Steering Systems

THE PURPOSE OF THE STEERING IS TO

CHANGE THE
DIRECTION OF VEHICLE MOVEMENT, AS
DESIRED BY THEDRIVER.
STEERING SYSTEMS CAN BE :
MANUAL STEERING
POWER ASSISTED STEERING
COMPONENTS OF STEERING SYSTEM
• STEERING GEAR BOX
• STEERING WHEEL
• STEERING INNER/OUTER COLUMNS
• TIE RODS
• POWER STEERING PUMP
• POWER STEERING RESERVOIR
• POWER STEERING HOSES/PIPES
Steering components
MANUAL STEERING
- In which, the driver’s muscular energy is
directly used in steering the wheels of the
vehicle.
POWER ASSISTED STEERING
- In which, the driver is aided byan external
power assistance, so that the efforts required
at thesteering wheel is lower.
In case of failure of the source of power, the
steering system
reverts to manual steering.
Power source for the steering can be:
1. Hydraulic power - Hydraulic pressure
generated by a powersteering pump, driven by
the engine.
2. Electric power - An electric motor driven by
the vehicle
electrical system and controlled by an ECU.
Also known as
Electronic Power Steering (EPS)

1. STEERING GEAR BOX

- Steering gear box converts driver’s
effort at steering wheel (Rotary) to a linear
movement at tie rods.
The tie rods are connected to the wheels which
turn either left orright.
Various types of steering gear box designs are
available. Thevarious designs are based on the
type of gear reduction used
inside the steering gear box
Worm & roller
Re-circulating Ball type (RCBT)
Rack & pinion type

. Worm and Roller Type.The worm and roller

Steeringgear is quite similar to the worm andsector type except that a
roller is supported by ball orroller bearings within the sector mounted on
the pitmanarm shaft. These bearings assist in reducing sliding
friction between the worm and sector. As the steeringwheel turns the
worm, the roller turns with it but forcesthe sector and the pitman arm
shaft to rotate. Thehourglass form of worm, which tapers from both ends
tothe center, affords better contact between the worm androller at all
positions. It provides a variable ratio to permitfaster and more efficient
steering. Variable ratio meansthat the ratio is larger at one position than
another and therefore the roadwheels are turned faster at certain
positions than at
others. At the center or straight ahead position, thesteering gear ratio is
high, giving more steering control.However, as the wheels are cramped
or turned to theside, the ratio decreases so that the action is much more
rapid. This design is very helpful for parking or formaneuvering the
vehicle.

Worm andSectorType.
In the worm and sector steering gear the pitman arm shaft carries agear
that meshes with the worm on the steering gearshaft. Generally, only a
sector of a gear is used becauseit turns through an arc of approximately
70 degrees. Thesteering wheel turns the worm on the lower end of
thesteering gear shaft, which rotates the sector and the
pitman arm through the use of the shaft. The worm isassembled
between tapered roller bearings that takeboth thrust and load. An
adjusting nut or plug is provided
for adjusting the end play of the worm. Some means ofadjusting the end
play of the cross-shaft also is provided.

33-6. Cam and Lever Type.A cam and lever steeringgear in which the
worm is known as a cam, . The pitman arm shaft carries a lever on
theinner end. This lever carries a stud that engages with thecam. The
stud may be integral or mounted on rollerbearings. Roller bearings
reduce friction and allow easiersteering. As the steering wheel is turned,
the stud movesup and down on the cam and carries the lever with it
torotate the pitman arm shaft. The pitch of the cam is notconstant,
therefore the lever moves more rapidly as itnears either end of the cam.
Maximum leverage occursat the straight ahead position when the stud
engages thefine pitch section of the cam. This makes the initialturning of
the wheels easier. Therefore, a variable ratiois obtained with cam and
lever steering. A twin leverprovided with two studs is used on a design
forheavier vehicles

Worm and Nut Type.Another form of steering

gear is the worm and nut, which is made in severaldifferent
combinations, A nut is meshed with the wormand screws up and down
on it. The nut may operate thepitman arm directly through a lever, or
through a sectoron the pitman arm shaft. An example of the recirculating
ball type of the worm and nut steering gear . In this steering gear, the
nut, which is in theform of a sleeve block, is mounted on a continuous
rowof balls on the worm to reduce friction. This ball nut isfitted with
tubular ball guides to return the balls diagonallyacross the nut to
recirculate them as the nut moves upand down on the worm. With this
design, the nut ismoved on the worm by rolling instead of by sliding
contact. Turning the worm moves the nut and forces thesector and the
pitman arm shaft to turn.

