GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 There are a number of ways that animals

reproduce asexually:

LESSON 1: Reproduction 1. Fission

Sexual Reproduction - Occurs in prokaryotic
➢ Is the combination of (usually microorganisms and in some
haploid) reproductive cells from two invertebrate, multi-celled
organisms.
individuals to form a third (usually
2. Budding
diploid) unique offspring.
- Results from the outgrowth of
➢ Produces offspring with novel
a part of a cell or body region
combinations of genes.
leading to a separation from
the original organism into two
Hermaphroditism
individuals.
- Occurs in animals where one
3. Fragmentation
individual has both male
- Is the breaking of the body
and female reproductive
into two parts with
parts.
subsequent regeneration.
Hermaphrodites
4. Parthenogenesis
- May self-fertilize or may
- A form of asexual
mate with another of their
regeneration where an egg
species, fertilizing each other
develops into a complete
and both producing offspring.
individual without being
fertilized.
Asexual Reproduction
➢ Produces offspring that are
genetically identical to the parent LESSON 2: Nutrition and Energy
because the offspring are all clones of Reproduction
the original parent. Herbivores
➢ Animals whose primary food source
is plant-based.
● Frugivores
- Fruit-eaters
● Granivores
- Seed eaters
 ● Nectivores Elimination
- Nectar feeders - Elimination of undigested food
● Folivores content and waste products.
- Leaf eaters

Carbohydrates
Carnivores ➢ Main source of energy; and mainly
➢ Animals that eat other animals. came from plants in the form of
➢ Means “meat eater” sugar and starch.
● Obligate Carnivores - Digestion of carbohydrates
- Those that rely begins in the mouth.
entirely on animal - The salivary enzyme amylase
flesh. begins the breakdown of food
● Facultative Carnivores starches into maltose, a
- Those that also eat disaccharide.
non-animal food in - As the bolus of food travels
addition to animal through the esophagus to the
food. stomach, no significant
digestion of carbohydrates
takes place.
Omnivores
- The next step of carbohydrate
➢ Animals that eat both plant- and
digestion takes place in the
animal-derived food.
duodenum.
➢ Means “eat everything”
- The chyme from the stomach
enters the duodenum and
Ingestion
mixes with the digestive
- Process of taking food through the
secretion from the pancreas,
mouth.
liver, and gallbladder.
Digestion
- Mechanical and chemical
Proteins
breakdown of food into small
➢ Used for the synthesis of enzymes
organic fragments.
hormones, and antibodies to
Absorption
combat diseases.
- Absorption of nutrients by the
epithelial cells.
 - Protein digestion takes place the liver and stored in the
in the stomach. gallbladder.
- The enzyme pepsin plays an - Bile aids in the indigestion of
important role in the lipids, primarily triglycerides
digestion of proteins by by emulsification.
breaking down the intact
protein to peptides, which are Vitamins
short chains of four to nine ➢ Complex organic molecules needed
amino acids. in small amounts that cannot be
- In the duodenum, other manufactured by the human body.
enzymes — trypsin, elastase, - Can be either water-soluble or
and chymotrypsin — act on the lipid-soluble.
peptides reducing them to - Fat-soluble vitamins are
smaller peptides. absorbed in the same manner
- Trypsin elastase, as lipids.
carboxypeptidase, and - Water-soluble vitamins can
chymotrypsin are produced be directly absorbed into the
by the pancreas and released bloodstream from the
into the duodenum where they intestine.
act on the chyme.

Lipids
➢ Energy providing foods.
- Begins in the stomach with the
aid of lingual lipase and
gastric lipase.
- The bulk of lipid digestion
occurs in the small intestine
due to pancreatic lipase.
- When chyme enters the
duodenum, the hormonal
responses trigger the release
of bile, which is produced in
LESSON 3: Control Systems of this thick layer is to protect the
brain and spinal cord. It contains
Nervous Control
vein-like structures that carry blood
➢ May vary in structure and
from the brain back to the heart.
complexity.
➢ The middle layer is the web-like
arachnoid mater.
Nervous System ➢ The last layer is the pia mater (Latin:
➢ Is made up of “soft mother”), which directly contacts
● Neurons and covers the brain and spinal cord
- Specialized cells that like plastic wrap.
can receive and ➢ The space between the arachnoid

transmit chemical or and pia maters is filled with

electrical signals. cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is

produced by a tissue called choroid
plexus in fluid-filled compartments in
● Glia the CNS called ventricles.
- Cells that provide ➢ The brain floats in CSF, which acts as
support functions for a cushion and shock absorber and
the neurons by makes the brain neutrally buoyant.
playing an CSF also functions to circulate
information chemical substances throughout the
processing role that is brain and into the spinal cord.
complementary to
neurons. The Brain
From the Book:
➢ The brain is part of the central
Central Nervous System
nervous system that is contained in
From the Book:
the cranial cavity of the skull. It
➢ Is made up of the brain and spinal
includes the:
cords and is covered with three layers
● Cerebral cortex
of protective covering called
● Limbic system
meninges (from the Greek word for
● Basal ganglia
membrane).
● Thalamus
➢ The outermost layer is the dura
● Cerebellum
mater (Latin: “hard mother”). As the
● Brainstem
Latin suggests, the primary function
 ● Retinas - This lobe contains the
➢ There are three different ways that a olfactory bulb, which
brain can be sectioned to view processes smells.
internal structures: - The frontal lobe also
● Coronal Section contains the motor
- Cuts the brain front to cortex, which is
back. important for
● Sagittal Section planning and
- Cuts the brain left to implementing
right. movement.
● Horizontal Section ● Parietal Lobe

