Volume 16 Number 2, Dec 2017

Environmental and Occupational Health Impact of

Bauxite Mining in Malaysia: A Review
Lee KYa, Ho LYa, Tan KHa, Tham YYa, Ling SPa, Qureshi AMa, Ponnudurai Ta, Nordin Ra
a
Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia

ABSTRACT

In the perspective of recent bauxite mining in Malaysia, this review aims to identify the potential
environmental and health impacts on miners and surrounding communities. The environmental issues of
bauxite mining include, air, water and soil pollution due to bauxite dust; leaching of bauxite into water
sources resulting in reduced soil fertility as well as affecting agricultural food products and aquatic life.
Bauxite occupational exposure affects the health of miners, and has negative consequences on the health of
surrounding communities, such as increased respiratory symptoms, contamination of drinking water, other
potential health risks from ingestion of bauxite and heavy metals, including noise-induced hearing loss and
mental stress. This review discusses the processes of bauxite mining, its constituents and residual trace
elements, and their impact on the environment and health of exposed workers and communities. It also
explores the Malaysian legal requirements and standards of occupational exposure to bauxite.

Keywords: Bauxite mining, occupational and environmental health impact, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

Aluminium (Al) is the most plentiful metal in and diaspore [α-AlO(OH)]4. In addition, other
earth’s crust, representing more than 7% by weight, compounds are also found in bauxite such as
and is the third most abundant element after silicon hematite [Fe2O3], goethite [FeO(OH)], quartz [SiO 2],
and oxygen1. Because aluminium is highly reactive, rutile/anatase [TiO2], kaolinite [Al2Si2O5(OH)4] with
it is mostly found in oxidised form, of which impurities in traces4. Trace elements found in
approximately 250 different minerals exist 1. Due to bauxite include arsenic, beryllium, cadmium,
high chemical reactivity, aluminium is never found chromium, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel and
in the elemental state1. In terms of production, naturally-occurring radioactive materials such as
bauxite is the main source of the world’s aluminium, uranium and thorium2. These elements often remain
supplying 99% of metallic aluminium1,2. Many attached to the bauxite residue even after alumina
minerals including feldspars contains aluminium, but extraction2.
extraction from these is expensive and requires high
energy compared to bauxite3. Bauxite is formed as a weathering product of
low iron and silica bedrock1, 4. The weathering
Bauxite was first discovered near the town of Les process involves the exposure of various igneous,
Baux in France, and was named after that town. It is sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks to the tropical
the principal ore of alumina (Al2O3) which is an and subtropical climates for millions of years 2.
immediate precursor in aluminium production 2. Ninety per cent of bauxite resources in the world
Having reddish-brown colour, bauxite is a naturally can be found in tropical areas while the rest in
occurring heterogeneous material and composes of other latitudes have been exposed to prolonged
one or more aluminium hydroxide minerals, weathering in their geological past2. Large bauxite
principally gibbsite [Al(OH)3], boehmite [γ-AlO(OH)] reserves are found in Central and South America
particularly in Brazil, Guinea and Australia 2, 4. In
Malaysia, bauxite resources are mainly located in
Bukit Batu, Bukit Gebong, Lundu-Sematan, and
Tanjung Seberang in Sarawak, Bukit Mengkabau and
Corresponding author: Labuk Valley in Sabah, Sungai Rengit and Teluk
Prof Dr Rusli Bin Nordin Ramunia in Johor, and Bukit Goh in Kuantan,
Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Pahang5.
Sciences
Monash University Malaysia Bauxite can be extracted from the surface or
No. 8, Jalan Masjid Abu Bakar underground deposits. Most bauxite occurs near the
80100 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia surface of earth with 1 or 2 meters of overburden
Email: [email protected] consisting of top soil and vegetation2. In addition,
Tel: +6072190629
Fax: +6072243311

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underground deposits occur due to covering of meters thick under an overburden of up to 10

other materials over bauxite after it has been meters thickness6. The deposits vary in thickness
formed, and require underground mining to extract and most can be mined and processed without
these deposits economically2,4. Surface mining is further treatment to concentrate the mineral
more often carried out compared to underground through process of beneficiation. However, bauxite
mining because most of bauxite deposits occur close ore from northern Brazil and Vietnam has a
to the surface. Bauxite is thus extracted by shallow, high clay content, and has to be washed before
open-cut mining using open-pit method from large processing 3 . Underground deposits require
blanket-type lateritic deposits, which are 4–6 underground mining to extract them economically.

