NNPC FSTP Technicians

Physics

Course Code:
Lesson 6
 Contents

Heat and Radiation

 Performance Objectives 1

Upon completion of this Course, students will be able to:

• Name the common effects of heat
• Name the three temperature scales and convert
temperatures from one to any of the others
• Explain Linear Expansion and by use of the Linear
Expansion formula calculate results to problems
• Explain Specific Heat Capacity for liquids, solids and
gases
• Explain Thermal Heat and Heat flow by using the
formula
Q = c x m x t0
 Performance Objectives 2

Upon completion of this Course, students will be able to:

• Explain Conduction, Convection and Radiation
• Explain heat flow and Enthalpy Change and calculate
the Total Enthalpy.
• Explain evaporation and change of phase including
latent heat of fusion and vaporization
• Describe and explain what is meant by Boiling and
Vapour Pressure.
 Heat

Heat is a form of energy, and provided a body

does not change its state, a body giving out
energy is losing heat and becoming colder,
while a body receiving heat is gaining energy
and becoming hotter. In normal circumstances
the change in energy is not visible, and is
referred to as a change in internal energy. If
heat energy is added degree of hotness of a
body, compared with some standard, is known
as the temperature of the body.
 Heat

• There are many effects of heat, which may

occur simultaneously or separately, and each
different effect can be used in devices for
detecting change of temperature. Such
devices are known as thermometers.
• Some of the common effects of heat are:
 Some Common Effects of
Heat

Change of State: In the majority of cases, as

heat is added, a solid will change to a liquid then
to a gas. Change of state take place in the
converse order i.e. gas to liquid to solid, as heat
is extracted. There are a few substances which
change direct from solid to gas without a liquid
state.
 Some Common Effects of
Heat

They are said to sublime; a crystal of iodine is a

typical example.
Expansion: Provided no rearrangements take
place in the structure of the substance such as
chemical change, bodies increase in size as
heat is added. The actual amount of expansion
depends on the material of which the body is
composed, the original dimensions, and the
change in temperature.
 Some Common Effects of
Heat

Increase in Pressure: This particular event

occurs with gases. If volume of a given amount
of a gas is kept constant, an increase of
temperature will result in an increase in the
pressure of the gas.
 Some Common Effects of
Heat

Temperature Scale: The degree of hotness of a

body when compared with some standard
hotness is known as temperature. One
convenient pair of standards in use is afforded
by change of state of water at atmospheric
pressure.
 Temperature Scale

There are two changes of state: one is a change

from solid to liquid (ice to water), which occurs
at a lower fixed point of temperature; the other
change occurs from liquid to gas (water to
steam) at a higher fixed point.
 Temperature Scale

Temperature Scales Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit

Boiling of Water 100oC 373K 212oF
Freezing of Water 0 oC 273K 32oF
Absolute zero -273oC oK -459.4oF

Converting Between Celsius and Fahrenheit

To change from oC to oF : (oC x 9/5) + 32
To change from oF to oC :- (oF – 32) x 5/9
Another method
 Temperature Scale

a) Add on 40 to the given value

b) For oF to oC multiply by 5/9 and for oC to oF
multiply by 9/5
c) Take off 40
 Linear Expansion of Solids

The change in length X of a solid bar when

heated or cooled through a temperature change
of ∆t is given by the experimental relation: X =
a ∆t 1.

Where 1 is the original length of the bar and α is

a constant known as the coefficient of linear
expansion.
 Linear Expansion of Solids

The value of this coefficient depends on

the material of the bar. The change in
temperature ∆t will be the same in both
the Celsius and Kevin scales. i.e. ∆t 0C =
∆t 0K.
 Linear Expansion of Solids

If unit length of a bar is raised in temperature

one degree then ∆t = 1, 1= 1, and x = α. Thus
the coefficient of linear expansion may be
defined as the extension of a bar per degree
rise in temperature per unit of original length. To
be exact, the temperature at which the
coefficient is measured should be stated, but
ordinarily we may neglect change in the value of
α with temperature.
 Linear Expansion of Solids

The numerical value of α is the same

whatever the unit of length. The coefficient
is very small for metals. For steel, a bar
1m in length extents 12 x 10-6 m per 10
rise in temperature, i.e. α = 12 x 10-6/K.
For Invar it is practically zero at ordinary
temperatures.
 Linear Expansion of Solids

The property of linear expansion and contraction

of a substance due to temperature change
applies to all linear dimensions of a body. For
example, the radius r of a solid sphere increases
α. ∆t.r when heated. Again, the diameter of a
hole in a plate or sphere change with
temperature in exactly the same proportion as
the other linear dimensions.
 Linear Expansion of Solids

α /K
aluminum 24 x 10-6
iron, carbon steel 12 x 10-6
cast iron 10 x 10-6
copper 17 x 10-6
brass, bronze 19 x 10-6
Glass 8 x 10-6
Invar 1.6 x 10-6

Typical values of α for different material are

given in the above table.
 Linear Expansion of Solids

Example 2
Two bars, one bronze, and the other steel, are
both nominally 150mm long. When placed side
by side at 20oC, the bronze bar is found to be
shorter than the steel by 0.25mm. To what
temperature must both be raised to make them
exactly the same length?
 Linear Expansion of Solids

Let t be the rise in temperature.

