruling class’s from bondage and misery’ in the afterlife. The
position in capitalist society. This unit examines Christian vision of heaven can make life on earth
Marxist perspectives on the relationship between more bearable by giving people something to
religion, capitalism, exploitation and oppression. look forward to.
2. Some religions see the suffering produced by
Karl Marx’s views on religion oppression as a just punishment for sins. Suffering
is also seen as a trial set by God, promising
Marx argued that ‘Man makes religion, religion does
rewards for those who endure poverty with
not make man.’ He challenged the Christian belief
dignity and humility. Religion makes poverty more
that God created man in his own image by arguing
bearable by offering a reward for suffering and
that man created God in his own image. In Marx’s
promising compensation in the afterlife for injustice.
view, people create imaginary beings or forces which
stand above them and control their behaviour. 3. Religion can offer the hope of supernatural
People project their own human powers and intervention to solve problems on earth. Members
capabilities onto God, who is seen as all-powerful. of religious groups such as the Jehovah’s Witnesses
As a result, they become detached from themselves. wait for the day when supernatural powers will
Marx saw religion as a form of alienation in capitalist descend from on high and create heaven on earth.
society in that it disguises the fact that people can Anticipation of this future can make the present
take control of their own destiny. In this way, religion more acceptable.
prevents them from realising their own potential such
4. Religion often justifies the social order and an
as their power to control their own lives on earth.
individual’s position within it. God can be seen as
Marx saw religion in capitalist society as an ideology in creating and supporting the social structure. This
that religious beliefs support the bourgeoisie’s interests can make particular social arrangements appear
and justify inequalities of wealth and power. Religion as God-given and therefore inevitable. It can also
is linked to false class consciousness because religious help the proletariat to come to terms with their
ideas distort reality, disguise the extent of exploitation situation and make life more bearable for them.

418
 7.2 RELIGION AND SOCIAL ORDER

Religion and social control Marx did not believe that religion would last forever.
Religion was rooted in societies that alienated,
From a Marxist viewpoint, religion does not
exploited and oppressed their members. When such
simply cushion the effects of oppression; it is
societies were replaced, religion would no longer be
also an instrument of that oppression. It acts as
necessary. Ultimately, the proletariat would remove
a mechanism of social control, maintaining the
the need for religion by replacing capitalist society
existing system of exploitation and reinforcing
i with communism.
class relationships. Marx argued that Christianity
preaches 'submissiveness and humbleness’ to the I In Marx’s vision of the ideal communist society,
proletariat. In doing so, it keeps them in their exploitation and alienation are things of the past.
place. Furthermore, by making unsatisfactory lives The means of production are communally owned,
bearable, religion tends to discourage people from which results in the disappearance of social classes.
attempting to change their situation. By offering an : Members of society are fulfilled as human beings;
illusion of hope in a hopeless situation, it prevents they control their own destinies and work together
thoughts of overthrowing the system. In this way, for the common good. Religion does not exist in this
it acts as a conservative force in society (see communist utopia because the social conditions that
Unit 7.4.1). produce it have disappeared.

Activity

w
u

Sunday.

T HE church-bell calls, and we

obey,

1
» ; And meet in God’s own house to $
Ml pray.
r &
z^\ V

4% ms. At eve we wander by the brook,

m,f /
Or ponder o’er some holy book;

. .* ! ,
a
w %
rf*
And say, when radiant glows the
West,

“ Thanks be to God for Sabbath .

rest.”

In Marxist terms, religion acts as a means of social control and keeps people in their place.

1. From a Marxist perspective, how might religious beliefs and practices act as an opiate or a painkilling drug?
2. Explain one similarity between Marxist and functionalist theories of religion.
3. What key differences are there between Marxist and functionalist perspectives on religion?

419
 7 RELIGION

Evidence to support Marxism religion did not die out under communism, as
There is considerable evidence to support the Marx predicted. Religious activity increased again
Marxist view of the role of religion in society. once communism had ended. This suggests that
Marx was wrong to believe that religion would
The caste system of traditional India, for example, disappear under communism. It also suggests that
was justified by Hindu religious beliefs. In medieval there may be other reasons for the existence of
Europe, kings and queens ruled by divine right. religion apart from those put forward by Marx, or
The Egyptian pharaohs went one step further by that communism failed to end oppression.
combining both god and king in the same person.
Slave-owners in the southern states of America often 3. Functionalist approaches accept that religion may
approved of the conversion of slaves to Christianity, act as a means of social control. However, they see
believing it to be a controlling and gentling influence. this as functional for society.
It has been argued that, in the early days of the 4. Some feminists link religion to patriarchy rather
industrial revolution in England, employers used than to capitalism. They see religion as legitimising
religion as a means of controlling the masses and male power rather than ruling-class power.
encouraging them to remain sober and to work hard.
5. Rational choice theory adopts a more
Pentecostalism (a form of Christianity that has grown individualistic stance than Marxist (and
significantly among poor people in Latin America, functionalist) approaches and sees religion as a
Africa and parts of Asia) emphasises sobriety matter of individual choice and agency.
(not drinking alcohol) and hard work. Pentecostal
churches have conservative teachings on issues Activity
such as abortion, sexuality and the role of women *
in society and within the church. Consequently,
Pentecostals are seen as likely to support the status -/#/_] k/ / / /S/ / /
quo and to work hard in order to try to improve their
social position (see also Unit 7.4.1).
Bruce (1988) points out that, in the USA, conservative
Protestants - the ‘New Christian Right’ - consistently mm
support right-wing political candidates in the
Republican Party, and attack more liberal candidates r<
in the Democratic Party (see Unit 7.4.2). Although
Bruce emphasises that the New Christian Right have
1 tJP
had limited influence on American politics, they have
tended to defend the interests of the rich and powerful Rational choice theory views religion in similar
at the expense of other groups. terms to a market.

Evaluation of Marxism 1. How far do you agree that when people make
choices about religion, they act like consumers
1. McGuire (2002) argues that the relationship
choosing between different products in
between religion and social and political action is
the marketplace?
more complex and unpredictable than Marx claimed.
Although religion can act as an opiate, it can also be 2. In your view, to what extent is religion a matter
linked to social and political change. of individual choice?

2. Marxism does not explain the existence of

religion where it does not appear to contribute Key terms
to the oppression of a particular class. Critics Mechanism of social control A means by which
argue that Marxism fails to explain why religion individuals are persuaded to conform to the rules
might continue to exist when, in theory at in society.
least, oppression has come to an end. Under
New Christian Right A term originating in the
communism in the USSR after the 1917 revolution,
USA to describe Christian groups with links
the state actively discouraged religion and many
to the right-wing Republican Party. They have
places of worship were closed. The communist
conservative views on social issues and want
state placed limits on religious activity and banned
religious culture to be central in public life.
the religious instruction of children. Nevertheless,
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 7.3 GENDER. FEMINISM AND RELIGION

Summary 5. Examples such as the caste system of

traditional India and the divine right of kings
1. Marx argued that people create religion. They support the Marxist view of the role of religion
project their own powers or capabilities onto in society.
superhuman beings and become detached or
alienated from themselves. 6. Critics point out that, although religion can
inhibit change, it can also encourage social,
2. In Marx’s view, religion is an ideology in that economic or political change. They also argue
religious beliefs support the ruling class’s that Marx was wrong to believe that religion
interests and justify inequalities. would disappear under communism.
3. Marx saw religion as an opiate - a painkilling 7. Functionalism sees the social control aspect of
drug - which makes life more bearable for the religion as functional for society.
proletariat under capitalism. In doing so, religion
dilutes demands for radical change in society. 8. Feminists see religion as justifying male
rather than ruling-class power and
4. Marx linked religion in class-based societies as legitimising patriarchy rather than
to alienation and oppression. However, by capitalism.
replacing capitalism with communism, the
proletariat would remove the need for religion.

