GANDHI MEDICAL COLLEGE BHOPAL

gksrk

X-RAY NOTES
RAHUL SINGH

2016

MOBILE-9424483742 BHOPAL
 INDEX
S.NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
01 X-RAY OF HISTORY 03
02 DEFINATION OF X-RAY 06
03 PROPERTIES OF X-RAY 07
04 RADIATION 09
05 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF X-RAY 10
06 GENERATORS 13
07 X-RAY TUBE 20
08 DISCRIBE ABOUT PRODUCTION OF X-RAY 26
09 X-RAY dh QUALITY vkSj QUANTITY dks dkSu&dkSu ls dkjd 29
10 X-RAY BEAM RESTRICATORS 33
11 BED SIDE RADIOGRAPHY 35
12 GRID 38
13 RADIATION HAZARD’S 42
14 T.L.D. BADGE 49
15 TEN DAY RULE / PREGNANT RULE 52
16 DARK ROOM 54
17 FILM PROCESSING 59
18 AUTOMATIC PROCESSING 65
19 CASSETTE 69
20 INTENSIFYING SCREEN 71
21 FILM 76
22 FORMATION OF LATENT IMAGE 83
23 DISPOSAL OF USE CHEMICAL 85
24 FOGGING 88
25 FILTRATION 90
26 HANGERS 93
27 MEDICO LEGAL CASE 96
28 EMERGENCY RADIOGRAPHY 97
29 IMAGE INTENSIFIER TELEVISION 98
30 CONTRAST MEDIA 102
31 COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY 106
32 DISTAL RADIOGRAPHY 108
33 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY 110

2
Q 1. Write the historical aspect of x-ray in discrive it ?
Ans.- X-ray dh [kkst loZizFke German physicist(W.C. Roentgen)
Wilhelm Conard Roentgen us 08 Nov. 1895 esa dh FkhA
os vius Lab esa Cathode X-ray Tube esa Present xSlksa ds Molecules dk
v/;;u dj jgs FksA vkSj ;gh v/;;u djrs&djrs mUgksus X-ray dh [kkst dhA
Historical Aspect- Sir W.C. Roentgen 08 Nov. 1895 dks viuh Lab esa
fuokZr Cathode Ray Tube esa cph gqbZ xSlksa ds Moleculs dk v/;;u dj
jgs FksA og Tube ,d dkWp dh uyh tSlk FkkA ftlesa iwjh rjg fuokZr j[kk
x;k FkkA bl Tube ds vUnj mUgksaus nks Platinum ds Electrode nksuks rjQ
yxk fn, vkSj ,d rjQ ls High Voltage dk Current Discharge djuk
’kq: dj fn;kA blds FkksM+h nsj ckn mUgksus Cathode Ray Tube esa ls Foint
Light fudyrs gq,s ns[kkA ro mUgksua s ;g lkspk fd Tube iwjh rjg fuokZr gSA
Tube esa uk xSlksa ds Molecules vkSj u Electone vanj tk jgs gSA vkSj uk
Electon ckgj vk jgs gSA vr% vkxs ds v/;;u ds fy, mUgkaus s bl Tube dks
,d Black Box esa can dj fn;k fQj Voltage dk Current Discharge
djus ij fQj ls Foint Light Produce gksdj Box ls ckgj fudyus yxhA
blds ckn mUgksaus vius Lab ds lHkh Light Off dj fn,s vkSj fQj ls High
Voltage dk Current Discharge djus ij mUgksaus ;g ns[kk fd ftl
Table ij Tube j[kh gqbZ Fkh mlesa rhu fQV dh nwjh ij j[kk gqvk ,d
dkxt dk VqdM+k ftl ij Baarium Platino Cynaide dh Layer Coated
dh FkhA blds ckn mUgksua s ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyk fd Tube vkSj Box ls u
Electrone vkSj u xSlks ds Molcules vanj vk jgs gS vkSj u ckgj tk jgs
gSAa cfYd dksbZ vKkr fofdj.k Tube ls fudydj dkxt ds ihl dks pedk
jgh gSA vkSj izrhnhfIr mRiUUk dj jgh gSaA vr% mUgksaus bl vKkr fofdj.k dks

3
X-Ray uke fn;kA bl izdkj X-Ray dh [kkst gqbZA blds ckn Roentgen us
Tube vkSj Paper pice ds chp esa Lab dk lkeku tSl& s Box, Plate,Matle
dh phts] bZV] ydM+h vkfn dks j[kdj ns[kk rks dqN phtksa dh Paper Pice ij
Image cu jgh FkhA vkSj dqN dh ugha var esa mUgksaus vius Hand dks Tube
vkSj Paper Pice ds chp esa j[kdj ns[kk vkSj dkxt ds Pice ij buds
Hand ds Skeleton dh Image cu xbZA vkSj mUgksua s bl izdkj X-Ray dh
[kkst dh fd X-Ray dqN phtksa dks Hksn ldrh gSa vkSj dqN dks ugha bl izdkj
X-Ray dh fo’ks"krkvksa dks izfrikfnr fd;k x;kA

4
5
 Defination of X-ray-
Sir W.C. Roentgen usa X-ray dh [kkst ds ckn X-ray dks fuEufyf[kr :Ik
ls Define fd;kA
X-ray are electromagnetic wave of very short wave length
produce by Sudden Deceleration of Electons Coming from
Cathode to Anode in Tube by Conversion of there Kinetic
Energy in to X-ray energy.
;g fo|qr; pqEodh; rajxsa gksrh gSA ftudh rajx nS/;Z cgqr de gksrh gSaA ;g
Tube esa mifLFkr Cathode ls Anode dh vksj tc Electron tkrs gS]
rc mudh mtkZ esa vpkud deh vk tkrh gSaA vkSj Anode ls Electon
Vdjkus ds ckn budh xfrt mtkZ esa deh vk tkrh gSA vkSj budh xfrt mtkZ
dk :ikUrj.k X Energy esa gks tkrk gSaA

6
Properties of X-Ray-
Sir W.C. Roentgen us 08 Nov. 1895 esa X-Ray dh [kkst djus ds
yxHkx ,d efgus ckn 28 Dec. 1895 dks X-Ray dh Properties dks
izfrikfnr fd;k tks fuEufyf[kr gSaA
1. X- Ray ;g electromagnetic waves gksrh gSA
2- X- Ray ;g Short wave length okyh gksrh gSaA
3. ;g izdk’k dh xfr vFkkZr¼3x108 m/s½ dh xfr ls xeu djrh gSaA
4. budh Energy 25 kv ls 125 kv gksrh gSaA
5. ;g Chemical ds lkFk Chemicaly Reaction djrh gSaA
6. X-Ray ;g Agbr rFkk AgI ds lkFk Photographic Effect mRiUu
djrh gSaA
7. X-Ray ;g Body Part dh Thickness ,density vkSj Automic
Number ds vuqlkj Penetrate djrh gSaA
8. budh Penetration Power vf/kd (High) gksrh gSaA
9. ;g Body Part ds Thickness,Density, And Automic Number
ds vuqlkj Patient ds Body Part esa Absorb gksrh gSAa
10. ;g Invisible gksrh gSaA
11. ;g Silver Halide ds lkFk Chemical Reaction djrh gSaA
12. ;g lh/kh js[kk esa Move ¼xeu½ djrh gSaA

7
13. budh Wave Length Renges 0.1-0.5 A0 gksrh gSaA
14. X-Ray Thermolumiscent Material ds lkFk Reaction dj
Light Produce djrh gSAa
15. ;g Toxic Effect iSnk djrh gSA X-Ray tho tUrq ds Soft Tissue
dks Penetrated djrh gSaA

8
 Radiation:-
Radiation energy dk ,d izdkj gS tc fuokZr esa ;k [kkyh txg esa xSl
,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku esa xeu djrh gS] rks bl izdkj xeu djrs gq, dksbZ
Hkh xSlksa dk Molecules tks Energy Releas djrk gSA mls Radiation
dgrs gSA
Radiation esa fHkUu&fHkUu izdkj dh Rays vkrh gSA ;g Rays, α , β, γ, vkSj
X-Rays gksrh gSA ;g Rays viuh Wave Length vkSj Penetration
Power ds vuqlkj Living Beings ij Toxic Effect or Biological
effect mRiUu djrh gSA ;g Effect muds Ionization Power ij fuHkZj
djrk gSA
Radiation dks Two type esa devide djrs gSA
I. Ionizing Radiation
II. Non Ionizing Radiation

I. Ionizing Radiation:- budks fuEu Parts esa devide djrs gSA

A. Particulate
B. Non Particulate

A. Particulate Radiation
(i) Alpha Particles
(ii) Thermal Neutrons
(iii) Cronic Rays
(iv) Proton Particles
B. Non Ionizing Radiation :- bl izdkj dk Radiation Solid
From esa gksrk Gsa

9
 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF X-RAY
X-Ray dh Penetration Power ls tho tUrq ij bldk gkfudkjd
izHkko mRiUu gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ ;g Soft Tissue dks Pentrate dj muds
Organs esa Nucleus ds Chromosome esa mifLFkr Gene esa Gene
mutation iSnk djrh gSA ftlls Biologycal Effect iSnk gksrk gSA ftls
fuEufyf[kr Parts esa devide fd;k tkrk gSA
1. Somatic effect
2. Genetic Effect

1. Sometic effect :- ;g Two types dk gksrk gSA

I. Stochastic effect
II. Non Stochastic effect

i. Stochastic effect:- ;g low of probability ¼laHkkouk½ ij

work djrk gSA Living beings ij Radiation iM+us ij bldk
effect gks Hkh ldrk gS] vkSj ugh Hkh gks ldrk gSA
ii. Non stochastic effect:- blesa X-ray dk effect fdlh Hkh izdkj
dk ugha fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA
Stochastic effect two type dk gksrk gSA
1. Short term Stochastic somatic effect
2. Long term Stochastic sometic effect

10
 i. Short term Stochastic somatic effect:- og effect tc X-
ray Radiation body ij iM+us ds ckn bldk effect dqN le; ds
ckn rqjUr fn[kkbZ ns rks bl izdkj ds effect dks Short term
Stochastic somatic effect dgrs gSA

Example:- Headache, Eyes pain , Itching of skin ,

Nausea, Vometing.

ii. Long term Stochastic sometic effect:- og effect tc X-

ray Radiation body ij iM+us ds ckn bldk effect rqjUr uk fn[kkbZ
nsdj yEcs vUrjky ds ckn fn[kkbZ ns] vFkkZr~ ,d eghus ckn ;k ,d lky
ckn fn[kkbZ ns ml effect dks Long term Stochastic sometic
effect dgrs gSA

Example:- Blood Leukumia, Loos of Hair,

Pigmentation, Weak Eye light
Dryness of skin e.t.c.
2. Genetic Effect:- X-ray radiation Human being ij iM+us ij
bldk Toxic effect mRiUu gksrk gS] ftlls Body Parts damage
gksuk ’kq: gks tkrs gS] ijUrq vxj Radiation field es dke djus ckys
Workers, Radiologyst, & Radiographer vkSj Staff member
ds Reproductive organs.
Example:-
Female es :- Uterus, cervice , Fallopain tube, ovary,
Ovam & Vagina.

11
Male es :- Scortum, Testies ij X-ray radiation transmit
gksus ij bu Organs ds Nucleus es mifLFkr Cromosome
ij ik;s tkus okys Gene es Gene Mutration Cause mRiUu gks
tkrk gS ftlesa Sugarphosphate bond dk dze VwV tkrk gS] vkSj
vkus ckyh ih<+h ij bldk Genetic effect mRiUu gksrk gS] vFkkZr~
Abnormal body vkSj Mantly regarded vFkkZr~ cPpksa esa tUe tkr
fod`fr gks tkrh gSA

12
 -: GENERATORS:-

X-Ray Generators og device gS] tks x-ray tube dks electric

power supply djrk gS] ;g electrically generator ugh gS]
cfYd ;g Meachnical energy dks electicaly energy es change
djrk gS vf/kdrj Radiology Department es 3 phase
generators dk use fd;k tkrk gSA ftldh Capicity 203 volt ls
230 volt gksrh gS] ;g X-ray tube dks mldh capicity ds vuqlkj
electrical energy provide djrk gSA

X-ray Generators dk use fuEu dkj.kksa ls djrs gSA

1. Tube ds cathode es fLFkr filament dks xeZ djus ds fy,

ftlls electron mRlftZr gksA
2. Cathode ls Anode dh vksj electron rsth ls tkus ds fy,]
bl izR;sd dk;Z ds fy, Generator esa filament vkSj high
voltage circuit mifLFkr jgrs gSA
rhljk Circuit X-ray exposure dh length fu/kkZfjr djrk gSA
(i ) Transformar
(ii) Diode
(iii) Triode
(iv) Electric fire
(v) Autotransformar

13
Autotransformar:- X-ray Generator dh ;kaf=dh ds vuqlkj
bls Two compartment es devide fd;k
tkrk gSA
¼1½ Control Penal
¼2½ Transformar Assembly

¼1½ Control Penal:- ;g x-ray tube generators dk

Important part gSA blds }kjk Patient dh thickness ds
vuqlkj kvp, mAs set fd;s tkrs gSA
control penal es fuEu buttons ikbZ tkrh gSA
¼a½ kVp- pre reading peak kilo volt
¼b½ mAs – mili Ampere second
¼c½ On & off
¼d½ Stand by (readies) button
¼e½ x-ray exposure
¼f½ Voltage control button.

14
Stand by (readies) button:-X-ray tube dks X-ray exposure
ds fy, Stand by dh button readies djrs gSA bl button dks
nckus ij tube ds cathode es fLFr filament heat gksus yxrs gS] vkSj
Anode dk Rotation ’kq: gks tkrk gSA vFkkZr~ ;g electrons dks xfr’khy
djrk gS] ;g button nckus ij Moving gride 1 c.m. ls 3 c.m. vkxs
ihNs move djus yxrh gS] bl button dks nckus ds ckn gh blds uhps
fLFkr X-ray exposure button nckrs gS] ftlls X-ray photon
Radiographic examination ds fy, x-ray tube ls ckgj fudyrs gSA

Transformer :- ;g og midj.k gS tks tube es fLFkr ;k

generator es fLFkr circuit dks voltage ?kVkrk gS ;k c<+krk gS]
Transformer Alternating current dks D.C. current es change
djrk gS] Transformer Assembly grounded metal box gksrk gS]
ftlesa pep oil Hkjk jgrk gS] blesa filament circuit ds fy, low
voltage circuit vkSj High voltage transformer vkSj Rectifire dk
use high voltage circuit ds fy, gksrk gSA
Transformer esa nks coil gksrh gS] tks closed core ds pkjks vksj fyiVs
jgrs gS] ;g core rectangle step es gksrs gSA
¼1½ Primary coil:- tks circuit 1st coil ls cuk gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ tks izkIr
gks jgh energy dk lzkrs gksrk gS] mls primary coil dgrs gSA

15
¼2½Secondary coil:- tks circuit 2nd coil ls cuk gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ tks
ifjofrZr gks jgh electrical energy ls tqM+k gksrk gS] mls secondary
coil ;k secondary circuit dgrs gSA
Tkc current primary coil ls izHkkfgr gksrk gS] rc iw.kZ :Ik ls magnetic
field mRiUu djrk gS] ;g magnetic field secondry coil esa current
pass djrk gSA
Secondry coil es current rHkh flow gksrk gS] tc magnetic field
transformer es Alternating current dk use blfy, fd;k tkrk gS]
D;ksfd ;g voltage es fHkUurk n’kkZrk gSAa

16
-: Low of Transformer:-
¼1½ nksuks circuit es voltage nksuks rjQ fyiVh gqbZ coil dh la[;k ds cjkcj
gksrk gSA

Np Vp
Ns Vs
Np= Number of terms in primary coil
Ns= Number of terms in secondry coil
Vp= Voltage in primary coil
Vs= Voltage in secondry coil

(2) VpIp = VsIs

Vp = Voltage in primary coil

Ip = Current in primary coil
Vs = Voltage in secondry coil
Is = Current in secondry coil

Types of transformer :-
(a) High voltage circuit
(I)Auto transformer:- ;g control penal es kVp
selector dk dk;Z djrk gSA

17
Function of Auto transformer :- X-ray tube
es mifLFkr filament dks voltage provide djrk gS] ;g high
voltage transformer dks Hkh voltage provide djrk gSA

Step up transformer :- bl transformer esa primary

coil ls T;knk secondry coil fyiVh jgrh gS] rFkk ;g secondry coil
es voltage c<k+rk gS] rFkk current ?kVkrk gSA