Appropriate values of the coefficient of
liner expansion for steel and bronze are
take from the above table.
 Linear Expansion of Solids

For bronze
X + 0.25 = α ∆t. 1 = 19 X 10-6 x ∆t x150
For steel
X = α ∆t. 1 = 12 x 10-6 ∆x t x 150
From these equations
X = (19 X 10-6 x ∆t x150) - 0.25 = 12 x 10-6 x ∆t x 150
Therefore ∆t = 0.25 / (19 – 12) x 10-6 x 150
= 238 K or 238 0C
So that the final temperature = 238 + 20 = 258 0C
 Temperature Scale

The kinetic energy vibration of the molecules of

a body is experienced as a degree of hotness,
and that temperature may be considered
measure of the mean kinetic energy per
molecule. It is not practicable to measure the
energy per molecule, but the temperature of a
body is determined in practice by the level of
liquid in a thermometer.
 Temperature Scale

Now a larger quantity of water contains

more more molecules than a small
quantity and average energy per
molecules i.e. to increase its temperature
by one degree.
 Temperature Scale

Similarly, if the same amount of energy

(heat) is supplied to different quantities of
water, the smaller quantity will attain the
higher temperature.
 Temperature Scale

Thus heat is energy – the energy of motion and

the quantity of heat flowing into or out of a body
is accounted for by a change in the temperature
of the body. This change in temperature
depends on the number of molecules and hence
on the mass of the body. We shall see that the
temperature change depends also on the nature
of the body.
 Specific Heat Capacity

If 1 kg of water and 1 kg of steel receive the

same amount of heat the resulting change of
temperature of the two substances are quite
different. The reason is that the kinds of
molecules making up steel are different from
those of water; the number of molecules per kg
of each substance is different, and, finally the
different molecules have different.
 Specific Heat Capacity

The capacity of a body for taking up heat

therefore depends on the nature of the body.
The quantity of heat required to raise 1 kg of any
substance through 1 0C or 1 K is called the
specific heat capacity of the substance and is
denoted by c. The SI unit of c is joule per
kilogram per Kelvin or per 0c i.e. J / kg K or J /
kg 0C.
 Specific Heat Capacity

The quantity of heat required to raise 1 kg

of any substance through 1 C or 1 K is
called the specific heat capacity of the
substance and is denoted by c. The SI
unit of c is joule per kilogram per Kelvin or
per c i.e. J / kg K or J / kg C
 Temperature Scale

Specific heat capacity

Metals (J/kg K)
Aluminum 0.92
Iron, carbon steel 0.46
Cast iron 0.54
Copper, brass 0.39
Lead 0.13
Non metals
Ice 0.92
Glass 0.46
Steam 0.54
Mercury 0.39
Alcohol 0.13
Water (pure) 4.217 at 0 0C, 4.2045 at 4 0C
4. 185 at 15 0C, 4.215 at 99 0C
 Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of water is

particularly important. Although, as shown in
the above table there is a slight variation with
temperature the value given below is accurate
for most purposes.

Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 kJ/kg K

 Specific Heat Capacities of
Gases

The heat taken in by a gas depends on the

conditions under which heating takes place.
The pressure may be maintained constant or if
the gas is in a closed vessel then the volume is
constant. However both pressure and volume,
may vary during heating or cooling, and it is
also possible for the temperature to remain
constant.
 Specific Heat Capacities of
Gases

The specific heat capacities of gases have been

determined for the two particular conditions of
constant pressure and constant volume. Thus the
specific heat capacity of a gas is defined as the
heat required to raise 1 kg of a gas at constant
pressure (or constant volume) through 1 K (or 1
0C). The specific heat capacity at constant

pressure is denoted by cp, and that at constant

volume by cv. The unit are the same as for the
specific heat capacity of a substance (Kj/kg K).
 Specific Heat Capacities of
Gases

At constant volume and increasing

pressure all the heat required to raise the
temperature of a gas by 1o goes to
increase the internal energy of a gas. At
constant pressure, as of example when a
gas is heated in a cylinder and expands
against a movable piston, the gas must
do external work against the piston.
 Specific Heat Capacities of
Gases

