ANNAI VIOLET ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE ANNAI VIOLET ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

CONTINUOUS INTERNAL ASSESSMENT– I (ODD SEM.) CONTINUOUS INTERNAL ASSESSMENT– I (ODD SEM.)
SUBJECT: OPERATING SYSTEM SUBJECT: OPERATING SYSTEM
Class : III B.Sc (CS) Date : Class : III B.Sc (CS) Date :
Max.Marks : 75 Sub. Code: SE25B Max.Marks : 75 Sub. Code: SE25B
PART A (10  2 = 20 Marks) PART A (10  2 = 20 Marks)
Answer any TEN questions Answer any TEN questions
1. What is an Operating System? 1. What is an Operating System?
2. What is Distributed system? 2. What is Distributed system?
3. What is Semaphore? 3. What is Semaphore?
4. Define Deadlock. 4. Define Deadlock.
5. What is paging? 5. What is paging?
6. Write down the two categorize of process synchronization. 6. Write down the two categorize of process synchronization.
7. What are the types of Synchronization Problem? 7. What are the types of Synchronization Problem?
8. What is an address space? 8. What is an address space?
9. Write down the types of Address binding in OS. 9. Write down the types of Address binding in OS.
10. Define Swapping. 10. Define Swapping.
11. What are the types of partitions? 11. What are the types of partitions?
12. What is paging? 12. What is paging?
PART B – (5  5 = 25 Marks) PART B – (5  5 = 25 Marks)
Answer any FIVE questions Answer any FIVE questions
13. Explain the concept of IPC. 13. Explain the concept of IPC.
14. Explain about Monitor. 14. Explain about Monitor.
15. Define System Design and implementation. 15. Define System Design and implementation.
16. Explain Process Scheduling. 16. Explain Process Scheduling.
17. Explain about address binding in memory management. 17. Explain about address binding in memory management.
18. Explain the contiguous allocation memory management 18. Explain the contiguous allocation memory management
techniques. techniques.
19. Detailed description about dynamic loading and linking. 19. Detailed description about dynamic loading and linking.
PART C – (3  10 = 30 Marks) PART C – (3  10 = 30 Marks)
Answer ANY THREE questions Answer ANY THREE questions
20. Explain about the Operating System services in details. 20. Explain about the Operating System services in details.
21. Write a detailed note in Semaphores. 21. Write a detailed note in Semaphores.
22. Describe the concept of segmentation. 22. Describe the concept of segmentation.
23. Explain about address space with example. 23. Explain about address space with example.
24. Discuss in detailed about paged memory management with 24. Discuss in detailed about paged memory management with
example. example.
 7. What are the types of Synchronization Problem?
ANNAI VIOLET ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE The main types of synchronization problems are Producer-
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE Consumer Problem, Readers-Writers Problem, and Dining
Scheme of Valuation Philosophers Problem.
CONTINUOUS INTERNAL ASSESSMENT– I (ODD SEM.)
SUBJECT: OPERATING SYSTEM 8. What is an address space?
An address space is the range of memory addresses that a process
Class : III B.Sc (CS) Date :
can use, encompassing all the addresses a program can access.
Max.Marks : 75 Sub. Code: SE25B
PART A (10  2 = 20 Marks) 9. Write down the types of Address binding in OS.
Answer any TEN questions The types of address binding are Compile-time binding, Load-
time binding, and Execution-time binding.
1. What is an Operating System?
An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages 10. Define Swapping.
computer hardware and software resources, and provides common Swapping is a memory management technique where processes are
services for computer programs, enabling efficient execution of temporarily moved out of main memory to secondary storage
tasks. (swap space) and back, to manage memory efficiently.
2. What is a Distributed System?
A Distributed System is a network of independent computers that 11. What are the types of partitions?
appear to users as a single coherent system, enabling resource The types of partitions in memory management are Fixed-size
sharing, scalability, and reliability. (static) partitions and Variable-size (dynamic) partitions.