18
1.Filament Curcuit:- bl curcuit es Filament ds }kjk X-ray
tube dks continouse current supply fd;k tkrk gS] Filament dh
coil Tungesten /kkrq ls fyiVh jgrh gS] tc Filament heat gksrk gS] rc
electron emitted ¼mRlftZr½ gksrs gS ];g continuouse 3-5 Ampere
rFkk 10 volt dk voltage provide djrk gS] ;g 10 volt dk voltage
flQZ filament dks heat djrk gSA

2.Step down transformer:- X-ray tube filament dks

heat djus ds fy, NksVs step down transformer dk use fd;k tkrk gS]
vkSj blh step down transformer ds }kjk current ;k power
supply fd;k tkrk gSA
Filament transformer mlh oil ls Hkjs mattle box es j[krs gS] ftlesa
high voltage transformer j[kk tkrk gS] bldk use supply esa 10&12
volt ds fo|qr {kerk dks de djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

Transformer esa pep oil dk mi;ksx fuEu Reason ls fd;k tkrk gSA
¼1½Binding ds chp esa Isolation ¼fpdukbZ½ dks c<+kus ds fy,A
¼2½Transformer dks Dust ls cpkus ds fy,A
¼3½ ;g cooling Agent dk dke djrk gS ] vFkkZr~ filament dks full djus
dk dke djrk gSA

19
X-Ray tube :- Cathode X-ray tube scientist
Coolidge us lu~ 1903 esa cukbZ Fkh ] buds }kjk cukbZ xbZ tube
Radiographic principle ij vk/kkfjr FkhA
ijUrq Modern X-ray tube lu~ 1913 esa cukbZ xbZ Fkh]
ftldk vktdy use fd;k tkrk gS] blds [kkstdrkZ ¼Invertar½
Coolidge FksA

20
X-Ray tube ;g Pyrex Glass dh cuh gksrh gSa] ftlesa vanj iwjh rjg
fuokZr ¼Vaccume½ gksrk gSA
1- Pyrex Glass esa pVdus dh {kerk cgqr de gkrh gSA
2- ;g Heat dks Absorbe dj ysrk gS] Glass dh outing covring ij
Lead Metle dh Coting jgrh gS] Lead ,d ek= ,slh /kkrq gS] tks X-
ray Photon dks Absorb dj ysrh gS ] X-Ray tube esa Vaccum
Important gS] D;ksfd vxj Glass esa Gases Present gksrh gS] rc
Electron Gases ds Molecules dks vk;fur dj nsrs gS] ftlls
Secondry Electron produce gksrs gSAa

X-Ray tube esa fuEu Part ik;s tkrs gSA

1- Diode
2- Cathode
3- Anode

1- Diode:- bles Tungestun Filament gksrk gS] Tungeus

Targate Hkh Anode esa jgrk gS] blesa nks Circuit gksrs gS] tks
Filament dks heat djrs gSa] ;g Circuit electron dks Cathode ls
Anode dh vksj Hkstus ds fy, gksrk gSA
2- Cathode:- Cathode electron dk soures gksrk gS] ;g
Electron gksrk gS] ftl ij Negative charge ik;k tkrk gS] blesa
Cathode dks support ds fy, nks cathode shaft yxs gksrs gS ]
rFkk Cathode Eksa ,d Focussing cup ik;k tkrk gS] tks cup ds
vkdkj dk gksrk gS] ;g Focussing cup Nikil /kkrq dk cuk gksrk gS]
bl Focussing cup esa nks Tungeustann filament fit jgrs gS
]ftlesa ls ,d NksVk vkSj ,d cM+k Tungeustann filament fit jgrk
21
 gS] tc gesa Large Exposure nsuk gksrk gS] rc Large
Tungeustann filament heat gksrk gS] vkSj tc Short
Exposure dh t:jr gksrh gS] rc Small Tungeustann
filament heat gksrk gSA

Tungsten /kkrq dk use fuEufyf[kr fo’ks"krkvksa ds dkj.k X-ray

tube esa filament ds :Ik esa fd;k tkrk gSA

1- bldk High Automic Number 74 gksrk gSA

2- bldk High Melting point yxHkx 3370 gksrk gSA
vFkkZr~ ;g brus rki ij tkdj gh ;g Melt gksrk gSA
3- bles Hkki cuus dh izfofRr cgqr de gksrh gS] izR;sd Tungsten
filament ds coil ds Diameter yxHkx 0-2 mm vkSj 1 cm gksrk gSA
X-ray tube ds Hkkgj Al filter fit jgrk gS] D;ksfd Al filter ;g
Long weve length dh x-ray beam dks Damage dj nsrh gS] D;ksfd
Exposure ds fy, long wave length okys X-ray dh vko’;drk ugh
gksrh gS] tofd short wave length okyh gh X-ray body dks
penetrate dj nsrh gS] vr% Al filter dk use x-ray tube es fd;k tkrk
gSA

4- Anode:- X-ray tube esa Cathode ds opposite side es ,d

electrode fit fd;k tkrk gS] ftl ij positive charge ik;k tkrk
gS] bl Anode dks support ds fy, nks Anode shaft yxs gksrs gS]
Anode esa supporting disk cu dh cuh gksrh gS] cu ,d ,slh /kkrq
gS] tks tYnh heat gksdj tYnh B.Mh gks tkrh gS] cu dk melting
point 1070 gksrk gS] ;g tube esa cooling Agent dk dk;Z djrh
22
 gS] bl Disk ds vUr esa ,d Tungsten Targate plate fit jgrh gS]
;g Hkh tungsten dh properties ds dkj.k use dh tkrh gS] bl
tungsten Plate es ,d center point dk spot gksrk gS] bls focal
spot dgrs gSaA
;g yxHkx 0-5 mm size dk gksrk gS] cathode ls electron dh
streem blh focal spot ij strike gksrh gS] vkSj X-ray photon esa
change gksrh gS] Anode shaft ,d x-ray tube ckyh machine esa
ik;k tkrk gS] tks 30 mA dh gksrh gS] ftls portable x-ray
machine dgrs gSSA
Tungsten /kkrq dk use fuEufyf[kr fo’ks"krkvksa ds dkj.k X-ray
tube esa filament ds :Ik esa fd;k tkrk gSA

1- bldk High Automic Number 74 gksrk gSA

2- bldk High Melting point yxHkx 3370 0c gksrk gSA
vFkkZr~ ;g brus rki ij tkdj gh ;g Melt gksrk gSA
3- bles Hkki cuus dh izfofRr cgqr de gksrh gS]

Cathode ls Anode dh nwjh yxHkx 1&3 cm gksrh gS] vkSj electron dks
;g nwjh r; djus esa 10&10 second dk le; yxrk gSA

X-ray tube fuEufyf[kr five type dh gksrh gSA

1- Heave duty x-ray tube

2- Grid controller x-ray tube

3- Metal ceramic x-ray tube

4- Memography x-ray tube

5- Super rotalix ceramic 120 x-ray tube

23
 1. Rotating Anode X-ray Tube:- Modern X-ray machine essa
05 ls 06 % Rhenium dks Tungsten matle ds lkFk Mix fd;k
tkrk gS] tks Anode dks damage gksus ls protect djrk gS] blesa
Anode dk rotation 3000 rpm ls 9000 rpm gksrk gSa ] ftrus
Aria esa electron dh bumbari gksrh gS] og Tungsten dk targate
Actual size dgykrk gS
Rotating Anode dk use high mA dh machine esa fd;k tkrk
gSA

FIGURE :- ROTATING ANODE

24
Stationary Anode:- bl Anode esa ,d NksVh Tungsten plate
ftldh Thickness 2&3 mm gksrh gS] fQV jgrh gS] ;g plate cu disk esa
yxh jgrh gSA Tungsten plate dk shape square ;k rectangle gks
ldrk gS] rFkk Anode dk Angle 18 ls 200 gksrk gSA

X-ray tube fuEufyf[kr five type dh gksrh gSA

1- Heave duty x-ray tube
2- Grid controller x-ray tube
3- Metal ceramic x-ray tube
4- Memography x-ray tube
5- Super rotalix ceramic 120 x-ray tube

25
 Discribe about production of X-ray
x-ray dk production fuEu nks procedure ls x-ray tube esa gksrk gSA
1- Tkc Targate material tungsten ij cathode ls vk;s gq,s High
speed electron Anode ds tungsten plate ij strike gksrs gSA
2- Tkc cathode vkSj Anode ds nksuks fljks ij potencial difference
;k energy esa varj vk tkrk gS] rc x-ray dk production gksrk gSA

Electron dh energy vkSj speed eas change vkus ij Targate

Plate ls X-ray photon produce gksrh gS] tks Al filter ls ckgj
fudyrh gSA
Tkc cathode vkSj Anode ds nksuks fljks ij ÅtkZ esa varj
vk tk;s rc electron dh xfr esa deh vk tkrh gS] ;g Potancial
difference kV gS] ftl ij Tube oprate fd;k tkrk gS] ftls kV
dgrs gSA
Tkc electron cathode ij mRIkUu gksrs gS] rc High
potancial difference ds dkj.k mues Ik;kZIr energy jgrh gS]
ftlls og Anode dh vkSj high speed ls move djsxh ] D;ksfd
muesa kinetic energy gksrh gSA

Space charge effect:- Potancial Difference ds dkj.k

electron Anode dh vksj tkrs gS] tc
electron dks i;kZIr energy ls vf/kd energy izkIr gksrh gS] rc og
Anode dh vksj tkrs gS] ;gkW ls Electron dk conversion X-ray
photon esa gksrk gS] ;gh electron filament ls vU; electron dks

26
mRiUu ugh gksus nsrs gS] vkSj vf/kd energy vkus rd viuk space ugh
NksM+rs gS] blh effect dks Space charge effect dgrs Gsa

X-ray dk Genaration fuEu nks rjhdks ls X-ray tube esa gksrk gSA

1- Bremsstralung Radiation ( Braking Genral Radiation )

2- Characteristic Radiation

Bremsstralung Radiation ( Braking Genral

Radiation ) :- Bremsstralung Radiation ( Braking
Genral Radiation) ds vuqlkj tc High speed ckys electron
tungsten target ij strike gksrs gS] rc Targate dk Nucleus dk
possative charge electron ds Negative charge ij dk;Z djrk
gSA
,sls electron ftudh energy +1MeV (mili electron
volt ) ls vf/kd gksrh gS] rc og Direct Nucleus esa enter gksrk
gS] D;ksfd nks Possetive charge ,d nwljs dks attract djrs gS]
;gkW high speed okys electron dqN second :d tkrs gS] vkSj
Nucleus bls Neutralized dj nsrk gS] vFkkZr~ Negative
electron dks possative esa change dj nsrs gSa] D;ksfd nks leku
vkos’k ,d nwljs dks izfrdf"kZr djrs gS] vr% Nucleus ls ;g
energy ysdj fdlh vU; Direction esa X-ray photon ds :Ik esa
fudyrk gS] ,sls photon dh wave length de gksrh gS] vkSj
panitration power vf/kd gksrk gS] pqEcdh; xfr’khy electron
Nucleus esa enter gksdj viuh kinetic energy dks X-ray
energy esa change dj nsrk gSaA
27
Characteristic Radiation:- tc electron dh energy -
1meV (mili electron volt ) ls de gksrh gS] rks og Tungsten Atom,
Outer orbit esa fLFkr electrons dks viuh energy ns nsrk gS] D;ksfd ml
electron esa Nucleus ds ikl tkus ds fy, Ik;kZIr energy ugh jgrh gS]a
vr% Outer orbit ds electron grope cuk ysrs gS] vkSj electron atom
esa jump djuk ’kq: dj nsrk gS] vkSj mls Nucleus nwj ls gh Neutralized
djdss vU; Direction esa Hkst nsrk gS] bl izdkj secondry electron }kjk
X-ray produce gksrh gS] ftudh wave length vf/kd gksrh gS] vkSj
penetration power de gksrk gS] bl izdkj ds Radiation dks
Characteristic Radiation dgrs gSA

28
Q. - X-ray dh Quality vkSj Quantity dks dkSu&dkSu ls
dkjd ¼Factor½ izHkkfor djrs gS\

X-ray dh Quality vkSj Quantity dks fuEufyf[kr dkjd izHkkfor djrs gSA

1- kVp ( peak kilo volt )

2- mAs (mili Ampere second )
3- Thickness of targate material
4- F.F.D. (focal film distance)
5- Temperature
6- Long time fixing
7- Safe light
8- Range composition of Developer
9- Oxidation

1.kVp ( peak kilo volt ):- kVp dh range 30kVp ls

150kVp rd gksrh gS] ysfdu Diagnostic Radiography esa
30kVp ls 100kVp rd use fd;k tkrk gS] kVp increase djus
ij radiation dh penetration power increase gksrh gS] ;g ,d
vdsyk contrast Determination djus okyk most important
factor gSA

kVp bruk gksuk pkfg, fd body dks inter dj film rd igWqp

lds] kVp image contrast vkSj exposure latitude effected djrk
gS] kVp low gksus ij electron dk attraction or movement
cathode ls anode dh side vf/kd gksxkA

29
 kVp high gksus ij electron dk attraction or movement
cathode ls anode dh side de gksxkA
vr% x-ray dk production vkSj penetration power bl
kVp ij depend djrk gSA
;fn kVp high gS] rks X-ray dh wave length short gksxh vkSj
bldk Penetration power high gksxkA
;fn kVp low gS] rks X-ray dh wave length long gksxh vkSj
bldk Penetration power low gksxk A

bl izdkj ge dg ldrs gS fd X-ray dh quality dks kVp ds }kjk

control fd;k tkrk gSA

2. mAs (mili Ampere second ):- mAs tube current

vkSj exposure time dk xq.kuQy gksrk gS] ;g use fd;s x;s
radiation dks crkrk gS] mAs film dh blackness ds fy, ftEesnkj
gksrk gS] film dh density mAs ij depend djrh gS] ;g film dh
density dks control djrk gS] mAs cathode esa present
filament esa tks current fn;k tkrk gS] ml ij depend djrk gS]
;fn cathode esa emit gksus okys electron dh la[;k T;knk gks rks
bldk eryc ;g gS fd fn;k x;k current high gS] ftlls cathode
ls vf/kd la[;k esa electron anode dh vksj igqpsax]s vkSj mruh la[;k
esa X-ray produce gksxh] bl izdkj ls ge ;g dg ldrs gS fd X-ray
quality mAs determination (fu/kkZfjr) djrk gSA

30
3. Thickness of targate material:- X-ray dh
Quantity targate material dh thickness ij depend djrh gS]
patient dh thickness ds vuqlkj kVp , mAs set fd;s tkrk gS]
ftlls image sharpness vkrh gS] patient dh thickness vf/kd
gksus ij vf/kd mAs vkSj kVp nsuk pkfg,s ]
vkSj vxj patient dh thickness de gS rc ges de factor
set djuk pkfg,s vFkkZr~ de mAs vkSj kVp nsuk pkfg,s ] ftlls fd x-
ray dh quality esa [kjkch u vk;sAa

4. F.F.D. (focal film distance):- Focal film distance

}kjk X-ray dh
quality fu/kkZfjr dh tkrh gS] Distance de ;k T;knk gksus ij
image Eksa sharpness ugh vkrh gSA
tSl%s & Chest ds fy, Distance & 6 Fit ,

Table top ij fd;s tkus okys X-ray esa 90 c.m. dk distance gksuk
pkfg,A
vxj distance de jgrk gS rc magnification vf/kd gks tkrk gS]
vkSj image cM+h fn[kkbZ nsrh gS] rFkk blh ds foijhr vxj distance
vf/kd gksrk gS ]rc image NksVh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA

5. Temperature:- Developing esa mi;qDr Temprature 18-

24 rd gksuk pkfg,s ] cold developer ds lkFk Hydroquinone
dh Reaction de gks tkrh gS ]ftlls Radiography contrast vkSj
Density de gksrh gSA

31
6. Long time fixing:- Long time fixing ugh djuk
pkfg, ] D;ksfd Hypo emulsion layer brus beast time ls joint
gks tkrs gS] fd og washing ls Hkh ugh fudyrs gS] vr%
Radiography dks Broun discalration nsrk gS] long time rd
Fixing ls image dh Hkh bleaching gks tkrh gSA
7. Safe light:- Dark room esa safe light ls cgqr vf/kd light
nsus ij vkSj developing ds time film dks
ckj&ckj ns[kus ij vkSj loding bench vkSj safe light ds chp
Distance de gksus ij Hkh radiographic x- ray film dh quality
effected gksrh gSA

8. Range composition of Developer:- Developer esa

Range composition mix djus ij vkSj x-ray film dks long
time rd develop djrs jgus ls Hkh Radiography x-ray film dh
Quality effected gksrh gSA