END-OF-PART QUESTIONS
1 0 1 1 1 Describe two functions of religion. [4 marks]
1 0 1 2 1 Explain two limitations of the Marxist account of religion. [6 marks]
1 0 1 5 1 Through its contribution to meeting society’s needs, religion performs a positive role.’
Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6 marks]

PART 3 GENDER. FEMINISM AND RELIGION

Contents teachings about women and men, in the leadership
structures of religious institutions and in the
Unit 7.3.1 Feminist perspectives on religion422 practices of religions. Therefore, the feminist views
Unit 7.3.2 Patriarchy and gender inequality of religion relate well to the key concept of power
in religion 426 and control. Feminist approaches use the term
‘patriarchy’ to refer to a system of male domination
There are several different feminist approaches in society and they argue that patriarchy is
within the sociology of religion, including radical supported by a set of religious beliefs. But are
feminism and liberal feminism. These different all religions necessarily patriarchal? Can religion
approaches agree that power and authority are empower women rather than oppress them? Can
not distributed equally between women and men religion be a form of resistance? This part looks at
within most religious organisations and traditions. the different feminist views on the role of religion in
Male domination can be seen in many religious society and its links to patriarchy.

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 7 RELIGION

The position of women in many societies across the

Unit 7.3.1 Feminist perspectives globe has improved over the last 50 years. Faced

on religion with such changes to women’s social status, some

groups want women’s traditional roles (for example,
as wives and mothers) to be re-established. Such
Feminist theories of religion, like Marxist theories,
groups often appeal to sacred texts in order to
often argue that religion can be an instrument of
justify their views on gender.
domination and oppression. However, they tend to
see religion as a product of patriarchy rather than 4. Places of worship. Some places of worship
of capitalism. Many feminists see religion as part segregate men and women. Women’s second-class
of a wider ideology or set of ideas which serve the status is often related to their female identities.
interests of men rather than those of a capitalist class. Jean Holm (1994) points out that ‘Menstruation
and childbirth are almost universally regarded as
Religion is seen as a patriarchal institution that
polluting. In many traditions women are forbidden
perpetuates gender inequality over time. Feminist to enter sacred places or touch sacred objects
sociologists draw on evidence from a variety of
during the menstrual period.’ For example, Hindu
religious beliefs and practices to support this view.
women are prohibited from approaching family
They highlight four main ways in which religion can shrines when pregnant or menstruating. Muslim
be seen as patriarchal. women are not allowed to touch the Qur’an, go
1. Religious organisations. Most religious into a mosque or pray during menstruation.
organisations are hierarchical in their structures
and male-dominated in their leadership. Women
continue to be excluded from key roles or positions Activity
of power in many religions. The Church of England
finally allowed the ordination of female priests
in 1992 and female bishops in 2014. Roman
Catholic women, however, cannot become priests.
This exclusion is despite the fact that women
often participate more in organised religion (when
they are allowed to) than men (see Unit 7.1.5).
Orthodox Jewish women cannot become
rabbis and, in Hinduism, only men can become
Brahmanic priests. Sikhism is perhaps the most
egalitarian of the major religions, as all offices are
equally open to men and women. However, even
in Sikhism, only a small minority of women have
significant positions within the religion.

2. Laws and customs. In most religions, women Many feminists see the majority of religious
have fewer rights than men. The Roman Catholic organisations as male-dominated in their
Church, for instance, has strict rules on abortion leadership.
and contraception. Women often have fewer rights
than men regarding divorce and are subject to 1. How far do you agree with the view that religions
more rules about what is seen as appropriate are patriarchal?
dress when praying. In countries where the 2. Can you think of any arguments to counter
cultural norms are influenced by religion, men and this view?
women may be treated unequally by, for example,
receiving different punishments for adultery.
3. Sacred texts. Sacred texts tend to give women Fang-Long Shih (2010) identifies two main feminist
subordinate roles. In most religions, the gods are perspectives on religion: the radical feminist
male and women are portrayed in minor roles. All perspective and the liberal feminist perspective.
the apostles in the New Testament, for example, However, other feminist-inspired viewpoints have also
are men. One explanation for this is that the developed which challenge the view that religion is
sacred texts were usually written by men. necessarily patriarchal.

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 7.3 GENDER. FEMINISM AND RELIGION

Radical feminist perspectives Mary Daly and Goddess religion

Some feminist approaches, such as that of de
on religion Beauvoir, assume that religion is inevitably
Radical feminist perspectives argue that gender patriarchal and must be abolished. Others accept
inequality is the central type of inequality in society. that religion is patriarchal but do not believe that
Furthermore, a radical transformation of society is religion itself needs to be abolished. Instead, they
necessary to remove gender inequality. Unlike liberal argue that patriarchal religions need to be replaced
feminists, they believe that small-scale reform will not with feminist religion. In particular, they need to be
be enough to bring about change. replaced with Goddess religion.
Daly (1973) was one of the earliest advocates
Simone de Beauvoir’s account of female of this approach. She was strongly influenced by
oppression within religion de Beauvoir and agreed that religion was oppressive
De Beauvoir (1953) argued that religion acts for to women. She argued that existing religions are
women in similar ways to those suggested by Marx based on an ‘inadequate God’, and that women are
for oppressed classes. Oppressors (men) can use oppressed in several ways:
religion to control the oppressed group (women).
1. Religions such as Christianity have often proclaimed
Religion also serves as a way of compensating
that the subordination of women is God’s will.
women for their second-class status. De Beauvoir
notes that men have generally exercised control 2. God is portrayed as a man and as Father. ‘One-sex
over religious beliefs in different faiths and use symbolism’ of this sort alienates women and places
divine authority to support their dominance over them in an inferior position to men.
women. The fear of God serves to keep women in a
3. Religion tells believers that redemption comes
subordinate position.
through prayer, not through actively trying to
Religion gives women, like Marx’s proletariat, change the situation and abolish exploitation. For
the idea that they will be compensated for their this reason, it tends to support the continuation
sufferings on earth by equality in heaven. In this way, of patriarchy.
the subjugation of women through religion helps to
Daly argued for a new feminist spirituality. This
maintain a status quo in which women and men are
sense of spirituality can come from within women
unequal. Furthermore, in terms of their role within
themselves and can lead to the revolutionary
religion, women are seen as vital because they do
overthrow of dominant, male gods. Together, women
much of the work for religious organisations and
can 'struggle towards self-transcendence’ so that
introduce children to religious beliefs.
religious and spiritual insight comes from within and
not from the teachings of male preachers imposing a
Goddess religion and feminist spirituality male god on women.
Some feminists argue that the subordination of
women has not always been a characteristic of the In this way, some religions may oppose rather
majority of religions. Karen Armstrong (1993), for than support male domination. Woodhead (2007)
example, argues that in early history women were at describes the Goddess feminist movement as
the centre of'the spiritual quest’. In the Middle East, seeking 'to honour the “divine feminine’’ in their
Asia and Europe, archaeologists have uncovered own lives and in society’. It is committed to the
numerous symbols of the Great Mother Goddess. empowerment of women.
She is pictured as a naked pregnant woman and Radical feminist approaches which emphasise the
seems to represent the mysteries of fertility and life. importance of Goddess religion have demonstrated
There were very few early effigies of gods as men.
that, while a belief in God can help to maintain
As societies developed religious beliefs in which patriarchy, non-patriarchal religions are possible.
there were held to be many different gods and
However, critics argue that Daly’s work is rather
goddesses, the Mother Goddess still played a crucial generalised and, in places, lacks detailed evidence
role. However, the final death knell for goddesses to support her claims. Nevertheless, Shih (2010)
came with the acceptance of monotheism - belief in believes that this type of research has been
a single male god (such as Yahweh, the god of the significant in developing the sociology of religion in
prophet Abraham) rather than in many gods. general, by helping to open up female and feminist

