UNIT 2.

Major Philosophical Approaches to Education

Outline of Content
• Idealism,
• Realism,
• Pragmatism,
• Naturalism,
• Existentialism,
• Progressivism,
• Marxism, and
• Education for self-reliance
 UNIT 2. Major philosophical approaches to education
Major philosophical approaches to education
This sections gives an outline of some of the major philosophies and
doctrines of education which can be regarded as the speculative
aspects of educational philosophy namely
Idealism,
Realism,
Pragmatism,
Naturalism,
Existentialism,
Progressivism,
 A: Idealism
Idealism is a philosophy which maintains that reality of everything lies in
ideas, thought, and mind not in material thing. Matter is either not wholly
real at all, or that it is subordinate and dependent reality.
Idealism originates with Plato, the third-century BC thinker, who believed
that there is an objective truth, expressed through the unchanging world of
‘Forms’ or ‘Ideas’. For him, all material things are only imperfect
representations of certain eternal and perfect ideas or principles
The only way one can define material things, like house, a tree, is to talk
in terms of ideas or concepts.
We talk of a chair in terms of concepts or ideas/definitions and the chair
that I see is a particular example of the concept of chair
 A: Idealism
Principles
Two forms of the World: Idealism believes in two forms of the world
➢ Spiritual world
➢ Material world,
Idealism gives more importance to spiritual world in comparison to
the material world.
Ideas are more important than objects: According to the idealistic,
knowledge of mind and soul can be obtained through ideas only.
According to Plato, “Ideas are of the ultimate cosmic significance,
They are the essences or archetypes; ideas are eternal, unchanging”.
 A: Idealism
Importance of man over nature: man is more important than
material nature because man can think and experience about material
objects and material phenomena.
Faith in spiritual values: The prime aim of life is to achieve spiritual
values including truth, beauty, goodness, etc. These spiritual values
are undying and permanent; they are absolutes and entirely desirable.
Importance of Personality Development: Idealists give much
importance to the Self of the individual. They insist upon the fullest
development of the personality of an Individual.
Human personality is of supreme value and constitutes the noblest
work of God.
 A: Aim of Education
Aim of Education
❑ Self-realization or Exhaltation of Personality: Idealism holds that
man is the most beautiful creation of God.
It lays great stress on the self-realization, that is, full knowledge of
the self. Self-realization is making actual or real the highest
potentialities of the self.
❑ Spiritual development: Idealists give greater importance to
spiritual values in comparison with material attainments.
Education must enable mankind to enter more and more fully into the
spiritual realm, and also enlarge the boundaries of spiritual realm.
 Aim of Education…cont
❑ To Cultivate Truth, Beauty and Goodness
Idealists assert that the development spiritual values, the pursuit of
highest ideals namely - Truth, Beauty and Goodness should be
encouraged.
The more an individual realizes these ideals, the more he will develop
spiritually.
Hence, education should strive to promote spiritual development of
the child to achieves self-realization.
 Aim of Education…cont
❑ Conservation, promotion and transmission of cultural heritage:
Man is the only being endowed with a keen and penetrating intellect,
intelligence and an enormous capacity of assimilating knowledge.
Man’s achievement in the realm of science, art and culture are of
great intrinsic value.
This achievement constitute a treasure which belongs to the whole
humanity. The purpose of education to preserve develop and transmit
it all.
Education should familiarise the child with the cultural heritage so
that he conserves, promotes and transmits it to the rising generation.
 Aim of Education…cont
❑ Conversation of In-born Nature into Spiritual Nature
Idealists hold the view that the inborn instincts and inherent
tendencies of the child should be sublimated into spiritual qualities
and values. This is real development of the individuality.
❑ Preparation for a Holy Life
Idealists uphold that education should create such condition and
provide an environment which is conductive to the development of
spiritual values in a child.
Objective of education is the realization of a faithful pure, inviolable
and hence holy life.
 Aim of Education…cont
❑ Development of Intelligence and Rationality
The world is planned and well organized. Man can understand the
purpose as well as the plan and organization.
 Implication of Idealism for Education
Three main implications of Idealism for education are
1. Theory before practice: The principle that education should
concentrate solely on conceptual and moral development is an
educational legacy of idealism.
Teaching should deal with abstract subjects such as mathematics and
philosophy, with principles expounded before application.
The teacher’s role is to draw out the knowledge of principles that
learners already possess and help learners to organize them.
In this view of education, teachers are very important. Teachers are
also needed for the clarification of ideas, because texts alone are
insufficient
 Implication of Idealism for Education
• Theoretical subjects are valued more than practical ones in the
curriculum.
• Learners’ previous ideas are established.
• Misconceptions are challenged.
• Ideas are organized in a subject outline.
• General theories are extracted from examples.
• Theory is presented and then tested.
• Learning is guided through dialogue and questioning.
• Understanding ideas is emphasized over their memorization.
 Implication of Idealism for Education
2. Logical thinking: Logical thinking is the second educational
legacy of idealism. Dialogical approaches such as those used by Plato
led to logical thinking and the rules that were laid down by Plato’s
successor, Aristotle. Some of Aristotle’s most important rules concern
concept formation and deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning
progresses from the general case to the particular case by logical
inference. Aristotle (1995) offers a well-known example in a three-
step argument called a syllogism:
1. Major premise – all men are mortal.
2. Minor premise – Socrates is a man.
3. Conclusion – Socrates is mortal.
 Implication of Idealism for Education
3. Liberal education: Aristotle claimed that the good life can be