Figure 1: Typical processes involved in surface mining of bauxite deposits3

Bauxite ore is then refined into alumina (Al2O3) by economically viable reserves of aluminium to last
Bayer process, where these aluminium-containing another 100 years to supply for current demand1.
minerals are dissolved in hot sodium hydroxide There is a growing need for bauxite due to
(NaOH)6. The insoluble solids (bauxite residue, mud increasing demand for quality aluminium products,
and sand) are washed, or partially neutralized and new reserves are to be discovered for economic
(using CO2 or seawater treatment), and deposited in viability1.
impoundments around the refinery using wet
(yielding 15–30% solids) or dry (with 50–65% solids) Other than bauxite, alternative sources of
disposal techniques6. Most of alumina then aluminium include kaolin clay, oil shale, coal
undergoes the Hall-Heroult electrolytic process to wastes and mineral anorthosite6. However, bauxite
be transformed into aluminium. reserves are plentiful and economically cheap
compared to these alternatives; therefore,
Approximately two to three tonnes of bauxite are technologies to process alternatives into aluminium
required to produce a tonne of alumina as bauxite are not expected to progress beyond the
only contains 30-54% alumina1. Four to six tonnes of experimental stage4.
bauxite are required to be purified to produce one
tonne of aluminium metal. Compared to refining of Recently, there appears to be concerns about the
bauxite and electrolytic reduction of alumina, impact of bauxite mining not only towards the
bauxite mining consumes only a small amount of environment, but also on the health of population,
energy. especially in Kuantan. Mining areas are situated
within residential zones, which lead to worries
Current, global bauxite resources has been among the general public of its effects.
estimated at more than 70 billion tonnes, with Environmental pollution due to bauxite mining
the largest concentration in Guinea, where an remains a concern not only because of direct
estimated 25 billion tonnes of bauxite might be pollution, but also due to detrimental short and long
present3. It is projected that there are sufficient term effects. However, there is a lack of studies

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especially in Malaysia on this matter, justifying the When it came to obtaining literature for the review,
need for a review to allow better understanding of relevant research concerning environmental and
its impacts, the standards of exposure and the laws occupational health impact of bauxite mining was
pertaining to bauxite mining. identified by searching on Ovid Medline and
PubMed. In order to ensure that relevant studies
This paper aims to provide a general review of the were not missed, the search terms remained broad.
impact of bauxite mining and its contents on the
environment and individuals’ health, and to Using PubMed, keywords such as “bauxite”, “health
encourage detailed research in this area. impact”, “aluminium oxide”, “bauxite refining”,
“bauxite mining respiratory”, “bauxite mining
MATERIALS AND METHODS occupational” were searched.

Search strategy The bulk of the research was done on Ovid Medline
First of all, Google Scholar search and BMJ were because of its extensive library of research papers
used to better understand bauxite mining and its that allows a comprehensive search using the
effects. Cochrane library was then used for further Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and “Additional
research as it provided higher quality articles. On Limits”. No language restrictions were employed,
Google scholar, the keywords used were “bauxite and any paper published until 31st August 2016 was
Malaysia review”, and the limit was set to “where reviewed. The following shows the relevant
my words occur”. keywords used to narrow down our search:

Topic Keywords
Accidents Accidents, Occupational
Adverse effects Adverse effects
Air pollutants Air pollutants, Air, Pollutant, Occupational,
Analysis, Adverse effects
Bauxite Aluminium oxide, Aluminium, Oxide, Bauxite

Bauxite mining Aluminium oxide, Aluminium, Oxide, Bauxite,

Mining
Dust Analysis Dust, Analysis
Forced expiratory volume Forced expiratory volume, Forced, Expiratory,
Volume
Heavy metals Heavy, Metals, Heavy metals
Health Impact Health, Impact, Health impact
Inhalation exposure Inhalation, Exposure, Inhalation exposure
Metallurgy Metallurgy
Noise Noise, Occupational, Adverse effects
Occupational exposure Occupational, Exposure, Occupational expo-
sure, Adverse effects, Occupational diseases,
Mortality, Analysis
Occupational health Occupational, Health, Occupational health
Risk assessment Risk, Assessment, Risk assessment

Selection criteria mainly on the extraction process and neutralization

of bauxite or social issues pertaining to the mining.
The next step was a detailed examination of
papers, and at this point, studies were chosen On the other hand, studies that were done in
based on relevant type of ores mined and refined. different areas such as Western Australia, India,
For instance, “kaolinite”, “vermiculite mining”, Mozambique, Surinam and others, were included due
“asbestos” and “aluminium nanoparticles” were to the lack of studies done in Malaysia. Also, articles
excluded from the list. Other than that, articles were selected based on its context of bauxite mining
that were excluded include formal documentation impacting on the environment, which includes study
such as proceedings of a meeting, report of policy of microbial life, plant growth and soil content after
strategies, new sites for mining, studies focusing mining.