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perspectives. For example, Woodhead (2007) has female oppression in the Arab world and elsewhere.
discussed how involvement in New Age activities such She examines the importance of religion in creating
as Reiki in Kendal, Britain, can be a way for women and perpetuating oppression but does not see religion
to gain self-esteem, which may be low as a result itself as the main underlying cause of oppression.
of patriarchal ideology. For example, women may Instead, she sees it as just one aspect of a wider
have found that their sense of self-worth has been patriarchal system which needs to be overthrown.
undermined by male partners and that involvement in
El Saadawi denies that the oppression of women is
New Age activities is a way to overcome these feelings.
directly caused by religion in general, or by Islam in
particular She notes that oppressive practices such as
female circumcision have often been attributed to the
influence of Islam. However, female circumcision has
been practised in a considerable number of countries,
not all of them Islamic. In her view, genuine religious
beliefs tend to be opposed to any such practices and
aim at ‘truth, equality, justice, love and a healthy
wholesome life for all people, whether men or women’
Furthermore, she believes that other religions,
including Christianity, are often more oppressive
than Islam. To El Saadawi, female oppression is not
essentially due to religion but to patriarchy. Men have
often distorted religion to serve their own interests, to
help justify or legitimate the oppression of women. El
Saadawi is not hostile to religion itself, but only to the
domination of religion by patriarchal ideology.

Evaluation of radical feminism

1. Critics argue that much radical feminism tends to
generalise about religion and to see all religions as
equally patriarchal. However, some liberal feminists
have identified certain religions, such as Quakerism,
that are not clearly or strongly patriarchal.
2. Radical feminists also tend to ignore evidence
that progress has been made and that aspects
of patriarchal ideology within religion have been
successfully challenged.
3. Radical feminists such as de Beauvoir and Daly have
not backed up their views with detailed research. In
other cases, the validity or representativeness of the
research may be open to question.
4. Radical feminists are not particularly sensitive to
the ways in which women may find space within, or
use, apparently patriarchal religions to further their
own interests.

Patriarchy, Islam and the

Liberal feminist perspectives
limited role of religion on religion
Both de Beauvoir and advocates of Goddess religion Radical feminists tend to believe that patriarchy is so
write from the perspective of Western, Christian built into existing religions that only their destruction
women. Furthermore, they assume that religion itself or replacement with an alternative can lead to the
is a main cause of patriarchy. However, Nawal El furthering of feminism. However, liberal feminists,
Saadawi (1980), an Egyptian feminist writer, discusses while also regarding existing religions as patriarchal,
424
 7.3 GENDER. FEMINISM AND RELIGION

focus more on reforming religions in order to remove for women to hold senior posts within the Church
patriarchal elements from them. In their view, religion of England hierarchy on equal terms to men.
and feminism are compatible. They start off by Partly due to such campaigns, women have
identifying the aspects of religion which, in their view, been consecrated as bishops within the Church
need reforming. of England since 2015. Others are currently
campaigning for the Roman Catholic Church to
Inequalities in major religions ordain women as priests.
Holm (1994) argues that, while the classical
teachings of many religions have stressed equality Activity
between men and women, in practice they have
In Berlin, Germany, a new mosque, Ibn
usually been far from equal. In Japanese folk
Rushd-Goethe, has been built which seeks to
religions, for example, women are responsible for
challenge patriarchal interpretations of Islam.
organising public rituals but only men can take
It does this by allowing men and women to pray
part in the public performances. In Chinese popular
together as well as allowing women imams. The
religion, women are associated with Yin and men
founder and imam, Seyran Ates, a self-proclaimed
with Yang. However, Yang spirits are more important
Muslim feminist, argues that the way to overcome
and powerful. In Buddhism, both men and women
problems such as radicalisation (where individuals
can have a religious role, as monks and nuns,
are encouraged to take on extreme and sometimes
respectively. However, all monks are seen as senior
violent actions in the name of religion) and hostility
to all nuns. Orthodox Judaism only allows males
towards Islam is to introduce more a progressive,
to take a full part in ceremonies. In Islam, in some
feminist brand of faith. The mosque is part of a
regions, women are not allowed to enter mosques for
small but growing number of similar mosques
worship, and men have made all the legal rulings. In
around the world that have received both hostile
Christianity, it is still impossible for women to take
criticism and also some hopeful support.
the highest positions in church hierarchy.
1. Outline two ways in which the Ibn Rushd-Goethe
The limits to patriarchy and mosque challenges radical feminist views
progress towards greater equality of religion.
Many liberal feminists suggest that the patriarchal 2. Explain why this new mosque may appeal to
oppression of women within religion is not universal. women more than traditional mosques.
Essays in a book edited by Holm (1994) identified
three main reasons for this:
1. Some religions are generally patriarchal but aspects Evaluation of liberal feminism
of them can still provide significant opportunities 1. Although there is evidence of some progress
for women. For example, Leila Badawi (1994) noted as a result of liberal feminism, the extent of this
aspects of Islam that are positive for women. Unlike progress is open to question. Radical feminists
Christian women, Muslim women keep their own tend to believe that patriarchy is so embedded
family name when they get married. within existing religions that reform will never
be enough to significantly improve the position
2. There are a few religions which do not have a
of women within religion and within society
strong tradition of patriarchy and have always
I in general.
been relatively egalitarian. According to Alexandra
Wright (1994), some Christian religions, 2. Some feminists, while not rejecting liberal
particularly Quakerism, have never been oppressive feminism altogether, believe that it has had only
to women. For example, Quakers believe in totally a limited impact. Shih (2010) refers to research
democratic organisational structures and value which suggests that, even with increasing
men and women’s contribution to the day-to-day numbers of women ordained within the Church of
running of the religion in equal measure. England, relatively little has changed and sexist
attitudes within the Church remain strong.
3. Patriarchal aspects of some religions are
changing, partly as a result of liberal feminists’ 3. Statistical evidence suggests that there is still a
actions and campaigns for gender equality within long way to go before women achieve equality
religions. For example, some have campaigned within the Church of England. For example, in