9. Oxidation:- Film dks Developing ds le; Darkroom Eksa

long time rd [kqyh Air esa j[kus ls Hkh bldh Quality effected
gksrh gSA

Film dks Develope djrs le; vpkud Door open djus ij Film
esa Light yx tkrh gSA

Developing djrs le; passbox Hkh ugh [kksyuk pkfg,sA

32
 X-ray beam Restricators:-
Beam Restricators og device gS] ftuds }kjk X-ray beam ds
shape o Size dks Regulate fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gS] bls X-ray
tube ds Al filter dh opning esa Fit fd;k tkrk gSAa
X-ray beam Restricator three type ds gksrs gSA
1. Aperture Diaphragm
2. Cone & Cylinders
3. Collimeter’s (Shutter)

1. Aperture Diaphragm:- ;g Lead dh sheed ls cuk gksrk

gS]a ftlds center esa ,d hole gksrk gS] Hole dk size vkSj shape x-
ray beam ds shape o size dks Regulate fu/kkZfjr djrk gS] ysfdu
blds use ls large penumbra curk gS ] vr% long cone ij
Diaphragm attached djds penumbra dk size de fd;k tkrk
gS] ftlls cylinder ds ikl Hkh de gks tkrk gS ] ftlls Penumbra
de curk gSaA

2. Cone & Cylinders:- Cone ;g Lead Matle dk cuk gksrk gS]

blesa Åij dh vksj Plate uqek lajPkuk gksrh gS] vkSj chp esa Cone ik;k
tkrk gS] vkSj vkxs dk Structure Cone tSlk gksrk gS] bls tube dh
opning esa fit fd;k tkrk gaS] bldk use eq[;r% Skull , Facial
bone , PNS , TM joint ds X-ray ysus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS] bldk
Advantage ;g gS fd blds }kjk mruh gh Aria esa X-ray beam
Hksth tkrh gS ] ftrus Aria dh Image gesa pkfg,s gksrh gSA

33
3. Collimeter’s (Shutter):-;g Tube dh opning esa fit
fd;k tkrk gS] ;g pkj Lead plate ls cus gksrs gS] ;g pair esa
Indipently move djrs gS] vkSj Square vkSj Rectangle cukrs gS ]
Collimeter esa shutter S1, S2 yxs jgrs gS] vkSj blds Åij ,d
light fit jgrh gS] tks X-ray field ds Size ,oa shape dks center esa
djrk gS vkSj Window esa Glass ij + ¼Iyl½ symbol cuk jgrk gS
tks X-ray beam dh centring dks n’kkZrk gS] ;g S1 vkSj S2
Shutter beam timensons dks control djrk gS] Targate X-
ray tube vkSj light source ds lh/k esa jgrk gS] ;g Light 450
Angle ij >qdk jgrk gS] ftlls Light X-ray beam ds Focuse ij
fxjrh gSA

34
 BED SIDE RADIOGRAPHY

Bed side radiography( Emergency Radiography):-

Bed side radiography ds vUrZxr ,sls patient ds X-ray fy,
tkrs gS] tks Ward esa Admit jgrs gS] vkSj Radiography
Dipartment esa vkus esa vleFkZ jgrs gS] vr% ,sls Serius patient ds
X-ray djus ds fy, muds bed ij e’khu ys tkdj muds X-ray fd;s
tkrs gSaA

,sls X-ray ds fy, fuEu nks izdkj dh X-ray unit gksrh gSaA

1. Portable X-ray Machine

2. Mobile X-ray Machine

1. Portable X-ray Machine:- bldk structure box tSlk

gksrk gS ftlesa vanj X-ray tube fit jgrh gS] Portable X-ray
Machine dks Hand ls ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku ij Shift fd;k tk
ldrk gS]a Portable X-ray Machine dh range 15 ls 30 mA
gksrh gS] blds }kjk Chest , Cervical spine, Abdomen, Upper
limb, Lower limb ds X-ray fd,s tkrs gS] bl e’khu ds }kjk
vf/kdrj children ds X-ray fy, tkrs gSA

35
2. Mobile X-ray Machine:- bldk use ,sls X-ray ysus ds
fy, fd;k tkrk gS] tks Portable X-ray machine ds }kjk ugh gksrs
gSAa
tSl& s K.U.B. , P.N.S. , Skull , vertibra column pelvis vkfnA
Machine dh Range yxHkx 40 ls 60 mA rd gksrh gS] bl
Machine ds ikl gh Control Penal rFkk X-ray tube fLFkr gksrh
gS] rFkk Mobile X-ray machine esa uhps dh rjQ four wheel yxs
gksrs gSa] ftlds }kjk machine dks ,d ward ls nwljs ward esa shift
fd;k tkrk gSA

Precations:- 1. Stationary grid dk use djuk pkfg, ;k

Stationary grid patient vkSj Cassate ds chp esa
yxkbZ tkrh gS] tks fd Scatterd Radiation dks nwj djds Film dks
Fogg gksus ls cpkrk gSaA
2. X-ray djrs le; Cassate dks lgh izdkj ls yxkuk pkfg,] vFkkZr~
ge ftl part dk X-ray ys jgs gSA
3. Bed side x-ray djrs le; Radiation Protection dks viukuk
pkfg,s] tSl&
s Pelvis dk X-ray djrs le; Gonad ds Åij Lead
sheet j[kuk pkfg,]
4. X-ray djrs le; Radiographer ds }kjk Lead apron iguuk
pkfg,A
5. Patient ds Attendent dks Radiation field ls nwj j[kuk
pkfg,sA
6. Bed side X-ray djrs le; X-ray tube vkSj Radiographer
dh chp de ls de 6 Fit dk Distance gksuk pkfg,sA
7. Factor tSls fd kVp , mAs lgh Patient dh Thickness ds

36
 vuqlkj set djuk pkfg,] ckdh x-ray repeat u gksA
8. Bedside Radiogrphy djrs le; ;fn ejht dk og Part
ftldk fd gesa X-ray djuk gS] vxj og fgy jgk gS] rks ml Part
dks fLFkj dj ysuk pkfg,sA

37
 -:GRID:-
Introduction :- Grid dk Invension Dr. Gustav Bucky us lu~
1913 esa fd;k Fkk] Grid dk main function Scattered Radiation dks
Absorb or Remove djuk gS] ge tkurs gS fd Scattered Radiation
Secondry Radiation gksrk gS] vkSj Patient dh Radiography Image
dks uqdlku igqWpk ldrh gSA
Structure of Grid:- Grid ,d IysVuqek Structure gksrk gS] ftlesa
Lead strip’s yxh gksrh gS] ftldh Thickness 0.5 mm ls 0.05 mm gks
ldrh gS] rFkk ;g ,d nwljs ls dqN Distance ij fLFkr gksrh gS] rFkk nks
lead strip’s ds chp ds Distance dks Interspace dgrs gS] bl space esa
Al metle gksrk gS ] tks Trans radiation gksrk gS] blesa ls Primary X-
ray photon transmit gksrh gS] ;g Lead strip’s dks support nsrh gS]
Grid ds }kjk Secondry X-ray photon lead strip’s ds }kjk Absorb
gks tkrh gS] rFkk Primary Radiation ugh ds cjkcj Absorb gksrh gSA

Hight of the Lead Strip’s

Grid Ratio=
Distance Between Them

Usually Range From= 4:1 to 16:1

Grid ratio ;g lead strip’s dh ÅpkbZ vkSj mudh chp dh nwjh dk vuqikr
gksrk gSA
Types of Grid:- ;g fuEufyf[kr Two types dh gksrh gSA
1. Moving Grid
2. Stationary Grid

38
1.Moving Grid:- Moving Grid dh [kkst Dr. Hollis & Potter us lu~
1920 esa dh Fkh] ftls Potter bucky grid vkSj
Potter bucky dgk tkrk gS ftls vktdy flQZ bucky dgk tkrk gS] ;g
Generaly under the table fit jgrh gSa] rFkk tc Anode dk Rotation
1-3 c.m. ;g Grid vkxs ihNs move djus yxrh gSaA
rFkk bl Movin grid ds move djus ls Lead Strip’s dh
Shado /kq/kyh gksus yxrh gS] ftlls Radiography image esa Sharpness
rFkk vPNk Contrast fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA

Advantage:- Moving Grid ds Radiography esa fuEufyf[kr

Advantage gSaA

1. ;g vU; vuko’;d Scattered Radiation dks Absorb djrh gSA

2. ;g Lead Strip’s dh Shadow dks /kq/kyk djrh gSaA

Disadvantage:- 1. Moving grid cgqr Expensive gksrh gSaA

2. bldk use djus ij Patient dks High Radiation dose nsuk iM+rk
gSAa

39
2. Stationary Grid:- ;g ,d Plate uqek Structure gksrk gS] bldk
mi;ksx tc ge fdlh Patient ds Pelvis ;k
Abdomen ds X-ray ysus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS] ftlls Secondry
Radiation T;knk ugh QSyrk gS] rFkk bldk mi;ksx djus ij gesa T;knk
Radiation nsuk iM+rk gSaA vr% gesa Patient dks T;knk Exposure nsuk
iM+rk gSa] vr% bl Stationary Grid dk mi;ksx djus ij gesa Image dh
Quality ;k Patient dks T;knk Exposure nsus esa ls fdlh Hkh ,d dk R;kx
djuk iM+rk gSaA

Stationary Grid fuEufyf[kr rhu izdkj dh gksrh gSaA

1. Parallel Grid or Linear
2. Focussed Grid
3. Cross Grid

1. Parallel Grid or Linear:- bles Lead strip’s ,d nwljs ds

Paraller jgrh gSa] Parallel Grid dk use Mobile X-ray unit ds
lkFk Radiography esa Ward ;k Theater esa fd;k tkrk gSAa

40
2. Focussed Grid:- Focussed Grid dk fuekZ.k Lead Strips dks
Angle nsdj cuk;k tkrk gSAa

3.Cross Grid:- ;g Liner o Parallel Grid ls feydj cuh gksrh gS]

bldk Focussing Distance ,d gh gksrk gS] Cross grid dk Grid
Ratio nks Linear grid ds Ratio ds cjkcj gksrk gSa] ;g Oblique
Technique esa use ugh dh tkrh gS]a D;ksfd blesa X-ray tube dks
Angulation ugh nsrs gSaA

41
 -:Radiation Hazard’s:-

Introduction:- Radiation Hazard dk eryc Human body ds

Different part vkSj Organ’s ij gkfudkjd izHkko iM+rk gS] ftls
Radiation hazard dgrs gS] D;ksfd Ionising Radiation [kqyh vk[kksa ls
fn[kkbZ ugha nsrk gSa] vr% ykijokgh ojrus ij bldk cqjk effect mRiUu gksrk
gSAa
vr% X-ray dh [kkst gksus ds ckn vr% lu~ 1895 ds ckn iwjs World esa 23
Case Radiodermititis ds Case fn[kkbZ fn,sA
lu~ 1911 ls 1914 ds chp 54 eksrs flQZ Cancer ls gqbZ 193
Case esa Radiation dk cqjk izHkko fn[kkbZ fn;kA
vr% lu~ 1921 esa Radiation Hazard ds f[kyki Official
Action fy;k x;kA

N.C.R.P.( National Council of Radiation Protection ):- bl

Council }kjk ;g crk;k x;k fd Affective part dh izf—fr vkSj Type
ml part }kjk Radiation fdl izdkj Absorb djrk gSA

Radiation Hazard dh Degree fuEu ckrksa ij fuHkZj djrh gSaA

1. Total Dose
2. Dose rate
3. Age
Radiation Hazard dks N.C.R.P. esa nks Type esa Devide fd;k gSA
1. Internal Hazard
2. External Hazard

42
1.Internal Hazard:- blesa Radiation ds body ds vUnj igqWpus ij
bldk effect internal organs ij fn[kkbZ ns rks] bl izdkj dk
Radiation Internal Hazard dgykrk gSaA
blesa Highly penetration power okys X-ray photon
Skin dh epidermis dks Damage dj Internal organs dks Damage
dj ldrs gSaA

2.External Hazard:- X-ray photon body dh epidermis vkSj

Dermis dks Damage dj urticaria ;k skin disease cause djrs gSA

G.S.D.(Genetically significant dose):- ;g og dose gS tks

Population ds gj member ij igqWprk gS] vkSj Genetic chekjh
Produce djrk gS] ftlls Radiation dk effect ml person ij u
fn[kdj vkxs vkus okyh ih<+h esa fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] bls Genetic effect dgrs
gSAa pwWfd bldk Harmfull effect gksrk gSaA vr% bl Dose dks limit esa
j[kus ds fy, G.S.D. dks izfrikfnr fd;k tkrk gSA

I.C.R.P.( Internal Council Of Radiation Protaction):- lu~

1977 esa I.C.R.P. }kjk dose limitation dks izfrikfnr fd;k x;k] ftlds
fuEufyf[kr Feature gSA

1.Ionising Radiation dk use ugh fd;k tkuk pkfg,] tc rd fd mlds

ifj.kke ds ckjs esa tkudkjh u gks A

2. I.C.R.P. }kjk izR;sd Person ds fy, tks dose limit j[kh xbZ gS] mldks
fdlh Hkh fLFkfr esa ifjofrZr ugh fd;k tkuk pkfg,sA

43
Radiation Protection of Radiography Depatment:-
Radigraphy Department esa X-ray radiation ls cpus ds fy, ,sls
midj.k dk use fd;k tkuk pkfg, gS] tks Lead ds cus gks] Lead dk
Automic Number 82 gksrk gS] ;g ,d ek= ,slh /kkrq gS] tks X-ray
radiation dks absorb dj ysrh gS] vkSj Transmit ugh gksus nsrh gSa] vr%
X-ray department esa izR;sd Device lead ds cus gksus pkfg,A
Darkroom , X-ray machine room, loding-unloding
room vkSj city scaning dh nhokjks ij 1.5 m.m. lead equvelent
lead dh Thick layer pM+kbZ tkrh gS]a ftlls scattered photon nhokj
}kjk absorb gks tkrh gS] vkSj os le ls ckgj ugh tk ikrs gS x-ray
machine room esa floor cyling ij Hkh Lead layer pM+kbZ tkrh gS]
ftlls T;knk ls T;knk X-ray photon absorb gksA
rFkk x-ray machine :e esa x-ray tube control penal ls
06 meter nwj gksuk pkfg,] vkSj control penal ls lead sheet dh nwjh 2
meter gksuh pkfg,] rFkk ,d x-ray room esa dHkh Hkh ,d ls T;knk x-ray
machine ugh gksuk pkfg,] vkSj u gh ,d x-ray room esa dHkh Hkh ,d ls
T;knk x-ray tube gksuk pkfg,] control penal ds ikl fit dh xbZ lead
sheet esa yxHkx 1.5 m.m. lead equivalence lead layer coated gksuh
pkfg,] rFkk lead sheet ds lead glass esa yxHkx 1.5 m.m. lead
equivalence lead layer coated gksuh pkfg,] lead sheet x-ray tube
ls 6 meter dh nwjh ij gksuk pkfg,A
Radiographer rFkk Radiologist }kjk iguus okys lead
Apron esa lead layer dh thickness yxHkx 0.25 m.m. lead
equivalence gksuh pkfg,] bldh thickness 0.15 m.m. ls 0.25 m.m.
rd gks ldrh gS] vkSj Radiographer rFkk Radiologist }kjk iguus okys
lead Apron dk weight 2kg ls 14 kg rd gks ldrk gSA
44
Fluoroscopy dh screen esa baack side dh nhokj esa 1.5 m.m. lead
equivalence lead layer coated gksuh pkfg,] rFkk Fluoroscopy dh
screen esa 1.5 m.m. lead equivalence lead layer coated gksuh
pkfg,] rFkk glass esa Hkh 1.5 m.m. lead layer coated gksuh pkfg,] rFkk
Radiologist ,oa Radiographer }kjk iguus okys lead gloves esa 0.25
m.m. lead equivalence lead layer coated gksuh pkfg,] rFkk
Fluoroscopy esa use fd, tkus okys lead goggle esa 0.5 m.m. lead
equivalence lead layer coated gksuh pkfg,A

Protactive Flaps:- ;g Radiologist ;k Radiographer }kjk use esa

ykbZ tkus okyh og Device gS] ftldk use fluoroscopy on jgus ij
fd;k tkrk gS] ;g ,d plate uqek structure gksrk gS] ftls fluoroscopy
screen esa attech djds j[krs gS] ;g radiologist ;k radiographer
vius reproductive organ’s dks protect djus ds fy, bldk use fd;k
tkrk gS] ftlls extra radiation ls organs protect jgrs gS] bldk
size 45×45 c.m. gksrk gSA
C.T.Scaning room dh glass dh f[kM+dh esa 2 m.m. ls 3
m.m. lead dh layer coated jgrh gS] bl izdkj radiologist
department esa vuko’;d x-ray photon ls protect jgus ds fy, lead
protect device dk use djuk pkfg,] vkSj patient dks high exposure
ugh nsuk pkfg,] ftlls fd T;knk scatterd radiation u yxsA
Exposure ds le; Patient ds vykok fdlh vkSj dks x-ray
machine room esa ugh vkus nsuk pkfg,] vkSj Patient dks radiation
dose fuEu rjhds ls de nsuk pkfg,A
1. Low tube current
2. Fast Intensifying screen dk use djuk pkfg,A
45
3. tgkW rd lEHko gks Image Intensifier dk use djuk pkfg,A
4. X-ray beam size dks limit esa j[kuk pkfg,A
5. Proper filter dk use djuk pkfg,A
6. Radiologist & Radiographer dks Exposure ds time viuh
eye ij lead goggle yxkuk pkfg,A