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An illustration for our selection criteria is as follows:

668 articles 305 articles (focusing

670 articles (2 incomplete mainly on environmental,
extracted articles were health and occupational
excluded) impact) were included

Only 50 articles (focusing mainly on

environmental, health and occupational
impact) were selected due to journal
requirement on article limit

RESULTS

Based on our research, Australia is the world’s bauxite sector saw a dramatic increase in
largest producer of bauxite (80,000 tons), production from year 2014 to 2015, with 6.5 times
representing 29% of global production in 20157. This increase, from 3,260 tons in 2014 to 21,200 tons in
is followed by China (60,000 tons, 22%) and Brazil 2015. This was due to strong demand from China
(35,000 tons, 13%). These facts are reflected in after Indonesia banned its exports to encourage
Figure 1. It is pertinent to note that Malaysia’s domestic processing.

Figure 1: Amount of bauxite produced by country in 2014 and 20157.

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In terms of bauxite reserves, the largest Indonesia (1,000,000 tons)7. As can be seen in
concentration of bauxite reserves is located in Figure 2, compared to other bauxite-rich countries,
Guinea (7,400,000 tons), followed by Australia Malaysia only has an estimated 40,000 tonnes of
(6,200,000 tons), Brazil (2,600,000 tons), Vietnam bauxite reserves.
(2,100,000 tons), Jamaica (2,000,000 tons) and

Figure 2: Bauxite reserves by country in 20157.

Impact Of Bauxite Contents And Bauxite Mining

On The Environment

Bauxite mining has a direct impact on the open-pit drilling and blasting, loading and haulage,
environment by polluting air, water sources and soil vehicular movement, ore and waste rock handling
(Table 1). The environmental pollution exerts generate dust particles3.
indirect effects on the health of miners and nearby
communities. In general, these particles can be classified into
coarse and fine particles, where coarse particles
Air Pollution have a 1-10 μm range while fine particles have a 0.1
-1 μm range9. Coarse particles commonly originate
One of the primary concerns of bauxite is the from erosion, road and soil dust dispersion by wind,
release of airborne particulate matter due to as well as anthropogenic activities such as vehicle
mining activities. According to the International emissions9. The coarse particles are of lesser
Standardization Organization (ISO) and British concern as studies have shown that they tend to
Standard Institute, dust is defined as ‘small solid deposit in larger airways, hence can be coughed out.
particles, usually below 75 μm in diameter, that Fine particles, on the other hand, which are also
settles under their own weight but remain produced during bauxite mining, can be lodged deep
suspended for some time’8. In bauxite mining, within alveoli, potentially leading to respiratory and
activities such as site clearance and road building, cardiovascular problems8, 10.

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Table 1: Types of environmental pollution in bauxite mining

Air pollution Dust emissions (large particles ranging 1-10 µm, fine Gelencser A KN
particles ranging 0.1-1µm) leading to cardiovascular and et.al
respiratory problems
Reduced FEV1 after dust exposure (≥100mg/m3) of 20 years Donogue AM
among non-smokers et.al.
Water pollution Leaching of iron, aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, lead, Petavratzi E KS
nickel, manganese and mercury into drinking water sources et.al
High concentration of heavy metals in sediments, which are Yi YJ et.al.
deposited in the water, further dissolves and deposits into
fish and benthic invertebrates, in which levels are 10-1000
higher than in normal water.
Soil pollution Soil contamination of heavy metals decrease microbial Raymond AW
activities which lowers its fertility FE et.al.
Low levels of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, Lad RJ et.al.
calcium and magnesium in post-mining soil in India
Insufficient soil depth for agriculture (<15cm) Coke LB WC
et.al.
Habitat destruction and soil erosion Mertzanis A
et.al
Food Lead, cadmium, arsenic accumulation in vegetables Zhou H et.al.
contamination
High levels of lead found in sweet potato, exceeding CODEX Wright V JS
safety limit of 0.1mg/kg et.al.