425
7 RELIGION

2012, women made up 12 per cent of senior

staff (including cathedral clergy, archdeacons Unit 7.3.2 Patriarchy and gender
and bishops); in 2015, this figure stood at 19 per
cent (Church of England, 2016). inequality in religion
Key terms Patriarchy and women in
Patriarchy A pattern/structure of male dominance conservative religions
and control. Conservative religions, which tend to support
Radical feminists Those who believe that society traditional values, are often seen as the
is dominated by men and the only way to improve most oppressive types of religion for women.
the position of women is via radical changes Fundamentalism and evangelicalism, which
in society. advocate traditional morality and the importance
of the domestic role and modesty for women, seem
Liberal feminists Those who believe that to be particularly patriarchal. In Catholicism
gender equality is possible within existing social
there are strict rules governing men and women’s
structures, with changes in attitudes, laws and sexuality - for example, prohibiting sex outside
social policies. marriage or abortion. Furthermore, there are strict
Goddess religion Religion that honours the 'divine rules concerning women’s sexuality even within
feminine’, the female side of the divine. approved relationships, such as marriage among
orthodox Jews. These examples also suggest that
religion might affect women in different ways
Summary and therefore generalisations about religion
1. Feminist theories see religion as a patriarchal are inappropriate.
institution in terms of its hierarchical However, some feminist sociologists question whether
organisations, its laws and customs, its sacred they necessarily always succeed in oppressing
texts and its places of worship. women. A number of researchers have found
2. Radical feminists such as de Beauvoir argue evidence that women find space within such religions
that religion is inevitably patriarchal and must ! to develop their own ideas or use aspects of these
be abolished. religions to further their own interests. For example,
Sophie Gilliat-Ray (2010) points out that some
3. While accepting that religion oppresses British-born Muslim girls and young women wear
women, some feminists argue that the hijab (a scarf covering their head and hair) as a
patriarchal religions need to be replaced with means of negotiating approval from their parents to
non-patriarchal religions such as a new feminist go into higher education or paid employment. This
spirituality or a Goddess religion. may help to explain why many conservative religions
4. El Saadawi sees religion as playing a role in are embraced by a significant number of women.
women’s oppression but rejects the idea that
it is the main cause of oppression. Instead, Islam and the veil
she sees religion as one aspect of a wider Many feminists view the issue of veiling and modest
patriarchal system. dress among Islamic women as controversial. Rachel
Rinaldo (2010) notes that, as veiling regained
5. Critics of radical feminism point out that not
popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, 'the reaction
all religions are equally patriarchal and that
from feminists was overwhelmingly negative’, seeing
aspects of patriarchal ideology within religions the practice as a ‘reassertion of patriarchy’. After
have been successfully challenged. Furthermore, the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979, for example,
women may use apparently patriarchal religions veiling was made compulsory, and some saw this as
to further their own interests. a direct attack on women's rights. However, these
6. Liberal feminist perspectives focus on removing assumptions have been challenged by a number of
patriarchal aspects from religion and argue other feminist writers.
that progress has been made towards greater Helen Watson (1994) argues that the veiling of
equality. Critics question the extent of this Islamic women can be interpreted as beneficial
progress and reform. to them. She examines three Muslim women’s
426
 7.3 GENDER.
feminism and religion..

responses to veiling and finds that Islamic women Do more recent forms of religiosity
in a globalised world can use veils in a positive
way. As Western culture tries to influence Islamic reflect patriarchal ideology?
countries, and more Muslims live in the Western Given the huge array of new forms of religions
world, the veil can take on new meanings for emerging in recent years, it can be difficult to make
women. For example, Nadia, a second-generation generalisations about the extent to which they
British-Asian woman studying medicine at perpetuate ideas which oppress women. However,
university, actively chose to start wearing a veil this section explores some examples which both
when she was 1 6. She was proud of her religion challenge and support the claim that religions
and wanted others to know that she was Muslim. continue to uphold patriarchal ideology.
She felt that 4lt is liberating to have the freedom
of movement and to be able to communicate with New religious movements
people without being on show. It’s what you say New religious movements (relatively modern forms
that’s important, not what you look like.’ She found of religion which are different from, or challenge,
that, far from making her invisible, wearing a veil traditional religions in some way) are not easy to
made her stand out, yet it also helped her to avoid compare, as they vary considerably in relation to
unwanted comments and attention from men. gender. Susan Palmer (2008) suggests that the
Watson concludes that veiling is often a reaction majority, however, tend to reinforce conservative,
against an increasingly pervasive Western culture. simplistic ideas about the role of women as carers or
It can be seen as the assertion of independence, mothers that uphold patriarchy. A minority of new
separate identity and a rejection of Western cultural religious movements offer opportunities for greater
imperialism. Rather than seeing the veil as a sign experimentation with gender roles. For example,
of male oppression, it is ‘part of the search for an the Raelians encouraged experimentation with
indigenous Islamic form of protest’ against patriarchy gender roles, encouraging transvestitism, as well
in society. as practising the removal of gendered identity and
behaviour. Other new religious movements sought to
Watson’s conclusions, however, should be treated
challenge patriarchal assumptions, although these
with some caution. Her observations are based on a
practices are not always long-term. For example,
sample of three women. She appears to have made
between 1981 and 1985 the Rajneesh movement
no attempt to find Muslim women who felt men or
I
granted women leadership positions, only shortly
patriarchal society forced them into wearing the veil
afterwards to be replaced by male leaders. Therefore,
against their will.
the overwhelming view is that new religious
The next section explores the extent to which new ! movements are unlikely to challenge patriarchy or,
forms of religion follow similar patterns of reflecting indeed, offer women any form of liberation.
patriarchal ideology, or alternatively if they provide
alternative ideas and practices. Pentecostalism
Some feminists express concerns about
Pentecostalism’s deep conservatism with respect to
Activity i women’s roles. However, Elizabeth Brusco (1996)
In many parts of Europe, it is now illegal to wear carried out research into Pentecostalism in Colombia
any form of face covering in public places, but in the 1980s and found that Pentecostalism can be a
critics argue that this infringes people’s freedom source of change or emancipation for women. Brusco
of expression and religion. claims that Pentecostalism has the capacity to reform
gender roles in ways that enhance female status.
1. Why might some feminists support a ban on Brusco claims that Pentecostalism promotes female
wearing a veil in public? interests in simple, practical ways, such as involving
2. Why might other feminists oppose such a ban? them more in organisational roles and valuing
their contribution in the family. Pentecostalism also
3. To what extent do you agree that the state
has the potential to challenge machismo or male
should impose rules on what people wear
dominance that is so central to Latin American
in public?
culture. This is possible through the expectations and

427
7 RELIGION

teachings about the need for men to be respectful to

Bible or the Qur'an. Christian fundamentalists, for
their wives and other female relatives. However, this
example, adopt a literal interpretation of biblical
finding is only limited to Colombia, so the pattern
accounts of miracles and the Creation.
may not be reflected elsewhere.
Evangelicalism A movement within Protestant
New Age movements Christianity that is seen as conservative in its
New Age movements (see Unit 7.1.3) appear to attract support of traditional values.
women more than men. For example, the Kendal Cultural imperialism The practice of imposing
Project in the UK (see Unit 7.5.2) notes that women a culture, viewpoint or civilisation on people in
are more likely to be part of a growing number of another, less powerful country.
people who are not affiliated to traditional religious
organisations, but who instead attend New Age
movements that practise techniques such as yoga.
Michael York (2004) claims that much of the outlook of
New Age movements, their spirituality and organisation Summary
lends itself to a more female-centred belief system. 1. Fundamentalism and evangelical Christianity
Cynthia Eller (1993) claims that New Age movements are seen as particularly patriarchal. However,
in the USA offer women the opportunity to be part some feminist sociologists argue that women
of a feminist spirituality movement, as opposed to can find space within such religions to develop
traditional patriarchal forms of religion. their own ideas.
2. Many feminists have reacted negatively to the
Key terms popularity of veiling among Muslim women.
Fundamentalism A form of religion whose adherents However, Watson argues that wearing a veil in
want to return to what they see as the core doctrines a globalised world can be beneficial to Muslim
of the faith as set out in sacred texts such as the women.