Worm and Nut Steering Gear

Rack and Pinion Type.
In the rack and pinion steering system the steering gear shaftutilizes a
pinion gear on the end, to mesh with a longrack. The rack is connected
to the steering arms by tierods, which are adjustable, to maintain proper
toe angle.As the steering wheel is rotated, the pinion gear on theend of
the steering shaft rotates. The pinion moves therack left and right to
operate the steering linkage Rack and pinion gears are used on
smallpassenger vehicles where a high degree of precision steering is
required. Their use on larger vehicles islimited because of the conflicting
space requirements ofrack and engine.
Rack and Pinion Steering Gear

Steering gear can be either Manual or Power assisted

2. STEERING WHEEL - Transmits the driver’s hand effort to the

steeringgear box.

3. STEERING COLUMNS - Link between the steering wheel and

thesteering gear box.

4. TIE-RODS - The connection between the steering gear box and

thewheels.. Tie Rod. The tie rod connects the steering arms
together and may be located in front of or behind thecenterline of the
wheel. The tie rod is usually of a solidrod construction but tubular
designs also are used.

Tie Rod Ends. Tie rod ends are used to form a flexible link between the
tie rod and steering arm. The tie rod end usually is fastened to the
knuckle arm with a tapered stud. A socket is provided within the tie rod
end to hold the end of the stud, which is in the form of a ball or yoke.
The socket also allows movement between the knuckle arm and the tie
rod. A lubrication fitting usuallyis provided to keep the ball and socket
joint properlylubricated. A dust seal covers the tie rod end to prevent
dust from entering the Joint and to prevent the loss oflubricant. In the
solid axle configuration, the tie rod endis screwed onto the tie rod and is
secured with clamps.

Steering Arms. The steering arms on the solidaxle suspension, like all
others are bent toward eachother to achieve toe out or turns. The left
side arm isshaped like a bell-crank and accepts the drag link and tierod.

5 .POWER STEERING RESERVOIR - Holds the hydraulic steering

fluidand supplies the same to Steering pump , as and when
required.

6. POWER STEERING PUMP - Driven by engine. Generates

hydraulicpressure and directs it to the steering gear box.
Since the power steering pump is driven by the engine, the pump
speedincreases as the engine speed increases. Increase in the
engine speedgenerates more pressure of the power steering fluid.
Due to highersteering fluid pressures, the amount of assistance
also increases athigher engine/vehicle speeds. This is not
desirable as the steeringbecomes softer and softer as the vehicle
speed increases, leading todifficulty in controlling the vehicle.

SPEED SENSITIVE POWER STEERING

- In which a special valvereduces the steering fluid pressure as the
engine speed increases. Thisis known as speed sensitive power

steering. All
steering systems fi tted to modern vehicles willhave power-
assisted steering (PAS) to lessen thedriver’s effort to
steer the vehicle, especially heaviervehicles or vehicles fi tted
with wide profile wheelsandtyres. Assistance will be in two
forms:
_ Hydraulic pressure delivered by an enginedrivenor electric
pump
_ Electric delivered by a motor situated directlyon to the
column or rack assembly

The power assistance arrangement should achievecertain

requirements:
1 It must be ‘fail-safe’ – if the power system fails,the driver
must still be able to retain effectivecontrol.

2 The degree of assistance should be proportionalto the effort

applied by the driver, and the drivermust be able to retain the
‘feel’ of the wheels.

POWER STEERING - HYDRAULIC

TYPE
Purpose.The power steering system is designed to reduce the effort
required to turn the steering wheel. This task is accomplished by an
auxiliary power network incorporated in the steering system.
Components.
1. Pump.
All power steering systems contain a pump that supplies hydraulic fluid
underpressure to the other components in the system. The pump, which
may be of the gear teeth, rotor, or vane type, usually is driven by the
engine by means of a V-belt and is functional whenever the engine is
operating. Some models mount the pump in front of the engine and are
driven directly by the crankshaft. The pressure and flow relief valves are
always built into the pump. These valves are designed to limit the
amount of pressure and flow the pump develops throughout the different
engine
speeds.
b. Reservoir.
 The pump receives its oil supply from the reservoir which usually is an
integral partof the pump. Power steering fluid is generally added to the
system and checked atthe reservoir.
c. Control Valve.
The control valve , which is actuated by the steering wheel movements,
isdesigned to direct the hydraulic fluid under pressure to the proper
location in the steering system. The control valve may be mounted either
in the steering box or on the steering linkage, depending on which
system configuration is being used.