achieved through an education in the liberal arts, where knowledge is
valued for its own sake and is its own reward.
A liberal education is devoted to the study of first principles, or
theoretical ideas, because humanity’s goal is to acquire knowledge.
Liberal or free education consists of subjects suitable for the free
citizen, and includes literature and the arts which develop the whole
person.
Liberal education promotes the attributes of freedom, equitableness,
calmness, moderation and wisdom – in short, a philosophical habit of
mind (Heath, 1959).
 Implication of Idealism for Education
3. Liberal education…cont
On the contrary, ‘illiberal subjects’ like trades and skills ‘absorb and
degrade the mind’ and are only suitable for slaves and wage-earners.
Therefore, no subject should be included in the curriculum simply
because of its vocational value.
Some subjects are valued above others because of their emphasis on
ideas and the mind, at the expense of experience and the body.
It emphasize on an elitist preference for the theoretical and cerebral
above the practical and physical.
Liberal education teacher or curriculum designer is to introduce
learners to the finest exemplars of thought from all ages.
 Implication of Idealism for Education
Liberal education; educational implications
• Education is valued for its own sake rather than for its usefulness.
• A balanced curriculum is necessary to develop the whole person
intellectually and morally.
• Some subjects are more highly valued than others – for example,
the arts and humanities are valued over vocational subjects.
• Liberal education introduces learners to a range of disciplines and
ways of thinking.
• Teaching is a complex human activity demanding personal
characteristics and insight.
• Debate and discussion are encouraged in liberal classrooms.
 Implication of Idealism for Education
Methods of Teaching
Idealism does not advocate for any specific method for teaching.
❖ Socrates used Question-Answer Method,
❖ Plato emphasized Discourse Method,
❖ Aristotle advocate Inductive - Deductive method;
All these can validly be applied in teaching
 Implication of Idealism for Education
Role of the Teacher
Teachers have a very important and glorious role.
Idealistic philosophy believes that the teacher plays an important
role for the spiritual development of the individual child.
An Idealist teacher is imbued fully with:
✓ higher degree of self-knowledge
✓ self-dynamism and
✓ essential qualities of spiritual life.
 Implication of Idealism for Education
Discipline
Idealists believe that there can be no spiritual development of the
child without discipline.
Idealism emphasizes:
o Sympathetic control on the undesirable activities of the child
o It grants regulated liberty for the child’s spiritual development.
 Implication of Idealism for Education
Idealism View of the School
School is a place where:
➢ the capacities of logical thinking, reasoning of the child are
progressively developed by teachers and the school environment
➢ aim: to become desirable channels for gaining high spiritual ideas
and values.
Idealists consider the school and its impressionistic environment as
greatly essential for successful educational endeavours
 Merits of Idealism
Idealism has made significant contribution to education.
✓ Promoting universal education.
✓ Emphasizes the inculcation of highest values namely, Truth,
Beauty and Goodness necessary for the development of a moral
character of the child.
✓ The teacher is assigned a very important role.
✓ Advocates the development of the ‘self’ of an individual.
✓ Respects the individuality of the child and the need to stimulate
the child’s creative energies.
✓ Because of the idealistic philosophy and education the school has
grown into an important social organization.
 Demerits of Idealism
The common criticisms regarding idealism include:
▪ It is seen as an abstract & vague doctrine. It avoids the realities.
▪ It avoids the real problems in day to day living. It is concerned with the
ultimate end of life.
▪ Give excessive the importance to intellectualism due to emphasis on
thinking and mental activities.
▪ Emphasizes on the achievement of immortal values namely, Truth, Beauty
and Goodness. These values are not absolute.
▪ Gives more importance to teacher in relation to the child.
▪ Method of teaching emphasizes cramming and rote memory.
▪ Curriculum gives greater importance to humanities in order to foster the
spiritual development and lays less stress upon scientific subjects.
 B: Realism
Realism has a long history dating back to Aristotle in ancient Greece.
The other well-known proponents include Thomas Aquinas, Francis
Bacon, Alfred North Whitehead, and Bertrand Russell.
Realism hold that the external world of objects is not imaginary; it
really exists.
Our experiences are influenced by the external world which has real
existence.
The realistic movement in education started from the 16th century
following the great scientific inventions and epochal discoveries
which extended the horizon of human knowledge.
 B: Realism
Theory of human knowledge. The rise of scientific inquiry opened
new vistas before human mind.
It led to a new spirit of inquiry into the realities of nature. Man started
to believe more in himself. He thought that he would conquer the
entire world with his supreme gift of rationality.
Less interest in language and literature; people became more and
more interested in man and his environment.
Demand of/for a new type of education in which truth rather than
beauty, realities of life of the day rather than the beauties of the old
days were aims of education
 B: Realism
Great interest on man and human endeavour combined with science
and common sense.
Awakened interest in the natural phenomena and social institutions.
Education was seen as that which makes a man happy by getting
acquaintance with real circumstances of life, create capacity for
struggling with adverse situation in life.
Realistic education is connected with the needs of life. Realism
reinforces our common acceptance of this world as it appears to us.
 Basic Principles
Phenomenal world is real: There is nothing beyond this world.
Senses are the gateways of learning: the sensation we get while
contact with objects through our senses, is the only reality.
Theory of Organism: animate and inanimate substances make an
organism.
Man is only a part of material world: He becomes conscious of this
material world with the help of his senses.
Emphasis on experiment: emphasis on the importance of observation
and experimentation and opposes bookish knowledge.