46
47
Radiation Measurment Detector’s:- Raddiation exposure
dks mesure djus ds fy, fuEu Device dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

1. Scintillation Detector
2. Ionization Chammber
3. Pocket Dosimeter
4. T.L.D. Detector
5. Film Badge
6. Propartional chamber
7. Solid State Detector
8. Collimeter’s
9. Gas molicave’s chamber
P.T.O.
48
 -: T.L.D. BADGE :-

Introduction:- Film badge vkSj T.L.D. Badge nksuks gh yxHkx 1

M.R. ls 10,000 M.R. rd ds x-ray photon dks Ditect dj ldrs gSa]
T.L.D. Badge ,d plastic cassate gksrh gSa] ftldh layer, Nikil
matledh cuh gksrh gSa] bldk ckgjh xksyuqek structure Al dk cuk gksrk
gS]a ftlesa ls x-ray transmit gksrh gSA
T.L.D. Card esa 3 discs gksrh gSa] ftudk diameter 13.5
m.m. ls 40.8 m.m. gksrk gS] T.L.D. Badge esa cu dh discs yxh gksrh
gksrh gSa] ftlesa user dk uke Include jgrk gSaA
Card holder ds :i esa V notch T.L.D. Badge esa yxk gksrk
gS]a ftldk structure English ds V v{kj ds leku gksrk gSAa
T.L.D. esa Caso4 (Thermoluminescent material
Activated with dy ( Disprosium) Teflon ds lkFk feDl (mix) djds
bldk Ratio 3:1 esa jgrk gSaA
Caso4 dk Crystal size yxHkx 74 m.m. gksrk gSA
Pre-Irradiated Thermoluminescent material light mRlftZr djrs
gSAa
T.L.D. esa yxs rhuks Disc dks fuEufyf[kr izdkj ls Position nh
tkrh gSAa
1. Disc D1 - ;g metal filter ds uhps fLFkr gksrh gSa] ftlesa (1mm cu+
1 m.m. Al )gksrk gS ];k layer coated jgrh gSaA
2.Disc D2 - ;g 1.5 m.m. Perspex ls cuk gksrk gSaA
3. Disc D3- ;g T.L.D. Badge esa uhps dh rjQ Open position esa fLFkr
jgrk gSA

49
50
 T.L.D. Badge dks gj rhu efgus esa B.A.R.C. esa X-ray radiation
dose evaluation djus ds fy, Hkstk tkrk gSA
B. - Bhabha
A. - Automatic
R. - Research
C. - Center

ogkW bl T.L.D. film dks coad ward ds }kjk ditect dj particular

parson us fdruk radiation dose absorb fd;k gSA
bldh Report Hksth tkrh gS]a rFkk bl Report esa dose limit fy[kh
jgrh gS] vr% vxj person esa limit ls T;knk radiation absorb fd;k
gS] rks mls medical treatment provide fd;k tkrk gSA

Advantage:- 1. - ;g vkikrdkyhu ¼emergency½ situation esa fast

reading nsrk gSAa
2. T.L.D. Badge }kjk false reading provide djus ds change cgqr
de gksrs gSAa
3. ;g vU; exposure dks Hkh measurement dj ldrk gSA

51
 -: TEN DAY RULE / PREGNANT RULE :-

bl :y ds vuqlkj female patient ds fetus dks x-ray radiation ls

cpkus ds fy, dqN limitation nh xbZ gS]ftls gesas carefully absorb djuk
pkfg,A
Internationl Commission on radiological protection dh
report no.-06, 1964 ds vuqlkj cPps iSnk djus ckyh lady ekfld ds
dsoy 10 fnu rd gh xHkZorh ugha ekuh tkrh gSAa
vr% cgqr vko’;d u gks rks lkjs x-ray bUgh first 10 days esa gh
fd;s tkus pkfg,A
ge tkurs gS fd x-ray dk effect chromosome’s ij iM+rk gSa] pwWfd ;s
lh/ks children dh growth ls tqM+s gksrs gSA
vr% cromosome’s esa gksus okyh xM+oM+h cPps esa malformed mRiUu
dj ldrh gSaA
Leukemia o vU; dSalj mu cPpksa esa vf/kd gksrs gSa] ftudh ek¡ dks xHkkZoLFkk
esa fofdj.k fu"ksfpr ( fertilized ) ovem dk implantation ugh gks ikrk
gSAa
rFkk nwljs ekg esa ’kjhj ds dqN vaxksa esa malformation gks ldrk gSaA
rhljs o pkSFks efgus vxzefLrd dk Bhd lss fodkl u gks ikus ls mental
retardation dh laHkkouk cM+ tkrh gSaA
vr% pregnant lady ( female patient) ds x-ray vfr vko’;d gksus ij
fuEu prescauter’s ds lkFk djuk pkfg,A

1. Radiographic image ds fy, ftrus exposure dh vko’;drk gSa]

vFkkZr~ kVp , mAs T;knk ugh exposure esa nsuk pkfg,] vr%
patient dks de ls de exposure nsuk pkfg,A

52
2. Patient ds part dks x-ray ysrs le; collimeter’s dk mi;ksx
djuk pkfg,A
3. kVp ,mAs igys ls fu/kkZfjr dj ysuk pkfg,] ftlls fd x-ray
(film) repeat u gksaA
4. Patient dks fLFkj j[kdj x-ray ysrs gS]a ftlls radiographic
image [kjko u gksA

53
 -: DARK ROOM :-

Introduction:- The dark room is very important place in the

radiology department of a hospital nursing home or a
private x-ray clinic [kjko x-ray film’s dk dkj.k dkQh gn rd dark
room esa viukbZ xbZ xyr rduhdh gksrh gS ] u fd [kjko x-ray tube,
exposure & radiographic technique dark room esa iw.kZ va/kdkj u
gksdj safe illumination gksuk vko’;d gS] dark room dks processing
room Hkh dgk tkrk gSAa

Location :- Dark room dk location radiology department esa

basement esa ;k x-ray machine room ds ikl gksuk
pkfg,] ftlls fd film dks transport djus esa vklkuh gks] dark room
,slh txg cuk gksuk pkfg,] tgkW de ls de light igqWps] fdlh Hkh ifjfLFkfr;ksa
esa dark room xeZ o ’khry;qDr basement esa ugh gksuk pkfg,A

Size and installation of the dark room:- Dark room dk size

100 square feet floor
space vkSj 11 feet ceiling height gksuh pkfg,] ftlls lHkh mi;qDr
midj.k vklkuh ls dark room esa vk lds] bu midj.kksa esa loding
banch]processing tank e.t.c.
Processing solution dk fuekZ.k ges’kk processing room ls
Hkkgj gksuk pkfg,] rFkk bl dk;Z ds fy, Hkh t:jr dh phtsa Hkh okgj gh j[kuh
pkfg,A

54
 -: BUILDING ESSENTIALS :-

1. Protection agent radiation:- Dark room Radiography

room ds ikl gksus ds dkj.k
radiation ls lqjf{kr gksuk vfr vko’;d gS] vr% dark room dh nhokjks ij
lead equivalence films dks fogging ls cpkus esa leFkZ gksuk pkfg,A
nhokj ds Åij lead dh layer ;k dksbZ vU; inkFkZ tks 1.5
m.m. lead dh eksVkbZ dk radiation cpko 100 kilovolt ij dj lds]
iz;ksx fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
2. Floor :- vklkuh ls lkQ gksus okyh rFkk fVdkÅ rFkk u fQlyus okys ,oa
jkl;fud izHkko ls lqjf{kr Q’kZ dk mi;ksx djuk pkfg,A
3. Wall Covering :- ( nhokj dh ijr ) Dark room dh nhokjksa dk dkyk
gksuk vko’;d gS] vr% dark room esa color dk pquko ;g ns[kdj djrs
gSa fd tks safe light dk vf/kdre izdk’k reflexion dj lds] rFkk dark
room dh nhokjksa ij jlk;u jks/kh ijr gksuh pkfg,] tSl& s paint,
varnish, Concrete or ceramic tiles.
4. Ventilation :- Dark room esa dHkh f[kM+dh¼windose½ ugha oukuh
pkfg,] D;ksfa d bUgsa light proof oukuk dfBu gksrk gS]
dark room esa ventilation ds fy, intact-outtact fan dk mi;ksx
djrs gSa] ftlls gok vUnj vkSj okgj vk tk ldrh gSa] ;g fan yxkus ls
room esa ?kqVu ugha gksrh gSaA
5. Electric wiring:- Dark room esa processing solution water
Pipes damp(ue]vknZ) floor & wet finger’s ds
vkl&ikl fctyh ds rkj ugha gksus pkfg,] vr% bUgsa lqjf{kr <ax ls j[kuk
pkfg,] rFkk lHkh /kkrq okyh oLrqvksa dks vFkZ dj fn;k tkuk pkfg,A

55
6. Pass Box :- Pass box ges’kk loding banch ds ikl fLFkr gksuk
pkfg,] Passbox esa nks izdk’k jks/kh ,oa x-ray proof nks
door’s gksus pkfg,] rFkk ;g nksuks ;g ,d lkFk ugha [kqyuk pkfg,] rFkk
passbox dks expose rFkk unexposed film’s ds fy, nks Hkkxksa esa
ckaVrs gSA

7.Entrance :- lcls lk/kj.k entrance vdsyk dsoy izdk’kjks/kh njoktk

gS] ftlesa vUnj ls cUn djus dh O;oLFkk gksuh pkfg,] vU;
izdkj ds entrance esa nks njokts gksrs gS]a ftldh O;oLFkk bl izdkj gksrh gS]
fd ,d njoktk rHkh [kqyrk gS] tc nwljk iw.kZr% cUn gks tkrk gSaA
vr% ;g izdk’kjks/kh njokts dh rjg dk;Z djrk gSaA
8.ILLUMINATION:- Dark room esa rhu izdkj dk illumination gksuk
pkfg,A
¼i½ Safe light :- Dark room esa izdk’k dh ,slh O;oLFkk gksuh pkfg,]
ftlesa vklkuh ls dke fd;k tk lds]a rFkk og film ij
fogging u djs] safe light esa mifLFkr filter mi;qDr light iznku djrs gSA
safe light vkSj film’s ds chp de ls de 1-2 meter dk distance gksuk
pkfg,] rFkk bulb mrus gh okV dk yxkuk pkfg,] ftrus mldss cover ij
fy[kk gks] izk;% 15 watts ls de dk bulb iz;ksx djuk pkfg,A

Checking the safeness of safe light:- Safe light dh le;&le;

ij tkWp djrs jguk pkfg,] blds fy, dark room esa unexposed film
ij /kkrq dk flDdk j[k nsrs gS]a vo safe light dks fHkUUk&fHkUu le; ds fy,
30 second, 1 minute, 2 minute rFkk 4 minute ds fy, fHkUUk&fHkUu
ij tykrs gS] ml exposure le; dks fy[k ysrs gS] ftlls flDds dh
outline gYyh lh process djus ij curh gS]

56
rFkk ;gh vf/kdre le; gksrk gS] tks fcuk fogging ds safe light esa dke
djus esa yxk;k tk ldrk gS] ,d unexpose film dh vis{kk expose film
vkB xquk T;knk sensitive gksrh gS] vr% exposure ds ckn fQYe dks pqus
x;s le; ds 1/10 os le; ls vf/kd safe light esa ugh expose djuk
pkfg,A
¼ii½ Genral illumination:- lQkbZ o solution cukus gsrq lkekU; izdk’k
dh O;oLFkk Hkh gksuh pkfg,A
¼ iii½ Radiographic illumination:- ,d fluorosence illumination
dh O;oLFkk xhyh film’s dks ns[kus
ds fy, gksuh pkfg,] rFkk ;g illumination wasing compartment ds
Åij gksuk pkfg,] ftlls solution ,d nwljs ls u feysA

Dark room ds nks part gksrs gSA

¼i½ Dry Side
¼ii½ Wet Side

¼i½ Dry Side:-Dry Side ds vUrxZr loding banch, cassettes j[kus ds

fy, Tkxg] films j[kus ds fy, txg] films hangers dks
VkWxus ds czsdsV rFkk csdkj isijks ds fy, dustbin vkfn izeq[k gSaA
dryside Hkh iwjh rjg dark gksuk pkfg,] vkSj loding, unloding banch
ls 1.5 meter safe light fit jgrh gS] ftldk color mostly red gksrk gS]
Dark room dh walls black paints ls paint gksuk pkfg,] rFkk
scatterd Radiation ls film dks protect djus ds fy, paint esa 0.25
m.m. lead equvalance mix fd;k tkrk gS] black paint light dks iwjh
rjg absorb djrk gS] vkSj cgqr de reflect djrk gS] vr% films ij light

57
yxus dh lEHkkouk cgqr de gksrh gS] dark room dk floor fpdukbZ jfgr
gksuk pkfg,A
¼ii½ Wet Side:- Dark room ds wet side esa film processing dh tkrh
gS]a tks two type dh gksrh gSAa
¼a½ Manual Processing
¼b½ Automatic Processing
Processing solution lw[ks powder ;k liquid :Ik esa feyrs
gS] ftlesa mi;qDr ek=k esa water feykdj mUgsa rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSa] bls Bhd ls
feykus ds fy, nks stirring ¼izHkko’kkyh½ dh vko’;drk gksrh gS]a ,d fixer ds
fy, rFkk nwljk developer ds fy,] thermometer dk mi;ksx solution
dk rki ekius rFkk mi;qDr rki dk ikuh feykus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSaA
Wet side dk eq[; midj.k processing tanks gksrk gS] lk/kkj.k izdkj ds
tank esa rhu [kkus gksrs gS]a blesa ls ,d fljs ij fLFkr compartment dh
developing rFkk nwljs fljs dks fixing ds fy, iz;ksx djrs gS]a rFkk e/; okys
dk mi;ksx rinse ,oa wash ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS] rFkk bls running water
ls tqM+k gksuk pkfg,] rFkk ;g prosessing tank Mo,C,Ni dks Mix djds
cuk;k tkrk gSaA
Fixing tank dk vk;ru developing tank dh vis{kk nks xquk gksuk pkfg,]
D;ksfd fixing esa developing dh vis{kk nks xquk le; yxrk gSa] rFkk
washing tank dk vk;ru fixing tank ls nks xquk gksuk pkfg,] D;ksfd
washig esa yxus okyk le; fixing time dh vis{kk nks xquk gksrk gSa] rFkk
rinsing rFkk washing tank esa ikuh uhps ryh ls vkuk pkfg,] rFkk Åij ls
cgdj ckgj tkuk pkfg,A

58
 -: FILM PROCESSING :-

X-ray film dks x-ray ls expose gks tkus ds ckn mldh emulsion
layer ij latent image dk formation gks tkrk gS] tks invisible gksrh
gS] bl latent image dks visible image esa convert djus ds fy, film
dks chemical ds }kjk process fd;k tkrk gS] ftlls ;g latent image
visible gks tkrh gS] ftls film processing dgrs gSA

Film processing two types dh gksrh gSA

¼1½ Manual film processing
¼2½ Automatic film processing

¼1½ Manual film processing:- Manual film processing hand

vkSj Hangers ls dh tkrh gS] blesa
film dks process djus ds fy, fuEu 5 steps dks follow djuk iM+rk gSA
¼1½ Developing
¼2½ Rinsing
¼3½ Fixing
¼4½ Washing
¼5½ Drying
¼1½ Developing:- bl fØ;k esa latent image dks visible image
Convert fd;k tkrk gS] bldk eq[; dk;Z expose gks
pqds silver halide crystal dks metallic silver esa ¼ fouk unexposed
silver halide crystal dks gkfu igqpk,sa ½ cnyuk gksrk gSA
blds four jklk;fud rRo gksrs gSaA

