Biology | Prepared By: Enzo Castaños 01

The arrangement may either be simple,

1.0 Plant & Animal Tissues stratified or pseudostratified.

Tissue - a group of connected cells that Functionally, an epithelial tissue may be

have a similar function within an protective, glandular (secretory),
organism sensory or it may be involved in
absorption or filtration.
Levels of Organization
● Atom A.) Based on Structure
● Molecule

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TYPE DESCRIPTION
● Protoplasm
● Cell Squamous Epithelial Tissue
- scale-like / flat cells
● Tissue

H
● Organ
Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue
● Organ System - short cells with roughly similar
thickness and width
● Organism - They usually appear
hexagonal in a cross-section.
-S
There are five grades of organization Columnar Epithelial Tissue
- similar to cuboidal, however it
that can be recognized in animals: is taller than it is wide
protoplasm, cell, tissue, organ, organ
system.

1.1 Animal Tissues

B.) Based on Arrangements
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SIMPLE STRATIFIED PSEUDOSTRATIFIED

I. Epithelial Tissue
- forms the covering or lining of all
free body surfaces both external
and internal. - single layer of - composed of - false multilayered
- The cells are compact, bonded cells multiple layers appearance single
layered cells
together by intercellular cement
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for strength and often supported

Additionally, structures that can be found
by a basement membrane.
called villi/villus which are tiny,
finger-like projections made up of cells
Types of Epithelium
that can be found in the human kidney
which is a simple cuboidal epithelium.
Structurally, the cells may be:
squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated,
or flagellated.

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C.) Based on Function

TYPE FUNCTION Types of Striations Nuclei Control Location
Muscle
Protective - guards animals from external
Skeletal yes many, at voluntary skeletal
injury and from infection
periphery muscles
- repair quickly after injury
Cardic yes single, in involuntary heart
Secretory - specialized for secreting products center
necessary for use by an animal.
(Glandular)
- The secretions may be either single, in involuntary visceral
Smooth no
sticky (mucous) or watery center organs
(serous).

Sensory - specialized to receive sensory

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information and translate this III. Connective Tissue
information into neural signals
- bind together and support other
structures
II. Muscular Tissue - derived from the mesenchyme, a

H
- the most common tissue in the generalized embryonic tissue that
body of most animals. can differentiate also into
- made up of elongated cells or vascular and smooth muscle
-S -
fibers specialized for contraction
makes possible the movement of
the body and its parts
- originates from the mesoderm
and its unit is the muscle cell or
muscle fiber
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A. Proper Connective Tissue

Types of Epithelium i. Loose Connective Tissue
- generally holds organs,
Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
anatomic structures, and tissues
in place
- The extracellular matrix is the
most significant feature of loose
- has striations - found only in - does not have
across its cells the heart striations in its
connective tissue with large
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caused by the - has cross cells. spaces between fibers.

arrangement of striations in its
the contractile cells
1. Adipose/Fat Tissue
proteins actin - has a line that - Adipose tissue is
and myosin. extends along
commonly known as
the end of the
cell called the body fat. It is found all
intercalated disc over the body or under
the skin (subcutaneous
fat), packed around
internal organs (visceral
fat), between muscles,
within bone marrow and

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in breast tissue. - The organic matrix is similar to

Adipocytes, also the matrix material found in
known as lipocytes and other connective tissues,
fat cells, are the cells including some amount of
that primarily compose collagen and elastic fibers. This
adipose tissue, gives strength and flexibility to
specialized in storing the tissue.
energy as fat.
2. Areolar Tissue ii. Cartilage
- found surrounding blood - functions as a flexible but strong
vessels, nerve bundles, connective tissue that protects

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muscles, and organs the bones and joints by reducing
- fills the spaces friction and working as a shock
between organs and absorber
connects your skin to

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your underlying muscle Types of Cartilage:
ii. Dense Connective Tissue Hyaline Cartilage - the most abundant type of
- composed of a higher density of cartilage. Cartilage is made up of specialized
fibers, which may be regular cells called chondrocytes. Hyaline cartilage is
-S (parallel fibers) or irregular
(multidirectional fibers), or
found lining bones in joints. It is also present
inside bones, serving as a center of ossification
elastic (embedded elastin) or bone growth.
1. Tendons Elastic Cartilage - similar to hyaline cartilage
- a cord of strong, flexible but contains elastic bundles (elastin) scattered
tissue, similar to a rope throughout the matrix.
- connect your muscles to Fibrocartilage - e is a specialized type of
your bones cartilage found in areas requiring tough support
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- let us move our limbs, or great tensile strength. Lacunae or lacuna are
help prevent muscle spaces in which cells are present.
injury by absorbing
some of the impact C. Fluid Connective Tissue
2. Ligaments i. Blood
- tough fibrous band of - considered a specialized
connective tissue that connective tissue as it connects
serves to support the all systems of the body and
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internal organs and hold transports oxygen, nutrients,

bones together in and wastes
proper articulation at the - vascular tissue is a fluid
joints connective tissue composed of
B. Skeletal Connective Tissue white blood cells, red blood
i. Bone cells, platelets and plasma
- osseous tissue, is a connective
tissue that has a large amount
of two different types of matrix
material