d. Gearbox
. The gearbox used in an integral powersteering system is basically a
manualgearbox that is adapted to include a power assistpackage. The
integral power steering gearbox are of twotypes: offset and in line. The
offset type utilizes arecirculating ball-type gear-box with a rack meshed
to thepitman sector gear above or on the opposite side of theball nut.
The power steering force is developed in thepower piston, which is offset
from the worm and nut andattached to the rack. The in-line design uses
therecirculating ball nut assembly as a power piston. In thisdesign, the
ball nut is sealed inside a cylindrical portion ofthe steering gear housing.
The power steering effect isproduced by alternately pressurizing either
side of thepower piston.

e. Hydraulic Cylinder.
The hydraulic cylinder that isused on the semi-integral and integral
power steering systems is located on thesteering linkage. The power
assist is developed in thecylinder through the action of the pressurized
hydraulicfluid. The cylinder may be single- or double-wallconstruction.
The hydraulic hoses connect to the portson each end of the single-wall
cylinder. The double-wallcylinder has connections on one end for both
hoses andan internal passageway between the walls to pressurize
the other end of the cylinder. Some linkage cylindershave a shuttle valve
built into the piston. This valve isdesigned to open at the end of the
piston stroke. Thisfeature helps eliminate fullhydraulic pressure from
acting on the cylinder when thepiston is bottomed by opening and
allowing fluid to flowthrough the piston.

. Operation.
a. Neutral. In the neutral position there is no force required of the power
steering system toturn the wheels, therefore the fluid under pressure
mustbe bypassed through the system. This usually isaccomplished in
the control valve. When there is nosteering force required by the driver,
the spool in thecontrol valve is centered by springs or hydraulic pressure
or acombination of both. This allows the oil to flow through
the valve and back to the reservoir. This condition allows
the steering system to maintain its position.
4.4.1 Steering gear systems
The steering gearbox provides the driver with a leversystem to
enable them to exert a large force at theroad wheel with the
minimum effort, and to controlthe direction of vehicle motion
accurately.The overall ratio between the steering wheel andthe
road wheel varies from about 18 : 1 to 35 : 1,
depending on the load on the road wheels and thetype of
steering.As the ratio is raised, a large number of turns
arerequired to move the wheel from lock to lock: thismakes it
difficult to make a rapid change in vehicledirection.By varying
the efficiency, the degree of reversibility(a reversible gear
transmits motion from steeringwheel to drop arm and vice
versa) can be controlled,to enable the driver to ‘feel’ the
wheels, yet not be
subjected to major road shocks.
Types of steering gear
A number of different types of steering gear havebeen used
over the years, including the steering boxand rack-and-
pinion.The steering box is commonly used in larger
vehicles,such as commercial-type vehicles, although somefour-
wheel drive vehicles use this system due to itsstrength. Various
types of steering box have beenused, which include:
_ worm and sector
_ screw and nut

_ recirculating ball
A higher efficiency (90 per cent as opposed to 50
percent) is achieved by using a nut with steel balls
actingas ‘threads’. The type uses a halfnut with a
transfer tube, which feeds the balls back tothe nut. A
peg on the nut is located in the rocker arm.

_ cam and pegA tapered peg in the rocker

arm engages with a specialcam formed on the inner
column. The end-fl oat ofthe column is controlled by
shims, and an adjustingscrew on the side cover governs
the backlash andend-fl oat of the rocker shaft.
_ worm and roller.
Most steering boxes are provided with the following
adjustments:
1 End-float of inner column – generally shimadjustment.
2 End-float of rocker shaft – shim or screwadjustment.
3 Backlash between gears – gears can be movedcloser
together.

The greatest wear takes place in the straight-aheadposition of

the box, so the gear is normally made witha larger backlash in
the lock positions. This reduces
the risk of seizure at full lock when the box is adjustedto
compensate for wear. It is essential to reduce end-float and
backlash to a minimum, but tight spots
must be avoided.Steering box lubrication is provided by filling
the box
to the level of the plug with normal gear oil.
The rack-and-pinion steering system is widely used
as it has the following advantages:
==_ The need for relay rods is removed, this makesthe rack
lightweight and compact.
==_ There is no maintenance needed, just visualchecks of
items like the rack boots for cracks orwear.
==_ The rack-and-pinion is directly meshed to therack itself,
and this improves steering response.
==_ The amount of resistance generated by thissystem is very
small, which reduces the amountof effort needed by the driver.
==its simplicity and precise response.