3. What is Semaphore? 12. What is paging?

A Semaphore is a synchronization tool used in operating systems Paging is a memory management scheme that eliminates the need
to control access to a common resource by multiple processes, for contiguous physical memory allocation by dividing memory
preventing race conditions. into equal-sized blocks called pages.

4. Define Deadlock. PART B – (5  5 = 25 Marks)

Deadlock is a situation in which two or more processes are unable Answer any FIVE questions
to proceed because each is waiting for the other to release a 13. Explain the concept of IPC (Inter-Process Communication).
resource. Inter-Process Communication (IPC) is a mechanism that allows
processes to communicate and synchronize their actions when
5. What is Paging? running concurrently. IPC is crucial in systems where multiple
Paging is a memory management scheme that eliminates the need processes need to exchange data or coordinate their execution. The
for contiguous allocation of physical memory by dividing memory primary methods of IPC include:
into fixed-size pages.
 Message Passing: Processes communicate by sending and
6. Write down the two categories of process synchronization. receiving messages, which can be synchronous (blocking) or
The two categories of process synchronization are busy-waiting asynchronous (non-blocking). This method is useful in distributed
and blocking. systems.
  Shared Memory: Multiple processes access a common memory  Automatic Locking: Monitors handle the locking and unlocking
space, enabling fast data exchange. Synchronization mechanisms of shared resources automatically, simplifying the development of
like semaphores or mutexes are required to prevent race concurrent programs.
conditions.
Monitors are widely used in operating systems and programming
 Pipes: A pipe is a unidirectional communication channel that languages like Java (through the synchronized keyword) to manage
allows one process to send data to another, commonly used in access to shared resources in a controlled and safe manner.
command-line operations.
 Sockets: Sockets provide communication between processes over 15. Define System Design and Implementation.
a network, supporting both connection-oriented (TCP) and System Design and Implementation are critical phases in the
connectionless (UDP) communication. development of software systems:

 Signals: Signals are used to notify a process that a particular event  System Design: This phase involves planning the architecture,
has occurred. They are a limited form of IPC, mainly for simple components, and data flow of a system to meet specified
notifications. requirements. The design process includes:

IPC is essential for coordinating complex tasks in multi-process systems, o High-Level Design (HLD): Defines the system's overall
ensuring data consistency, and enhancing system performance. architecture, including the identification of major
components, their interfaces, and data flow. It focuses on
14. Explain about Monitor. how the system's parts fit together to form a coherent
A Monitor is a high-level synchronization construct used to control whole.
access to shared resources in concurrent programming. Monitors o Low-Level Design (LLD): Focuses on the detailed design
encapsulate the shared resource and provide mechanisms to ensure of individual components or modules, specifying the data
that only one process (or thread) can access the resource at a time, structures, algorithms, and interfaces used. This phase is
preventing race conditions. The key features of Monitors include: crucial for ensuring that the system is both functional and
efficient.
 Mutual Exclusion: Monitors ensure that only one process can
execute a critical section of code at any given time. This is o Design Patterns: Reusable solutions to common design
achieved by implicitly locking the monitor when a process enters problems, which help in creating flexible and maintainable
and unlocking it when the process leaves. systems.
 Condition Variables: Monitors use condition variables to manage  System Implementation: This phase involves converting the
processes that need to wait for a certain condition before system design into executable code. Key activities include:
proceeding. The two main operations on condition variables are:
o Coding: Writing the actual source code based on the
o Wait: A process releases the monitor lock and enters a design specifications.
waiting state until another process signals the condition.
o Unit Testing: Testing individual components or modules
o Signal (or Notify): A process signals a waiting process that to ensure they function correctly.
the condition is now true, allowing the waiting process to
re-enter the monitor. o Integration: Combining and testing individual modules to
verify that they work together as a complete system.
 o Documentation: Writing user manuals, system CPU. It is fair and responsive but may lead to high context-
documentation, and code comments to support future switching overhead.
maintenance and development.
o Priority Scheduling: Processes are assigned priorities, and
The goal of system design and implementation is to create a system that is the CPU is allocated to the process with the highest
robust, efficient, and meets the user's requirements. priority. It can lead to starvation of low-priority processes.
o Multilevel Queue Scheduling: Processes are grouped into
16. Explain Process Scheduling.
different queues based on priority or type, with each queue
Process Scheduling is the mechanism by which an operating
having its own scheduling algorithm.
system decides which process in the ready queue should be
executed next by the CPU. Efficient process scheduling is crucial o Multilevel Feedback Queue: Similar to multilevel queue
for maximizing CPU utilization and system performance. The key scheduling, but processes can move between queues based
concepts in process scheduling include: on their behavior and requirements.