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ii. Lymph
- specialized connective tissue
that connects the body systems
and primarily functions to
maintain fluid levels, transport
substances, and participate in
the immune response
a. Dendrite
- extend from the cell body and
receive nerve impulses from
other neurons

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b. Cell body
- contains the nucleus and other
cell organelles

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c. Axon
- is a long extension of the cell
body that transmits nerve
impulses to other cells
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Erythrocytes - the most numerous blood
d. Axon terminal
cells; carry oxygen from the lungs to the
- points where the neuron
body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs
for exhalation. communicates with other cells
Leukocytes - the blood cell with a nucleus;
defend the body against infections and 1.2 Plant Tissues
foreign invaders.
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Thrombocytes - help with blood clotting to Plant Tissues have newly-developed

stop bleeding by forming plugs in blood plant bodies which form two basic
vessel injuries. groups of tissues:
Meristems/Meristematic Tissues -
IV. Nervous Tissue continuously undergoing cell division
- Nerve cells, called neurons, resulting in localized growth in plants.
along with associated cells called Permanent Tissues - formed from the
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neuroglia make up nervous meristems and make up the primary

tissue. body of the plant. These tissues develop
- Neuroglial cells assist in the structural and functional specialization
structural support and normal
functioning of neurons

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Protoderm - produces the dermal

tissues or epidermis

Procambium - forms the vascular

tissues of vascular bundles

Ground meristem - gives rise to the

ground tissue
I. Meristematic Tissues

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Meristematic tissues consist of three
B. Lateral meristems - facilitate
types, based on their location in the
growth in thickness or girth in a
plant.
maturing plant.

H
A. Apical meristems - contain
C. Intercalary meristems - enables
meristematic tissue located at the
the monocot leaf blade to
tips of stems and roots, which
-S enable a plant to extend in
increase in length from the leaf
base
length.

II. Permanent Tissues

Permanent tissues are groups of cells
that have lost their ability to distribute
but are specialized to offer elasticity,
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flexibility and strength to the plant.

A. Simple Permanent Tissue -

ground tissues, and can be
classified into sclerenchyma,
collenchyma and parenchyma
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based on their purpose

The ground tissue makes up a large

portion of the primary body of the plant.
Apical meristem gives rise to another It consists of cortex and pith of the stem
group of meristematic tissues known as and root as well as the mesophyll of the
the primary or transitional meristems leaves.
from which the primary body of the plant
develops.

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Collenchyma i. Dermal Tissue

- provide mechanical strength to The plant’s equivalent to the epithelium
herbaceous and rapidly growing in animals is the dermal tissue located
parts of the plants via turgor on the surface of the plant. It is an
- can perform the various important structure for gas exchange in
metabolic activities undertaken plants.
by parenchyma cells
Stomata or Stomates - pores that are
Sclerenchyma interspersed among the cells of the
- chief strengthening tissues of epidermis

S
plants
- There are two kinds of these; the Guard cells - pore bounded on both
sclereids and the fibers. sides by a pair of specialized cells in the

H
- present in some stem, roots and stomata; the only cells in the epidermis
in some leaves that contain chloroplasts
-S
Parenchyma
- serve as storage cells
Subsidiary cells - reservoir of water
and potassium ions which facilitate the
- least differentiated among plant opening and closing of the pore.
cells so they are able to
re-differentiate into other type of Cuticle - protection from desiccation is
cells also possible for dermal tissues
- Photosynthesis takes place because of the presence of this
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specifically in parenchyma cells waterproofing layer

which contain chloroplastids.
They are called chlorenchyma Periderm - first line of defense for the
cells and they make up the plant, protecting it from fire or heat
ground tissue of the leaves and injury, dehydration, freezing conditions,
other photosynthetic parts of the and/or disease
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plant.

B. Complex Permanent Tissue -

can either be dermal or vascular
tissues, and they include phloem
and xylem.