Importance of present life: the immediate reality of the material world
is more important than the ultimate reality or the spiritual world.
 Basic Principles
Necessity to remain prepared to adjust ourselves to psychological,
intellectual or social changes that occur at any time since we live in
the world which is rapidly changing.
No ‘Ism’ or ideology can solve the problem of education. To be useful
education must be organized by harmonising values, past and present.
Things and objects exist independently. They are dependent on mind
for their existence. Emphasis is laid on training of senses.
Regularity in the material world: it considers all the things as a part of
the totality and their forms are changing and not eternal. The
development of society also takes place according to regularity.
 Realism and Education
Realism is in opposition to the idealistic system of education.
Realism is based on reality; education should be able to make the life
of a man happy and successful.
Realism emphasizes liberal education. Education is that which fits a
man to perform justly, skilfully and magnanimously all the offices
both private and public, at peace and war.
Education is a natural process of development; education is the
preparation of life.
 Realism and Education
The aims of education:
1. Preparing the child for a happy and successful life is the first aim
of realistic education. Thus, education should be such that the child is
able to solve his problems of life successfully and lead a happy life.
2. Preparing the child for a real life; realistic education prepares the
child for a real and practical life; the real life of material world.
3. Developing the physical and mental powers of child; mind as well
as the physical organs together constitute an organism composed of
matter.
Hence, education should develop the physical and mental powers of
the child enable him solve all the problems of life successfully.
 Realism and Education
The aims of education…cont
4. Developing and Training of senses; realists believe that unless the
senses of the child are developed fully, he will not be able to have full
knowledge about the external world. Thus, education should develop
and train the senses of the child through varied experiences.
5. Familiarizing the child with nature and social environment; a child
is related both to the external nature and the social environment.
Education should provide the child full knowledge of both the society
and the external nature so as to strike a balance between the two.
6. Imparting vocational education; education should be of practical
utility to child. Thus, emphasis on providing vocational education
 Realism in Education
Realism and Methods of Teaching
• More emphasis to sense training, travelling, observation and
experimentation.
• Advocates Inductive – Deductive method.
Things rather than the words’ or First objects and then their
exposition.
Education should be given through co-curricular activities.
 Realism in Education
Role of the Teacher: The teacher must have knowledge of the
subject matter and nature of the child. He must know their
needs.
Must also be conversant with the scientific and psychological
methods and techniques of teaching.
Must present the objects and activities to the child in their actual
form.
For accomplishing all these, the teacher must be trained and
bestowed with intellectual, social and moral qualities.
 Realism in Education
Discipline: Realism does not favour discipline which is based on
punishment, fear and repression.
It emphasizes the importance of discipline based on love and
sympathy.
Like naturalism, realism also believes in discipline through natural
consequences.
Favourable physical environment should be provided to the pupils in
which they may learn to lead a disciplined life and this in turn may
become a part of their habit.
In this way, realism believes in impressionistic and emancipationist
discipline.
 Merits of Realism
Exaltation of practical knowledge: Realism gives emphasis to
practical knowledge and functional knowledge. It is only such type
of knowledge which makes a person successful in life.
The of education is development of a dynamic and adaptable mind:
that enable the child to cope with life situations.
Importance to science and technology: Realism gives due importance
to science and technology in its scheme of curriculum. It is only
science and technology which can raise the standard of living
Progressive methods of teaching: Heuristic method (inductive-
deductive method, correlation, etc) are a result of realism. Students
investigate things by themselves; not accepting things dogmatically.
 Merits of Realism
Impressionistic and emancipationsitic type of discipline; discipline
should be based upon love, sympathy and understanding rather than on
authority.
Emphasis on objectivity: teachers encourage students to analyse the
subject matter objectively.
Development of proper attitudes among the students: advocates the
development of proper attitude like objective thinking and rational
judgement. Love, sympathy and feeling are also emphasized.
Physical education should have a definite purpose: that of improving
health and not only being sportsman.
Emphasis on vocational education; to be in tune with the aspirations of
society.
 Demerits of Realism
Emphasis on the immediate reality of the physical: Realism ignores the
ultimate reality of the spiritual world on account of its zeal for immediate
reality of material world.
❑ It is argued that the immediate reality as perceived through the senses
and interpreted by intellect derives its significance from ultimate
reality and, logically, the former cannot be isolated from the latter.
❑ The moral and spiritual bankruptcy of the present generation is
attributed to such unnatural divorce of the physical from the spiritual
reality.
Realism ignores the importance of emotions, imaginations etc. which
are also equally important in human life.
 Demerits of Realism
No place for intuition and meditation: According to realism all the
knowledge is derived from observation and experimentation. It does not
accept the claims of intuition and meditation as a much superior source
of getting knowledge.
More importance only to scientific subjects: Realism gives too much
emphasis to science and technology and ignores the importance of art,
culture, religion and mortality. Critics hold that science and technology
do not by themselves have any value unless they serve as instruments for
developing our moral and aesthetic life.
No faith in eternal values and high ideals of life: Realism has no faith