Additional heat, therefore, has to be

applied for a rise in temperature of 1o i.e.
the difference cp-cv is the heat required
per 1o rise in temperature to expand the
gas under constant pressure. The ratio of
these two specific heats will be found to
be important later and is denoted by y i.e.
y= cp / cv.
 Specific Heat Capacities of
Gases

The most important gas is normal

atmospheric air for which cp=1 kg K and
cv=0.72 kJ/ kg K. For a mixture of gasses
such as flue gases from an engine mean
specific heat capacity is used. For
example, for boiler flue gases is taken as
1.1 kJ / kg K.
 Specific Heat Capacities of
Gases
Specific heat capacities (kj/ kg K)
Gas Constant pressure cp Constant volume cv
Air 1.00 0.72
Nitrogen 1.04 0.74
Oxygen 0.92 0.66
Hydrogen 14.20 10.10
Carbon dioxide 0.85 0.63
Carbon monoxide 1.04 0.74
 Thermal Capacity and Heat
Flow

The thermal or heat capacity C of a body is defined as

the heat required to raise its temperature by 1K. Since
the specific heat capacity c gives the heat required to
raise unit mass of the body’s substance through 1K (or
1oC) them for a body of mass m its thermal capacity is
given by:

Thermal capacity C= specific heat capacity x mass

= cm
 Thermal Capacity and Heat
Flow

The unit of c is J/ kg and if m is given in kg then the

unit of C is J/ kg (or J/ OC). More often it is convenient
to work in kilojoules. If the body is now heated through
∆t the total quantity of heat flowing into the body is
given by
Q = specific heat capacity x mass x temperature rise
= cm ∆t
= C ∆t
and the unit of Q will be an energy unit, i.e. the
kilojoule if c is in kJ/ kg K and m is in kg.
 Transference of Heat

When cold water is added to hot water

the final temperature of the mixture lies
somewhere between that of the cold and
that of the hot. When two quantities of
water at the same temperature are mixed
there is no change in temperature. These
are facts which are known to everyone.
 Transference of Heat

In order to investigate more closely the

transfer of heat consider a body A
immersed in liquid B. Suppose, before
immersion that the body is at
temperature tA and the liquid at
temperature tB and assume the body A
has the higher temperature.
 Transference of Heat

When the body is immersed, readings taken

from the thermometers placed in the body and
liquid would show a fall in temperature of the
body and a rise in temperature of the liquid.
This continues until both are the same
temperature t after which no further change
takes place.
 Transference of Heat

• Since A has fallen in temperature from t to t,

it will have given up an amount of heat
• QA = specific heat capacity x mass x temp. change
• QA = cA mA (tA – t)
 Transference of Heat

Similarly the rise in temperature of B= t- tB

Therefore, heat gained by B is
QB = cB mB (t- tB)
We now say that, due to the temperature
difference between A and B, heat flows from A
to B. Also the heat flowing out of A is equal to
the heat flowing into B, i.e. Heat given out by
A= Heat taken in by B
QA = QB
CA mA (tA – t) = cB mB (t – tB)
 Transference of Heat

From the above equation the final temperature t of

the mixture may be found. In the above discussion
A and B might also represent two masses brought
into contact, or two liquids being mixed together.
Note that we have assumed that all the heat QA
given up by A is received by B; that is, we are
assuming no heat will be transferred to the
surroundings. Under these conditions A and B
together are said to be isolated, or thermally
insulated.
 Transference of Heat

This isolation is symbolized by the broken line,

drawn around A and B together. Isolation means
that whatever changes take place in the
temperatures outside the broken line no effect can
be measured on the thermometres in A and B. In
practice, however, isolation is never perfect; some
heat is lost to the surroundings if they are at a
temperature lower than that of A and B, or heat is
gained by A and B if the surroundings are at a
higher temperature.
 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is energy in transit and heat flows

due to a temperature difference; only when heat
flows from one body to another can it be detected
by a change of temperature or a change of state.
The direction of flow is from the higher
temperature to the lower. A temperature difference
is the “thermal potential” which determines the
direction of heat flow and its rate. The greater the
temperature difference, the more rapidly does the
exchange of heat take place.
 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer takes place in one or

more of three ways: condition,
convention, and radiation.
 Conduction

Close packed molecules in a body assist the

direct transport of energy from molecule to
molecule. In general, the more closely packed
the molecules the better the conduction of
heat. Thus, solids are better conductors of heat
than liquids, and liquids are better than gasses.
Among the solids, the metals are the better
conductors.
 Conduction