 Scheduling Criteria: These are metrics used to evaluate the  Context Switching: The process of saving the state of the
performance of a scheduling algorithm: currently running process and loading the state of the next process
to be executed. Context switching is necessary for implementing
o CPU Utilization: The percentage of time the CPU is preemptive scheduling but introduces overhead.
actively executing processes.
Process scheduling ensures that the CPU is efficiently utilized while
o Throughput: The number of processes completed per unit
meeting the requirements of different processes and maintaining system
time. responsiveness.
o Turnaround Time: The total time taken from submission
to completion of a process. 17. Explain about address binding in memory management.
Address Binding is the process of mapping logical addresses
o Waiting Time: The total time a process spends in the ready (generated by a program) to physical addresses (in memory). This
queue waiting to be executed. process occurs at different stages in a program's lifecycle, resulting
in three types of address binding:
o Response Time: The time from when a process is
submitted until the first response is produced.  Compile-Time Binding: In compile-time binding, the compiler
translates symbolic addresses in the source code directly into
 Types of Scheduling Algorithms:
physical addresses. This method requires knowing the exact
o First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): Processes are location of the program in memory at compile time. It is inflexible
scheduled in the order they arrive. Simple but can lead to since the program must be loaded into the same memory location
poor performance due to the "convoy effect." every time it is executed.

o Shortest Job Next (SJN): Processes with the shortest  Load-Time Binding: In load-time binding, the logical addresses
estimated execution time are scheduled first. It minimizes are translated into physical addresses when the program is loaded
average waiting time but requires accurate estimates. into memory. The program can be loaded into different locations in
memory, providing more flexibility compared to compile-time
o Round Robin (RR): Each process is assigned a fixed time binding.
slice (quantum), and processes are rotated through the
  Execution-Time Binding: Execution-time binding occurs when o Best-Fit: Allocates the smallest free block of memory that
the program is running. Logical addresses are translated to physical is large enough for the process, aiming to reduce wasted
addresses dynamically using hardware support like the Memory space.
Management Unit (MMU). This allows processes to be relocated
in memory during execution, enabling techniques like paging and o Worst-Fit: Allocates the largest free block of memory,
segmentation. leaving the biggest possible remainder, which might be
more useful for future allocations.
The choice of address binding method impacts the flexibility, efficiency,
and complexity of the memory management system in an operating Contiguous allocation is straightforward but can suffer from fragmentation
system. issues, which can degrade system performance over time.