- Cuts the brain top to - It is located at the top

bottom. of the brain.
➢ The outermost part of the brain is a - Neurons in the
thick piece of nervous system tissue parietal lobe are
called the cerebral cortex, which is involved in speech and
folded into hills called gyri (singular: also reading.
- Two of the parietal
gyrus) and valleys called sulci
lobe’s main functions
(singular: sulcus). The cortex is made
are processing
up of two hemispheres–right and
somatosensation
left–which are separated by a large
(touch sensations like
sulcus.
pressure, pain, heat,
➢ A thick fiber bundle called the corpus
and cold), and
callosum (Latin: “tough body”)
processing
connects the two hemispheres and
proprioception (the
allows information to be passed from
sense of how parts of
one side to the other side.
the body are oriented
➢ Each cortical hemisphere contains in space).
regions called lobes that are involved ● Occipital Lobe
in different functions: - It is located at the
● Frontal Lobe back of the brain.
- It is located at the - It is primarily involved
front of the brain, over in vision–seizing,
the eyes. recognizing, and
 identifying the visual 3 Major Areas of the Brain
world.
1. Cerebrum
● Temporal Lobe
➢ Contains the Telecephalon
- It is located at the
and Diencephalon.
base of the brain.
➢ Largest portion of the
- It is primarily involved
mature brain, consisting of
in processing and
two cerebral hemispheres.
interpreting sound.
➢ A deep ridge of nerve fibers
- It also contains the
called corpus callosum
hippocampus (Greek:
connects the hemispheres.
seahorse) –a structure
➢ The surface of the brain is
that processes
marked by convolutions, sulci,
memory formation.
and fissures.
➢ The lobes of the brain are
From the PPT:
named according to the bones
➢ The brain is the largest, most
they underlie and include the:
complex portion of the nervous
● Frontal Lobe
system, containing about 100 billion
● Parietal Lobe
multipolar neurons.
● Temporal Lobe
➢ The brain can be divided into the
● Occipital Lobe
following:
● Insula.
The cerebrum
➢ A thin layer of gray matter,
- Is the largest portion &
the cerebral cortex lies
associated with higher mental
outside of the cerebrum and
functions.
contains 75% of the cell bodies
The diencephalon
in the nervous system.
- Processes sensory input.
➢ The cerebrum provides
The cerebellum
higher brain functions such as
- Coordinates muscular interpretation of sensory
activity. input, initiating voluntary
The brain stem muscular movements,
memory & integrating
- Coordinates & regulates
information for reasoning.
visceral activities.
➢ Beneath the cortex lies the
mass of white matter.
2. Cerebellum Parts of the Brain stem:
➢ It stands for “little brain”, and ● Midbrain
is a hindbrain structure that - The top part of the brain stem
controls balance, is crucial for regulating eye
coordination, movement, and movements.
motor skills, and it is thought
● Pons
to be important in processing
some types of memory. - The middle portion of the
➢ Located at the back of the brain stem coordinates lacial
brain, behind the brain stem, movements, hearing &
below the temporal & balance.
occipital lobes beneath the ● Medulla oblongata
back of the cerebrum. - The bottom part of the brain
➢ Divided into two stem helps regulate your
hemispheres like the cerebral breathing, heart rhythms,
cortex. Unlike the blood pressure & swallowing.
hemispheres, each
hemisphere of the cerebellum Spinal Cord
is associated with each side of From the Book:
the body. ➢ Is a thick bundle of nerve tissue that
carries information about the body
3. Brainstem to the brain and from the brain to
➢ Part of your brain that the body.
connects your brain to your ➢ The spinal cord is contained within the
spinal cord (column of nerve bones of the vertebrate column but
tissue that runs down your can communicate signals to and from
spine). the body through its connections with
spinal nerves.
➢ It helps regulate some body
White matter
functions, including your
- Made up of myelinated axons.
breathing & heart rate.
➢ Also controls your balance, Gray matter
coordination & reflexes. - Made up of neuron and glial
cell bodies.
➢ Axons and cell bodies in the dorsal
(facing the back of the animal) spinal
 cord convey mostly sensory
information from the body to the
brain. Axons and cell bodies in the
ventral (facing the front of the
animal) spinal cord primarily
transmit signals controlling
movement from the brain to the
body.
➢ The spinal cord also controls motor
reflexes. These reflexes are quick,
unconscious movements.

From the PPT:

➢ Has 2 major functions:
● to transmit impulses to and
from the brain
● to house spinal reflexes
➢ Tracts carrying sensory information
to the brain are called ascending
tracts; descending tracts carry
motor information from the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System

➢ Is the connection between the
central nervous system and the rest
of the body.
 ➢ The PNS can be broken down into: animal encounters dangerous
● Autonomic Nervous situations.
System The Parasympathetic Nervous System

- Controls bodily ➢ Allows an animal to “rest and digest”

functions without ➢ It resets organ function after the

conscious control. sympathetic nervous system is

- Serves as the relay activated.

between the CNS

and the internal ● Sensory-somatic Nervous
organs. System
- It controls the lungs, - Transmits sensory
the heart, smooth information from the
muscle, and exocrine skin, muscles, and
and endocrine glands.
sensory organs to the
- Signaling to the
CNS and sends motor
target tissue usually
commands from the
involves two synapses:
CNS to the muscles.
a preganglionic
neuron (originating in
the CNS) synapses to
a neuron in a FIGHTING! :)
ganglion that, in turn,
synapses on the target
organ.
- There are two
divisions of the
autonomic nervous
system that often
have opposing effects:

The Sympathetic Nervous System

➢ It is responsible for the” fight or
flight” response that occurs when an