A good conductor is a material which

requires a small temperature difference
to transfer a given amount of heat in unit
time. An insulator or poor conductor
requires a larger temperature difference
to transfer the same amount of heat in
the same time.
 Conduction

If the molecules at one end of a solid are

heated, they are set into more rapid vibration
and this increase in the energy of vibration is
communicated to neighboring molecules. The
energy supplied in the form is therefore
transmitted along the solid as energy of
vibration by direct contact between the
molecules.
 Conduction

Liquids are not usually good conductors

of heat. Exceptions are mercury and
liquid metals at high temperatures. Water
is a poor conductor but is better than
most other liquids.
 Conduction

The molecules of a gas are not in contact

except when they collide during random
motion. Conduction then takes place
during momentary contact between
molecules or when molecules impinge on
a solid surface.
 Conduction

Gases are therefore very poor

conductors of heat. Trapped still air
serves as a good insulator since it is a
very poor conductor. Similarly, any
porous or honeycombed material which
can trap air acts as a good insulator.
 Conduction

Typical materials are straw, wool, fibrous

asbestos, crumpled aluminium foil, cork,
expanded polystyrene. The perfect
insulator is a complete vacuum, empty of
all material. For example the thermons
flask is an effective insulator because the
space between the inner and outer
containers is almost empty of air.
 Convection

In the conduction of heat the mass

movement of materials plays no part.
Convection on the other hand is the
transport of heat by movement of
material as in a flowing liquid or a current
of air.
 Convection

Fluid particles moving past a hot surface

pick up heat by random contact between
fluid and surface molecules. If the fluid
then travels on to a cold surface it will
give up its heat by conduction from its
hot molecules to the cold surface.
 Natural and Forced Convection

It is used to describe the convection

effect of a fluid according to whether the
fluid flows naturally due to a temperature
difference or is mechanically pumped.

If parts of a liquid are at different

temperatures the densities differ, a hot
fluid being less dense than a cold fluid.
 Natural and Forced Convection

The denser cold fluid tends to fall and

lighter hot fluid to rise. The two effects
act together to set up convection currents
in the fluid. This is called natural
convection. Fluid which is blown or
pumped past a surface or along a pipe
will give rise to heat transfer by forced
convection.
 Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of energy through

empty space. If a hot and a cold body were
placed together in a vacuum, but not in
contact, heat would be transmitted from one
to the other by radiation. Radiation can take
place through air or any other medium but
the effect does not require the presence of
any matter whatsoever.
 Radiation

The transfer of heat and light energy from the

sun across empty space is the simplest
example of radiation. A magnifying glass can
“focus” heat as well as light energy from the
sun to produce a considerable heating effect.
The heat energy transmitted by radiation is of
the same nature as light and travels with the
velocity of light, i.e. 299 800km/ s in empty
space.
 Radiation

All bodies radiate heat energy and, at a

sufficiently high temperature, this energy
is observed as light. The heat treatment
of steel at one time depended on a
proper assessment of temperature from
the color of the heated metal.
 Radiation

As the temperature increases, the steel turns a

dull red followed by a bright orange and yellow,
until, at very high temperatures, all the colors
of the spectrum are emitted, the radiation then
appearing “white hot”.
The transfer of heat by radiation is usually
important at high temperatures or when
conduction and convection are negligence.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

As we have seen radiant heat energy is

of the nature as light. It is emitted by all
bodies and may be absorbed or reflected
by other bodies. A material transparent
to radiant energy allows radiant heat to
pass freely and is called diathermous.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

Bodies which reflect or absorb radiant

heat and do not allow it to pass through
are called athermous. If the energy is
wholly transmitted or reflected the
temperature of the body does not
change. If the radiant heat is absorbed
the temperature of the body rises.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

The ability of a body to emit, absorbs, or

reflects heat depends on the color and
nature of its surface. The best absorbers
of radiant heat are black rough surfaces.
The best reflections are light colored and
have a smooth polished surface e.g. a
metal mirror.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

It is found experimentally that the best

absorbers of heat are also the best
emitters or radiators of heat. Also, a good
reflector is both a poor absorber and a
poor emitter.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

For example, an aluminium kettle has a

bright polished surface and therefore
tends to retain the heat of the water. The
bottom of the kettle, on the other hand,
should have a dull surface to absorb the
heat quickly.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

Aluminium foil is used as a heat insulator

since it traps still air, reflects heat, and
acts as a poor emitter and absorber. A
bright metal steam pipe is a poor radiator
but allows heat loss by conduction,
through the metal and by natural
convection from the surface.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