Dust can react with the air in atmosphere, causing Impact on Water Sources
various chemical reactions, affecting soil, hence
health of plants; meteorological and local climate, Most of the surface water in the world consists of
as well as penetrating into vegetation depending on streams, rivers, springs, ponds and lakes. These
particle size8. Dust can also dissolve in water, and water sources closely interact with soil and rocks on
flows down the food chain, where it is ingested by the aforementioned surface, temperature and pH of
humans, or aquatic animals8. environment, influencing adsorption and desorption
of inorganic and organic matters12.
Bauxite dust is visible due to high iron oxide
content, having red colour which contaminates Water contamination by bauxite mining activities,
clothes, properties, vegetation, food and water especially drinking water sources, has the potential
sources11. It is classified for occupational hygiene to cause harm due to components such as iron and
purposes as a ‘nuisance dust’ (coarse particles aluminium as well as other toxic heavy metals found
that decrease environmental amenity, damages in trace amounts (arsenic, cadmium, lead, nickel,
machinery, decreases visibility, or acts as an irritant manganese and mercury)8. This is especially true for
substance) or a “particle not otherwise specified”3, heavy mining activities which have been aggressively
8
. Bauxite dust is detrimental because it can carried out.
decrease visibility and result in visual changes to the
environment8. It can be deposited into machineries, The most significant impact of heavy metals on the
reducing their life cycle and overall productivity8. river is on sediments, aquatic organisms, and the
water itself. Heavy metals do not degrade,
Bauxite dust is inhalable (respirable), and defined depositing in sediments to be taken up by plants,
as dust particles less than 10µm in diameter or animals or by feeding benthic animals13. According
particulate matter of PM10 and PM2.510. In Kuantan, to a Chinese study conducted on a river exposed to
24-hour PM10 level ranged from 167-277 µg/m3 mining, concentrations of heavy metals in sediments
during December 2015, which exceeds Malaysian were 1000-100,000 times greater than water whereas
National Ambient Air Quality Standard-201510. There concentration was 10-1000 times higher in fish and
is ‘no safe level’ for PM10 and PM2.5 as per the World benthic invertebrates13. Fishes come into contact
Health Organization, because these particles can with heavy metals through water, via breathing and
deposit in the alveoli during respiration and cause food chain13. Heavy metals are mobilized in water,
increased hospital admissions due to respiratory and are flushed downstream and deposited into clay
cardiovascular problems8,10. Apart from damage to minerals, or absorbed by algae at the lower trophic
lungs, nose and throat, the eyes and exposed skin levels of food chain12. As heavy metals accumulate,
are at risk, as well as gastrointestinal tract8. In this leads to critical levels, causing more problems
some, it can also cause allergic reactions such as by affecting organisms at higher food chains.
asthma or eczema8.

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Production of acidic water from mining activities support a limited number of crops16. Studies have
can increase solubility of heavy metals and harm the shown that vegetable crops, root crops and legumes
aquatic ecosystems, especially at pH 5 and below 12. require a minimum of 30cm, which is lacking in
Heavy metals can be introduced to groundwater by reclaimed land16.
agricultural and industrial activities, mining, and
land filling, impacting drinking water and irrigation In addition, open cast bauxite mining creates
sources12. As heavy metals leach into soil and water, artificial pits with large volume of calcareous
they can be released into air by surface erosion12. debris; this destabilizes the environmental balance
by changing the geo-morphological processes17.
In Kuantan, the river water near bauxite mining Land clearing processes before mining, such as
sites is the essential source for surrounding deforestation, forest fires, opening up new road
communities and there are several treatment networks for better access and waste disposal, lead
plants located nearby10. Pollution of rivers by to habitat destruction and soil erosion. This can
bauxite processing plants have resulted in closure of further result in loss of bio-diversity, water
treatment plants11. Water samples taken from pollution and increased turbidity17. These effects
nearby residences have exceeded the Health can be short-term, requiring a sizeable amount of
Ministry’s aluminium levels of 0.20mg/L while time and resources to restore or can be severe to
mercury levels were 0.0093mg/L, nine times above become irreversible17.
the recommended level for raw water. However,
continuous drinking water monitoring by Pahang Impact of Bauxite-contaminated Soil on Food
State Health Department has reported that the Products
concentration of aluminium and iron in drinking
water has yet to exceed the National Drinking Water Bauxite-contaminated soil can be detrimental to
Quality Standard11. health, as its contents can contaminate soil and
water sources used in agriculture. Food products has
Impact on Soil been identified as a major pathway for human
exposure to heavy metals compared with inhalation
Soil is one of the most important elements in the of soil particles, skin contact and drinking water 18.
ecosystem as it provides nutrients for the plants and Heavy metals can easily be taken up by vegetable
is also the major site of degradation and roots and get accumulated at high levels in edible
transference of biomass. Soil can form solid phase parts, although vegetable species differ in their
where it comprises mostly minerals and organic ability to take up and concentrate heavy metals18.
matters; or fluid phase when it interacts with Heavy metals that can accumulate in plant products
water12. All of these phases involve ions interacting include lead, cadmium and arsenic.
and entering the soil system. The excessive
presence of heavy metals in soil is detrimental, as it For instance, cadmium in soil can be mobilized and
inhibits such processes and biodegradation of readily absorbed by plants and crops. This was seen
organic contaminants14. In addition, higher soil in a Jamaican study, where crops from previous
contaminants lower its fertility. This can impact bauxite mining site contained high level of
agricultural activity and decreases food quality and cadmium19. Cadmium not only accumulates in
ultimately causing food shortages14. plants, but also leaches into water supply and
sources where it gets deposited in aquatic animals,
The quality of soil is determined by the presence of which are later consumed by the community19.
organic carbon15. In a study conducted on Indian Chronic consumption of cadmium causes kidney and
bauxite mines, mining soil showed low levels of bone damage, cancer, low birth weight and
carbon along with low nitrogen, phosphorus, spontaneous abortion19. Thus concerns should be
potassium, calcium and magnesium, which are raised regarding reclaimed bauxite mining sites for
essential for healthy plant growth15. Moreover, soil agricultural purposes.
in bauxite mines have high levels of Al (as bauxite
ore is essentially Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2), limiting the Other issues include leaching of heavy metals into
growth of microbes in soil15. Without microbiological soil. Heavy metals can accumulate in crops. Among
activity, nutrients are not released into soil, different crops planted in various locations, sweet
restricting plant growth in acidic soil. This prevents potatoes showed the highest lead concentration,
post-mining biological land reclamation15. However, which is beyond the safety level of 0.1mg/kg
if there is contact of limestone and soil due to indicated by CODEX19. Lead poisoning is lethal,
bauxite refining process, the reclaimed soil will be causes neurological disorders, as well as debilitating
alkaline instead16. reproductive disorders and diminished intelligence
after ingestion in children or newborns19.
Comparing reclaimed and un-mined bauxite lands, it
is found that the major difference between the two
is the depth of soil16. Un-mined lands have deeper
soil, which supports deep-rooted trees and
agricultural crops; while reclaimed soil has
approximate depth of 15cm or less and can only