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ii. Vascular Tissue Phloem - transports organic compounds

They are concerned with the transport of such as sugars from the site of
material and are the equivalent of the photosynthesis to the rest of the plant.
circulatory system of the animals. The conducting cells of the phloem are
called sieve elements.
Vascular tissues are made up of the
xylem and phloem. Sieve-tube elements are the sieve
elements found only in angiosperms
Xylem - transports water and minerals while sieve cells are found only in

S
from the roots to different parts of the gymnosperms.
plant. The conducting cells of the xylem Companion cells - support sieve-tube
are called tracheary elements. elements in angiosperms

H
Albuminous cells - support sieve cells
There are two types of tracheary in gymnosperms
elements:
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vessel elements
tracheids
Both types of tracheary elements
contain pits, gaps in their secondary cell
walls.
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XYLEM PHLOEM

Contains mostly Dead cells Living cells

Transports Water & Minerals Sugar

Direction Up Up & Down

Biomass Big Small

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Monosaccharides have a molecular

2.0 Biomolecules formula of (CH2O)n.
- Glucose
Biomolecules - are any of numerous - Fructose
substances that are produced by cells - Galactose
and living organisms.
II. Disaccharides
Macromolecules - large molecules (Double Sugars)-(2) (C6H12O6)
which are made up of monomers. They consist of two monosaccharides
joined by a glycosidic linkage.

S
Polymers - resulting structure when - Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
monomers bond together - also known as cane sugar
- Lactose (glucose + galactose)

H
Polymerization - process of linking - also known as milk sugar
monomers together - Maltose (glucose + glucose)
- also known as malt sugar
Monomers polymerize through
-S
condensation reactions known as
Glycosidic linkage - a covalent bond
formed by a dehydration reaction.
dehydration reactions.
III. Oligosaccharides
Polymers can be separated into
(Complex Sugars)-(3+) (C6H12O6)
monomers in a process called
Also known as complex carbohydrates,
hydrolysis.
or polysaccharides, they consist of
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many monosaccharide molecules joined

2.1 Carbohydrates
together
- Glycogen - stored form of
Carbohydrates are composed of
glucose in animals that's made
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen
up of many connected glucose
linked together. The C,H,O atoms are
molecules
present in the ratio 1:2:1.
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- Starch - natural component of

(CH2O)n / Cx(H2O)y
most plants, including fruits,
vegetables, and grains.
There are three (3) main groups of
- Cellulose - the important
carbohydrates:
structural component of the
primary cell wall of green plants,
I. Monosaccharides
many forms of algae and the
(Simple sugars)-(C6H12O6)
oomycetes.

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2.2 Proteins Levels of Protein Structure:

Level Description Stabilized by
Proteins are very complex organic
Primary the sequence of peptide bond
substances made up of carbon, amino acids in a
polypeptide
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; sulfur
may also be present. Secondary formation of hydrogen bonding
ɑ-helices and β- between groups
pleated sheets in along the
Every protein molecule is built from a polypeptide peptide-bonded
backbone
simple compounds known as amino
Tertiary overall bonds and other
acids.

S
three-dimensional interactions
shape of a between R-groups,
polypeptide or between
The 11 essential amino acids can be R-groups and the
peptide-bonded
classified as::

H
backbone
- Phenylalanine
Quaternary the most bonds and other
- Valine complex; is a interactions
shape produced between R-groups
- Tryptophan by combinations and between
-S
- Methionine
- Arginine
of polypeptides peptide backbones
of different
polypeptides

- Threonine
- Lysine 2.3 Lipids
- Histidine
- Isoleucine Lipids are largely nonpolar and
- Leucine
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hydrophobic class of carbon-containing

- Lysine compounds. Lipids are characterized by
(p.s. use the pneumonic PVT. MAT HILL to remember easily)
their solubility, a physical property,
instead of a shared chemical structure.
Enzymes - proteins that speed up
chemical reactions in living things, and
I. Triglycerides
are essential for many bodily functions
Triglycerides are triesters of fatty acids
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with glycerol. This type of lipid is

commonly found in both plants and
animals and is composed mainly of
hydrogen and carbon.

Solid triglycerides are classified as fats,

while liquid triglycerides are classified as
(use the pneumonic H.I.L.O.T.S. to remember the enzymes
oils.
easily)

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II. Steroids There are two families of nitrogenous

Steroids structure is different as its bases, pyrimidines and purines.
carbon skeleton is a four-ring structure,
where varying functional groups an be Pyrimidines - have six-membered rings
attached of carbon and nitrogen atoms that tend
to take up H+ form solutions. These are
III. Phospholipids cytosine, thymine (in DNA), and uracil
Phospholipids are lipid molecules with (in RNA)
a phosphate group (PO4) attached to it,
which serves as its hydrophilic head Purines - are larger and have five- to

S
six-membered rings. These include
IV. Sterols adenine and guanine.
Sterols are among the many lipids with

H
no fatty acids. They differ in the number, I. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
position, and type of their functional DNA is best known for its double helix
groups, but all have a rigid backbone of structure, which is made up of
-S
four fused together carbon rings nucleotides.