in eternal values and highest ideals of life. It has faith only in the harsh
realities of daily life
 C: Pragmatism
Pragmatism is one of the important philosophy of education. It stands
between idealism and realism a sort of compromise.
Etymology; the word pragmatism derives from a Greek word pragma
which means activity or the work done. Other scholars think the word
derived from the Greek word pragmatikos = practicability or utility.
Origin: from the Sophists philosophers of ancient Greece who held
that man is the measure of all things.
Under this doctrine, action gets priority over thought. Beliefs and
ideas are true if they are workable and profitable otherwise false.
It lays great importance upon practicability and utility.
 Principles of Pragmatism
1. Truth is ever changing: Truth always changes according to time,
place and situation. A certain thing which was true yesterday need not
be the same for him today or will remain the same tomorrow.
2. Truth is formed by its result: Truth is not absolute or predetermined
for all times to come. Change in situations brings about new
problems to be solved by new thoughts and new efforts.
3. Problems are the motives of truth: Human life is a laboratory
where each individual undertakes various experiments to solve
problems he confronts. The success of the experiment is a search for
truth.
 Principles of Pragmatism
4. Emphasis on social and democratic value: Pragmatists uphold
social and democratic attitudes and values.
5. Opposition to fixed ideals and values: Ideals and values are not
pre-determined and fixed. Values and ideals are man-made and they
change according to changes in circumstances, times and places. It is
indifferent towards moral and spiritual ideals and values.
6. Emphasis on the principle of utility: Any idea which is useful to us
is proper and right. In case, it is of no use it is improper, wrong and
untrue.
 Principles of Pragmatism
7. Importance of man power: Man has the power to create an
environment useful, beneficial and conducive for his own
development and welfare of society.
8. Faith in present and future: The past is dead and gone. Each
individual has to solve the problems of his present and future.
10. Opposition to social customs and traditions: old customs,
traditions, restrictions and taboos are denied. It believes in the realities
of life, human intelligence and mental capacity which results in
human welfare and happiness.
 Principles of Pragmatism
11. Faith in pluralism: The ideals and values which are testified by
experiences are true and real. It believes in pluralism.
12. Reality in making: The attitude is optimistic, progressive and
developing. To call the present world as fully made up, absolutely
beautiful and complete is wrong. The world is still in the process of
formation and development.
13. Faith in flexibility: The world is changing and everything is under
a process of change. Nothing is fixed and final in this world. One must
employ all his mental faculties, learns from his experience and
experiments to the path of progress and development.
 Pragmatism and Education
Education is not the preparation of a child for his future but it is life
itself.
Life is not possible without education. Life here means social life. It
is because man is a social animal. His activities are directed and
determined by the society in which he lives.
Collective activities are organised in the school. Participation in the
collective activities gives him knowledge of social efficiency and
sociability.
 Pragmatism in Education
Education as life: Traditional education is dead and lifeless; students
are passive recipients without any dynamism. Knowledge can be
gained by activity experiments and real-life experiences.
Education as growth: Society is undergoing a process of continual
change. Education should correspond its activities to suit the changes
in society. Education should develop the inherent capacities of the
child according to his interests, inclinations and aptitudes that enables
him to create his own values to face the problem.
Education as continuous reconstruction of experiences: Bookish
knowledge is condemned. Real knowledge is gained by experiments
and experiences.
 Pragmatism in Education
Education as social process: Education should develop desirable
qualities that developes a child into a sociable person. An individual
gains more knowledge from his interaction with his friends, family
and society rather than the books.
Education as the responsibility of the state: Education is the birth
right of the child. The State should shoulder the responsibility of the
education of the child otherwise the whole nation will suffer and lag
behind.
 Aims of Education
To provide dynamic direction and guidance to the child according to
his natural interests, aptitudes and capacities in the field of academic
activities.
To develops more and more his endowments and develop capacities
to confront the ever-changing problems and challenges of modern
life successfully.
To achieve a happier, a better and a richer life.
Education should develop such a dynamic flexible and adaptable
mind which is always resourceful and enterprising and is able to
create new values for an unknown future.
 Aims of Education
The aims of education according to pragmatism are;
1. To reform and reconstruct the society
2. To enable the individual to adjust with the changing social
environment
3. To develop the child fully according to his interest, abilities
and needs
4. To create social efficacy in the child
5. To develop democratic values and ideals in the child
6. To provide educational opportunities to all citizens on equal
footing
 Aims of Education
Aims of education…cont
7. To instil habit of experimentation in the children
8. To remove social evils and make the society a good place for living
9. To enable the child to discover the truth himself
10. To make child self-reliant
 Methods of Teaching
Teaching must be correlated with the natural activities of the child.
For this purpose, the following methods are adapted:
Learning by doing: Child learns the best when he performs some
action along with the theoretical knowledge of a subject. Teacher
guides the students for these activities to develops natural abilities.
Collective approach: Children participate in these activities
collectively. It develops in them social efficiency. They are assigned
various tasks by the teacher and they complete them collectively.
Integrated approach: A subject is taught only after integrating it with
other subjects as well as life. In this way knowledge becomes
compact, useful and systematic.
 Methods of Teaching