18. Explain the contiguous allocation memory management 19. Detailed description about dynamic loading and linking.
techniques. Dynamic Loading and Dynamic Linking are techniques used to
Contiguous Allocation is a memory management technique where improve the efficiency and flexibility of program execution:
each process is allocated a single contiguous block of memory.
This method is simple and easy to implement but can lead to issues  Dynamic Loading:
like fragmentation. The main techniques used in contiguous In dynamic loading, a program's routines or modules are not
allocation are: loaded into memory until they are needed during execution. This
approach conserves memory, as only the required parts of a
 Fixed-Partition Allocation: Memory is divided into fixed-size program are loaded at any given time. The benefits of dynamic
partitions. Each partition can hold one process, and the partition loading include:
size is determined at system startup. While simple, this method can
o Reduced Memory Usage: Only necessary modules are
lead to internal fragmentation, where unused memory within a
loaded, leaving more memory available for other processes.
partition is wasted.
o Faster Startup Times: The initial load time of the
 Variable-Partition Allocation: Memory is divided into partitions
program is reduced since only essential parts are loaded at
based on the size of the processes being loaded. This method is
startup.
more flexible than fixed-partition allocation but can lead to
external fragmentation, where free memory is scattered in small o On-Demand Loading: Modules are loaded
blocks that are too small to be used by other processes.
 Dynamic Partitioning: Processes are allocated memory PART C – (3  10 = 30 Marks)
dynamically, based on their size. The operating system maintains a Answer ANY THREE questions
list of free memory blocks and allocates the smallest block that can 20. Explain about the Operating System services in detail.
accommodate the process. Over time, this can lead to external
fragmentation, which can be mitigated using techniques like An Operating System (OS) provides a variety of services to users,
compaction (rearranging memory to consolidate free space). processes, and system hardware, making computing resources easily
accessible and efficiently usable. These services include:
 First-Fit, Best-Fit, and Worst-Fit Allocation:
1. Process Management:
o First-Fit: Allocates the first free block of memory that is The OS handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of
large enough for the process. processes. It manages process resources, including CPU time,
 memory, and I/O devices, and ensures that multiple processes can o File Organization: Files can be organized in directories
run simultaneously without interfering with each other. Process and subdirectories.
management includes:
o Process Scheduling: Determines which process runs at any o Access Control: Defines who can access or modify files,
given time. Algorithms like FCFS, SJF, Priority ensuring data security.
Scheduling, and Round Robin are used.
o File Operations: Provides standard operations like
o Context Switching: The process of saving the state of the creating, reading, writing, and deleting files.
currently running process and loading the state of the next
o Disk Management: Involves managing disk space
process to be executed.
allocation, disk quotas, and defragmentation.
o Inter-Process Communication (IPC): Mechanisms such
4. Device Management:
as message passing, shared memory, and semaphores to
The OS manages hardware devices through device drivers,
allow processes to communicate and synchronize their
providing a common interface for different hardware. It handles
activities.
input/output operations, manages data transfer between devices
o Deadlock Handling: The OS monitors for deadlocks and and memory, and provides error handling. Device management
provides mechanisms like deadlock prevention, avoidance, includes:
detection, and recovery.
o Device Drivers: Software modules that allow the OS to
2. Memory Management: communicate with hardware devices.
The OS manages the system’s memory, which includes primary
o Buffering and Spooling: Techniques to manage data flow
memory (RAM) and secondary storage (disk space). It tracks each
between devices and memory, ensuring smooth operation
byte in memory, allocates space to processes, and manages
even when devices operate at different speeds.
memory hierarchies. Memory management involves:
o Interrupt Handling: The OS responds to hardware
o Memory Allocation: Allocates memory to processes as
interrupts (signals from devices) to perform immediate
needed, using techniques like paging, segmentation, and
tasks.
swapping.
5. Security and Protection:
o Virtual Memory: Allows programs to use more memory
The OS provides security by ensuring that unauthorized users
than physically available by swapping data in and out of
cannot access the system’s resources. Protection mechanisms are
disk storage.
implemented to control access to files, memory, CPU, and other
o Memory Protection: Ensures that a process cannot access resources. Security services include:
memory that it is not authorized to, preventing corruption
o User Authentication: Verifying the identity of users
of data.
before granting access to the system.
3. File System Management:
o Access Control Lists (ACLs): Define permissions for
The OS manages files on storage devices, including creation,
files, directories, and other resources.
deletion, reading, writing, and access control. It provides a
hierarchical directory structure to organize files and manages file o Encryption: Protects data from unauthorized access,
permissions to control access. File system management includes: especially during transmission over networks.
 6. User Interface Services: They are essential in achieving process synchronization and avoiding
The OS provides a user interface (UI) through which users interact issues like deadlocks and busy-waiting.
with the system. This can be a command-line interface (CLI) or a
graphical user interface (GUI). User interface services include: Types of Semaphores:
o Command-Line Interface (CLI): Allows users to interact 1. Binary Semaphore (Mutex):
with the OS by typing commands. A binary semaphore, also known as a mutex (short for mutual
exclusion), can have only two values: 0 or 1. It is used to control
o Graphical User Interface (GUI): Provides a visual
access to a single resource by allowing only one process to access
interface with windows, icons, menus, and pointers
the resource at a time. A binary semaphore functions as a simple
(WIMP), making the OS more user-friendly.
lock:
o Shells: Command interpreters that translate user commands o Wait (P operation): Decrements the semaphore value. If
into actions performed by the OS. the value is already 0, the process waits until it becomes 1.