59
¼i½ Organic reducing agent’s:- ;g Metol ,oa hydroquinone dk
Mixture gksrk gS] hydroquinone
/kheh xfr ls dk;Z djrk gS] rFkk film dks black shades ;k contrast iznku
djrk gSa] rFkk metol fast xfr ls dk;Z djrk gS] rFkk film dks light gray
shades iznku djrk gSA
vr% vfUre detail iznku djrk gSA
¼ii½ Activator :- Sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide dk iz;ksx
Activator ds :Ik esa use fd;k tkrk gS] ;g emulsion
dks swell ¼Qqykdj½ djkdj Developing Agents dk emulsion esa
penetration vklku dj nsrk gS] rFkk Reaction ds i’pkr~ eqDr gq, inkFkksZa
dks fudkyus essa enn djrk gSA
Hydroquinone dsoy {kkjh;¼Alkaline medium½ ek/;e esa work djrk
gS] rFkk bldk pH ¼10&11½ gksrk gSA
¼iii½ Restrainer :- Restrainer ds :Ik esa potassium iodide(KI),dk
mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] Kbr ,oa KI dsoy mu silver halide crystal ls dk;Z
djrs gS] tks x-ray ls expose gks pqds gksrs gS] fouk restrainer ds tks Hkh
crystal expose ugh gq, gS]a os matelic silver esa reduce gks tk;xs] ftlls
vf/kd fogg dk fuekZ.k gksxk] ftls developing fogg dgrs gSA
Kbr vkSj KI dks antifogging agent ds :Ik esa
mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

¼iv½ Preservative:- Sodium sulfite dk mi;ksx preservative ds :Ik

esa
fd;k tkrk gS] ;g Reducing agents dks gok }kjk
oxidation gksus ls jksdrk gS] vr% ;g developer dh life c<+krk gS]
hydrogen gok ls gkssus okys vkDlhdj.k ds fy, cgqr laosnu’khy gksrk gSA
oxidation developer Hkwjk jax xzg.k dj ysrk gSA

60
 -:¼Development ds dqN izk;ksfxd rRo½:-

Practical factor in development :- Development ds nks eq[;

Practical factor gksrs gSA
¼1½ The temperature of developing solution
¼2½ The total time of development

Developer dk mi;qDr temperature 20-22 (68-72 ) gksuk

pkfg,] cold developer ds lkFk ¼16 /60 ½ hydroquinone dh
Activity cgqr de gks tkrh gS] ftlls Radiographic esa contrast o
density cgqr de gks tkrh gSA
Image dh Quality cold developer esa Hkh Development
time dks c<+kdj dh tk ldrh gS] ;fn developer cgqr vf/kd xeZ gS]
vFkkZr~ 24 ls vf/kd gS] rc emulsion uje gks tkrh gS] vkSj chemical
fogg curk gSA
Note:- Non screen films ds lkFk development time 50% c<+
tkrk gS] D;ksfd film silver vf/kd eksVk gksrk gSaA
Manual development esa 24 ij ik¡p minute develop djrs gS]
rFkk exposure esa five kv de nsdj three minute develop djus dh
vis{kk five minute develop djus ls vPNk contrast vkrk gS] rFkk
ckj&ckj film dks deploper esa ls ;g ns[kus ds fy, ugha fudkyuk pkfg, fd
film develop gqbZ gS ;k ugha D;ksafd blls fogging gksrh gSA
Note:- to film developer esa iM+h gks rks mls gYds&gYds gj minute
fgykuk pkfg,] ftlls mlesa /kkfj;k¡ u iM+]s rFkk vPNh rjg develop gks lds]
development esa bromide emulsion ls fudy tkrs gS] tks fgykdj

61
;fn fudkyk u tk;s rks ;g development dh process dks /kheh dj nsrs
gSA
Replenishment:- Developer dk yxkrkj use djus ls developer
Solution detksj iM+ tkrk gS] rFkk bldk vk;ru Hkh
Developing tank esa de gks tkrk gS] vr% bles deh gqbZ ’kfDr rFkk
vk;ru dks iwjk djus ds fy, Replenishment feyk;k tkrk gS vr%
Replenishment
ds :Ik esa Hydroquinon metol rFkk {kkj dh ek=k vf/kd gksrh gS] blesa
bromide ugha gksrk gS] D;ksafd ;g film emulsion ls feydj developer
esa bDB~Bk gksrk gSaA

¼2½ Rinsing:- Developer rFkk fixer tank ds chp esa ,d tank j[kk
gksrk gS]a ftlesa simple water Hkjk gksrk gS] develop
djus ds ckn film dks 30 second ds fy, developer dks fudkyus¼/kksusa½ ds
fy, Mkyrs gSa] fixer esa developer feyus ls bldh fØ;k’khyrk de gks tkrh
gS] Rinsing wash esa Acitic Acid (C2H4O2)feykus ls developer ds
lkjs contents Ålh rinsing tank esa fudy tkrs gSaA

¼3½ Fixation:- Film ij image dks fix o permanent cukus ds fy,

Fixing bath esa insert fd;k tkrk gSAa

Function:-(1) Expose u gq, rFkk develop u gq, silver halide

crystal dks remove djukA
¼2½ Film ij image dks permanent cuk;s j[kukA
¼3½ Emulsion dks hard djus ds fy, ftlls og damage u gksaA

62
Fixing solution :- Fixing solution ds four part ¼Hkkx½ gksrs gSaA

¼i½Fixing Agent:-Hypo(Sodium Thiosulphate in

powder(Na2S2O3) Amonium Thiosulphate in
liquid Al2¼SO4½3 Fixing Agents film ls unexposed rFkk
undevelop silver bromide rFkk silver rFkk silver iodide crystal
dks fudkydj film dks lkQ djrk gS] rFkk metallic silver dks develop
rFkk expose Hkkxksa dks NksM+ nsrk gS] film dks fix u djus ij undevelop
AgBr crystal film ij jg tkrs gS] ftlls film black gks tkrh gSA

¼ii½ Preservative:- Sodium sulfite dk mi;ksx preservative ds :Ik

esa fd;k tkrk gS] ;g fixing agents dks [kjkc gksus
ls cpkdj film dks clear djus esa enn djrk gSA

¼ii½ Hardener:-Crome alum¼KCrS2O8½ or potassium alum KAI¼SO4½2

dk mi;ksx Hardner ds :Ik esa fd;k tkrk gS] ;g
emulsion rFkk Gelatin dks dM+k djds film dks [kjkspksa ls cpkrk gSA
¼iii½ Acid:- Sulfuric Acid ¼H2SO4½ or Acetic Acid dk mi;ksx cps gq,
{kkj dks Neutralizes djus esa rFkk Fixer ,oa hardener ds
chp mfpr medium iznku djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

Rapid Fixer:- Rapid Fixer ds :i esa Ammonium

chloride¼NH4Cl½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] ftlls
Fixing time half gks tkrk gS] Fixing time Fixer dh Age vkSj Fix dh
xbZ films dh la[;k ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
¼1½ mi;qDr Fixer esa 1-4 minute film dks lkQ djus esa yxrs gSA

63
¼2½ Fixer dks exhausted rc ekuk tkrk gS] tc Fixing time 10
minute ls T;knk gksA
¼3½ Film dks White light Fixing ds le; ugha yxkuk pkfg,A
¼4½ yEcs le; rd Fixing ugh djuk pkfg,] D;ksfa d Hypo emulsion ls
fpid tkrk gS] vkSj ;g Washing ls Hkh ugha fudyrk] vr% yEcs le; rd
Fixation ls Image dh bleaching gks tkrh gSA
¼5½ Fixing bath dk mi;qDr temperature 18-24 gksuk pkfg,A
¼6½ le; le; ij Fixer esa Replenishment feykus dh vko’;drk gksrh gSA

¼4½ Washing:- Films dks fix djus ds ckn fixer ds crystal dks remove
djus ds fy, running water esa wash esa djrs gS] rFkk
Washing 20 ij 20 minute djuh pkfg,] fixation ds ckn vxj film dks
wash ugh fd;k tkrk gS] rks Hypo atmosphere ds O2 ds lkFk film dks
black djrs gSA
¼5½ Drying :- Processing dh last step film dks lq[kkuk gS] blds fy,
Dryer vkSj fan dk use fd;k tkrk gS Drying dk
temperature
35 ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,] rFkk film dks /kwy jfgr txg esa lq[kkuk pkfg,A

64
 -: Automatic Processing :-

Introduction:- Film dh latent image dks visible image esa

convert djus ds fy, manual processing dk use
u djds automatic processing dk use fd;k tkrk gS] Automatic
processing dgykrh gSA

65
 -:Advantage of Automatic processing:-

¼1½ blesa processing time cgqr de gksrk gS] yxHkx 1 ls 1%30 fefuVA
¼2½ Quality cuk;s j[krk gS] D;ksafd rki dk fu/kkZj.k cgqr vPNk gksrk gS] rFkk
Replenishment Hkh mi;qDr gksrk gSA
¼3½ Radilogy Department dh dk;Z{kerk c<+krk gSA

Essentials of automatic processing

Automatic processing ds Hkkx
¼1½ Transport mechanism :- Automatic processor esa dbZ roller
gksrs gS] ftlesa ls gksdj x-ray film xqtjrh gS] Film dks izR;sd Hkkx ls
xqtjus ds fy, bldh xfr iwjh fØ;k ds nksjku leku gksuh pkfg,] Roller ds
chp esa mi;qDr LFkku gksuk pkfg,] ftlls film chp esa tke u gksA
¼2½ Processing chemicals:- Automatic processing esa
processing solution esa dqN ifjorZuksa dh vko’;drk gksrh gSaA

¼i½ Developing Agent:- Processing time dks de djus ds fy,

hydroquinone ,oa phenidone dk use fd;k tkrk gSA

¼ii½ Antifogging Agent:- Aldehydes dk use antifogging agent

ds :Ik esa fd;k tkrk gS] ftlls developer, Fixer, Washing dk
temperature 35 rFkk Dryer dk temperature 57 gksuk pkfg,A

¼iii½ Hardening Agents:- Hardening Agents ds :Ik esa

Glutaraldehyde, vkSj Potassium bromide dk mi;ksx Antifogging
Agents ds :Ik esa fd;k tkrk gS] ;g emulsion dks Hard djds roller¼jksyjksa½
esa ls fpidus ls cpkrk gSA
66
¼iv½ Control of emulsion thickness:- Emulsion dh thickness
dks iwjh processing ds
nksjku leku j[kus ds fy, developer esa sulfates dks feyk;k tkrk gSA

¼v½ Replenishment :- Developer vkSj Fixer dk Replenishment

djuk vfr vko’;d gS]ftlls developer {kkjh;
rFkk Fixer vEyh; cuk jgs rFkk nksuksa dh ’kfDr cuh jgs] ;g ,d fuf’pr nj
ij gksrk gS] yxHkx 60-70 ml developer esa vkSj 100-110 ml fixer esa
gj 14 inch dh Film process djus ds fy, use fd;k tkrk gSaA

(3) Temperature Control :- Automatic processing esa rhuksa VSdksa

Developer, fixer,washing dk
temperature 35 ;k 95 gksuk pkfg,] rFkk dryer dk
temperature 57 ;k 135 gksuk pkfg,] rFkk temperature dks ekius
ds fy, Thermostatically fof/k dk mi;ksx djuk pkfg,A

(4) Circulation system:- Developer, fixer dks lgh rjhds ls mix

djus ds fy, Circulation system dk use
djuk pkfg,] tks yxkrkj developer o fixer iEi djrk gS] rFkk ikuh
ikbZi }kjk uhps ls vkrk gS] rFkk Åij ls fudyrk gS] tgkW bls bDB~Bk dj lh/ks
lhoj esa ogk fn;k tkrk gSA

(5) Film characteristics:- Film dh base o emulsion dh

thickness iwjh film esa leku gksuh pkfg,] rFkk film dks eqM+uk ugh pkfg,
vU;Fkk ;g rollers esa fpid tk;sxhA
(6) Processor maintenance:- ¼1½ Rollers dh vPNh rjg lQkbZ
djukpkfg,A
67
¼2½ Replenishment dh nj vlEkkU; ugh gksuk pkfg,A
¼3½ Developer Replenishment dh tkWp sensitometry }kjk dh tkuh
pkfg,A

-:Always Remember In Dark Room:-

¼1½ iqjkuh Film (expire film) dk mi;ksx ugha djuk pkfg,A

¼2½ Film dks Cool place ij store djds j[kuk pkfg,A
¼3½ Film ds box ,d ds Åij ,d ugh j[kuk pkfg,A
¼4½ Films ij [kjkspas vklkuh ls iM+rh gS] vr% film dks uk[kwu ;k fdlh dM+h
pht tSl& sa daSph] pkdw vkfn ls ugh Nwuk pkfg,A
¼5½ Films dks eksM+uk ugha pkfg,A
¼6½ Films dks /kwy ls nwj j[kuk pkfg,A

68
 -: Cassette:-

Radiology department esa x-ray film dks transport djus ds fy,

ftl box uqek structure dk use fd;k tkrk gS] mls cassette dgrs gSA
blesa lkeus o tube dh rjQ jgus okyh lrg iryh etcwr o de
ijek.kq Hkkj okys inkZFk tSls IykfLVd ;k dkMZ cksMZ dh cuh gksrh gS] rFkk blds
vUnj front screen o fiNys cover ds vUnj dh vksj back screen
attech jgrh gS] rFkk x-ray film bu nksuksa screen ds chp esa fLFkr gksrh gS]
cassette dk front side trans radiation gksrk gS] rFkk ;g Al dk cuk
gksrk gS] Cassette dk back side lead layer ls coated jgrk gS] tks
x-ray film dks scattered radiation ls protect djrk gS] rFkk
Cassette ds back side esa inter lock system fit jgrk gS]rFkk ;gh ij
Cassette cukus ckyh company dk mono fLFkr jgrk gS] Cassette ds
vUnj nks intensifying screen fit jgrh gS] front intensifying
screen 2 m.m. & back intensifying screen 6 m.m. gksrh gS]
cassette ds front vkSj back side ij vinayl dh layer pM+h jgrh gS]a
ftlls bls vklkuh ls lkQ fd;k tk ldrk gS] rFkk cassette esa back side
ij lock djus ds fy, stenlense steel dh nks strips ;k inter lock
system yxk jgrk gSA
Types of cassette
¼1½ Flat cassette
¼2½ Coverd cassette
¼3½ Grided cassette
¼4½ Multi Section cassette
¼5½ Flaxible cassette
¼6½ Cassette with photo timer
69
¼1½ Flat cassette:- bl izdkj ds Cassette dk Structure flat gksrk gS]
blesa front side aluminium rFkk back side
lead coated gksrk gS] bl cassette dk mi;ksx body ds lHkh part ds x-
ray djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

¼2½ Coverd cassette:- bldk front side grounded gksrk gS] ;g ejht
ds grounded part ds anatomical rejoin ds
lkFk contect cuk;s j[krk gSA tSls& knee joint

¼3½ Grided cassette:- bl rjg dh cassette esa secondry radiation

dks Absorb djus ds grid dks attech fd;k tkrk
gSA
¼4½ Multi Section cassette:- Multi Section cassette
radiography ds fy, Multi Section
cassette dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] blesa film dk group gksrk gS] ;g 3
inch xgjh gksrh gS] blesa intensifying screen material ds }kjk vyx
jgrh gSA
tSl%s & city scaning esa bldk use fd;k tkrk gSA

¼5½ Flaxible cassette:- bldk use rounded surface ds x-ray ysus ds

fy, fd;k tkrk gS] blesa plastic material dk
simple vkoj.k pM+k jgrk gS] tks flQZ one side ls close jgrk gSA
¼6½ Cassette with photo timer:- bl izdkj ds cassette with photo
Timer yxk;k tkrk gS] bl cassette
dk use yxkrkj film ysus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

70
 -: Intensifying Screen:-

;g ,d ,slk devise gS] ftldk use cassette esa fd;k tkrk gS] ;g
cassette esa pair esa ikbZ tkrh gS] ,d front screen rFkk nwljh back
intensifying screen dgykrh gS] ;g screen cassette ij incident
gksus okys x-ray photon dks light photon esa change djrh gSA
Film ds silver bromide crystal dh photographic risponce dks
incress djus ds fy, blesa flurocent material dk use fd;k tkrk gSA

izfrnhfIr mRiUu djus okys inkFkZ&

¼1½ ;g x-ray photon dks light photon esa convert djrh gSA
¼2½ X-ray photon dks other actinic radiation ¼fodj.k’khy jsfM;’ku½
esa convert djus ds fy, film esa emulsion layer dh photographic
image dks cukus ds fy, screen responceble gksrh gS] ;g short time
esa film dks black cukrh gS] vkSj vf/kdrj cassette esa intensifying
screen pair esa ik;h tkrh gS] ,d intensifying screen front vkSj ,d
back ij fit jgrh gS] bls Øe’k% front vkSj back screen dgrs gS]
intensifying screen ij iM+us okyh x-ray fdj.k dk yxHkx 30% Hkkx
screen ls fØ;k djrk gS] ysfdu patient ds body ls fudyus okyh total
x-ray dk 3.6% “kx gh latent image ds fuekZ.k esa “kx ysrk gSA
Total radiation dk 1% “kx front screen }kjk 1% izR;sd
emulsion dh ijr esa rFkk 0.6% radiation back screen }kjk
absorb fd;k tkrk gSA
Intensifying screen bl rd igqpus okys radiation ds fy, amplifier
dk work djrh gSA