The effort by the driver is transferred from the steering wheel,

down the steering column, to a steering box. The steering box
converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel, to the linear
motion needed to steer the vehicle. It also gives the driver a
mechanical advantage. The linear motion from the steering
box is then transferred by tie-rods, to the steering arms at the
front wheels. The tie rods have ball joints that allow steering
movement and movement of the suspension. The steering-arm
ball-joints are arranged so that movement in the suspension
does not affect steering operation

Advantages of 4WS
Compared with a conventional two-wheel steer system, it is
claimed that 4WS offers the following advantages:
1 Superior cornering stability
2 Improved steering responsiveness and precision
3 High-speed straight-line stability
4 Notable improvement in rapid lane-changingmanoeuvres
5 Smaller turning radius and tight-spacemanoeuvrability at low
speed
.
Steering Systems
The direction of motion of a motor vehicle is controlled by a
steering system. A basic steering system has 3 main parts:
==A steering box connected to the steering wheel.
==The linkage connecting the steering box to the wheel
assemblies at the front wheels.
==The front suspension parts to let the wheel assembly’s
pivot.
When the driver turns the steering wheel, a shaft from the
steering column turns a steering gear. The steering gear
moves tie rods that connect to the front wheels. The tie rods
move the front wheels to turn the vehicle right or left.

Tyreslip angles affect the steering characteristics ofa vehicle

by causing either oversteer or understeer. Aside force, caused
by wind, road camber or corneringforces, produces a slip angle
at each tyre.When the rear slip angles are greater than the
front the vehicle will turn more sharply thannormal – a
condition called oversteer. To correct this,the driver has to
straighten up the steering wheel – a difficult feat under
cornering conditions. When this
is linked to the fact that the sharper turn causes afurther
increase in the cornering force, then it will beapparent why
oversteer is regarded as dangerous inmost conditions.
If a side force acts on the wheel, tyre deflection will cause the
wheel to take path B, although the wheelis still pointing in the
original direction. The angle between the path that the wheel is
actually taking andthe plane of the wheel (AA) is termed the
slip angle.
Oversteer: a condition when the rear wheels lose traction
and try to overtake the front of the vehiclecausing a slide
condition. This is usually countered by turning the steered
wheels into the slide.
Oversteer can also be caused by:
_ moving the centre of gravity towards the rearby increasing
the load on the rear of the vehicle
_ lower tyre inflation pressure at the rear thanthat
recommended
_ large load transference from inner rear wheel toouter rear
wheel when cornering.

==Understeer is produced when the front slip anglesare

greater than the rear. This tends to cause thevehicle to move
away from the side force and makesthe vehicle take a path of
larger radius than normal.
A reasonable degree of understeer is desirable, butif it
becomes excessive ‘hard’ steering results. understeer is a
safercondition compared with oversteer and it is easier
tocorrect by removing power to allow the front tyres to
regain grip.

STEERING GEOMETRY
“Front-end alignment” refers to the relationship between the
wheels of the vehicle and its suspension andsteering. These
relationships are calculated using angles known as steering
geometry. These angles are camber,
caster, kingpin inclination, toe, turning radius, and
tracking.ALIGNMENT ANGLES
There are nine wheel alignment measurements, or “angles,” used to
determine proper alignment:
1. Caster
2. Camber
3. Toe
4. Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)
5. Scrub radius
6. Included angle
7. Thrust angle
8. Setback
9. Ride height
1Caster
Caster is the forward or rearward tilt of the steering axis from true vertical, as viewed
from the side of the front wheel. The steering axis is an imaginary line through the
center of the steering mechanism and the wheel.
There are three possible caster angles:
• Positive — Steering axis tilted towards the rear of the vehicle
• Negative — Steering axis tilted towards the front of the vehicle
• Zero — Steering axis has no tilt (true vertical)

A vehicle’s caster angle affects steering in three main ways:

1. It stabilizes the vehicle to keep it on course.
2. It helps return the wheels to the straight-ahead position when
coming out of a turn.
3. It controls the amount of effort required to turn the wheels away
from the straight-ahead position.
Positive, negative, and zero caster each affect vehicle handling and
Drive-ability in specific ways.
Positive Caster
Positive caster tends to make a vehicle travel in a straight line. With
positive caster, the steering axis’ extended centerline is in front of the
tire’s road contact point.
. Caster
angle is measured in degrees, either positive or negative.
When performing a wheel alignment,always adjust caster
angle first.