A thin layer of asbestos or wool like lagging

reduces heat loss by conduction but the dull
rough surface of the lagging is often a better
emitted than bright steel. Hence a thin layer of
lagging may be worse than no lagging at all.
One of the most efficient methods of insulation
is the use of such lagging covered by a smooth
polished metal casing.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

Asbestos one of the most widely used

materials for lagging but is now greatly
restricted in us because of risk to health.
A typical lagging material utilizing the
properties of trapped air is a mineral wool
formed from fine flexible fibres. Such
lagging usually has a long life.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

An example of a short-life thermal insulating

material employed in a one off-situation at very
high temperature is the ablative tile used to
provide a heat shield for capsules returning
from outer space. Ablation is the carrying
away of heat by a gas stream causing erosion
of a material similar to the erosion of rocks by
weathering. The tile is a composite plastic
which may include asbestos, cork or glass
fibre.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

When the capsule impacts on the earth’s

atmosphere aerodynamic frictional forces
cause the tiles to melt or vaporize (i.e.
change their state) and since the tiles
have very low thermal conductivity the
heat does not pass through to the
capsule before the liquid or vapour is
swept away from the surface.
 Emission, Absorption, Reflection

Expendable tiles are lost but the inner capsule

shield is maintained intact. Space vehicles may be
subject to temperatures as high as 2500 K and
heat transfer rates of the order of 3000 kW per
square meter of external surface, even if only for a
few seconds. A large number of materials and
techniques have been brought into use besides
the tiles already mentioned e.g. coatings of plastic
ablatives, silicon carbide, and specially treated
nylon as well as glass fiber, carbon fiber cloth and
metal or graphite plating shields.
 Heat flow and Enthalpy Change

Heat is energy transfer. A heat flow to a body

therefore produces corresponding rise in its
content of energy. The energy content of a
given mass of body is called the enthalpy, II.
Heat flow to body (O) = increase in enthalpy
(H)
The specific enthalpy is the enthalpy per unit
mass.
 Heat flow and Enthalpy Change

We are usually concerned with changes in

enthalpy. For water and steam, the zero of the
scale of enthalpy is taken at atmospheric pressure
and a temperature of 0oC. The basic unit of
enthalpy is the unit of energy, i.e. the joule (J) but
it is more convenient in steam work to use the
kilojoule or the larger multiples, Mega and
Gigajoule.
In a solid or liquid, the change in enthalpy ∆H is
measured very closely by the product of:
 Enthalpy (Sensible Heat) of
Water

The Specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 kJ/kg K,

hence, for 1kg of water at t 0C its specific enthalpy (h)
is given by H = specific heat capacity x mass x temp
above 00C or 273 K)
H = 4.2.x 1 xt
4.2t kJ/kg
For water the enthalpy is also the total heat which must
be supplied to raise the temperature of the water from
00C to 0C. The term sensible heat is also used, since
the change in temperature are sensible to the touch or
to the sight if a thermometer is used.
 Change of Phase

Matter may exist in phases: solid, liquid and gas;

for example ice, water and steam. For water a
change of phase occurs at a definite temperature.
At the ice-point atmospheric pressure and a
temperature of 00C, ice melts and water freezes;
at the steam-point, atmospheric pressure and 100
0C, water boils and steam condenses. The

processes of melting and freezing and of boiling

and condensation each take place at a constant
temperature corresponding to a particular
pressure.
 Change of Phase

At the ice point, ice and water exist together in

equilibrium and at the steam point liquid water
and water vapour, exist together. There is also
a triple point, where the pressure (610 N/m2 )
temperature (+ 0.010C) are such that all three
phases, ice, liquid water and water vapour,
exist together in equilibrium. This triple point of
water is used to define the fixed point of the
Kelvin or absolute scale of temperature. There
is a triple point for every pure, chemically
stable substance.
 Melting and Freezing

Both melting and freezing involve a rearrangement

of molecules, and energy must be supplied or
taken away for this to happen. In melting ice the
regularly close-packed molecules of the ice are
loosened by a supply of heat at a melting so that
they take up the relatively disordered
arrangement of molecules in water. To Freeze
water requires that heat energy be extracted at the
freezing point. This allows disordered liquid
molecules to take up a relatively ordered
arrangement in the solid state.
 Latent Heat of Fusion

To melt ice at atmospheric pressure the heat

which must be added to the ice at temperature
00C amounts to 335 kj/kg. The corresponding
change in enthalpy is called the latent heat of
fusions of ice, 00C is fusion temperature.
Similarly, in order to freeze water, a quantity of
heat equal to 335 kj/kg must be extracted from
the water at 00C.
 Latent Heat of Fusion