END-OF-PART QUESTIONS
| 0 | 1 | Describe two ways in which religion can be seen as oppressive for women. [4 marks]
I 0 | 2 | Explain two limitations of the liberal feminist view of religion. [6 marks]
[ 0 I 5 I ‘New forms of religion continue to maintain patriarchal ideology.’
Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6 marks]

428
 7.4 RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

PARI 4 RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF

SOCIAL CHAH6E
is religion a source of stability in society? Can
Contents it promote social change and, if so, what sort
Unit 7.4.1 The relationship between religion of change does it bring about? In addressing
and social change 429 these questions, this part draws on functionalist,
Unit 7.4.2 Religious movements, political Marxist and feminist approaches. It also explores
debates and struggles 435 the ideas of Weber on the links between religion
and the rise of capitalism. Finally, it examines
the influence of religious movements on political
Sociologists are interested in the relationship debates and struggles around the world. What role
between religion and social change. To what extent have religious leaders and beliefs played in political
debates, struggles and conflict?

Marx had similar views to functionalism in that

Unit 7.4.1 The relationship he saw religion as maintaining the status quo (see
between religion and Unit 7.2.2). However, he argued that religion operates
in the interests of the ruling class rather than those of
social change society as a whole. By promising its faithful followers
rewards in the next life, religion discourages people
There are a number of possible relationships from demanding radical social changes in this life and
between religion, social change and social stability. In acts as an agency of social control.
general, functionalist and many Marxist and feminist Many feminists see religion as a patriarchal
sociologists argue that religion may be a conservative institution that perpetuates rather than challenges
force, a factor that inhibits social change. By contrast, gender inequality. From a feminist perspective,
neo-Marxists such as Otto Maduro (1982) argue that religion can be seen as ideological in that it socialises
religion may also be a radical force that promotes people into accepting patriarchy and gender
change. This unit looks at different sociological inequality as natural and inevitable.
accounts of the role of religion as a source of social
‘Conservative’ may also refer to traditional beliefs
change, including debates about the relationship
and customs. Usually, if religion helps to maintain the
between religion and the origins of capitalism.
status quo, it will also maintain traditional customs
and beliefs. For example, the stance of successive
Religion as a conservative force popes has restricted the use of abortion among
Religion can be seen as a 'conservative force’ in two Roman Catholic women. The Roman Catholic Church
senses, depending on how ‘conservative’ is defined. also has traditional views on issues such as marriage,
The phrase ‘conservative force' is usually used to refer divorce, sexuality, contraception and gender.
to religion as preventing change and maintaining the In some circumstances, however, religion can support
status quo. Functionalists, Marxists and feminists social change while at the same time promoting
generally agree that religion acts as a conservative force traditional values. This often occurs when there is a
in society. However, they disagree in terms of how they revival in fundamentalist religious beliefs within, for
interpret this. From a functionalist perspective, religion example, Christianity or Islam. Such beliefs involve a
contributes to social order and stability (see Unit 7.2.1). return to what a group claims are the ‘fundamentals’
In doing so, religion facilitates the continued existence or basic, original beliefs of a religion. Christian
of society in its present form and inhibits change. This is fundamentalism in the USA, for example, involves
interpreted by functionalists in positive terms. an emphasis on the literal truth of scripture, a literal

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7 RELIGION

interpretation of the biblical account of the Creation

and a rejection of the scientific theory of evolution.
Religion as a change-promoting force
It advocates traditional roles for women in society, Marx is generally regarded as a materialist. He
and control over female sexuality and reproduction argued that the material world shaped people’s
expressed, for instance, in its attitudes to abortion. beliefs, including their religious and political beliefs.
Bryan Turner (2005) argues that Christian In his view, the economic system largely determined
fundamentalism has become an important force in the type of religion that was dominant in a particular
the revival of right-wing politics in the USA. society and the beliefs that people held.
Unlike Marx, Weber rejected the view that religion
Fundamentalism involves the reassertion of
is always shaped by economic factors. In his view,
traditional religious and moral values to counter
under certain conditions, religious beliefs can have a
social changes that have taken place and to oppose
major influence on economic behaviour and promote
the people who support these changes (see Unit
social change.
7.6.2). If fundamentalists are successful, they
succeed in defending traditional values. At the same Weber’s theory of the role of
time, however, they change society by reversing religion in the rise of capitalism
innovations that took place earlier.
Weber (1958, first published 1904/05) examined the
Islamic State (IS) can be interpreted as acting as both relationship between the rise of Calvinism, a Protestant
a force for change and a conservative force. On the form of Christianity, and the development of Western
one hand, it is a movement that wants to bring about industrial capitalism. He tried to demonstrate that:
change (the establishment of a state that is governed > Calvinism emerged before the development of
by Islamic law). On the other hand, IS is seen as an Western capitalism
organisation that supports traditional, conservative
> capitalism first developed in areas where Calvinism
values. This illustrates the importance of distinguishing
was influential.
between the two meanings of the word ‘conservative’.
The Protestant ethic Calvinist Protestantism
originated in the beliefs of John Calvin (1509-64)
Activity and his followers in the 17th century. Calvin led the
Protestant Reformation in Switzerland and France.
The term ‘Reformation’ refers to attempts to reform
the Roman Catholic Church and to the development
of Protestantism in Western Europe.
Calvin believed in the doctrine of predestination:
; that God had predetermined the world and that a
distinct group of people, the elect, were destined
to go to heaven. The elect had been chosen by God
even before they were born. Unlike members of
other religions, such as Roman Catholics, Calvinists
believed that those who were not among the elect
could not earn themselves a place in heaven, no
matter how well they behaved on earth. They could
A preacher challenges students on an American
university campus to abandon evolutionary theory not change God’s decision.
and replace it with Christian beliefs. Weber pointed out that Calvinists had a psychological
problem: they did not know whether they were
1. In what way might religion be seen as a among the elect. Consequently, they suffered from
conservative force in society? uncertainty about their status. However, they
2. Briefly explain one similarity between feminist reasoned that only the elect would be able to live a
and Marxist views on the relationship between good life on earth. If their behaviour was exemplary,
religion and social change. they could feel confident that they were among
those chosen by God to go to heaven after death.
3. Briefly explain one difference between Their behaviour was not an attempt to earn a place
functionalist and Marxist views on the in heaven; instead, it was an attempt to convince
relationship between religion and social change. themselves that they had been chosen to go there.
430
 7.4 RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