Individual approach: Each child is unique and different from his

fellow flock. Teacher should regard individual differences and teach a
child according to his level of understanding and specific interest.
Purposive process of learning: A child should try to achieve some
aim or goal according to his natural interests, abilities and
experiences.
Self-learning through self-effort is acknowledged.
 Methods of Teaching

Role of Teacher
The teacher works as friend, philosopher and guide to the
students.
Should have the capacity to know the interests of the students.
Should understand the conditions and situation of changing
society.
Puts forth problems for the students to be solved according to
their interests.
Creates situations to develop social interests, attitudes and
habits for welfare of the society.
 Methods of Teaching

School
School is a laboratory for experiments to be done by children.
It is a social institution where children gain real life
experiences.
It develops a social sense and duty towards society and
nation.
The school is a miniature society where a child gets real
experiences to act and behave according to his interests,
aptitudes and capacities.
 Methods of Teaching
Discipline
Condemns enforced discipline; advocates social discipline based
on child’s interest, activities and a sense of responsibility.
Self-discipline is learnt by the students in the proper democratic
and social environment of the school.
Participation in collective activities to foster cooperation and
control. Child is given full freedom to develop his natural
abilities.
Teacher does not consider himself superior to the child. He
works in the class as a supervisor only.
He also considers the individual difference among children.
 Methods of Teaching
Discipline
The merging of play and work will develop interest in the
child. It will enhance a sense of purpose to do the work with
joy and eagerness without interfering others.
This mental condition will develop self-confidence, self-
reliance, cooperation, sympathy and fellow feeling for others.
It will develop a social discipline and moral obligation
towards self and others.
It develops a social responsibility to become a true citizen of
the country.
D: Naturalism
 D: Naturalism
Naturalism is also termed as materialism. According to this
philosophy the basis of the world is matter. Mind is also a
form of matter or an element of matter or synthesis of both.
According to naturalism only nature is everything nothing is
before and beyond it.
Naturalism is the doctrine or a system of thought that rejects
all spiritual and supernatural explanations of the world and
holds that science is the sole basis of what can be known.
 D: Naturalism

All religious truth is derived from nature and natural causes,

and not from revelation.
The whole universe is governed by laws of nature and they
are changeable.
It is through our sense that we are able to get the real
knowledge. The senses work like real gateways of knowledge
and exploration is the method that helps in studying nature.
 D: Naturalism
Metaphysical Position
Concept of God: Naturalist God is within Nature .God is not all
nature nor more than nature.
The Concept of Self: The self seems to be an organization of
experience in each individual which is constantly developing and
changing.
The human self is seen by naturalism as an offshoot of nature,
and not as springing from beyond nature. Naturalists are not
much interested in the concept of soul of man.
Man is the child of nature; in the evolutionary processes that are
at work in the universe so far, he is on the very crest of the wave.
 D: Naturalism
Epistemological Position of Naturalism: naturalism highlights the
value of scientific knowledge, through specific observation,
accumulation and generalization . It emphasizes on the empirical and
experimental knowledge. Senses are the gateways to learning
The Logic of Naturalism: Simple induction is the logic of naturalism.
Simple induction involves careful observation of Nature, accurate
description of what is observed, and caution in formulating
generalizations
Axiological Position of Naturalism: Naturalism believes that nature is
versatile. Instincts, drives and impulses need to be expressed rather
than repressed. According to them, there is no absolute good or evil
in the world. Values of life are created by the human needs.
 D: Naturalism
Ethical Value: Ethics of naturalism is hedonistic; for many
naturalists the highest good is the most highly refined and
abiding pleasure.
Aesthetic Value: values such as ethical values, are rooted in
nature and do not depend on any source outside nature
Social Value: Rousseau’s naturalism rooted man in nature
rather than society. He regard man as a child of Nature, as
over against society. He proposed in his Emile to keep Emile
(the child) away from society until adolescences.
Individual man, he contended, is not a man unless he is free; if
he is in bondage, he is less than a man.
 Naturalism and Education

