Physics

Chapter 3

 Calculating Valume:

 For Regular objects

 Measure the height length and width

 H x L x W = Volume3

 For irregular objects

 Displacement method

 A cylinder with x amount of water cubed

 Put the object in it will show y amount of object cubed

 Y3 – X3 = Volume3

 Calculating density

Mass
 Density =
Volume

 If mass is g and volume is in cm3 then density will be g/cm3

 Materia  helium  air  woo  watr  concret  aluminiu  osmiu

l d er e m m

 Density  0.0001  0.001  0.35  1.0  2.4  2.7  22

in 8 2 –

g/cm3 0.95


 If something is more dense than water than it will sink in water

 If something is less dense that water than it will float in water.

 Modern ships have steel which has a density of 8-9g/cm3 but they still float on water as they

have large hollow air spaces that means that the ship has a very large volume so the average

density of the whole ships is less than the density of water.

 Density of the ship changed when its mass changes.

 When liquids are added together carefully, the less dense liquids will float on the more dense

liquids. The liquids that do not mix will for separate layers.

 Crude oil is less dense than water so when crude oil spills out of ships or wells the oil spills

on water which is a major source of water pollution.

 Gases are less dense than liquids because the particles in a gas are much further apart than in

a liquid.

 Drops of rain fall down because the water in the drops is more dense than air

 The gas in fizzy drinks is carbon dioxide which has a density of 0.002g/cm3 which causes the

gas the bubble up to the top.

 Heat is a measure of the energy in the particles

 Heat is the total energy of the vibrating particles in an object

 Temperature is the direction that heat will be transferred

 Temperature is the average energy of particles in an object

 The larger a temperature difference between two objects, the faster the thermal energy

transfer
 Heat tells us the total energy of the particles

 Temperature tells us the average energy of the particles

 Absolute zero is -273°C is when Kelvin thought particles will stop moving

 When energy is conserved the energy remains the same, energy can either be stored,

changed, transferred, or even dissipated

 → is a sankey diagram:

 The law of conservation of

energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed only changed or transferred

 Heat always moves from hotter places to colder places. Colder means a lower temperature

 When heat is removed from a hot object, we say that the heat has dissipated

 Dissipation -is when energy is transferred to become useless

 When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more vigorously, they take up more space.

 Vigorously means with more energy, more speed and more force

 Solids expand when heated

 Conduction

 Works best in solids as particles are attached to each other. And when you heat the solids

the particles start a chain effect heating each other in a chain. The diagram shows that the
 heat is transferring through the particles as they are adjacent or connected with each

other:

 Convection

 Convection works best in liquids and gases as the particles have to move. Here the heat

sources is at the bottom where the particles are being heated therefore making them less

dense causing the hotter particles to rise and the colder particles to sink.

 Here the orange arrow shows the

hot particles and the blue

arrow shows the cold Cold

particles H
E
A
T

 Radiation

 Object is emmting or radiating heat. Radiation doesn’t require particles to transfer energy

as energy is transffered through waves in radiation.

 The best emitters and absorbers are

H
  Dull

 Black

 Large surface area

 The worst emitters and absorbers are

 Shiny

 White or silver

 Small surface area

 These reflect heat away

 Conductors are good at transferring heat as they have free electrons

 Metals are the best conductors

 Insulators are bad at transferring heat because of their particles’ arrangement

 Wood, plastic, fabrics are good insulators

 When particles with the highest energy level escape from the water, this will lower the

average energy of the particles that remain. Therefore, the temperature of the water will

decrease, so evaporation causes cooling.

Chapter 6

 Waves: transfer energy from one place to another through solids, liquids, gases, and vaccums

 Louness of a sound describe how quiet of loud a sound appears. Loudness depends on two

variables: vibration and distance.

 A graph for a wave is called a wavefom

 Amplitude: The maximum distance that particles move either forward or bacward in a sound

wave is called the amplitude

 The amplitude can be measured from zero to the crest or from zero to the trough

 Amplitude ↑ so loudness ↑

 Frquency ↑ then pitch ↑

 Frequency is the number of vibrations in each seconds and is measured in hertz (Hz)

 Osclliscope: displays waveforms of soundwaves

 Interference: effect produced when waves meet each other

 Interference has to results: reniforce or cancel

 Reinforcement: two waves join to create a louder sound

 The amplitude increases

 The frequency stays the same

 The position of the two waves must be in the same position to reinforce

 Cancellation: two waves join together only to cancel out causing no sound to come

 The amplitude becomes zero (silence)

 The frequency also pecomes zero as there is no sound

 The position of the two waves must be in different positions to cancel.

THE MOON

 Theory 1: The moon was formed by spilitting away from Earth, soon after the Earth was

formed.

 This thoery would show that the moon would be moving away from earth which it is at

about 4cm per year

 Theory 2: The Collision theory, also known as giant impact hypothesis

  Collision that happened relatively soon after the formation of the solar system.

 Newly formed plant, same size as mars, collided with newly formed Earth AAAAAAGH

 This planet called Theia

 This is the formation:

 Evidence to support the collision theory

 The moon is less dense than earth

 Rock on moon say it was molten

 Similar collisions causing rings of rock and dust

 Fits with theory of formation of the solar system

 Composition of rocks on both planets are the

same

 Contradiciting evidence of the collision theory

 Earth’s surface is not molten but collision would have caused it to melt

 Venus has no moon. Early years of the solar system collision were common so

scientist expect Venus to have a moon

 Composition of rocks on the moon would be more similar to Theia

NEBULA

 Nebulae are pieces of rocks and dust in space

 Gases are mostly hydrogen in nrbulae

 Witth a small qunatitiy of helium

 Northern hemisphere: Orion Nebula: in winter

 Southern Hemisphere: Carina nebule

 Stellar Nurseries are areas in space where stars are formed. Some Nebulae act as stellar

nurseries. In a stellar nursery, dust and gas can start to collaps together under the force of

gravity. When the collapsed dust and gas’s mass becomes larger the force of gravity pulling

inward increases. When the force gets very large, the hig pressure causes heat, the heat

causes atoms to react with each other, causing the new start to give out heat and light

TECTONICS

 Parts of the Earth: Crust, Mantle, Core

 Convection currents: the mantle gets heated by the core which makes it less fens so it rises to

the top while the more dense cooler mantle fluid sinks to the bottom which then also gets

heated. This movement causes the crust’s tectonic plates to move

 Evidence for tectonic plates:

 Pangea: was when all the continents were interlinked like a jigsaw puzzle

 Fossil Record: Collection of thousands of fossils that provide us with the information

about the time before humans were on Earth.

 Fossils: Remains of dead animals which hace been turned into stone over millions of

years.

 Mesosaurus: Have been found in Africa and South America. Lived 275 million years

ago. Similar to Crocodile. Lived in shallow water. Not likely they would have crossed

5000km wide Atlantic Ocean that seperates the continents

 Glossopteris fossil of plants that are 300 million years old have been found in

Antartica, India, Australia, Africa, and South America which is more evidence of

Pangea

 Magnetic fields
 Needle points north today but 780,000 ago would have pointed south. Magnetic poles

swapped positions 200 times over the last 100 million years

 Magnetic Crystals in molten rocks line up to point north, when the rock solidifies

scientists use these crystals to tell the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field at the

time when the rock became solid.

 Middle of the Earth’s oceans have been studied. These locations are called mid-

oceanic ridges where magma is coming up from the mantle and solidfying to form

new rocks. The magnetic crystals in these rocks have an alignment to north as the

magnetic field is currently in that direction. But rocks further away have the opposite

alignment as they are older rocks.

Chapter 9