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Figure 3: Various impacts of bauxite mining on the environment and on health3, 11

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO BAUXITE MINING increased incidence of melanoma among miners but
it was not significant24. Another research noted that
Physical Hazards outdoor work does not increase the risk of
Physical hazards encountered in bauxite mining melanoma3. However, heat and humidity result in
include noise, heat, humidity, and ergonomic heat-related illnesses, which include heat
problems such as vibration, ultraviolet radiation and exhaustion and miliaria rubra3.
radioactive materials3, 20. Both studies acknowledge
the potential for traumatic injury and elaborate that A few studies have noted radiation potential of
injury in bauxite mining is uncommon compared to bauxite, since it contains small amounts of
coal or metalliferous mining3. radioactive materials such as uranium, thorium and
potassium3. One study in Mozambique found very
Noise in bauxite mining originates from mining low radiation dose which was below the detection
equipment and processes such as blasting, drilling, limits and radiation exposure risk25. Another study
excavating and crushing3. Noise levels range from from Western Australia indicates that personal dose
85dB to 106 dB, and a study shows that this noisy levels across a range of jobs were below the public
environment within 10m is potentially detrimental exposure limits of 1.0 mSv per year3. While
to health3, 20, 21. Furthermore, most miners have high continued monitoring is necessary, radioactivity
exposure as mines are being operated round the does not significantly impact on the human health3.
clock3, 20, 21. This exceeds the healthy noise levels
range (less than 85dB) and acceptable duration of Chemical Hazards
exposure (101-106 dB for 4-15 minutes)22. Hence, There are a few related chemical hazards because
noise-induced hearing loss is an important bauxite is biologically inert and is classified as a
occupational hazard due to bauxite mining3. nuisance dust or ‘particle not otherwise specified’
in the context of occupational hygiene. However,
A study in India concluded that vibration dose to an increased respiratory symptoms, such as cough,
individual depend on work circumstances and type wheeze and rhinitis, have been noted among
of machineries used23. Whole-body vibration is a bauxite miners, with self-reported symptoms
hazard in bauxite mining but not the hand-arm ranging from 1.5% to 11.8%3, 26, 27. This is attributed
vibration due to machineries used such as to bauxite dust from breaking-blasting the crust and
excavators, drilling rigs, scrapers and haulage excavation, and loading of ore onto trucks. A study
trucks3. The effects of whole-body vibration on of bauxite miners (exposed to bauxite and silica)
miners can be reduced with proper maintenance of have shown non-specific airway responses, such as
machineries. cough, mucous production and decreased forced
expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)26. Another
As bauxite mining is concentrated in tropical study showed a significant decline in FEV1 of 7.3mL/
climates, ultraviolet radiation exposures can year which was associated with employment
contribute to skin cancers3, 24. One study noted an duration27. This association between employment