The latent heat of fusion of a substance

is defined as the heat required to change
unit mass of the solid into liquid at
constant temperature. The heat energy
required for a change of state is called
latent heat since it is not detected by a
thermometer.
Latent Heat of Fusion
 Latent Heat of Fusion

The above graph shows the relation between the

temperature and heat absorbed when 1 kg of ice below
freezing-point is converted to warm water. The heat
absorbed is made up of three quantities:
The enthalpy change (sensible heat) required to raise
the temperature of the ice to the melting point, 0 C.
This is shown by A.B
The enthalpy change (sensible heat) required to melt
the ice. Shown by B.C
The enthalpy change (sensible heat) required to raise
the temperature of the water formed to temperature t C
shown by C D.
 Evaporation and Condensation

When a liquid changes to the gaseous phase,

it is said to evaporate or vaporize.
Condensation is the reverse process in which
a gas or vapour becomes liquid. Both
processes require a flow of heat. Evaporation
requires heat to be added to loosen the forces
between molecules so that they heat be
released or extracted from the gas to become
liquid. Both evaporation and condensation take
place at the same constant temperature.
 Enthalpy (Latent Heat) of
Vaporization

The enthalpy or latent heat of vaporization is

the heat required to change the state of unit
mass of substance from liquid to gas, or from
gas to liquid, at constant temperature. It is
denoted by and is the increase in enthalpy of
the substance accompanying evaporation. The
latent heat of vaporization of water at
atmospheric pressure is 2257 kJ/kg.
 Saturated Water Vapour

Consider a closed cylinder partly filled with

water. Rapidly moving water molecules near
the surface tend to escape and fill the space
above the water, forming water vapour. This
change of state from liquid to gas occurring at
the surface of the liquid is called evaporation
and take place at all temperatures. Also
molecules of water vapour moving rapidly
about the space may return to the surface of
the water and condense there.
 Enthalpy (Latent Heat) of
Vaporization

Under steady conditions the number of molecules

leaving the water surface by evaporation is equal
to the number returning to it by condensation. The
space above the water then contains number of
molecules and it said to be saturated with water
vapour.
 Enthalpy (Latent Heat) of
Vaporization

If water is placed in the open air, evaporation

again takes place but air currents remove the
water vapour formed. The reverse process of
condensation on the surface cannot therefore take
place and the water evaporates away. This is the
process of drying. Of course drying in the open air
does not require a temperature of 100 0C.
The latent heat required for evaporation from the
surface of water is provided by the cooling of the
remaining water and of the surrounding air. This
explains the cooling effect of a lake in hot weather
 Vapour Pressure

Consider again the water in the closed

cylinder. The molecules of saturated water
vapour in the space above the water are in
random motion and therefore exert a pressure
on the cylinder walls and on the water. This is
called vapour pressure. For example, at 30 0C
the vapour pressure of water is about 4.24
KN/m2 absolute.
 Vapour Pressure

If the temperature is raised, a greater number

of molecules are continually evaporated and
condensed and a larger number are present as
water vapour. The mass of water vapour above
the water surface is increased and the vapour
pressure rises. For every temperature there is
found to be a corresponding vapour pressure.
The table below gives a short list of vapour
pressures for water at various temperatures.
 Vapour Pressure

Temperature (C) Vapour pressure (kN/m2 abs.)

10 1.227

50 12.34

100 101.325

200 1555.0
 Boiling

At a temperature of 1000C, the vapour pressure of

water is 101.3 kN/m2 i.e. atmospheric pressures. If
water is placed in a vessel open to the atmosphere
and heated to 1000C, it is found that at this
temperature vapour is formed as bubbles throughout
the entire mass of liquid and not merely at the surface.
In addition, the rate at which vapour is formed is much
greater than the rate of evaporation from the surface.
This process of vaporization by rapid formation of
bubbles is called boiling.
 Boiling

Note the distinction between evaporation and

boiling. Evaporation takes place at all temperature
and occurs only at the surface of the liquid; boiling
occurs at a definite temperature and throughout
the volume of the water.
Effect of pressure on boiling; saturation
temperature
Consider a closed cylinder containing water. They
cylinder is connected by a valve to a reservoir as
shown.
 Effect of Pressure on Boiling;
Saturation Temperature

When the valve is open the space above the

water is connected to the reservoir in which the
pressure is held constant. If heat supplied to
the water the temperature at which boiling
starts may be found, corresponding to the
known pressure. If the pressure in the reservoir
is raised experiment shown that the
temperature at which boiling starts is also
raised.
 Effect of Pressure on Boiling;
Saturation Temperature