Although negative caster tends to make steering easier, too muchnegative caster
can cause steering and handling problems such as:
• Vehicle wandering
• Decreased steering return-to-center
• Decreased stability during braking
. When the steering axis tilts toward the front of the
vehicle, thecaster angle is negative. Steering axis Negative
(-)

Zero Caster
When the steering axis is at true vertical, the caster angle is zero. Zero caster tends
to have a neutral effect on directional stability and steering. With zero caster, the
steering axis’ extended centerline aligns with the exact center of the tire’s road
contact point. As a result, the tire is not dragged in any direction. Without drag, there
is no force to turn the wheels either left or right.

Caster Split
Improper caster angle may cause a vehicle to drift or pull. Drifting or pulling may be
caused by caster “split,” sometimes called “cross caster.” Caster split occurs when
the caster settings differ greatly from one side of the vehicle to the other.
When caster settings are different, the vehicle will tend to pull in the direction of the
wheel that has the most negative (or least positive) caster angle. As a general rule,
caster on the left side and right side of the vehicle should not vary by more than 0.5
degrees.
. CASTER ANGLE.When viewed from the side of the wheel,
the caster angle is the degree to which thekingpin or ball joint
tilts forward or rearward in relation to the frame . Like the
camber angle, the caster angle is also measured in degrees. It
is shown by a line drawn straight up and down, and then a
second line drawn through the center of the kingpin or pivot
points. The caster angle is the angle formed at the point where
the two lines cross, as viewed from the side of the vehicle. A
good example of caster is a bicycle. The fork is tilted backward
at the top. A straight line drawn down through the front-wheel
pivot or kingpin would strike the ground ahead of the point
where the tire contacts the road. A wheel mounted in this
fashion is said to have positive (+) caster or “just” caster. If the
top of the kingpin is tilted forward so that a straight line drawn
through it hits behind the point where the tire contacts the
ground, the wheel is said to have negative (–) caster. On a
vehicle with axle suspension, caster is obtained by the axle
being mounted so that the top of the steering knuckle or
kingpin is tilted to the rear.
CASTER
Generally, caster is not considered toaffect tire wear, but is
important in thehandling and drive-ability of the vehicle.Overall
effects of caster can besummarized as follows:
—Too little caster causes:
• Unstable steering
• Constant corrections required
• Wander and weave
• Oversteer
• Failure to return to straight ahead
out of a turn
• Roadwalk
—Too much caster causes:
• Hard steering
• Shimmy
• Road shock
Vehicle manufacturers normallyrecommend caster settings for
their
vehicles. Proper caster is that whichgives best handling in
combination
with the camber and king pin inclinationdesigned into the axle.

. CAMBER ANGLE
. As viewed from the front of the vehicle, the camber angle is
the degree to whichthe wheel tilts inward or outward . It is
measured in degrees and changes with the load of thevehicle
and suspension movement. Positive camber is the outward tilt
of the top of the wheel, and negative
camber is the inward tilt. It is shown by a line drawn through
the center of the wheel and a second line drawnstraight up and
down. They should intersect where the tire meets the road.
Camber is a directional control angle
and a tire wearing angle. Originally, roads were built with high
crowns; that is, they were high in the middle and sloped
downward to the sides. A large amount of positive wheel
camber was needed for the tire to contact the road squarely. If
the tire does not set squarely on the road, it will wear on one
side and will not get a good grip for positive steering control.
Modern roads, however, are made flat with very little crown, so
less camber is needed for this reason. Even with flat roads,
some camber is generally desirable, because it moves the point
of contact between the tire and the road more directly under,
and closer to, the steering knuckle pivot. This makes the
wheels easier to pivot and reduces the amount of road shock
sent to the vehicle suspension and steering linkage when the
wheels hit bumps. It also places most of the load on the larger
inner wheel bearing. To avoid some bad effects, the amount of
camber must be carefully considered when a vehicle is
designed. If you have ever rolled a tire by hand, you soon
learned that you did not have to turn the tire in order to turn a
corner. All you had to do was tilt (camber) the tire to one side,
and it rolled around the corner like a cone. This isnot desirable
for the wheels of a vehicle. The cone effect of excessive
positive camber tries to pivot the wheels
out on a vehicle
Camber
Wheel camber is an important factor in the vehicle’shandling
and stability. There are two camber anglesutilised: positive and
negative camber. Positive
camber is noticeable when viewing the front of thevehicle, as
the front wheels will be leaning out atthe top and in at the
bottom. Negative camber is
noticeable as the front wheels will lean in at the top.Incorrect
camber setting will have an effect on thevehicle’styre wear.
Too much negative camber will
create excessive wear on the inner edges of the tyres;too much
positive camber will cause the tyrestowear on the outside
edges.The camber setting is critical in making sure that
thevehicle travels in a straight line and is stable during
cornering. If the camber angles are set differently oneach side
of the vehicle, this can create a problemwith the vehicle pulling
to one side – the vehicle
will generally pull to the side of the wheel with thegreater
positive camber setting. Many vehicles donot have adjustable
camber as this is set by the
suspension components during the vehicle design.If these
vehicles require adjustment, they will haveto be adjusted by
replacing a suspension componentthat is possibly bent or worn.
Positive camber