71
Intensifying screen dk use djus ls patient dks de fofdj.k feyrk gS]
rFkk radiographic contrast Hkh vPNk vkrk gSA

In pair:- Intensifying screen cassette esa ges’kk pair esa ik;h tkrh
gS] ,d Intensifying screen front ij rFkk ,d back ij ik;h tkrh gS]
Intensifying screen film dh emulsion layer ij black layer cukrh
gS] ftlls film dks expose gksus ds fy, maximum speed yxrh gS] 1st
screen thinly coated jgrh gS] blesa fluorescent material dh thin
layer coated jgrh gS] ;g yxHkx 2 m.m. thick jgrh gS] 2nd Screen
thick coated gksrh gS]ftlls og fluorescent substent dh density dks
penited dj ldrh gSA

Internal Structure of Intensifying screen :-

vf/kdrj Intensifying screen esa four layer ik;h tkrh gSA

¼1½ Protactive layer ( super coating)
¼2½ Phosphor layer
¼3½ Reflective layer
¼4½ Base

¼1½ Protactive layer ( super coating):- ;g transparent layer

15-25 µm (micro
meter) thick gksrh gS] rFkk ;g X-ray film ds lcls ikl fLFkr gksrh gS]
rFkk ;g screen dks [kjkspksa ls j{kk iznku djrh gS] ;g cellulose ds
compound dks polymer ds lkFk mix djds cuk;h tkrh gSA

72
Function :- 1- ;g Posphor layer dks protection nsrh gSA
2-;g phosphor layer dks surface provide djrh gSA
3-blesa screen dks damage fd, fouk vklkuh ls clean fd;k tk ldrk
gSA

¼2½ Phosphor layer:- The Active layer of the X-ray

intensifying
Screen tks X-ray iM+us ij light mRlftZr djrh gS]
bldh thickness 150-300 µm gksrh gS] ;g calcium tungestate dh
cuh gksrh gSa] tks x-ray dks light photon esa convert djrh gS] Screen
speed rc c<+rh gS] tc Phosphor layer eksVh gksrh gSA

Phosphor layer esa fuEu xq.k gksus pkfg,A

¼1½ ;g high atomic number okyh gksuh pkfg,] ftlls x-ray ls
Reaction dh laHkkouk vf/kd gksA
¼2½ ;g par x-ray ls fØ;k ds QyLo:Ik vf/kd izdk’k fudkyus okyk gksuk
pkfg,A
¼3½ x-ray ls fudyus okyk izdk’k proper wave length dk gksuk pkfg,A
¼4½ mRrsftr gksus ij izdk’k dk yxkrkj fudyuk de ls de gksuk pkfg,A

Phosphor dh rjg use gksus okys inkFkZ

¼1½ Calcium tungstate
¼2½ Zink sulfide
¼3½ Barium lead sulfate
¼4½ Rare earth godolinium, lanthanum and yitrium

¼3½ Reflective layer:- Phosphor layer vkSj base ds Åij ,d thin

Layer reflactive layer ik;h tkrh gS] ;g
yxHkx 25 µm gksrh gSa] ;g magnesium oxide or titanium dioxide
dh cuh gksrh gS] tc x-ray phosphor ls fØ;k djrk gS] vkSj phosphor
73
crystal lHkh fn’kkvksa esa QSy tkrs gS] cgqr ls light photon back screen
dh rjQ tkus yxrs gS] ftlls mudh photographic activity de gksus
yxrh gSaA
¼4½ Base:- Base card board vkSj plastic dk cuk gksrk gS] ;g yxHkx
10
ekbYl eksVk gksrk gS] vkSj phosphor layer dks support nsrk
gS] ;g intensifying screen dh last layer gksrh gS] ;g chemically
active ugha gksrh gS] ;g flexible vkSj ueh jfgr gksrh gSA

74
 Type’s of Intensifying screen:-

¼1½ High speed intensifying screen

¼2½ High defination intensifying screen
¼3½ Graduated intensifying screen
¼4½ Standerd intensifying screen

¼1½ High speed intensifying screen:- og Screen tks Speed ds

lkFk Special feature nsrh gS]
mls high speed intensifying screen dgrs gSaA
Example :- Calcium Tangstan.

¼2½ High defination intensifying screen:- ;g screen image esa

Sharpness rFkk fine
detail ykus ds fy, bldk use fd;k tkrk gSA

¼3½ Graduated intensifying screen:- bl screen dh surface esa

Intensification factor dks
Decreas djus ds fy, graduated intensifying screen dk use fd;k
tkrk gSA
¼4½ Standerd intensifying screen:- Medium fast intensifying
Screen dks standerd regular
vkSj par speed dgrs gS] ;g radiography image ds fy, nksuksa rjQ ls
leku dk;Z djrh gSA

75
 -: FILM:-

Groupes of film :- Film dks four group esa devided fd;k tkrk gSA

¼1½ Orthochromatic film

¼2½ Penchromatic film
¼3½ Blue Sensitive film
¼4½ Green Sensetive film

Types of film :-

¼1½ Single coated film

¼2½ Double coated film
¼3½ Direct exposure or non screen film
¼4½ Dental film
¼5½ Mamography film
¼6½ Duplicating film
¼7½ Substraction film
¼8½ Screen film
¼9½ Medical imaging film

76
¼1½ Single coated film:- blesa one base, one emulsion layer,
one Adhesive layer vkSj one super
coating gksrh gSA

¼2½ Double coated film:- Double coated film esa one base vkSj
base ds nksuksa side esa vFkkZr~ Åij uhps two
adhesive layer , two emulsion layer, two supercoating layer
gksrh gSA
x-ray beam tc matter ls xqtjrh gS] rc vo’kks"k.k
vkSj >qdko ds dkj.k mldh rhozrk esa deh vk tkrh gS] ftls
attenuation ;k rhozrk esa deh dgrs gS] x-ray beam ls patient dh
body ls fey jgh t:jh information dks ftl material ds }kjk
decade fd;k tkrk gS] mls photographic film dgrs gS] film ij tc
direct x-ray photon iM+rs gS] rks og expose gks tkrh gS]
photographic film photographic active vkSj radiation
sensitive gksrh gSA

Film esa fuEu layer ik;h tkrh gSA

¼1½ Super coating

¼2½ Emulsion layer
¼3½ Adhesive layer
¼4½ Base

77
¼A½ Super coating:- ;g film dh lcls first layer gksrh gS] ;g
Emulsion dks scratch ,oa damage gksus ls
protact djrh gS] film dh surface dks smooth cukus ds fy,
Antibress ls coating dh tkrh gS] ftlls og smooth o flexible jgrh
gSA

¼2½ Emulsion layer:- Base ds nksuks side esa emulsion layer jgrh gS
tks Gelatin o silver halide crystals dh cuh
gksrh gS] bldh thickness 0.5µ gksrh gSA
blds two part gksrs gSA
¼1½ Gelatin
¼2½ Silver halide crystals

¼1½ Gelatin:- Photographic film gelatin dh cuh gksrh gS] ;g

mostly Cattle dh cuh gksrh gS] ;g Ag halide crystal
dks iwjh rjg emulsion layer ij QSykdj j[krs gS] vkSj grains dk lewg
cuk;s j[krh gS] ftlls processing ds le; solution gelatin dks mldh
strength dks fcuk damage fd;s fcuk penetrate dj ldrs gSA

¼2½ Silver halide crystals:- ;g emulsion dk light sensitive

Material gksrk gS] medical field esa ;g
90-99 % AgBr rFkk 1-10 % AgI dh cuh gksrh gS] emulsion esa AgBr
small crystal ds :i esa ik;s tkrs gS] blh crystal :i esa ;g gelatin ij
QSys jgrs gS] ;g Agbr crystal Ion Ag+ Br& vkSj I& ds :i esa ik;s tkrs gS]
crystal dk size 1.0 ls 1.5 µ gksrk gS] izR;sd grains esas 1-10 yk[k rd
Ag+ ik;s tkrs gSA

78
¼3½ Adhesive layer:- Base ,oa emulsion ds chp esa ,d layer ik;h
tkrh gS] tks base ,oa emulsion dks fpidk;s
j[krh gS] ftls Adhesive layer dgrs gSA

¼4½ Base:- ;g film dk base gS] ftl ij emulsion coated fd;k tkrk
gS];g eqM+us okyk rFkk u VwVus okyk gksrk gS] bldk size &
shape processing ds nkSjku fuf’pr jgrk gS] vr% image [kjko ugha gksrh
gS] radiographic film ds bl xq.k dks dimensional stability dgrs gS]
Base nks izdkj ds gksrs gSA

¼1½ Cellulose triacetate

¼2½ Polyester base
Polyester vf/kd etcwr rFkk yEcs le; rd fVdus okyk gksrk
gS] rFkk bldh dimensional stability Hkh mPp gksrh gS] rFkk bldh
thickness 160 µm gksrh gS] tcfd cellulose triacetate base 180
µm eksVk gksrk gS] polyester base diM+ks ls izkIr gksus okys polyster
fiber ls izkIr gksrk gSA

¼3½ Direct exposure or non screen film:- ;g thick film gksrh

gS] ;g Intra occasion foreign body dks detect djus ds fy, direct
exposure film esa emulsion layer eksVh gksrh gS] vkSj blesa T;knk
silver halide gksrs gS] ftlls budh penetration power vf/kd jgrh gSA

79
¼4½ Dental film:- ;g small film gksrh gS] ;g nks izdkj dh gksrh gS] ,d
Intra oral rFkk nwljh iSlksjsfed exposure ds
fy, ;g NksVs ls pack esa pack jgrh gSA
Feture :- izR;sd film ij ,d dot cuk jgrk gS] ftlls fd ge film dks
fdl rjg j[ksxs] blls igpku dj ldrs gS] back esa ihNs side esa
lead yxh jgrh gS] tks film dks secondry radiation ls protect djrh
gSA
;g film black cover esa coated jgrh gSA
Size - 57-76 m.m.

Periapical - 32 × 41 m.m.
Standerd - 41 × 31 m.m.

¼5½ Mamography film:- ;g fine grain single emulsion film

gksrh gS] ftls ,d intensifying screen ds
lkFk expose djrs gSA

¼6½ Duplicating film:- ;g single emulsion film gksrh gS] ftlesa

fdlh Film dh copy ultra-violet light }kjk
dh tkrh gS] duplicating film dk size duplicate dh tkus okyh film ds
size ij fuHkZj djrk gSA

¼7½ Substraction film:- bl film dk use angiography esa fd;k tkrk

gS];g single emulsion film gksrh gSA

¼8½ Screen film:- vf/kdrj radiography esa screen film dk use

fd;k tkrk gSA
80
blds rhu xq.k gksrs gSA
¼1½ contrast
¼2½ Speed
¼3½ Light absorption dh {kerk
mPp Contrast okyh fQYesa vf/kd light o black image
cukrh gS tcfd fuEu contrast okyh film’s grey image iznku djrh gS]
lkekU;r% film dk emulsion ftruk eksVk ¼thick½ gksrk gS] film dh
speed mruh gh vf/kd gksrh gS] D;ksfd ;g light ds fy, mruh gh vf/kd
sensitive gksrh gSA
¼9½ Medical imaging film:- bl film dk use MRI, CT scaning ,
Digital radiography esa fd;k tkrk
gS] ;g single coated jgrh gS] blesa five layer jgrh gSA
¼1½ Base
¼2½ Substratum
¼3½ Emulsion
¼4½ Top coat
¼5½ Back layer
¼1½ Base:- Polyster base gksrk gS] ;g transparent o flexible gksrk
gSA
¼2½ Substratum:- ;g nksuks side esa gksrh gS] ;g emulsion o base ds
chp esa ik;h tkrh gSA
¼3½ Emulsion:- ;g vkxs dh rjQ gksrk gS] ftlesa silver halide ds d.k
vkSj Gelatin gksrs gS] tks film dks light ds izfr
sensitive cukrs gSA
¼4½ Top coat:- ;g Gelatin o hardner dh cuh gksrh gS] tks emulsion
dks [kjkspksa ls cpkrk gSA
¼5½ Back layer:- ihNs dh ijr ¼ Anti Halo ½ gksrh gS tks /kCck jfgr

81
sharp Image cukrh gS] bl layer ds u gksus ls jks’kuh oLrq ls fudkydj
emulsion ijr ij vkdj reflect gksrh gS] ftlls nksokjk exposure gks
ldrk gS] vkSj image [kjkc gks ldrh gSA

-: Fundamental of photographic process :-

Radiographic og processing gS] tks light ds }kjk record dh tkrh gSA

bl process dks fuEu izdkj vyx&vYkx fd;k tkrk gSA

¼1½ Image dk formation

¼2½ Image dk record
¼3½ Image dks permanent cukuk

blds vUrZxr developing vkrh gS] ftlesa hidden image dks

visible image esa convert fd;k tkrk gSA
Photographic physical o chemical process }kjk discovered gqbZ gS]
blesa image dk formation vkSj recording vkSj mls permanent fd;k tkrk
gSA
x-ray film ij black gqbZ image dh quantity dh photographic density
dgykrh gS] subject dk og part tks eyes ds fy, bright gksrk gS] r cog
recorded image ds fy, dark gksrk gSA
rFkk subject dk og part tks eyes ds fy, dark gksrk gS] rc og
record dh xbZ image ds fy, light gksrk gSA

82
 -: Formation of latent image:-

Introduction :- latent image formation og image gS] tks fd

x- ray Film dh emulsion layer ij curh gS]
tcfd ;g Film x-ray }kjk expose gks pqdh gksrh gS] ;g imge
unvisible gksrh gS] ftls developing }kjk visible image esa change
fd;k tkrk gS] ;g latent image x-ray film ds nksuksa side curh gS] D;ksfa d
x-ray film ds nksuksa side ij emulsion layer present jgrh gSA

Latent image formation:- tc X-ray beam dh energy patient

dh Body esa ls pass gksrh gS] rc x-ray
beam dh energy dk dqN va’k body part }kjk absorb dj fy;k tkrk
gS] ,o dqN part scattered gks tkrk gS] rFkk 'ks"k cph gqbZ x-ray beam dh
energy body esa ls ckgj vk tkrh gS] ftlesa image gksrh gS] ;g X-ray
beam dh energy tc cassette esa vkrh gS] rc og cgqr lkjs light
photon esa convert gks tkrh gS] ;g x-ray beam dh energy
intensifying screen ds phosphor layer ls reaction djds light
photon esa convert gks tkrh gS] blesa 01 x-ray photon 850 light
photon esa convert gksrs gS] x-ray film silver halide crystal dh cuh
gksrh gS] ;g silver halide crystal emulsion ds active part gksrs gS]
emulsion layer esa present silver halide esa yxHkx 95 % silver
bromide vkSj 5 % silver iodide jgrk gSA
Silver ij positive charge rFkk bromide ij Negative
charge ik;k tkrk gSA
Silver halide crystal flat ¼lery½ vkSj triangle gksrs gS] izR;sd
Silver halide crystal ij sensitivity specks gksrk gS] tks fd crystal
83
ds layer ij present jgrk gS] ;g crystal esa dqN v’kqf);k feykus ls
curk gSA
tSl%s & silver tc x-ray photon vkSj light photon film ds crystal ds
ikl vkrs gS] rc og viuh total energy crystal ds sensitivity specks
¼vfrlaosnu’khy d.k½ dks ns nsrs gS] bl type ds crystal dk specks
negative gks tkrk gS] rc bromide ion ds negative electron speck
esa pys tkrs gS] ogk¡ tkdj rest djrs gS] tc speck negative gks tkrk gS]
rc og silver ion dks viuh vksj attract djrk gS] bl izdkj ls silver
ion negative gks tkrk gS] vkSj metallic silver esa change gks tkrk gSA
bl izdkj ls film dk og Hkkx tks bones ds uhps jgrk gS] black
fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] D;ksafd ;gk¡ metallic silver i;kZIr ek=k esa received ugh
dj ikrs gS] vkSj black fn[kkbZ nsrs gS] rFkk film dk og Hkkx white fn[kkbZ
nsrk gS] og lungs ds uhps okyk Hkkx gksrk gS] ysfdu tc film develop dh
tkrh gS] rks og film negative gksrh gS] vkSj picture revers gks tkrh gS]
vFkkZr~ film dk og Hkkx tks under the bone Fkk og white fn[kkbZ nsrk gS]
rFkk lungs black fn[kkbZ nsrs gS] bldk rkRi;Z gS]fd positive film esa
gh ,d lgh image fn[kkbZ nsrh gS] bl izdkj ls og x-ray film ftlesa
negative ion gS] mlesa body ds os lHkh Hkkx tks thick gksrs gS] white
fn[kkbZ nsrs gS] vkSj os lHkh part tks thin gksrs gS] black fn[kkbZ nsrs gS A
x-ray film esa tks area white fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] Radio
opaque¼vikjn’khZ½ dgykrk gS] rFkk tks area black fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] og
Radio lucent ¼pednkj½ dgykrk gSAa
Radio opaque:- Bone , Stone , Kidney , Urenery bladder.