An explanation is as follows: the formation of

steam from liquid water involves an expansion.
Water expands many times in volume when
converted to steam. An increased pressure on the
water surface, and hence through out the volume
of water, tends to act against this expansion, i.e.
the greater the pressure the more difficult it is for
bubbles to form. Therefore more energy per
molecule is required to start boiling as the
pressure rises, i.e. higher temperature is required.
 Effect of Pressure on Boiling;
Saturation Temperature

Similarly if the pressure in the cylinder is lowered

the boiling point is lowered it is found
experimentally that the relationship between the
boiling and the pressure follows the relation
between temperature and vapour pressure. That
is, boiling occurs when the vapour pressure is
equal to the pressure in the space above the
water. The temperature at which boiling starts is
called the saturation temperature. Water at the
saturation temperature is called saturated water.
 Effect of Pressure on Boiling;
Saturation Temperature

Water at a temperature below the saturation

temperature is termed sub-cooled water. The
vapour formed by evaporation at the water surface
at a temperature below the saturation temperature
is water-vapour, i.e. water in its gaseous form, but
not steam.

For example, at a pressure of 1.55 MN/m the

saturation temperature or boiling point of water is
200oC water at 1.55MN/m2 and 150oC is sub-
cooled does not boil until the temperature reaches
2000C.
 Dry and Steam

Dry steam is water completely transformed to

vapour, i.e. there are no particles of liquid
water in suspension in the vapour formed.
Since any further addition of heat to dry steam
raises its temperature it is termed dry saturated
steam. It is said to be saturated since a given
volume now contains the largest possible
amount of steam at the pressure.
 Dry and Steam

When 1 kg of water at atmospheric

pressure and at the boiling point is given
a further 2257 kJ, the water is converted
to dry saturated steam. If less than this
quantity of heat is added to the water, the
steam formed will have drops of liquid in
suspension and the team is said to be
wet.
 Dry and Steam

If dry steam is suddenly raised in pressure some of the

vapour condenses out and wet steam is formed.
Similarly, if dry steam at a particular pressure loses
heat, wet steam results. For example, when steam
issues from the spout of a kettle, the initial part of the
jet is almost invisible but at a short distance from the
spout a fine mist can be seen. The mist is water
droplets formed by contact with cold air. The steam
issuing from the spout is practically dry steam and wet
steam forms due to chilling by cold air.
 Dryness Fraction of Wet Steam

If the steam is not dry saturated but contains

water droplets in suspension, it is wet steam.
The dryness fraction or quality x is defined as
the fraction by mass of dry steam in the total
mass of wet steam.
Dryness Fraction = mass of dry steam
present/total mass of steam + water.
 Dryness Fraction of Wet Steam

If m is the mass of moisture in suspension and

m the mass of dry steam then the total mass is
m +ms- Therefore
Dryness fraction =ms /(m + ms)
For example, if 5kg of wet steam is 98per cent
dry the fraction of moisture by mass is 1-
0.98=0.02.
The mass of moisture present in 5kg of wet
steam is therefore 5 x 0.02=0.1kg
 Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam

The total amount of heat which must be added

to kg of water at 0 C to form 1 kg of dry
saturated steam at saturated temperature t C
is mane up of two parts.

1 the heat h required to raise temperature of

the water from 0 C to t C i.e. h = t kj/kg where
(or sensible heat).
 Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam

• 2 the latent, the total heat required is (h + h)

kj.kg. this amount of heat, measured above
O 0C, is called the specific enthalpy of the
dry steam, denoted by hg.
• Hg = hg + hg
• = c t + hg kJ/kg
 Enthalpy of Wet Steam

If 1 kg of water at 0 0C is converted to
steam of dryness fraction x the total heat
required is again equal to the change in
enthalpy. Since only x kg of water is
converted to dry steam (per kg of wet
steam) the latent heat required is only (x
x hfg) kJ/kg.
 Enthalpy of Wet Steam

• The enthalpy h of wet steam is the sum of

the enthalpy hf of water at the saturation
temperature tf 0C and the increase in
enthalpy due to the change of state from
water to steam, i.e. the sum of the sensible
and latent heat. Thus specific enthalpy of
wet steam h = hf + x hfg
• = c tf + x hfg kJ/kg
 Enthalpy of Wet Steam

The specific enthalpy of water at the saturation

temperature tf 0C is given by c tf. The specific
heat capacity of water, c, is 4.1855 kJ/kg at
atmospheric pressure between 15 and 16 0C. It
varies slightly, however, with temperature and
pressure. Similarly the values of latent heat
vary greatly at different saturation temperature.
It is convenient therefore to have the exact
values of the enthalpy and latent heat of water
at various saturation temperatures.
 Enthalpy of Wet Steam