The Protestant ethic developed first in 17th-century lines and business transactions are conducted in
Western Europe among Protestants, including a systematic manner. Underlying the practice of
Calvinists. This ethic was ascetic, encouraging capitalism is the spirit of capitalism - a set of
abstinence from life’s pleasures, an austere lifestyle ethics, values and ideas such as to waste time loses
and self-discipline. money. The spirit of capitalism involved seeing the
Calvinists saw their occupation or career as a calling, accumulation of capital as an end in itself rather
as something to which they had been called by than as a means to an end. It involved dedication
God. The Protestant ethic produced individuals who to acquiring money through economic activity and
worked hard and single-mindedly in their calling. avoiding the use of wealth for personal enjoyment.
Acquiring wealth provided ascetic Protestants with Weber claimed that the origins of the spirit of
a clue to their fate. They saw financial success as a capitalism were to be found in the work ethic of
sign of God’s favour - as a sign that they were one ascetic Protestantism. He saw ascetic Protestantism
of the elect, saved rather than damned. The money as a vital influence in the creation and development
they made, however, could not be spent on luxuries of the spirit and practice of capitalism. In his view,
or frivolous entertainment. It had to be spent on the the methodical and single-minded pursuit of a calling
glory of God. In effect, this meant being even more encouraged rational capitalism. Making money
successful in one’s calling and, in practice, reinvesting became both a religious and a business ethic.
profits in the business. Therefore, the interpretation
that the Calvinists put on the original doctrine of Finally, Weber noted that the importance of
predestination contributed to them becoming the wealth creation and the restrictions on spending it
first capitalists. encouraged saving and reinvestment. The ascetic
Protestant way of life led to the accumulation of
capital, investment and reinvestment. It produced the
Activity early businesses that expanded to create capitalism.
Religion in non-Protestant societies Weber
Keep out, you iO$ir, Ibri.g compared religions and economic developments in
cprae not here, 1 good chfere; midChrUhcu*
I welcome j Do different parts of the world in order to understand
\ pot tear..
the relationship between religion and changes
zm in society (Weber, 1963, first published 1922).
Although other parts of the world beyond
Western Europe possessed many of the necessary
A preconditions to develop capitalism, they were not
among the first areas to develop it. For example,
India and China had technological knowledge, labour
I
i and individuals engaged in making money. What
they lacked, according to Weber, was a religion that
ul i encouraged the development of capitalism.

Materialism and Weber’s theory In Weber’s view,

he had shown that some religious beliefs could
This cartoon from 1653 shows o Puritan (a follower promote economic change. He claimed to have found
of Puritanism, a strict form of Protestantism a weakness in Marx’s materialism, which implied
that was influenced by Calvinism) driving Father
that the economic system always shaped ideas.
Christmas out of town. Christmas fun and games
were banned in mid- 1 7th-century England. Weber put much more emphasis than Marx on the
influence of ideas in bringing about economic change.
How might this cartoon illustrate Weber’s view of However, Weber also recognised the importance
the Protestant ethic? of the economy, material factors and technology in
making capitalism possible. Material factors were as
The spirit of capitalism Weber argued that modern important as ideas in the development of capitalism.
capitalist enterprises are organised on rational Neither could be ignored in any explanation.

431
7 RELIGION

Hungary and parts of the Netherlands all contained

large Calvinist populations but were not among
the first capitalist countries. However, Gordon
Marshall (1982) argues that Weber did not claim
that Calvinism was the only factor necessary for
the development of capitalism. Simply finding
Calvinist countries that failed to become capitalist
comparatively early cannot therefore disprove
Weber’s theory. In his own study of Scotland,
Marshall found that the Scots had a capitalist
mentality but were held back by a lack of skilled
labour and capital for investment, and by
government policies that did not stimulate the
development of industry.
3. Karl Kautsky (1953), a Marxist, argued that early
capitalism came before and largely determined
A portrait of John Calvin. Weber examined the
impact of Protestant religions such as Calvinism Protestantism. He saw Calvinism as developing
on the development of Western capitalism. in cities where commerce and early forms of
industrialisation were already established. Weber’s
Write a summary of Weber’s ideas on the defenders insist that a distinctive rational capitalist
relationship between the Protestant ethic and the entrepreneur did not emerge until after Calvinism.
development of capitalism.
4. Others question whether it was Calvinists’
religious beliefs that led to them becoming
Evaluation of Weber businesspeople. According to this view, Calvinists
1. Werner Sombart (1907) argued that Weber was devoted themselves to business because they were
mistaken about Calvinists’ beliefs. According excluded from holding public office and from joining
to Sombart, Calvinism opposed greed and the certain professions by law. Like Jewish people in
pursuit of money for its own sake. However, Weber Eastern and Central Europe, they tried to become
pointed out that it was not the Calvinist beliefs in economically successful in order to overcome their
themselves that were important. The doctrine of political persecution. However, Weber’s supporters
predestination was not intended to produce the argue that only Calvinists developed capitalist
rational pursuit of profit. However, this was one of behaviour involving rational planning to accumulate
its unintended consequences, in that it led to the capital. As a result, only they could develop capitalist
Protestant work ethic. businesses before capitalism was established.

2. Critics point to parts of the world where Calvinism Despite these criticisms, Weber successfully
was strong but capitalism did not develop until highlights the theoretical point that ideas - in this
much later. For example, Switzerland, Scotland, case, religious ideas - can lead to economic change.

Contemporary issues: Pentecostalism

Pentecostalism modern economy. Consequently, in this view,
Pentecostalism is associated with economic and
Pentecostal movements are one of the faster­
growing churches within world Christianity and social change.
have spread rapidly in Latin America and other Pentecostalism is seen as a modernising movement
less industrialised societies. One interpretation of in less industrialised societies in Latin America,
Pentecostalism regards it as a new form of Weber’s Asia and Africa in terms of economic behaviour. Its
Protestant ethic (Martin, 2013). Pentecostals’ beliefs are compatible with economic and industrial
lifestyle, based on hard work, saving money and growth. It also seeks to transform family life and,
self-discipline, is seen as encouraging upward in some cases, the role of women to bring about
social mobility and effective participation in a greater gender equality.

432
 7.4 RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

David Martin (2013) notes that Pentecostals Pentecostalism is the fastest-growing sector
believe in bettering themselves and self-help. of Protestantism in Brazil, a predominantly
They are prepared to change their circumstances Roman Catholic country in Latin America. Many
themselves rather than expecting others to rectify neo-Pentecostal churches have introduced the
their wrongs for them. He sees Pentecostal pastors Prosperity Gospel to Brazil. The Religious Literacy
as religious entrepreneurs who run enterprises, Project argues that one key belief of the Prosperity
including transnational megachurches, that Gospel concerns the power of Jesus Christ and the
are religious versions of large-scale businesses. gospel to heal not only people’s emotional and
Becoming a pastor can provide a route of rapid physical illnesses, but also their financial ills. In
upward social mobility for some. effect, having faith, praying and donating money to
a Pentecostal church can lead to financial rewards
Allan H. Anderson (2014) suggests that
and riches. Wealth and prosperity are seen as signs
Pentecostalism can change its believers’ values
of God’s favour, while (by implication) poverty is
and motivate new economic behaviour. As a
linked to a lack of faith.
result, Pentecostalism has encouraged capitalism
and development in, for example, parts of Africa. Neo-Pentecostalism’s enthusiastic acceptance of
He agrees with Martin that Pentecostalism can the Prosperity Gospel associates devotion with
create upward social mobility. It can also legitimise upward social mobility. This has contributed to
economic success. the widespread appeal of neo-Pentecostalism
among the Brazilian urban poor as well as the
The Prosperity Gospel in Brazil middle class.