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duration and FEV1 was independent of bauxite associated with air, water, and soil pollution due to
exposure. Other studies have shown that cumulative mining activities11.
exposure to bauxite was not linked to significant
respiratory symptoms or lung function changes27, 28. Impact on Health due to Dust Particulate
A study has described how large particles released
A case of pulmonary fibrosis was reported after into the environment from open mining processes
prolonged exposure to bauxite crushing and contaminate property, water, food sources and
transport, and bauxite was found within fibrotic clothes and affect personal comfort. These nuisance
area during autopsy29. However, recent bauxite particles cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat 31.
exposure studies in well-run facilities noted that These particles deposit on vegetation, making it
bauxite is not associated with pneumoconiosis 3, 30. unpalatable for human and livestock consumption11.
Fine bauxite particles of PM 10 and PM2.5 size
Cancer Incidence and Mortality penetrate deep into the respiratory system and
A study among Australian bauxite and alumina have been associated with increased hospital
workers in relation to mortality and cancer rates admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory
showed little evidence of increased all-cause diseases as well as premature deaths31. This is of
cancers or combined cancer mortality 24. Several great concern in the paediatric groups because of
studies support this, and noted that there is no relatively smaller lung size compared to adults,
increased risk of squamous and basal cell carcinoma whilst receiving a higher dose of particles32. In
despite ultraviolet exposure; an increased risk of Kuantan, there was an increasing trend of asthma
melanoma and pleural mesothelioma reported in and upper respiratory infections during 2015,
one Australian study was unrelated to environmental compared to previous years. According to local
or occupational conditions of aluminium industries 3, health clinic data, this has been linked to the higher
24
. Instead, Friesen et al. observed that bauxite 24-hour PM10 levels ranging from 164 to 277μg/m3
exposure may be associated with an increased risk during the same time period, exceeding the
of death due to non-malignant respiratory Malaysian National Ambient Air Quality Standards
diseases30. 201511.

Biological Risks Impact on Health due to Contamination by Bauxite

Important biological risks include communicable and Heavy Metals
diseases such as dengue and malaria; hence, Water contamination by bauxite mining, especially
appropriate chemoprophylaxis and vector control is drinking water, has potential for harm due to long-
required3. Other community-acquired infections term ingestion of aluminium hydroxide, iron oxide
such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and and heavy metals11. Aluminium is a neuro-toxin and
tuberculosis may affect the employees3. Therefore, has been linked to Alzheimer disease, though there
mining companies should invest in education, is insufficient evidence on causation; while in
screening, early diagnosis and treatment as well as children, high levels of aluminium exposure has
providing travel medicine consultation to their been associated with bone disease due to reduced
employees3. phosphate absorption11, 33. Meanwhile, iron oxide in
bauxite can potentially cause iron overload upon
Ergonomic Risks chronic ingestion, leading to gastrointestinal
Bauxite mining has become highly mechanized, symptoms, hepatic disease, cardio-myopathies,
hardly requiring manual handling, hence ergonomic diabetes, joint and skin involvement in the form of
hazards are minimized3. Since mines operate hyper-pigmentation34.
nonstop, fatigue has become a concern due to long
shifts and overtime. Measures that have been put Chronic exposure to toxic metals causes multiple
into place include fatigue risk management and organ toxicity and increases risk of malignancies 11,
35-37
monitoring. Addressing staffing issues and ensuring . Heavy metals can accumulate in food sources
appropriate rosters help in reducing fatigue. and drinking water, eventually affecting the entire
food chain. These show up in seafood and are
IMPACT ON THE HEALTH OF SURROUNDING ingested by humans in high concentrations. These
COMMUNITIES heavy metals include lead, arsenic, mercury,
There are not many papers that discuss the impact cadmium, chromium, manganese and nickel, and
of bauxite mining on surrounding communities, can result in central and peripheral nervous system
because most mining sites are located in remote damage, impaired neuro-cognitive function,
areas with well-defined boundaries. Only one paper nephrotoxicity, hypertension, cardiovascular
by Abdullah et al. discusses this impact, by further disease, dermatological manifestations and
dividing it into acute and chronic impacts 11. Acute increased mortality35-44. In children, heavy metal
impact is associated with short-term dust exposure, toxicity is associated with increased risk of death
road accidents and vector-borne diseases. Mental from all causes, neuro-developmental delays,
stress due to daily nuisance is also an acute impact intellectual and behavioural issues, peripheral
which can progress to chronic effects after neuropathy and hearing loss38, 40, 43.
prolonged exposure11. Other long-term impacts are