7. Networking Services: o Signal (V operation): Increments the semaphore value,

The OS manages network resources and communication protocols, signaling that the resource is now available.
enabling data exchange between computers over a network.
2. Counting Semaphore:
Networking services include:
A counting semaphore can have a value greater than 1, which
o Network Protocols: Standards like TCP/IP that govern represents the number of available resources. It is used when
communication between devices on a network. multiple instances of a resource are available, and it keeps track of
the number of resources currently in use:
o Resource Sharing: Facilitates sharing of files, printers,
and other resources across a network. o Wait (P operation): Decrements the semaphore value. If
the value is positive, the process can access a resource. If
o Remote Access: Allows users to access the system from a the value is 0, the process must wait.
remote location via protocols like SSH or VPN.
o Signal (V operation): Increments the semaphore value,
8. System Calls and APIs: indicating that a resource has been released and is now
The OS provides a set of system calls and application available for another process.
programming interfaces (APIs) that allow applications to request
services from the OS, such as file operations, process control, and Semaphore Operations:
network communication.
 Wait (P operation):
These services collectively make the OS a vital component of the The wait operation is also called P (from the Dutch word
computing environment, providing the necessary support for running "proberen," meaning "to test"). It decreases the semaphore value
applications and managing hardware efficiently. by 1. If the semaphore value becomes negative, the process
executing the wait operation is blocked until the value becomes
21.Write a detailed note on Semaphores. positive again.
 Signal (V operation):
Semaphores are synchronization tools used to manage concurrent The signal operation is also called V (from the Dutch word
processes in an operating system, preventing race conditions and ensuring "verhogen," meaning "to increment"). It increases the semaphore
proper sequencing of process execution when accessing shared resources.
 value by 1. If there are processes blocked on the semaphore  Complexity in Large Systems: In complex systems with many
(waiting for the value to increase), one of them is unblocked. semaphores, managing them can become difficult, leading to
potential deadlocks or priority inversion.
Applications of Semaphores:  Busy-Waiting: If not implemented properly, semaphores can lead
to busy-waiting, where a process continuously checks a
1. Mutual Exclusion: semaphore, wasting CPU resources.
Semaphores are widely used to enforce mutual exclusion, ensuring
that only one process at a time can access a critical section of code Semaphores are a fundamental concept in operating systems, providing a
or a shared resource. This prevents race conditions where the simple yet powerful mechanism for process synchronization and resource
outcome depends on the order of execution. management.
2. Producer-Consumer Problem:
In this classic synchronization problem, semaphores manage the 22. Describe the concept of segmentation.
access to a shared buffer between producer and consumer
processes. A counting semaphore tracks the number of filled slots Segmentation is a memory management technique that divides a program's
in the buffer, while another semaphore ensures mutual exclusion memory into distinct segments, each representing a different logical part
when accessing the buffer. of the program. Unlike paging, which divides memory into fixed-size
blocks, segmentation allows each segment to vary in size, depending on
3. Reader-Writer Problem: the requirements of the program's components. Segmentation provides a
Semaphores are used to synchronize access to a shared resource way to group related data and code into segments, which simplifies
that can be read by multiple readers but written by only one writer program organization and access.
at a time. The semaphore ensures that no readers access the
resource while a writer is modifying it. Key Concepts in Segmentation:
4. Dining Philosophers Problem:
This problem involves philosophers sitting around a table, each 1. Segments:
needing two forks to eat. Semaphores are used to control access to o A segment is a contiguous block of memory that represents
the forks, ensuring that no two philosophers use the same fork a logical unit within a program. Common segments
simultaneously. include:
 Code Segment: Contains the program's executable
Advantages of Semaphores:
instructions.
 Versatility: Semaphores can be used for both mutual exclusion  Data Segment: Holds global and static variables.
and synchronization of multiple processes.
 Simplicity: The basic operations of semaphores are easy to  Stack Segment: Stores the stack, used for function
understand and implement. calls and local variables.