Radio lucent:- Air in the lung , Bone esa Fracture e.t.c.

84
 -: Disposal of use chemical :-

Defination :- Dark room ds chemical dk continue use djrs jgus

ls budh activity de gks tkrh gS] vkSj og QSdus dh fLFkfr
esa vk tkrk gS] ysfdu developer [kjkc gksus ij mlesa replenishment
mix dj nsrs gS] vkSj fixer [kjkc gksus ij mlesa rapid fixer mix dj nsrs gS]
ysfdu ;g dqN le; ckn iqu% unactive gks tkrk gS] ysfdu fixer [kjkc gksus
ij mls ugh QSdk tkrk gS] D;ksafd fixer esa silver halide crystal
present jgrs gS] fixer [kjkc gksus ij izR;sd 1000 ml fixer esa 20 ls 25
gm Ag izkIr gksrh gSA

Silver Recovery ds dkj.k %&

¼1½ Silver izkd`frd lzksr gS] vr% bldk laj{k.k vko’;d gSA
¼2½ bldh marketing price high gSA
¼3½ Ag ls vk;s :i;ksa ls vU; chemical [kjhnk tkrk gSA
Radiography department esa silver ;k Ag recover dh fuEu
fof/k;k¡
gSA

¼1½ Electrolytic method

¼2½ Mettallic method
¼3½ Chemistry method
¼4½ Galvanic method

85
¼1½ Electrolytic method:- bl method esa two electrode
cathode vkSj anode fixer solution esa
Mky nsrs gS] vkSj solution esa direct current pass djrs gS] blesa
cathode ij silver plate yxk nsrs gS] vkSj Anode carbon dk cuk gksrk
gS] blfy, use fd;s x;s fixer esa silver hypo sulphate ion negative
charge ij vkSj bromide ion anode ij attract gksrs gS] cathode dks
fudkydj voltage supply cUn dj nsrs gS] vkSj silver dks plate esa ls
strapping breaking method ls vyx dj ysrs gSA

bl method esa 'kq) silver feyrh gSA

Advantage:- blds fuEufy[kr advantage gSA

¼1½ bl mathode esa use gksus okys devise lLrs vkSj mPp quality ds gksrs
gSA
¼2½ ;g procedure ek= vk/kk ls ,d ?k.Vs esa gksrh gSA
86
¼3½ Matalic replacement method :- Waste gq, silver solution
esa copper , Iron Zink
solution dks Mky nsrs gS] dqN fefuVksa ckn waste metal dissolve gks
tkrk gS] vkSj silver uhps cSB tkrk gS] bl method esa Hkh pure silver dks
recovering dh tk ldrh gS] dissolve solution dks QSddj uhps dh Ag
dks collect fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Procedure:- bl process esa ,d holding tank jgrk gS] tks plastic

dk Ckuk gksrk gS] vkSj bldk cover air tited jgrk gS] ;g
Ag rasistance ls cuk gksrk gS] ;g air tited gksrk gS] ftlls fixer
solution dh xa/k ckgj ugh vkrh gS] ;g lead proof gksrk gSA
¼3½ Chemical method :- tc Ag lodded fixer esa dqN chemicals
feyk nsrs gS] rks buesa interaction gksrk gS] vkSj
var esa 'kq) silver izkIr gksrh gS] bl method }kjk Ag dh recovery dh
tkrh gSA
¼4½ Galvanic method :- bl method esa fixer solution esa nks
vyx&vyx metal dks ,d nwljs ds contect
esa j[krs gS] ftlls Ag metal sheet dks plate ij collect gks tkrh gSA

87
 -: Fogging:-
Unexposed silver halide crystal developer ds contrast ds lkFk
fØ;k djds film dks /kq/kyk djrs gS] blh /kq/kys iu dks fog dgrs gS] vFkkZr~
fog og undevelop density gS tks unexpose film ij developing ds
nksjku present gksrh gS] fogging vyx&vyx lable dh gksrh gS] fog
lable high gksus ij film ds contrast esa deh vk tkrh gS] low density
ckyk aria fog ds lkFk mix gks tkrk gS] blfy, low density rejoint dks
detect vkSj diagnosis find djus esa deffically gksrh gSA

Cause¼dkj.k½ of fog:-
Photogrphic fog:-

¼1½ Age fog :- film dh expiry date fudy tkus ij Hkh mls use djus
ij Image esa unsharpness vkrh gS] ftls age fog dgrs
gS] blls cpus ds fy, film dks expiry date ls igys use djuk pkfg,A
¼2½ Light fog :- Light fog fuEufyf[kr dkj.kksa ls gksrh gSA

¼1½ Dark room esa vf/kd voltage dh safe light use djus ij
Unadvantage density cause gksrh gSA
¼2½ Safe light esa film dks vf/kd le; rd j[kus ij light fog gksrk gSA
¼3½ Develop djrs le; ckj&ckj rFkk yEcs le; rd fQYe ns[kus lsA

¼3½ Radiation fog:- Dark room esa film ij scatter x-ray photon
iM+us ij film dh image esa vR;Ur density mRiUu
gks tkrh gS] ftls radiation fog dgrs gSA
88
¼4½ Oxidation Fog :- Film emulsion ij gok dk izHkko ckj&ckj rFkk
yEcs le; rd film dks ns[kus ij iM+rk gS] rFkk
atmosphere dh oxygen ¼ O2½ developer ds contrast ds lkFk fØ;k
djds oxidized ¼vkWDlhdj.k½ dj nsrh gSA

¼5½ Chemical fog :- Chemical fog fUkEu dkj.kksa ls gksrk gSA

¼1½ film dks yEcs le; rd developer esa NksM+us ij

¼2½ Developer dk high temperature
¼3½ Developer dk xyr feJ.k
¼4½ Developer ds solution esa feykoV

¼6½ Backscatter fog:- fcuk screen film ds iz;ksx ds le; fiNyh

back Screen ls feyus okys radiation ls
backscatter fogging gksrh gSA

¼7½ Color fog :- vi;kZIr rinsing ;k detksj fixing (fixer)

developer o Fixer dk vkil esa reaction.

89
 -: Filtration :-
Filtration og process gS ftlesa unuseful radiation dks gVk;k tkrk
gS] radiographic image ds fy, ftrus photon dh t:jr gksrh gS] mrus
gh photon ge patient dks nsrs gS] blfy, patient dks radiation dose
de yxrk gS] bl process esa higher energy okys photon patient dks
penetrate djds image cukrs gS] ;g metal dk cuk gksrk gS] ftlesa Al
/kkrq use dh tkrh gSA

X-ray beam fuEufyf[kr label esa filter gksrh gSA

¼1½ X-ray tube vkSj housing ij

¼2½ Beam ds way ¼ekxZ½ esa metal filter j[kdj

Filtration two type dk gksrk gSA

¼1½ Inherent filtration

¼2½ Added filtration

¼1½ Inherent filtration:- X-ray beam dk x-ray tube housing ls

Pass gksrs gq, absorb gksuk inherent
filtration dgykrk gS] inherent filtration ds fy, anode vkSj cathode tks
glass envelope esa close jgrk gS] risposible gksrk gS] bls aluminium
filter }kjk measure fd;k tkrk gS] blesa 0.5 ls 1.00 mm rd ds Al filter
dk use fd;k tkrk gSA

¼2½ Added filtration:- X-ray beam ds ekxZ esa added filter j[k nsrs gS]
tks low energy photons dks absorb dj ysrk
gS] rFkk high energy okys lHkh photons dks Al filter ls pass dj nsrk gSA
90
91
92
 -: HANGERS:-
Introduction:- Film dks processing ds oDr ftl metal ds cus
Structure esa fit fd;k tkrk gS] mls hanger dgrs gS]
bldk use fuEu dkj.kksa ls fd;k tkrk gSA
¼1½ film dks support nsus ds fy,]
¼2½ Handling ds oDr emulsion layer dks safe j[kus ds fy,]
¼3½ Tank esa ,d ls vf/kd film dks vyx&vyx j[kus ds fy,A

Types of hanger’s:- hanger’s fuEufyf[kr four type’s ds gksrs gSA

¼1½ Tension hanger

¼2½ Channel type hanger
¼3½ Hanger bar’s & clip’s
¼4½ Dantal hanger

¼1½ Tension hanger:- Tension hanger stenlenss steel vkSj

metal dh frame ds cus gksrs gS] tks film dh
plane surface ij touch ugh djrs gS] pkjksa corner ij ,d plates yxh
jgrh gS] ftlesa ls fupyh nksuksa plates direct frame ls tqM+h jgrh gS] vkSj
Åijh nksuks plates spring bar ls attach jgrh gSA
ftlls film esa tension cuk jgrk gS] hanger ij film dks
load djrs oDr igys nksuks clip’s ij film dks attach djuk iM+rk gS] vkSj
ckn esa fupyh nksuksa clip’s ij film dks yxkuk pkfg,] ftlls film tension
ds lkFk hanger esa yxh jgs gSA

93
Advantage:- ¼1½ blesa film dks dryer esa vklkuh ls yxk;k tk ldrk gSA
¼2½ Channel type hanger dh vis{kk bls vklkuh ls clean fd;k tk
ldrk
gSA
¼3½ Film processing ds le; emulsion layer damage ugh gksrh gSA
¼4½ ;g T;knk costly ugh gksrs gSA

¼2½ Channel type hanger:- bl Hanger esa double structure gksrk

gS] ftles nks groove yxs gksrs gS] tks
nksuks Åijh fljs ij yxs gksrs gS] Hanger ds top ij metal dh plate yxh
jgrh gS] ftlesa ls film ds insert ¼?kqlsMu+ k½ djds bls close dj fn;k tkrk
gSA

Advantage :- blesa film dks vklkuh ls load fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Disadvantage:- ¼1½Processing ds oDr film ds fdukjs dk Hkkx

develop ugh gksrk gSA
¼2½ Drying ds oDr Hkh film dks hanger ls fudkyuk iM+rk gS] D;ksfa d ;g
fdukjksa ij dryer ugh gksrh gSA

94
¼3½ Hanger bar’s & clip’s:- Hanger bar’s & clips dk mi;ksx film
dks Support nsus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS]
bars esa yxsclips dks film size ds vuqlkj adjust fd;k tk ldrk gS]
channel hanger esa Mkyus ls igys film dks bar vkSj clip esa yxk;k tkrk
gS] vkSj drying ds oDr fQj ls Attach dj nsrs gSA
Advantage :- ¼1½ ;g adjustable gksrs gSA
¼2½ ;g fVdkÅ jgrs gSA
¼3½ blesa fdlh Hkh size dh films dks fit fd;k tkrk gSA

¼4½ Dantal hanger:- bldk use dental radiography dh

processing esa fd;k tkrk gS] ;g hanger steel
dk cuk gksrk gS] ftl ij highly police¼vkj{kh½ surface yxh jgrh gS]
processing ds oDr film dk uke okyk jsij ,d side esa attach djrs gS]
vkSj mlh dh nwljh side esa film dks attach djds film processing dh
tkrh gS] ,slk blfy, fd;k tkrk gS] D;ksfa d ,d ls vf/kd dental film jgus
ij patient dks confusion u gksA

95
 -: M.L.C. ¼medico legal case½ Radiography :-

Introduction:- M.L.C. radiography ds vUrxZr ,sls patient ds

x- ray vkrs gS] ftudk accident gqvk gks] vkSj ftudh
F.I.R. Police station esa ntZ jgrh gS] bldss vUrZxr mu person dss x-
ray fy, tkrs] tks murder , crim esa involve jgrs gS] blesa nks"kh
patient ds lHkh right joints ;k left joint ds lHkh x-ray ysdj age
verification fd;k tkrk gS] confusion ns[kdj patient dh lgh Age dks
confirm dj mls court }kjk age ds according ltk nh tkrh gSA

Example:- tSls dksbZ patient person [kqn dks 14 lky ;k mlls de dk

crkrk gS] rks mls court }kjk oky lq/kkj esa Hkstk tkrk gS] ysfdu age
confirm gkus ij mls 15&16 lky ds ckn court }kjk ltk lqukbZ tkrh gSA

M.L.C. radiography djrs le; fuEu ckrksa dk /;ku j[kuk pkfg,A

¼1½ Prescription letter ij police station vkSj T.I. dh seal vkSj

Signature ns[kdj gh x-ray djuk pkfg,A
¼2½ Patient aggressive gks ldrk gS] vr% mls proper handle djuk
pkfg,
¼3½ Patient ds lkFk T.I. ;k head constable lkFk esa gksuk pkfg,A
¼4½ Patient dk x-ray djrs le; proper factor nsuk pkfg,] ftlls
film Repeat u dh tk ldsA

96
 -: Emergency Radiography:-

Emergency Radiogrphy ds vUrZxr serious injury vkSj tramatic

patient ds x-ray fy, tkrs gS] vFkkZr~ urgent vkSj emergency case esa
immediately x-ray ysdj patient dks fcuk fdlh ijs’kkuh ds position
nh tkrh gSA
Emergency Radiogrphy esa fuEufyf[kr ckrksa dk /;ku j[kuk pkfg,A
¼1½ Injury patient dks T;knk move ugh djuk pkfg,A
¼2½ Patient ds fy, O2 cylinder vkSj first aid box department esa
j[ks tkus pkfg,A
¼3½ Patient dks fracture jgus ij mlds X-ray djrs le; patient dks
fgykuk Mqykuk ugh pkfg,A
¼4½ X-ray djus ls igys proper factor set djuk pkfg,] ftlls x-ray
Film repeat u gksA
¼5½ X-ray djus ls igys proper rjhds ls process djuk pkfg,] ftlls
Film over vkSj under develop u gksA
¼6½ B.P. instruments spegnomonometer vkSj emergency drugs
tSl&s Adrenalin , avil, decadon , vovran, dynapar , I.V. fluds
D.L. , R.L. , D.N.S. dks t:j j[kuk pkfg,A
¼7½ Female patient vkus ij mldk x-ray ten day rule follow djds
nsuk pkfg,A

97
 -: I.I.T.V.¼Image intensifier television ½:-

Fluroscopy:- Fluroscopy dh first generation esa ,d x-ray

tube , ,d x-ray table vkSj ,d fluoroscopy screen
gksrh FkhA fluoroscopy dh mifLFkfr ds dkj.k x-ray ls fluoroscopy dh
discovery gqbZ gSA
;g screen flurocent material dh cuh gksrh gS] tSls& copper
activated zink vkSj cadmium sulfate vkfnA
bl screen ds }kjk yellow, green LisDVªe fn[kkbZ nsrs Fks] vkSj bl izdkj dh
screen green screen dgykrh Fkh] fluoroscopy observation ds fy,
dark room dh vko’;drk gksrh Fkh] vkSj lkFk gh radiologist ds fy,
adepted eyes dh vko’;drk gksrh Fkh] fdlh Hkh examination ls 20-30
minit igys ls lead goggle iguus iM+rs Fks] general fluoroscopy esa cgqr
gYdh image curh Fkh] ftls dark room esa ns[kus ds fy, red vision dk
use djuk iM+rk Fkk] vkSj image ls contrast dh brightness Hkh cgqr de
gksrh Fkh] lkFk gh radiologist vkSj radiographers lh/ks fluoroscopy ds
lkeus jgrs Fks] ftlls mu ij primary radiation iM+rk Fkk] bu lHkh dfe;ksa
dks nwj djus ds fy, image intensifier fluoroscopy dk mi;ksx fd;k
x;kA
Image Intensifier:- Image intensifier ,d glass tube gS] ftlesa
Vacuum gksrk gS] blesa four basic element
present jgrs gSA
¼1½ Input phosphor
¼2½ Photo cathode
¼3½ Electrostatic Focussing cup
¼4½ Accelerating Anode
¼5½ Output phosphor
98
 tc x-ray beam dh energy patient dh body esa ls pass
gksrh gS]rks og image intensifier esa inter gksrh gS] rc input
flourosent screen extra photon dks absorb dj ysrh gS] vkSj mldh
energy dkss light photon esa convert djrh gS] ;g light photon
photo cathode ls strike gksdj photo electron cukrs gS] ;g photo
electron rqjUr photo cathode ls move djrs gS] D;ksfa d cathode vkSj
accelerate anode ds chp high potencial difference gksrk gS]
tc ;g electron cathode ls anode dh vksj flow gksrs gS] rc og
output flourosent screen ds electrostatic load esa focus gksrs gS]
rFkk bldh geometric configuration esa dksbZ change ugh gksrk gS]
tc ;g output flourosent screen ij strike gksrs gS] rc og light
photon esa change gkss tkrs gSA