Naturalism advocates for the development of child

according to his inherent nature.
Physical nature is external and nature of the child is
internal, i.e, basic instincts, impulses, tendencies,
capacities and other in born potentialities of the child.
The external laws of nature should correspond and co-
operate with the internal nature of the child for his full
natural development.
 Naturalism in Education
Characteristics of Naturalistic education:
1. Back to nature: out of three essential factors of education
namely nature, man, and objects naturalism gives prime
importance to nature. According to naturalists, the best teacher
of the child is nature. Hence to develop the child according to
his nature, education should provide natural environmental.
2. Education a natural necessity: the naturalist regards
education as a natural necessity. Educational institutions are
unwanted creation of mans superimposed upon Nature.
3. Education-development of the natural life: education is a
process of development of the natural life.
 Naturalism in Education
Characteristics…cont
4. Freedom of the child: it gives prominent place to the
concept of freedom in the education of the child.
5. Child centred educational process: child occupies the
central and pivotal role in the Naturalism set-up.
The child’s nature is in the fore front which all other
things such as education, the books, the curriculum, the
school, are in background.
 Methods of Teaching
Methods of Teaching
Naturalism prescribed -
✓ Leaning by doing
✓ Learning by experience
✓ Learning by play as the basis of teaching
To the naturalists, book reading is unpsychological; those
activities and experiences which appear to be interesting
and joyful to the child should be encouraged
The child does all learning by his own interest and effort as
‘Emile’ of Rousseau used to do.
 Methods of Teaching
Naturalists have brought into being modern methods of
teaching;
1. Observation method.
2. Experimental method.
3. Play way method
4. Heuristic method
5. Dalton method
6. Montessori method
All these methods are self-learning methods and as such they
are very effective and purposeful.
 Aims of Education
Self-Expression is the main aim of education, ie, giving the child full
opportunity to express or reveal his hidden capabilities and qualities.
Perfection of human machine: education should aim at the efficiency
and perfection of human machine.
Preparation for struggle of life: Naturalists believe that life is a
struggle, in which only stronger living beings are successful. Hence
the aim of education should be to prepare the individual for the
struggle of life.
Development of Individuality: Every individual possesses his
individuality and special traits. The aim of education should be the
development of his Individuality.
 Teacher

For Naturalists, children should be taught in classes by

teachers who promote the child’s normal and natural
development.
In the process of education, the place of the child is more
important and central than the teacher.
The teacher should not impose upon the child any things
under his own authority or supremacy.
 Discipline

Nature will punish the child if he contravenes the law of

nature and thus he will learn by the consequences of his own
action. Thus, nobody should interfere in this process of
nature.
The child should be allowed full freedom to indulge in the
activities of his choice.
The teacher should provide such experiences for free activity.
 School
If the organization of school is rigid, controlled and artificial,
growth and development of children is stunted and spoiled.
Naturalists assert that school environment should be completely
free, flexible and without any rigidity.
Nature will do all the planning and processing for the natural
development of children.
Children are given full freedom to plan their own thinking and
activities according to their own interests and natural tendencies.
The creative activities go to develop the character and the
personality of the individual through self-discipline and freedom
to experiment.
 E: Existentialism
It is a modern philosophy emerging from the 19th century, which
is centred upon the analysis of existence and of the way humans
find themselves existing in the world.
The notion is that humans exist first and then each individual
spends a lifetime changing their essence or nature.
It attained its peak in Europe following the disenchantments of
the Second World War.
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) is considered the founder of
existentialism.
Other existentialist thinkers are Friedrich Nietzsche, Gabriel
Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Jean Paul Sartre, Albert Camus.
 E: Existentialism
It emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice.
It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life,
and try to make rational decisions despite existing in an
irrational universe.
The main identifiable common proposition is that existence
precedes essence.
Existentialism holds that man exists and in that existence
man defines himself and the world in his own subjectivity,
and wanders between choice, freedom, and existential angst.
 E: Existentialism
Its overriding concern is the individual and the primary
value is the absolute freedom of the person;
▪ A person is only what he makes himself to be
▪ A person is the final and exclusive arbiter of the values
▪ A person freely determines for himself the values
Great emphasis is placed on art, on literature, and the
humanistic studies, for it is in these areas that man finds
himself and discovers what values he will seek to attain.
 E: Existentialism