Cholesterol is the most common type in The nitrogenous bases that compose
the tissues of animals. Remodeling the DNA are always paired and bound
cholesterol, it makes vitamin D, steroids, together by hydrogen bonds:
and bile salts. adenine is linked to thymine (A-T) and
guanine is linked to cytosine (G-C)
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2.4 Nucleic Acids

II. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Nucleic acids are classified either as RNA shares a similar structure as the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or DNA, except that RNA is single
ribonucleic acid (RNA). These are stranded. Additionally, instead of
polymer macromolecules and are also cytosine, RNA has uracil to complete its
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referred to as polynucleotides. set of nitrogenous bases, and instead of

deoxyribose, its sugar content is ribose.
Each nucleic acid is made up of
monomers called nucleotides, while a - Messenger RNA (mRNA): a type of
nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous RNA molecule that travels from the
base, a pentose, and a phosphate nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm, where the information in
group. If the structure is without a
the copy is used for a protein
phosphate group, it is called a
product.
nucleoside.

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- Transfer RNA (tRNA): an adaptor Codon - a sequence of three DNA or

molecule composed of RNA, RNA nucleotides that corresponds with
typically 73-93 nucleotides in length a specific amino acid or stop signal
that brings amino acids from the during protein synthesis.
cytoplasm to a ribosome to help
make the growing protein.
- Start codon - the initial set of
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): the RNA
codons in an mRNA transcript that is
component of the ribosome and a
translated by a ribosome; the most
cell’s protein factory in all living cells.
common start codon is AUG which
It provides a mechanism for
codes for methionine

S
decoding mRNA into amino acids
- Stop codon - a termination codon
and interacts with tRNA.
that signals to stop a protein
translation process. UAG, UAA and

H
RNA DNA UGA are the standard stop codons.
Function Transmits and Stores genetic
copies information
information
-S
Bases Purines:
Adenine
Guanine
Purines:
Adenine
Guanine

Pyrimidines: Pyrimidines:
Cytosine Cytosine
Uracil Thymine

Composition Ribose sugar Deoxyribose

phosphate sugar phosphate
backbone backbone
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Structure Single-stranded Double-stranded

helix helix

Subtypes mRNA, rRNA, has only one

tRNA, SnRNA, type
miRNA, hnRNA

Reproduction synthesized from replication

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DNA, cannot
form DNA
(except reverse
transcriptase),
cannot duplicate
(except on
viruses)

Location Cytoplasm Cell nucleus and

mitochondria

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Bone - is a connective tissue that has a

Glossary large amount of two different types of matrix
material
Adipocytes - also known as lipocytes and
fat cells, are the cells that primarily Carbohydrates - also known as sugar
compose adipose tissue, specialized in molecules
storing energy as fat.
Cardiac Muscular Tissue - found only in
Adipose Tissue - cells that are rounded or the heart; has cross striations in its cells
polygonal, with thin layers of cytoplasm and
the nucleus at one side; contain droplets of

S
Cartilage - functions as a flexible but
fats which may form larger globules strong connective tissue that protects the
bones and joints by reducing friction and
Albuminous cells - support sieve cells in working as a shock absorber

H
gymnosperms
Cholesterol - a common component of
Apical meristems - located at the tips of animal cell membrane and is also the
stems and roots, which enable a plant to precursor from which other steroids are
-S
extend in length. synthesized.

Areolar Tissue - found surrounding blood Chlorenchyma - make up the ground tissue
vessels, nerve bundles, muscles, and of the leaves and other photosynthetic parts
organs; fills the spaces between organs and of the plant
connects your skin to your underlying
muscle Codon - a sequence of three DNA or RNA
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nucleotides that corresponds with a specific

Axon - is a long extension of the cell body amino acid or stop signal during protein
that transmits nerve impulses to other cells synthesis.

Axon terminal - points where the neuron Cell body - contains the nucleus and other
communicates with other cells cell organelles
C

Blood - a specialized connective tissue as it Collenchyma - provide mechanical strength

connects all systems of the body and to herbaceous and rapidly growing parts of
transports oxygen, nutrients, and wastes the plants via turgor

Biomolecules - chemical compounds such Columnar Epithelial Tissue - tall and

as ions and molecules that are produced by slender with oval-shaped nuclei located in
living organisms the basal region, attached to the basement
membrane.