 Efficiency: Semaphores are lightweight and introduce minimal  Heap Segment: Used for dynamic memory
overhead in process synchronization. allocation during program execution.

Disadvantages of Semaphores: 2. Logical and Physical Addresses:

o Logical Address: Consists of a segment number and an
offset within that segment. The segment number identifies
 the segment, and the offset specifies the exact location Disadvantages of Segmentation:
within the segment.
 Fragmentation: Segmentation can lead to external fragmentation,
o Physical Address: The actual memory address in the where free memory is scattered in small blocks, making it difficult
RAM. The logical address is translated into a physical to allocate contiguous segments.
address using the segment table.  Complexity: Managing variable-sized segments and ensuring
efficient memory allocation can be more complex than in fixed-
3. Segment Table:
size schemes like paging.
o The segment table is a data structure maintained by the
 Overhead: The need for segment tables and the process of address
operating system that maps logical addresses to physical
translation introduce additional overhead in the system.
addresses. Each entry in the segment table contains:
 Base Address: The starting physical address of the Segmentation in Practice:
segment in memory.
 Segmentation is often used in conjunction with paging in modern
 Limit: The length of the segment, specifying the systems. This hybrid approach combines the logical benefits of
maximum offset allowed. segmentation with the efficiency of paging, resulting in a
segmented-paging memory management scheme. In this model,
4. Address Translation: each segment is divided into pages, and the segment table points to
o When a program generates a logical address, the CPU uses page tables rather than directly to physical memory.
the segment number to look up the segment table. The base
address of the segment is retrieved, and the offset is added Example:
to this base address to obtain the physical address. The OS
Consider a program with three segments: Code (Segment 0), Data (Segment 1),
checks if the offset is within the segment's limit to prevent
and Stack (Segment 2). The segment table might look like this:
memory access violations.

Advantages of Segmentation: Segment Number Base Address Limit

0 1000 400
 Logical Grouping: Segmentation aligns with the logical structure 1 2000 200
of a program, making it easier to manage and access different parts 2 3000 100
of the program.
 Protection: Each segment can be assigned different access rights, If the program generates the logical address (1, 150), where 1 is the
allowing for fine-grained control over who can read, write, or segment number and 150 is the offset, the CPU would translate this to the
execute each segment. physical address 2000 + 150 = 2150.
 Sharing: Segments can be shared between processes. For example, Segmentation provides a powerful way to manage memory, offering
multiple processes can share a common code segment, reducing flexibility and alignment with program structure, though it comes with
memory usage. challenges like fragmentation and complexity.
 Ease of Expansion: Segments can grow or shrink dynamically, as
long as contiguous memory is available. 23. Explain about address space with example.
An address space in computing refers to the range of memory addresses  Stack Segment: Logical addresses from 0xFFE00000 to
that a process or a program can use. It is an abstraction provided by the 0xFFFFFFFF (2 MB)
operating system to allow programs to have their own separate, logical
view of memory, independent of the physical memory available in the These logical addresses are mapped to physical memory as follows:
system. This abstraction is crucial for ensuring that programs do not
interfere with each other and for enabling multitasking.  Code Segment: Physical addresses from 0x00001000 to
0x00000FFF (1 MB)
Types of Address Spaces:  Data Segment: Physical addresses from 0x00400000 to
0x004FFFFF (1 MB)
1. Logical (Virtual) Address Space:
o The logical address space is the set of all logical addresses  Stack Segment: Physical addresses from 0x00A00000 to
generated by a program's code during execution. These 0x00AFFFFF (2 MB)
addresses are used by the program to access memory, but
they do not directly correspond to physical memory Here, the logical address 0x00100010 in the Data Segment might
locations. The OS, through the Memory Management Unit correspond to the physical address 0x00400010 in RAM. The OS uses a
(MMU), maps these logical addresses to physical page table or segmentation table to translate between these address spaces.
addresses.
Address Space and Multitasking:
2. Physical Address Space:
In a multitasking environment, each process is given its own logical
o The physical address space refers to the actual memory address space. This ensures that processes do not interfere with each
addresses in the computer's RAM. It is the set of addresses other’s memory. For example, two processes might both have a logical
that the CPU uses to access data stored in physical address 0x00100000, but these addresses would map to different physical
memory. The physical address space is usually limited by addresses, ensuring that the processes' data remains isolated.
the amount of installed RAM.
Address Space Layout:
Address Space Example:
The layout of an address space typically includes different segments:
Consider a simple example where a program is running on a system with 4
GB of RAM. The program might have a logical address space of 8 GB,  Text (Code) Segment: Contains the executable instructions of the
which is larger than the physical memory available. This is possible program.
because the OS uses virtual memory techniques to map logical addresses  Data Segment: Stores global and static variables.
to physical memory, swapping data in and out of disk storage as needed.
 Heap Segment: Used for dynamic memory allocation (e.g.,
Assume the program has the following logical address space: objects created with malloc or new).