Question
Drawing on the example of Pentecostalism and other
relevant material, evaluate the view that religious
ideas can encourage social and economic change.

The Temple of Solomon in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is

the world headquarters of the neo-Pentecostal
Universal Church of the Kingdom of God.

Examples of religions as of the poor and marginalised. In 1979, Catholic

vehicles for social change revolutionaries supported the left-wing Sandinistas
G.K. Nelson (1986) argues that, 'far from encouraging (named after their leader, Sandino) when they
people to accept their place, religion can spearhead seized control in Nicaragua and two priests became
resistance and revolution’. In cases when religion has ministers in the first Sandinista government.
been a force for change in society, the society that Maduro (1982), a neo-Marxist sociologist,
results may be strongly influenced by that religion. accepts many aspects of Marx’s analysis of
Numerous examples show that religion can act as a religion but rejects the idea that religion is always
vehicle for social change. a conservative force and claims that it can be
» In the 1960s, a number of radical and revolutionary revolutionary. He argues that religion is often 'one
groups emerged within the Roman Catholic Church in of the main (and sometimes the only) available
Latin America. They preached liberation theology, channel to bring about a social revolution’. Maduro
arguing that it was the duty of church members claims that, until recently, Catholicism in Latin
to fight against unjust and oppressive right-wing America tended to support the bourgeoisie and the
dictatorships. Liberation theology is committed to right-wing military dictatorships, which represented
the struggle for justice and to taking action on behalf its interests. The Catholic Church has tended to

433
 7 RELIGION

deny the existence of social conflicts between tends to use religion to justify their actions. In
oppressive and oppressed classes. It has Britain, however, religion plays a less central role in
recognised some injustices, such as poverty and society’s culture, so it tends to have a lesser role in
illiteracy, but has suggested that their solution lies legitimising social change.
with those who already have power. It has also
3. The social location of religion: the part that
celebrated military victories but failed to support
religion plays in the structure of society. The
unions, strikes and opposition political parties.
greater the importance of religion, the greater its
On the other hand. Catholic priests have potential to participate in generating change. Where
increasingly demonstrated their autonomy from an established religious organisation plays a major
the bourgeoisie by criticising them and acting role in political and economic life, it has considerable
against their interests. Maduro believes that scope to impact on processes of change.
members of the clergy can develop revolutionary 4. The internal organisation of religious
potential where oppressed members of the institutions. Religions with a strong, centralised
population have no other outlets for their authority have more chance of affecting events.
grievances. The oppressed can pressurise priests On the other hand, the central authority might try
to take up their cause. Theological disagreements to restrain the actions of parts of its organisation.
within a church can provide interpretations of a For example, at the Puebla Conference in Mexico
religion that are critical of the rich and powerful. in 1978, the Pope clashed with Latin American
All of these conditions were met in Latin America Roman Catholic bishops who advocated liberation
and led to the development of liberation theology. theology and the need to bring about political
» In the USA in the 1960s, Reverend Martin Luther change and support the poor.
King and the Southern Christian Leadership Council
played a leading role in establishing civil rights and Activity
securing legislation to reduce racial discrimination.
> In South Africa, Archbishop Desmond Tutu was
active in the struggle to bring apartheid (which was
based on a government policy of racial segregation
between 1948 and 1994) to an end.
> In Iran, Islamic fundamentalism played a part in the
1979 revolution, led by the Ayatollah Khomeini, a
religious leader.

Factors affecting whether religion

promotes or inhibits change Some religions, such os Buddhism, may have less
McGuire (2002) identifies several significant impact on social change than others.
factors in determining whether religion is a
change-promoting or a change-inhibiting force. Explain why the beliefs of some religions may be
more likely than others to produce adherents who
1. The beliefs of the particular religion. Religions
seek to change society.
with strong moral codes are more likely to produce
members who are critical of society and who seek
to change it. If a religion stresses concern with this Key terms
world, its members are more likely to engage in
Conservative force A factor such as religion or
action that produces change than a religion that is
the mass media that inhibits social, economic or
more concerned with sacred and spiritual matters.
political change.
Consequently, Protestantism can have more impact
Predestination The belief that God has
on social change than Buddhism.
predetermined whether people will be saved or
2. The culture of the society in which a religion damned after they die.
exists. In countries where religious beliefs are
Elect The people chosen by God to be saved and
central to the culture (for example, in Latin
destined to go to heaven.
America), anyone wishing to produce change
434
 7.4 RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Protestant ethic Weber used this term to refer to

the value that Calvinists placed on the importance
Unit 7.4.2 Religious movements,
of thrift, abstaining from pleasure and the duty to political debates and
work hard in one’s calling.
Ascetic An austere and self-disciplined lifestyle that struggles
does not involve indulging in any of life’s pleasures.
Religious leaders and beliefs have influenced political
Calling The vocation, position in society or debates, conflicts and struggles in many parts of the
particular way of life that some individuals believe world including Bosnia, Northern Ireland, the Middle
they are called to by God. East and the Indian subcontinent. This unit explores
Spirit of capitalism The essence of capitalism the influence of religious movements on political
involving the single-minded pursuit of profit as an debates and struggles. It does this by examining case
end in itself. studies including the evangelical movement in US
Liberation theology A movement of radical politics and the ayatollahs in the Iranian revolution.
Roman Catholic priests in Latin America, dating
to the 1960s, who promote political change, fight
oppression and support the poor. The evangelical movement in
US politics
Summary In the USA. evangelicalism is made up of Conservative
1. Religion can be seen as a conservative force Christians who try to influence government and return
in terms of preventing social, political and to what they see as traditional Christian values in
economic change, and in terms of maintaining American life. It includes, for example, the Assemblies
traditional customs and beliefs regarding, for of God and the Southern Baptist Convention.
example, abortion and divorce. Evangelicalism has grown dramatically in the USA
since the 1970s. According to the Pew Research
2. In the case of fundamentalism, religion can
Center, 25 per cent of US adults identified with
support social change and promote traditional
evangelical Protestantism in 2014.
values at the same time.
3. Functionalist, Marxist and feminist approaches Since the 1960s, Conservative evangelical
see religion as a conservative force but disagree Protestants have been concerned by many of
on how to interpret this. the political and cultural changes taking place in
the USA such as the women’s liberation and civil
4. Weber saw religion as a force for change and
rights movements, and the increase in divorce.
argued that the Calvinist way of life was a key Many oppose the teaching of the theory of
factor in the development of capitalism.
evolution in schools. The evangelical movement
5. While Marx argued that the economic base promotes its cause partly through conventional
largely determines the superstructure, including democratic politics. Some commentators argue
religious beliefs, Weber argued that religious that evangelicalism helped to elect the Republican
beliefs could have a major effect on economic George W. Bush in the 2000 and 2004 presidential
behaviour and bring about social change. elections. According to a CBS News poll,
6. Critics question Weber’s interpretation of Donald Trump, the Republican candidate, gained
Calvinist beliefs and point out that capitalism 80 per cent of the White evangelical vote in the
preceded Calvinism. presidential election in 2016. Anthony Giddens
and Philip W. Sutton (2017) note that ‘Evangelical
7. Many examples - including liberation theology
organisations are highly effective in mobilising
in Latin America - show that religion can
resources to help achieve their religious and
generate change.
political objectives.’
8. McGuire identifies several factors that affect
Bruce (2003) links the New Christian Right’s (NCR)
whether religion promotes or inhibits change:
programme in national politics in the USA to
the beliefs of a particular religion, the culture
evangelical Protestantism (see Units 7.2.2 and 7.5.2).
of the society within which the religion exists,
In his view, the NCR wants to restore conservative
the social location of religion and the internal
religion to a central position in public life. The NCR
organisation of religious institutions.
seeks to influence politicians, has infiltrated the
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7 RELI6I0N