Concept of God: Frederic Nietzsche’s statement, “God is

dead,” succinctly expresses the atheistic existentialist’s
view on the issue of the existence of a supernatural realm.
So given evil, God is either not all-good, not all-powerful,
not all-knowing, or does not exist.
 E: Existentialism
Concept of Self : Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself.
Such is the first principle of existentialism.
The very question of the nature of man is a meaningless one for the
existentialist. Man has no nature but he must create his own essence.
The uniqueness of man comes from his emotions, feelings, perception
and thinking. Man cannot be ‘taught’ what the world is about. He
must create this for himself.
Man is not alone in the world. He is connected to other men; he
communicates with others; therefore, he cannot live in a state of
anarchy. He is the product of his choices. He is, therefore, an
individual who is different from other persons.
 E: Existentialism
Concept of Self…cont
Individual man is not bound to other men by any pre-set
notion of brotherhood or by allegiance to a certain group.
On the contrary, each man should express his freedom in
the creation of his own selfhood, first by “withdrawing
from the crowd,” and then by communicating only with
those whom he personally chooses.
Sartre feels that the entire network of social life is anti-
individual. Churches, schools, political parties, and even
the family tend to militate against man’s absolute freedom.
 Aims of Education
Existentialism is concerned with liberal education, freeing man from
his isolation and his anonymity, freeing his mind from the confusions
that prevent him from seeing his situations and his powers.
Existentialist wants to educate the “whole child,” not just one side.
They propose a more individualistic notion, that is, the “unfolding of
the individual as a whole in the situation in which he finds himself.
Education should make a man subjective and should make him
conscious for his individuality or ‘self’. Being self-conscious he will
recognize his ‘self’ and he will get an understanding of his ‘being’.
The purpose of education is to build character, to optimize potential
and creativity and to enhance the quality of life through knowledge.
 Aims of Education
Education is that which helps an individual to realize the best
that he is capable of.
Education must help the individual to realize the ‘fact city’
(contingency) of his existence to face the categories of this
fact city – dread, anguish, anxiety and fear –courageously and
finally prepare him to meet death with pleasure.
Education for happiness is a dangerous doctrine because
there can be no happiness without pain and no ecstasy without
suffering. Education, should open to children human
suffering, misery, anguish and the responsibilities of adult life.
 Aims of Education
Every individual is unique. Education must develop in him this
uniqueness. It must cater to individual differences. Education must
make pupil aware of the infinite possibilities of his freedom and the
responsibilities he must bear in life.
The most important aim in education is the becoming of a human
person as one who lives and makes decisions about what he will do
and be.
Education should train men to make better choices and also to realize
that since his choices are never perfect, the consequences cannot be
predicted.
The objective of education is to enable individuals to develop his
unique qualities, harness his potentialities, cultivate individualities.
 Existentialism
Instructional Methodology
Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self-
directed, and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher,
who relates to each student openly and honestly.
Teaching method must place the responsibility for choosing what to learn
upon the individual. This assumption is entirely in harmony with the
existentialist’s insistence upon the absolute freedom of the individual.
Any method which fosters group thinking or group action would be alien
to the existentialist,
Teacher shows by his example that education is a concentration on
personal freedom – one which encourages the student to accept the facts
and beliefs which have relevance for him.
 Instructional Methodology
Science should be considered a personal, human activity in which the
student relives the great moment of discovery in the history of science. It
should not be taught as an exercise in laboratory technique nor as a cold
lifeless body of content to be mastered.
Existentialists favour the Socratic Approach to teaching, because it is a
method that tests the inner-life. Socratic ‘Problem Method’ should be
accepted if the problem originates in the life of the one who has to work
out the solutions. But it is unacceptable if the problem is derived from the
needs of the society. Like Socrates, ‘personal reading’ should be stressed.
They reject the group method, because in-group dynamic, the superiority
of the group decision over individual decision is prominent. Methods of
teaching must develop the creative abilities in children.
 Instructional Methodology
Teacher
The teacher’s role is to help students define their own essence by exposing
them to various paths they may take in life and creating an environment in
which they may freely choose their own preferred way.
Teacher should help students to becoming more authentic, more spiritual,
having a critical attitude, having a clear sense of personal identity and a
developing empathetic awareness towards others.
An important characteristic of a teacher is that they have the ability to
make judgments with regards to what is worthwhile and valuable in them
and in others. This should be demonstrated by an empathetic awareness
for others whom they are in-the-world-with.
 Instructional Methodology
Teacher
Existentialists do not wish the teacher to be social minded umpire or a
model personality to be imitated by the students.
He must himself be a free personality, engaged in such relations and
projects with individual students that they get the idea that they are too are
free personalities.
He may indirectly influence them about his values but he should not
impose his cherished values on them, lest his values become the code of
conduct for the students, who may begin to accept them without thought.
Instead of expecting them to imitate he should help them to be ‘original’
and ‘authentic’.
 Instructional Methodology
Student
Give full freedom to the child. But the child should know the nature of his
‘self’ and recognize his being and convert imperfection into perfection.
The child should be taught to avoid to become selfish, autocratic and
irresponsible. Freedom is needed only for natural development.
Education is provided according to the child’s powers and the needs.
The relation of the child with his ‘self’ should be strengthened rather than
severed. The child has to make choices and decisions.
Child thrives better when relieved from intense competition, harsh
discipline, and fear of failure. Primary emphasis must always be on the
child, as learner and not on the learning programmed. Child needs positive
evaluation, not labels.
 Instructional Methodology
School
None of the traditional agencies of education (family, Church, and state) can
claim the primary right to educate.
Individual, the personification of absolute freedom, is the sole “agency”
responsible for creating his own essence or being. The existentialist cannot
permit any agency “outside the individual” to take over this primary right
and responsibility.
The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in
a healthy way. The aim of school tasks should be to nurture self-discipline
and cultivate self-evaluation.
Mass teaching and mass testing is not advocated in schools. The schedule
must be flexible and open. Democratic ideals should pervade the school.
UNIT 2
Marxism
 UNIT 2: Marxism
Karl Marx was the founder of Marxism. Marx for the first time
analysed correctly the forces and impulses which govern human
nature and mould its environment.
He gave socialism a philosophy and a new direction and a
dynamic force. His Communist Manifesto, which appeared in
1848, is described as the ‘birth-cry of modern socialism’.
In it he traces the evolution of history as the inevitable result of
the economic changes brought about by the changed method of
the material production of wealth, and prophesies a social
revolution leading to the dictatorship of the proletariat.
 UNIT 2: Marxism
His monumental work Das Capital (The Capital) which
appeared in 1867, heralded a revolution in the realm of ideas
and became the gospel of a new faith.
Marx brushed aside all the earlier socialistic theories as vague
and unscientific, because they ignored the operation of certain
immutable laws which determine the course of history.
He declares that the future state cannot be the product of
intellectual ingenuity, however great, or the device of a
reformer, however gifted.
 UNIT 2: Marxism