 Code Segment: Logical addresses from 0x00000000 to  Stack Segment: Used for function calls, local variables, and
0x000FFFFF (1 MB) control flow.
 Data Segment: Logical addresses from 0x00100000 to
0x001FFFFF (1 MB) Advantages of Address Space Abstraction:
  Security: By isolating each process's memory, the OS prevents Key Concepts in Paging:
processes from accidentally or maliciously accessing or modifying
each other’s data. 1. Pages and Frames:
 Flexibility: The use of logical address spaces allows programs to o Pages: The logical memory of a process is divided into
be written and compiled without concern for the actual physical blocks of equal size called pages. A page is the smallest
memory layout. unit of data for memory management in a paging system.
 Virtual Memory: The OS can provide the illusion of a large o Frames: Physical memory is divided into blocks of the
address space even on systems with limited physical memory, same size as the pages, called frames. Each page of a
using techniques like paging and swapping. process is loaded into a frame in physical memory.

Example of Address Space in a 32-bit System: 2. Page Table:

o A page table is a data structure used by the operating
In a 32-bit system, the logical address space is 4 GB (2^32 addresses). A
system to keep track of the mapping between a process's
typical layout might be:
pages and the corresponding frames in physical memory.
Each entry in the page table contains:
 0x00000000 to 0x0FFFFFFF: Kernel space (protected and
accessible only by the OS)  Frame Number: The frame number in physical
 0x10000000 to 0x7FFFFFFF: User space (used by user memory where the page is stored.
applications)
 Present Bit: Indicates whether the page is currently
 0x80000000 to 0xFFFFFFFF: Reserved for the OS and memory- loaded in memory.
mapped I/O
 Protection Bits: Define access rights (read, write,
When a program references an address, the OS translates it using a page execute) for the page.
table, segmentation table, or both, to determine the corresponding physical
address.  Dirty Bit: Indicates if the page has been modified.
3. Address Translation:
Address spaces provide a crucial abstraction in computing, allowing for
the efficient and secure execution of programs by separating logical and o Logical addresses generated by a program are divided into
physical memory. two parts: the page number and the offset within that page.
The page number is used to index the page table, which
24. Discuss in detail about paged memory management provides the frame number. The frame number is then
with example. combined with the offset to produce the physical address.

Paged memory management is a memory management scheme that o Logical Address Format: (Page Number, Offset)
eliminates the need for contiguous allocation of physical memory, thereby o Physical Address Format: (Frame Number, Offset)
reducing fragmentation and increasing flexibility in memory allocation.
Paging divides both the logical and physical memory into fixed-size 4. Page Fault:
blocks, called pages and frames, respectively. This system allows the
physical address space to be used more efficiently. o A page fault occurs when a program tries to access a page
that is not currently loaded into physical memory (i.e., the
present bit is not set). When a page fault happens, the
operating system loads the required page from disk (swap
space) into a free