• These values heave been found by experiment and

tabulated in the steam tables. The following table is
modified extract from the steam tables, made up as
follows:
• Column 1 gives the absolute pressure .
• Column 2 gives the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure.
• Column 3 gives the enthalpy hg of saturation water.
• Column 4 gives the latent heat hg
• Column 5 gives the enthalpy of dry saturation steam
hg
Enthalpy of Wet Steam
 Heat and Radiation

1. A new independent country is in the process of

domesticating science. One of its citizens propose a
temperature scale called Akin with the ice and
steam point having the values -20 A. what will be
the normal human body temperature (98.6 F) on this
scale?
2. Find the temperature at which the reading on the
Celsius scale is the same as that on the Fahrenheit
scale
3. Given a temperature interval of 90 on the Fahrenheit
scale, find the equivalent
 Heat and Radiation

4. A boy drops a 20.0cm long aluminium bar into a pot of boiling

water. Will there be any change in the length of the bar if it was
initially at a temperature of 28.0 C? The coefficient of linear
expansion of aluminium 23 x 10-6 /0C.
5. A tourist buys a 50.0cm long, decorated copper bar in Lagos (
as souvenir) in December. If he immediately flies to a city in
Canada where the temperature is – 10.00C will he notice any
change in the length of the var? Assume that room temperature in
Lagos is 28.00C? and that the appropriate coefficient of linear
expansion, a is 12 x 10-6/0C
6. Suppose the tourist in problem 5 also buys a pendulum clock
whose pendulum is made of copper. by how much will the clock
be in error after a day’s operation (in the open air)in Canada?
Assume that the clock is adjusted to keep accurate time in Lagos
and that the acceleration due to gravity in the two cities is the
same.
 Heat and Radiation

7. A copper meter rule and a bar both have the same length
inside a freezer operation at a temperature of -100c.if the rule
and bar are removed and kept at room temperature (280c),
what will by the length of the bar if measure by the rule?
Assume the linear expansivity for the rule and bar are
ar=20x10-6/0 c and a b=20x10 -6/0 c respectively.
8. Railroad tracks are usually laid in uniform sector whit gaps
between the sections. If a steel track is to be laid in a country
where the temperature can vary from 10-6/oc
9. A 3.0cm diameter coin at room temperature (28oC) is thrown
into an oven at a temperature of 200oC. assuming that the
coin is made of copper, calculate its final diameter. The
appropriate coefficient of linear expansion is a= 20X 10-6/oC.
 Heat and Radiation

10. Refer to problem 9. Suppose the coin has a central hole of

diameter 0.6cm. will the hole expand or contrast in the oven?
What will be its final diameter?
11. During a students protest, a police officer fires a lead bullet into
a heavy wooden barricade. If the bullet moves with a speed of
160 m/s and is brought to rest in the barricade, calculate the
maximum possible increase in its (bullet’s) temperature. The
specific heat of lead is 0.031 keal/kg.oC.
12. 500cm of water is to be heated from room temperature (28C) to
100C in order to prepare a hot cup of coffee. What is the
minimum heat required?
13. 13. A 24 gm ice block at -10 C gradually turns to water at room
temperature (28C). How much heat is consumed in the
process? The specific heat of ice, = 0.51 cal/gm C, and the
heat of fusion if ice, Lf = 80 cal/gm.
 Heat and Radiation

14. A student wants to cool 550 gm of coca-cola drink

(about a full cup) from room temperature (28C) to
10C before drinking it. How many grams of ice at 0C
should he add to the drink? Neglect heats lost to the
environment and assume that both the specific heat
of coca-cola and of ice (at 0C) is equal to that of
water?
15. 600 gm of malt at 5C is poured into a 200 gm glass
cup at room temperature (28C). What will be the
temperature of the system when the malt and cup
reach thermal equilibrium? Assume that no heat is
lost to the environment and that the specific heat of
and cup are 1 cal/gm. C respectively.
 Heat and Radiation

16. A 200gm Aluminium cup contains 280gms of tea at room

temperature. If 140gms of hot milk at 100 C is poured on
the tea, what will be the equilibrium temperature of the
mixture? Neglect heats lost to the environment and
assume that the specific heat of tea is the same as that
of water while that of aluminium is 0.21 cal/gm. C.
17. The pressure of a constant volume gas thermometer is
1500 N/m at 28C. What will be the temperature of the
gas when the pressure is increased by one-third?
18. A gas is confined to a volume of 20 m at a pressure of
1.01 x10 pa and at a temperature of 28C. If the volume is
compressed further to 1.0 m at pressure of 2..01 x 10 Pa,
what will be the final temperature of the gas?