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Companion cells - support sieve-tube Ground tissue - makes up a large portion

elements in angiosperms of the primary body of the plant.

Connective Tissue - tissues that bind Guard cells - pore bounded on both sides
together and supports other structures by a pair of specialized cells in the stomata

Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue - short cells Intercalary meristems - enables the

with roughly similar thickness and width; monocot leaf blade to increase in length
usually appear hexagonal in a from the leaf base
cross-section.

S
Intercalated disc - structures in the heart
Cuticle - protection from desiccation is also that connect adjacent cardiac muscle cells
possible for dermal tissues
Lateral meristems - facilitate growth in

H
Dendrites - extend from the cell body and thickness or girth in a maturing plant.
receive nerve impulses from other neurons
Leukocytes - the blood cell with a nucleus;
Dense Connective Tissue - composed of a defend the body against infections and
-S
higher density of fibers foreign invaders.

DNA - a molecule that contains the genetic Ligaments - tough fibrous band of
information for an organism's development connective tissue that serves to support the
and function internal organs and hold bones together

Enzymes - proteins that speed up chemical Lipids - largely nonpolar and hydrophobic
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reactions in living things, and are essential class of carbon-containing compounds

for many bodily functions
Loose Connective Tissue - a flexible
Epithelial Tissue - forms the covering or tissue that connects and supports organs
lining of all free body surfaces both external and other structures in the body
and internal.
Lymph - connects the body systems and
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Erythrocytes - the most numerous blood maintains fluid levels, transport substances,
cells; carry oxygen from the lungs to the and participate in the immune response
body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs
for exhalation. Macromolecules - large molecules which
are made up of monomers
Extracellular matrix - is the most
significant feature of loose connective tissue Meristems - continuously undergoing cell
with large spaces between fibers. division resulting in localized growth in
plants.

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Mesenchyme - a generalized embryonic Polymers - resulting structure when

tissue that can differentiate also into monomers bond together
vascular and smooth muscle
Polymerization - process of linking
Mesoderm - where the muscular tissue is monomers together
originated
Procambium - forms the vascular tissues of
Monomers - make up macromolecules vascular bundles

Muscular Tissue - the most common tissue Protective Epithelial Tissue - guards
animals from external injury and from

S
in the body of most animals; makes possible
the movement of the body and its parts infection; repair quickly after injury

Nervous Tissue - cellular tissue that makes Proteins - very complex organic

H
up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves substances made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen; sulfur may also be
Neuroglia - make up nervous tissue present.
-S
Neuroglial cells - assist in the structural Protoderm - produces the dermal tissues or
support and normal functioning of neurons epidermis

Organic Matrix - gives strength and Purines - are larger and have five- to
flexibility to the tissue. six-membered rings.

Parenchyma - serve as storage cells Pyrimidines - have six-membered rings of

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carbon and nitrogen atoms that tend to take

Periderm - first line of defense for the plant up H+ form solutions.

Permanent Tissues - formed from the RNA - shares a similar structure as the
meristems and make up the primary body of DNA, except that RNA is single stranded
the plant.
Sclerenchyma - chief strengthening tissues
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Phloem - transports organic compounds of plants

from the site of photosynthesis to the rest of
the plant Secretory Epithelial Tissue - specialized
for secreting products necessary for use by
Phospholipids are lipid molecules with a an animal. The secretions may be either
phosphate group attached to it, which sticky (mucous) or watery (serous).
serves as its hydrophilic head.
Sieve elements - conducting cells of the
phloem

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Sensory Epithelial Tissue - specialized to

receive sensory information and translate
this information into neural signals

Skeletal Muscular Tissue - has striations

across its cells caused by the arrangement
of the contractile proteins actin and myosin.

Smooth Muscular Tissue - found in the

walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, and

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other parts of the body, including the eyes
and skin; does not have striations in its cells

Squamous Epithelial Tissue - scale-like /

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flat cells

Stomata or Stomates - pores that are

interspersed among the cells of the
-S
epidermis

Subsidiary cells - reservoir of water and

potassium ions which facilitate the opening
and closing of the pore

Tendons - connects muscle to bone

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Tissue - a group of connected cells that

have a similar function within an organism

Vascular Tissue - a fluid connective tissue

composed of white blood cells, red blood
cells, platelets and plasma
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Villi/Villus - are tiny, finger-like

projections made up of cells that can be
found in the human kidney which is a
simple cuboidal epithelium.

Xylem - transports water and minerals from

the roots to different parts of the plant

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