The future is determined by the past; it is the inevitable

product of certain forces and tendencies which are
irresistible in their operation
The business of social philosophy is to discover these
forces and not to prescribe panaceas.
 Values in Marxism
Marxists are dedicated to the welfare of the state and the people, and
are guided by certain values namely:
(a) To develop a respect for public property;
(b) To develop a respect for authority;
(c) Patriotism is not an important Marxist value
(d) To develop respect for parents, elderly and all classes of laborers;
(e) Common good occupies an important position in Marxism;
(f) No existence of private property;
(g) Discipline in public life;
f) Attaches highest importance to the value of labor
 Aims of Education in Marxism
Marxist education lay stress on indoctrination of ideas and
practices.
Education aims at creating Marxist attitude and values.
Education will not be limited to a handful of people. Marxism
lays stress on providing education to all sections of the society,
i.e., universal education.
Equalisation of educational opportunity is the Marxist
educational goal.
Marxist education aims at maximum good to the maximum
number. Social advancement is ensured through education.
 Aims of Education in Marxism
Education is considered as the greatest instrument of social change. Only
intellectual education cannot achieve this goal. Emphasis is laid on
vocational and technological education.
All educands must know clearly the true character of social development.
History and economics should be taught in proper perspective. The students
must learn the fundamental principles of science.
Labor and work are considered as integral parts of education. A workman
cannot work properly unless he possesses a sound health. Hence physical
education is an important aim in education. It also aims at cultural and
aesthetic development.
Indoctrination in communist and socialist values. Marxist education aims at
creating creative, productive and faithful citizenship.
 Aims of Education in Marxism
In Marxist education the child is given the central position.
Development of the child mind is the ultimate aim.
Education of the child depends to a great extent on the education
of the mother. So Marxist education aims at women’s education
too.
Communist Manifesto declares free, universal, elementary
education for all. Marx says : ‘Education means to us three things:
(a) Intellectual Development,
(b) Physical Development,
(c) Polytechnised - education which will give knowledge relative
to the General Sciences and principles of all productive processes.
 Educational Objectives in Marxism
1. No discrimination will be made in respect of educational
opportunities. Education is to be given to all sections of the society
irrespective of caste, creed, sex social and economic status.
2. Common education is to be provided to both men and women.
Coeducation is an accepted principle in Marxism.
3. Education will be universal and compulsory.
4. No discrimination is to be made among schools. Establishment
of common school system is the cherished goal of Marxism.
5. Marxism advocates secular education in schools.
6. In Marxist system of education there will be only one agency -
the state. Private agency is banned in educational administration.
 Features of Marxist Curriculum:
1. Marxist philosophy and doctrines will be taught at all
levels of education on compulsory basis. Students should
be made conscious about class division, unequal
distribution of wealth, exploitation of the working class by
the capitalist class, etc.
2. Subjects which tend to develop skill instead of abstract
knowledge are excluded.
3. Lay stress on respect for labour; work-experience is
regarded as an integral part of education.
 Features of Marxist Curriculum:

4. The curriculum includes the socially useful subjects - science,

mathematics, geography, life science, geology, astronomy etc.
History of communist movement and political economy should
be included
5. At the primary level, only the mother-tongue should be
taught. But at the secondary level the curriculum should include
foreign language.
6. Creative work and co-curricular activities have been given an
important place in Marxist curriculum. These include physical
exercise, music, painting, games and sports etc.
 Methodology of Teaching in Marxism
1. Emphasis is laid on practical aspect of education instead of
theoretical aspect.
2. Marxist education is based on the principle of learning by
doing. Students should work in agricultural farms and factories.
3. Education should not be confined within the four walls of the
school. The natural environment and the community at large will
also serve as great books and teachers.
4. Marxist education emphasises learning via personal experience.
5. Emphasises group activity instead of individual activity - to
promote cooperative spirit instead of competitive spirit among
students.
 Role of Teacher in Marxist Education
The role of the teacher is significant and crucial in education. He must
be fully equipped with the content of education, the Marxist
methodology of teaching as well as aims of education.
Teacher’s philosophy of teaching will be the Marxist philosophy. He
must be an active member of the Marxist social order.
According to Lenin, a best Marxist worker can only be a best Marxist
teacher. Both in thought and action he must be a true Marxist – having
mastery on the content of education but also have conscious about life,
social environment and communist ideology.
He should possess sound health, respect for cultural heritage, deep
practical sense, socialistic bent of mind and true patriotism.
UNIT 2. Education for Self Reliance