Republican Party and is concerned with tackling leaders) blamed poverty on Western influences
issues such as abortion, homosexuality and divorce. and the decline of Islam. They saw the solution as
According to Bruce (1988), the NCR support ‘a more involving a rejection of Western ideas and a return to
aggressive anti-communist foreign policy, more military a truly Islamic society based on the Qur’an.
spending, less central government interference,
In 1979, the Shah was deposed during a revolution
less welfare spending, and fewer restraints on free
that was partly inspired by Islamic fundamentalism.
enterprise’. However, Bruce argues that the NCR has
The liberalisation that took place under the Shah
failed to achieve popular support. It has not made
was reversed.
marked progress on issues that are specific to its
conservative Protestant agenda, such as restricting The Iranian revolution led to the introduction of an
divorce and abortion. This is partly because the Islamic republic under the leadership of Ayatollah
NCR is not successful at building alliances with other Khomeini. Western music and alcohol were banned,
groups in order to take political action on issues such bars were burned and nightclubs were closed down.
as abortion. Furthermore, the NCR has powerful Women had to wear a veil and Islamic law was
opponents among those who support tolerance and reinstated. The Islamic republic sought to 'Islamize
liberal ideas. More recently, however, activists in the the state - to organize government and society so
USA who support the idea of a woman’s right to choose that Islamic teachings would become dominant in all
whether to have an abortion argue that the Trump spheres’ (Giddens and Sutton, 2017).
administration poses a threat to abortion rights. Fundamentalist religious beliefs contributed
to revolutionary changes in Iranian society. By
The Iranian revolution (1978-79) challenging the status quo, religion acted as a
Under the last shah or ruler of Iran, society change-promoting force. However, by supporting
underwent a process of change that was influenced traditional values, it acted as a conservative force.
by Western ideas, dress and music. One aspect of
this change involved the liberalisation of traditional
Islamic attitudes to women. However, many Iranian
Activity
people resented the West’s influence on the country Drawing on your own examples, explain how
and the existence of a rich elite whose wealth derived religion can be linked to conflict or violent
from the oil industry. Iran’s ayatollahs (religious struggle.

Contemporary issues: The Arab Spring

The Arab Spring illustrates the role that
religion can play in influencing political debates
and struggles. This term describes a number
of rebellions and protests that challenged
undemocratic and corrupt regimes that held power
in several Arab countries including Tunisia, Egypt,
Libya and Syria. These protests involved Muslims
and other groups who used social media networks
to exchange views, demand reforms and generate
political change.
The first uprising of the Arab Spring began in
Anti-government protesters gather in Tahrir Square, Tunisia in 2010 and resulted in the overthrow
Cairo, Egypt, on 1 February 2011.
of the Tunisian president in 2011. in October

436
 7.4 RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

2011, open elections were held in Tunisia and a The democratic reforms introduced, however, may
democratic government took power. The success of not necessarily be long-term ones. In Egypt, for
this uprising gave hope to other social movements, instance, the army backed the overthrow of Egypt’s
and demonstrations and protests led to the elected president in 2013 and began a crackdown
resignation of President Mubarak of Egypt in on critics, including the Muslim Brotherhood.
2011. The Muslim Brotherhood played a part in
these protests and formed a government in Egypt
after winning an open and free election in 201 2.
Question
The example of the Arab Spring suggests that How far does the example of the Arab Spring
religion can promote political change by helping illustrate the idea that religious movements can
to give a voice to dissent and demands for reform. influence political debates and struggles?

Bruce’s account of the relationship Activity

between religion and conflict
According to Bruce (2000), there are three types of
i
relationship between religion and conflict:
1. Religion is often used to justify ‘what are essentially
secular national or ethnic conflicts, even when the
combatants are the same religion’ (Bruce, 2000).
The civil war in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s
illustrates this. Croats, Serbs and Bosnian Muslims
fought one another and religion must have played
IS m ll Vi

some role since each group follows a different

faith (Croats are Roman Catholic and Serbs are
Orthodox). However, the war was largely based on
.
•
mr
- ,V*Y

ethnic divisions and concerned control of territories

rather than the truth of different faiths. Many people in the West see religion as
inevitably linked to conflict, violent struggle and
2. Other conflicts are essentially to do with religion.
war. In practice, however, conflicts and wars
Some participants in conflicts see themselves are often based on interrelated rather than
as engaged in a crusade (a Christian mission single factors.
to spread their religion) or jihad (the Islamic
i
equivalent). Bruce believes that Osama bin I 1. Explain two reasons why religion may be a
Laden had largely religious motives for his source of struggle.
leadership of al-Qaeda, and that Iranian attempts
2. What other factors may have been involved in
to export its Islamic revolution have also been
religious conflicts in recent history?
religiously motivated.
3. In most cases, however, religious and secular
motives are ‘inseparably intertwined’. There
is often an overlap between religious groups,
national boundaries and ethnic divisions, so a war Summary
might be fought for religion, country and ethnicity
at the same time. In these circumstances, religion 1. The evangelical movement in the USA attempts
'provides each side with a justification for seeing to influence government policy and return to
itself as superior (we obey God) and the enemy as what adherents see as traditional Christian
values.
inferior (they are the Infidel)’ (Bruce, 2000).

437
7 RELIGION

2, Bruce links the New Christian Right’s 4. The ayatollahs were influential in the Iranian
programme in national politics in the USA to revolution which led to the introduction
evangelical Protestantism. In his view, the NCR of an Islamic republic under Ayatollah
has infiltrated the Republican Party and is Khomeini’s leadership.
concerned with tackling issues such as abortion, 5. Bruce argues that the role of religion in
homosexuality and divorce. conflict varies. Religion can be used to justify
3. According to Bruce, the NCR has not made conflict over secular concerns such as control
marked progress on issues that are specific of territories. Other conflicts are motivated by
to its conservative Protestant agenda, such religion. Often, however, religious and secular
as restricting divorce and abortion (although motives are interconnected.
access to abortion may be changing under
the Trump administration). The NCR is not
successful at building alliances with other
groups and does not enjoy popular support.

END-OF-PART QUESTIONS
I 0 I 1 I Describe two characteristics of the Protestant ethic. [4 marks]
| 0 | 2 | Explain two limitations of Weber’s account of the role of religion in the rise of capitalism. [6 marks]
I 0 I 5 1 'Religion acts as a change-inhibiting force in society.’
Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6 marks]

438