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Of special concern is mercury and cadmium toxicity. physiological, and mental health effects, impacting
Chronic mercury toxicity leads to Minamata disease behavioural and cognitive performance11. Hearing
from ingestion of contaminated seafood containing conservation measures have been effective in
methyl-mercury, or from occupational exposure reducing the rate of such decline3, 45.
which mainly targets the brain by crossing the
blood-brain barrier, and resulting in neurological Another health hazard is vibration, especially whole-
effects that include weakness, fatigue, mercurial body vibration when compared to hand-arm
tremor and widespread neuro-logical damage such vibration, due to machineries used. This vibration
as loss of motor control, ataxia, tremors, sensory can cause or worsen spinal cord disorders3. Heat
loss affecting vision, hearing, and speech40,41. exhaustion and miliaria rubra has been reported due
Chronic cadmium exposure results in nephro- and to heat and humidity but UV exposure and radiation
osteo-toxicity and manifests as ‘Itai-Itai’ (‘Ouch- at mining sites are not associated with increased
Ouch’) disease, characterised by multiple fractures, risk of skin cancers or other health problems3, 24, 25.
mixed pattern of osteoporosis, osteomalacia and
renal tubular dysfunction42. This has been Studies have linked respiratory symptoms such as
associated with lung malignancies and emphysema36. cough, wheeze and rhinitis to bauxite mining3. In
some earlier studies, bauxite exposure has been
Impact on Health due to Noise linked to small decrements in FEV1 but recent
Abdullah et al. reported that noise pollution affects occupational health studies could not be linked to
bauxite miners and neighbouring communities, as such reductions26-28. There has been a reported case
mining is carried out around the clock11. Potential of pulmonary fibrosis, but bauxite is not associated
health effects include noise-induced hearing loss, with pneumoconiosis.
loss of hearing sensitivity, and sleep disturbances.
Noise has been associated with cardiovascular and In terms of cancer incidence, bauxite mining has not
physiological effects along with behavioural and been associated with malignancies such as skin
cognitive impacts11. Residents living near mines are cancers or pleural mesothelioma, and not linked to
subjected to mental stress11. Due to high iron oxide increased or combined cancer mortality3, 24, 30.
content, nearby communities get tainted dark red
and this visual disturbance can cause stress. The Impact on Surrounding Communities
health impact of bauxite dust on individuals, water During our literature review, we found very few
and food sources also exert its toll. papers that discussed the impact of bauxite mining
on surrounding communities because most mines are
DISCUSSION located in remote areas with well-defined
boundaries. However, in Kuantan, mines are
Environmental Impact of Bauxite Mining scattered, poorly defined and operate within or
The environmental impact of bauxite mining can be near communities; with bauxite potentially causing
on air, water and soil. Under air pollution, the main significant impacts on the health and lives of nearby
hazard is nuisance dust which can obstruct vision3, 8, populations11.
deposits on vegetation, food, and airways, thus
causing long term respiratory and cardiac diseases 8, Acute impacts of mining activities include exposure
11
. to bauxite dust and vector-borne diseases11. Long-
term effects of bauxite mining can be attributed to
Details about water pollution are not known as no bauxite dust, comprising particles of varying size
study was conducted to explore the effects of which can contaminate food sources and water
bauxite ingestion in humans. Moreover, drinking supply, causing respiratory infections or diseases11.
water pollution is not the only concern as bauxite The potential of leaching of heavy metals and
and heavy metals in the sediments can be absorbed products of bauxite mining into nearby water
by aquatic animals, or plants, affecting various sources is another concern as they have long-term
levels of food chain13. effects on both adults and children such as neuro-
toxicity, nephrotoxicity, cardiovascular diseases,
Soil pollution impacts agricultural activities as the neuro-developmental delays as well as increased
fertile topsoil is stripped bare and restoration risk of malignancies and mortality11, 35-37. The health
efforts are not sufficient to return barren land to of nearby residents is affected by noise pollution
the former state16. Heavy metals in soil are which may result in reduced hearing sensitivity and
absorbed, which raises issue of food safety among noise-induced hearing loss11. All these impacts will
consumers19. Moreover, habitat destruction reduces cause mental stress to nearby residents.
the diversity of flora and fauna, which is vital for
identity of Malaysia as a tropical forest country. PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS AND BIOLOGICAL
EXPOSURE INDICES OF BAUXITE CONTENTS
Occupational Health Hazards Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) of Bauxite
In terms of occupational health effects of bauxite Contents
mining, noise-induced hearing loss is a significant Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s
hazard , with poor hearing sensitivity and sleep (OSHA) permissible exposure limits (PELs) were set
disturbances, which can lead to cardiovascular,

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46
in 1970s and have not been updated since then . workers from the same workplace or shift have
Most of the PELs are outdated and scientific data measurements exceeding BEIs.
indicates inadequacy of these limits to protect
worker’s health46. While OSHA’s mandatory PELs in BEIs are indices of ‘uptake’ of a chemical(s) while
OSHA Z-1 Table remains in effect, it is TLVs demonstrate potential inhalation ‘exposure’ of
recommended to utilize Occupational Exposure an individual or group via air monitoring.
Limits (OELs) due to the belief that exposures above Discrepancies may be seen between biological
these OELs may be hazardous even though they monitoring and air monitoring data for a number of
comply with relevant PELs46. reasons:

Many countries have developed OELs for airborne  Physiological composition and health status
vapours, particles and gases46. The American of worker: body habitus, habits, diet,
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists metabolic rate, age, gender, body fluid
(ACGIH) has issued the Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) composition, medicine, pregnancy and
for airborne concentrations of chemicals under disease state.
conditions in which most workers are repeatedly  Occupational exposures: work-rate, intensity
exposed without any adverse events46. Malaysia and duration, temperature and humidity, co-
utilizes the PELs issued under the Occupational exposure to other irritants, skin exposure and
Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994), in other work habits.
Schedule 1 of the Occupational Safety and Health  Non-occupational exposures: water and food,
(Use and Standards of Exposure to Chemicals personal hygiene, residential air pollutants,
Hazardous to Health Regulations 2000)47, 48. OELs for alcohol and drug intake, cigarette smoking,
substances listed in OSHA Z-1 Table have been set or exposure to household products or
and revised periodically46; these should be consulted chemicals from hobbies.
for the latest values, and special notations, such as  Methodological causes: contamination of
skin absorption. specimen and bias of selected analytical
method.
Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) of Bauxite  Positioning of air monitoring device in
Contents relation to worker’s breathing zone.
Biological exposure indices (BEIs) are the levels that  Size and bio-availability of particles.
are observed in biological specimens such as  Varying effectiveness levels of personal
exhaled air, blood and urine, of healthy workers protective devices.
who have chemical exposure similar to the workers
with inhalation TLVs49. These provide guidance for LEGAL REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS OF
biological monitoring and evaluating workers’ EXPOSURE TO BAUXITE IN MALAYSIA
exposure and health risk (dosage of exposure of a
worker from a chemical is reflected by biological The Department of Environment (DOE), Ministry of
monitoring). Natural Resources and Environment of Malaysia have
published guidelines for siting and zoning of industry
BEIs are the concentrations below which most and residential areas in 2012. This is intended as a
workers do not encounter detrimental health guiding document to assist project owners and
effects. The chemical, its metabolites, or a relevant Federal, State and Local authorities to
reversible biochemical change in chemical can be a decide on the suitability of a site for a particular
BEIs determinant. However, they are not a industrial or non-industrial activity, with potentials
parameter of adverse effects to diagnose to negatively impact the environment50.
occupational illness. This does not demarcate
between hazardous and non-hazardous exposures. The primary objective of guidelines is to ensure
It is plausible that increased health risk does not appropriate selection of a site to avoid or minimize
occur even when the individual’s determinant environmental conflicts which could arise as a result
concentration exceeds BEIs. Investigations should be of incompatibility between the proposed project or
instigated BEIs are the concentrations below which activity and its neighbors50. Avoiding conflicts
most workers do not encounter detrimental health through proper siting is an element of
effects. The chemical, its metabolites, or a environmental planning to achieve long term
reversible biochemical change in chemical can be a project sustainability, which helps to reduce
BEIs determinant. However, they are not a unnecessary cost of pollution control and improves
parameter of adverse effects to diagnose public perception about the project. These
occupational illness. This does not demarcate guidelines are also applicable for extraction and
between hazardous and non-hazardous exposures. It production of natural resources such as minerals and
is plausible that increased health risk does not occur rocks.
even when the individual’s determinant
concentration exceeds BEIs. Investigations should be The Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA 1974)
instigated when worker’s specimens persistently requires that any activity which is likely to release
exceed BEIs on various occasions, or majority of or discharge or emit any pollutant which may

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impact the environment, is required to obtain the considered “high risk” due to its nature to discharge
relevant comment, consent or approval of the large quantities of wastewater containing high levels
Director General of Environmental Quality, DOE50. of residual contaminants, and generating large
These consents or approvals are regarding site’s quantities of scheduled wastes, which are difficult
suitability assessment, Environmental Impact to treat50. A minimum distance of 1km is indicated
Assessment (EIA), written permission, approval, and as a primary buffer.
license etc.
CONCLUSION
The EQA 1974 relates to the prevention, abatement,
control of pollution and enhancement of This review has highlighted bauxite mining
environment from various industrial and non- repercussions on the environment through
industrial activities and may give rise to waste or destruction of ecosystem that include harming of
pollutants affecting the environmental quality50. the air, water, food, soil as well as flora and fauna
of the mining areas. Bauxite mining affects the
The term ‘Mine’ and ‘Mining’ is interpreted in the health of miners and surrounding communities,
Mineral Development Act 1994 (Act 525) as: along with environmental pollution; this is
 ‘to mine’ means ‘intentionally to mine particularly true in Kuantan due to the poor
minerals and includes any operation directly demarcation and proximity of mines to the
or indirectly and necessary therefore or neighbouring communities. There is still a
incidental thereto, and “mining” shall be knowledge gap regarding the long-term health
construed accordingly’ impacts of bauxite mining because chronic illnesses
 The term ‘mineral’ is ‘a naturally occurring take time to manifest later in life. Hence, a
element or chemical compound that is formed detailed research is required to identify the areas
as a result of geologic processes’ which require improvement to implement measures
to control and manage impacts of bauxite mining on
Mining is regulated as a ‘prescribed activity’ under the environment and human health.
the Environmental Quality Order 1987, and includes:
1. Mining of minerals in new areas where lease CONFLICT OF INTEREST
covers an area over 250 hectares. The authors reported no conflicts of interest.
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