¼1½ Input phosphor :- Input phosphor screen cesium iodide

dh Ckuh gksrh gS] tcfd old image
intensifier esa silver activated zinc vkSj cadmium sulphite cuh
gksrh Fkh] tcfd modern tube esa cesium iodide dks vapour
deposition process }kjk aluminium substrate esa deposite fd;k
tkrk gSA

Cesium Iodide dh fo’ks"krk,sa %&

¼1½ bldk vertical orientation gksrk gSA
¼2½ bldh packing density high gksrh gSA
¼3½ bldk izHkkoh atomic number gksrk gSA
¼4½ Phosphor dh thickness 0.3 m.m. gksrh gSA

99
¼2½ Photo Cathode :- ;g photo enessive metal dk cuk gksrk gS] tks
Antimony vkSj cesium ds compound ds
combination dks mix djds cuk;k tkrk gS] tc flouroscent screen ls light
photon photo cathode ij Vdjkrs gS] rc screen dh britness ds vuqlkj
photo electron dk fuekZ.k gksrk gS] cesium iodide ls light directly
cathode ij ikl gksrh gSA

¼3½ Electrostatic Focussing cup :- ;g positive charge okys

Electrode dh series ds cus gksrs
gS] ;g electrode electron dks focuse djrs gS] tc og photo cathode ls
output screen ls emited gksrs gS] rc ;g electron image dks inverse vkSj
reverse djrs gS] output phosphor ij image size reduce gksrh gSA

¼4½ Acceleration Anode :- Acceleration Anode image tube ds

Neack esa fLFkr gksrk gS] bldk function
electron dk acceleration djuk gksrk gS] tks glass envelop esa vUnj fit jgrk
gS] cathode esa output screen dh vksj Anode esa potential deffrence 25
ls 35 kv gksrk gS] ftlesa electron velocity high gksrh gSA

¼5½ Output Phosphor :- Image intensifier esa output flouroscent

Screen silver activated zinc dh cuh gksrh gS]
image dh resolution dks maintain djus ds fy, crystal size vkSj layer dh
thickness de dj nsrs gS] output flouroscent screen dk diameter ½ ls
1 inch gksrk gS] aluminium dh layer flouroscent screen ij coated jgrh
gSA
Image intensifier glass tube dh thickness 2-4 m.m. jgrh gS]
vkSj ;g lead coated metal contect ls closed jgrh gS] ;g lead scattered
radiation ls protection nsrh gS] output phosphor image dks indirectly
closed circuit ds television ds }kjk ns[kk tk ldrk gSA
100
Image intensifier television :- X-ray beam }kjk ,d ckj image
cuus ij bldh information dks
detect djuk cgqr vklku gksrk gS] Flouroscopy esa image dks T.V.
moniter ij display fd;k tkrk gS] vkSj bl izdkj display ds fy, T.V.
camera vkSj tube ls image dks process fd;k tkrk gS] ;g T.V.
vidiocon vkSj plumbicon gks ldrh gS] ftlesa T.V. moniter ij
image display gksrh gS] standered x-ray closed circuit television
esa 525×525 formate vkSj 5 mtlz rd bond gksrk gS] T.V. image cgqr
lkjs NksVs&NksVs dots dh image gksrh gS] tks bright gksrh gS] tks closed
range vkSj magnification ds }kjk vyx&vyx visible gksrh gS] ;g
dots horizontal line esa specific pattern esa arrange jgrs gS] ftls
horizontal scan line dgrs gS] ;g line fluoroscopy esa T.V. screen
525 scan line ls lacaf/kr jgrs gS] ;g line small picture tube esa ,d
LkkFk closed jgrs gS] vkSj large tube esa QSys jgrs gSA

101
 -: CONTRAST MEDIA :-

Introduction :- Contrast media og agent gksrs gS] ftldk use

Organs & body structure dh image dks ns[kus ds
fy, fd;k tkrk gS] pw¡fd organs soft tissues ds cus gksrs gS] vr% muesa
radiopaque contrast media dks body cavity vkSj veins ds
through inject fd;k tkrk gSA
Contrast media two types ds gksrs gSA
¼1½ Positive contrast media
¼2½ Negative contrast media

¼1½ Positive contrast media:- Positive contrast media dk

high Atomic weight vkSj high
atomic number gksrk gSA
tSl%s & Barium sulphate & organic iodine compound

¼2½ Negative contrast media:- Negative contrast media esa

low Weight gksrk gSA
tSl%s &Air, CO2 , O2A

102
 Generation of contrast media:-

¼1½ First generation of contrast media:- Strontium bromide,

Bismuth in oil vkSj
lipidol dk use intra vascular contrast media Fks] blesa sodium
iodide dk use fd;k tkrk Fkk] ijUrq bldk fo"kSyk izHkko ns[kk x;k] igys
organic iodide dk use fd;k tkrk gS] ftlesa pyridon compound
gksrk gS] ftlesa I dk ,d atom gksrk FkkA

¼2½ Second generation of contrast media:- Iodinated

benzene ring
compound dk use 1950 esa fd;k tkrk Fkk] ftls hippuran dgk tkrk
Fkk] ;g modern ionic water soluble contrast agents ds }kjk
relace dj fn;k x;kA

example:- Diatrizoate meglumin+Diatrizoate sodium

( Urograffin)
¼3½ Third generation of contrast media:- bl generation esa
ionic Compound
osmolity ds }kjk change dj fn,s x;s] triiodinated benzoic acid ,
non ionic compound metrizamide }kjk replace dj fn;s x;sA

¼4½ Fourth generation of contrast media:- bl generation esa

contrast media
dh osmolality reduce dj nh xbZ] non ionic compounds iotasul
dk use fd;k tkrk gS] iotasul dh osmolality metrizamide ds vk/kh
gksrh gS

103
 -: Classification of reaction of contrast media:-

Reaction of contrast media:- Contrast media dks patient esa

inject djus ds ckn blds reaction
dHkh de ;k T;knk gks ldrs gSA

Reaction fuEu type ds gksrs gSaA

¼1½ Mild
¼2½ Moderate
¼3½ Severe
¼4½ Death

¼1½ Mild:- Patient esa contrast body cavity vessels ds through

inject djus ij blesa reaction de gksrs gSA
Example:- Vomiting , Nausea, itching of skin, headache ;g
reaction gksus ij patient dks avil decadon tablate nsrs gSA

¼2½ Moderate:- Contrast patient esa inject djus ij contrast dk

reaction gksrk gS] blds sympterms gS] blood
pressure high ;k low gksuk ftls doctor dk treatment fd;k tkuk
pkfg,A

¼3½ Severe:- Contrast inject djus ds ckn patient dh condition

104
 severe gks tkrh gS] og osgks’k gks tkrk gS] vkSj mlesa lHkh
reaction ,d lkFk ns[ksa tk ldrs gS] bl condition esa patient dks rqjUr
hospital esa admit
fd;k tkrk gS] vkSj mls ventilater ;k vU; alife supporting system
provide fd;k tkrk gSA

¼4½ Death:- Contrast dk vf/kd reaction ls patient dh death Hkh gks

ldrh gSA

Properties of contrast media:-

Contrast media dh properties fuEufyf[kr gSA
¼1½ Osmolality
¼2½ Viscosity
¼3½ Toxicity
¼4½ Must produce adequate contrast
¼5½ Miscibility

¼1½ Osmolality:- Ionic dimmers(hexabrix) vkSj nonionic

monomers tSls%& 3RD generation ds contrast dh
osmololity lkekU; contrast dh vis{kk yxHkx ipkl izfr’kr gksrh gS] tofd
non ionic dimmers dh osmolality lkekU; contrast ek/;e dh vis{kk
yxHkx ipkl izfr’kr gksrh gSA
¼2½ Viscosity:- Viscosity vko’;drk vuqlkj gksuh pkfg,]
tSls%&urograffin e.t.c.
¼3½ Toxicity:- ;g non toxic rFkk safe gksus pkfg,s tks fuEu ckrksa ij fuHkZj
djrk gSA
¼1½ Osmolality
¼2½ Electric charge
¼3½ Chemotoxicity
¼4½ Hypersensitivity

105
¼4½ Must produce adequate contrast:- Dense contrast medium
rc iz;ksx djuk pkfg,] tc
injection ds ckn esa Diluted gks tk;sA
¼5½ Miscibility:- tk¡p ds fy, mfpr miscibility gksuh pkfg,A
-: Computed Radiography:-

Introduction:- ,slh radiography ftlesa x-ray image dks detect

djus ds fy, computer dk use fd;k tkrk gS] ftls
ge computed radiography dgrs gSA

Method of computed radiography:- Computed

radiography dk basic
principle conversional type dk gksrk gS] ,slh radiography esa
conversional cassette ds LFkku ij photo stimulated cassette dk
use fd;k tkrk gS] bl Cassette dks expose djus ds ckn detector ls
connect fd;k tkrk gS] ftlesa storage latent image dks detector
ds }kjk analog electrical signal esa change dj computer moniter
ij display fd;k tkrk gSA
blh show image dks contrast dh setting image dh
quality dks vkSj vf/kd improved fd;k tkrk gS] rFkk vko’;drk gksus ij
printer ds }kjk image dks print out fd;k tkrk gSA
Analoge - ,d tSlk
Cassette of computed radiography:- bl type dh cassette esa
image receptor yxk
gksrk gS] tks photo stimulated phosphor dk cuk gksrk gS] blesa cuus
okyh image ds }kjk light image esa convert dj fn;k tkrk gS] bl
light image dks analoge electrical signal esa change dj fn;k tkrk
106
gS] bl analoge electrical signal dks amplifier dj distal signal esa
convert dj computer esa store dj fy;k tkrk gS] ;g cassette
multisection erase gksrh gS] ftls ,d ckj detector esa convert djus
ij mlessa store image auto erase( empty& loding& unloding) gks
tkrh gS] vkSj iqu% use djus ds fy, cassette rS;kj gks tkrh gSA

Image process :-

Light image →
Analoge electrical signal→
After Amplifier→ distal signal→
Image show on the computer

107
 -: Distal Radiography :-

Introduction:- Distal radiography esa traditional silver halide

film/ screen radiation receptor ds LFkku ij
photo electronic receptor dk use fd;k tkrk gS] ftldh iwjh
controlling computer }kjk dh tkrh gSSA
Digital radiography dks eq[; :Ik ls two part esa divide
fd;k tkrk gS] tks fuEu gSA
¼1½ Digital video-flouroscopy system ( digital fluoroscopy)
¼2½ Scan projection radiography ( SPR) system

¼1½ Digital video-flouroscopy system ( digital fluoroscopy)

Distal radiography system, distal
fluoroscopy esa present jgrk gS] rFkk bldk use angiography esa
fd;k tkrk gSA or
blds vykok body part esa dry contrast media esa position
ns[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS Digital video-flouroscopy iw.kZ use djus
ds fy, image intensifier dks ,d high quality t.v. camera ds lkFk
tksM+ fn;k tkrk gS] ftls Digital video-flouroscopy system dgrs gSA

¼2½ Scan projection radiography ( SPR) system:- bl

systemesa x-ray
beam dk use patient dks scan djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS] bl
108
system esa beam dks patient ds Åij move djk;k tkrk gS ;k patient
dks beam ds uhps move djk;k tkrk gS] bl system esa high quality dk
detector use fd;k tkrk gS] vktdy bl method dk use c.t. scan esa
fd;k tkrk gSA
Components of digital radiography system:- Digital
radiography esa
traditional silver halide (Agx) ;k screen radiation receptor ds
LFkku ij photo electronic receptor dk use fd;k tkrk gS] ftldh iwjh
controlling computer }kjk dh tkrh gSA

bl process esa digital dk eryc digital ls gksrk gS]

ftruh ek=k esa x-ray photon patient dh body esa Hkstrs gS] mruh gh
ek=k esa photo electronic receptor ds }kjk absorb dh tkrh gSA
bls ,d code digit ds :i esa ;g ,d information
photo electronic receptor cassette esa input dj fy;k tkrk gS] ftls
digital detector ls connect djus ij mlesa input digital
information de-code gksdj screen ij visualize djrk gS] ftlls gesa
screen ij ,d image izkIr gksrh gSA
bl display image ds contrast dks perfect visualize ds fy,
contrast dks ?kVk ;k cM+k ldrss gSA
bls Directlly film laser printer }kjk print out dj ysrs gSA

109
 -: Computed Tomography:-

Introduction:- ;g image forming dh ,d ubZ technique gS]

ftldk development x-ray ls gqvk gS] ftldh
discovery british physicist sir godfrey housenfield us lu~ 1972
esa dh Fkh] ftls vktdy computed tomography or computerized
Axial tomography (CAT) dgrs gS] ftlds fy, bUgsa lu~ 1979 esa Noble
price fn;k x;k FkkA

¼1½ Basic principle and data acquisition :- C.T. scanner ds

vUrxZr x-ray film ds
Åij ugh fxjrh gS] ofYd detector ds Åij fxjrh gS] ;s detector x-ray
photon dks scantilation esa ifjorZu djrs gS] ;s detector lh/ks&lh/ks
muds Åij fxjus okys x-ray photon ls related gksrs gS] vkSj ;s x-ray
photon tissue density ls related gksrs gSA
;fn dksbZ dense¼?kuk½ eksVk Tissue vkrk gS
rks ogk¡ ij x-ray photon T;knk absorb gksxs ;s scantilations record
fd;k tkrk gS] ;g information computer esa fit gksrh gS] tks fd
patient ds pkjksa rjQ x-ray beam ds ?kweusa ds dkj.k fHkUu&fHkUUk
reading iznf’kZr djrk gSA ;g information computer ij ,d
analoge form esa tSls fd 2 dimensinal display screen ij iznf’kZr
djrk gS] ;gk¡ izR;sd Neumarical value ,d single picture electro
ftls fd fixel ds }kjk iznf’kZr djrs gSA

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C.T. generation:- C.T. dh four generation gS] tks fuEu gSA

¼1½ First generation:- Rotate/ translate/ Pencil beam

¼2½ Second generation:- Rotate/ translate, narrow fan beam
¼3½ Third generation :- Rotate /Rotate wide fan beam
¼4½ Fourth generation :- C.T. scanner rotate stationary

¼1½ First generation:- ;g ,d rotate pencil beam system ;k

blds vUrxZr ,d ;k nks detectors use fd;s
tkrs Fks] bldh structure main :i ls brain dh evaluation¼xq.ku½ ds
fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

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¼2½ Second generation:- Second generation Hkh translate
rotate type dh Fkh] bl unit esa 3
detector use fd;s tkrs gS] tks fd liner array esa arrange Fks] bu
three detector dh otg ls x-ray beam dh mi;ksfxrk c<+ tkrh gSA

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¼3½ Third generation :- Third generation esa tks scanner use
gksrk Fkk] mlesa detector dh la[;k c<+k nh
xbZ Fkh] rFkk ;g detectors rotate system ij vk/kkfjr FksA
tSls fd x-ray tube vkSj detectors array nksuks gh rotate
gksrs Fks] bl generation esa tks array use fd;s tkrs Fks] og ,d circle esa
arranged gksrs Fks] ftldk central focal spot ij gksrk Fkk] blesa tks x-
ray beam use esa ykbZ tkrh Fkh] mls collimated dj fan beam ds :i
esa use esa ykrs Fks] blesa generation esa yxHkx 750 detector mi;ksx esa
yk;s tkrs FksA

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¼4½ Fourth generation scanner :- fourth generation esa tks
scanner use fd;s tkrs gS]
mlesa dsoy motion gksrk gS] hage tube rotate djrh gS] ysfdu
detectors move ugh djrs gS] blesa lkjs detector
,d ring esa arrange gksrs gS] tks fd patient ds pkjksa rjQ fLFkr gksrk gS]
bl scanner esa tks x-ray tube rotate djrh gS] og detectors ds
circle ds vUnj rotate djrh gS] blesa ftl x-ray beam dk use fd;k
tkrk gS] og fan beam dgykrh gS] bl fan beam dk rotation 3600 dss
dks.k ij gksrk gSA

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Data Presentation :- C.T. scan esa izR;sd image ds ckn analoge
image cathode x-ray tube ij fn[kkbZ nsrh
gS] bu pictures esa vf/kd danse tissue gray scan ij fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA
tSl%s & skull esa bone white color dh rFkk radio lucent
gray shades esa fn[kkbZ nsrs gS] bl shades dh range window dh
width¼pkSMk+ bZ½ ds }kjk cnyh tk ldrh gS] tks tissue dance ;k thin gksrk
gS] mldh density fudkyus ds fy, hangs field scall dk use djrs gS]
bl scall ds vUrxZr izR;sd dk ,d fix Hkko gSA

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