When the wheel has positive camber, the stresseson the stub
axle and the tendency for the wheels tosplay out is reduced
considerably.
However, the wheel angle (leaning out) caused byhaving
positive camber will result in different rollingradii where the
tyre contacts the road. The result
of this is a cone effect of the tyre, which causes theouter edge
of the tyre to wear as more vehicle loadis placed on this area.
Positive camber also reduces
offset, which results in lighter steering. You will seesome
heavier vehicles using positive camber for thisreason.
Negative camber

Negative camber is found when the wheel is tiltingin at the top

when viewed from the front. Negativecamber reduces the angle
of the wheel when thevehicle is cornering, providing a larger
tyrefootprinton the road surface. As the tyre is able to have
moreof its surface area on the road, this improves thevehicle’s
stability and handling during cornering. Aproblem associated
with having a more pronouncednegative camber setting is that
the added wheel offsetwill normally create heavier steering and
increase
innertyre wear.

===Tires with excessive camber will wearIt can be seenthat

improper camber causes wear onone side of the tire, this can
be on theinside or outside of the tire dependingon camber
setting and tire position(LF or RF).

===Camber:
Camber is the tilt of the tires as seen in a front view of the
truck. Positive
camber exists when the tires are closer together at the bottom
(point of road
contact) Negative camber exists when the tires are closer
togetherat the top

==Camber refers to the tilt of the tire from the vertical, and this has a
profound effect on directional tendencies. Zero camber means the
centerline of the tire is perfectly perpendicular to a level surface. If
the top of the tire tilts outward from the body, camber is said to be
positive. Going too far in this direction will cause a pull to that side
because the tire itself forms the shape of a cone.

KINGPIN INCLINATION.
The inward tilt ofthe kingpin at the top is known as kingpin
inclination (KPI). KPI is measured in degrees from thecenter
line of the ball joint or kingpin to true vertical (0).It is a
directional control angle with fixed relationshipto camber
settings. It is also nonadjustable. One purpose of this inclination
is to reduce the need for excessive camber..The angle of the
kingpin and spindle is made extreme toclarify the principles
involved.Timing the wheels to the left or right revolves
thespindles around the kingpin. the spindle will attemptto move
down from the high point. Since the wheels andtires prevent
the spindles from moving down, the axleis raised. This action
tends to raise the front of the
vehicle. As the turning force is removed from thewheels, the
weight of the vehicle helps force the wheelsback to the
straight-ahead position.
Vehicles with ball-joint suspension have what is known as
steering axis inclination (SAI) which is defined as the inward tilt
of the spindle support arm atthe top. The spindle assembly is
supported at the upperand lower control arms by ball joints.
The pivoting axisof the wheel around the ball joints is the same
as thekingpin axis of vehicles with dead axles.rear of the front
wheels, Note
that line B is shorter than line A. The setting is taken atspindle
height with the wheels in the straight-aheadposition. Toe-in is
measured in fractions of an inch. It isa tire wearing angle. The
purpose of toe is to compensate for the normal looseness
required in the steering linkage and to balance the effect of
camber on the tires. Thenatural tendency of the wheel is to
rotate like a conearound the point. If both front wheels are
forced tofollow a straight path by the motion of the vehicle,
thereis a continual tendency for the tires to slip away from
each other. Toed-in wheels tend to travel toward eachother and
counteract this condition. By properly relatingcamber and toe-
in, tire wear is reduced to a minimum.The motion of the wheel
is balanced between twoopposing forces, and pull on the
steering mechanism isreduced.Of all the alignment factors, toe-
in is the mostcritical. A bent tie rod will change the amount of
toe.Toe-in is adjusted last by your turning the tie rod
sleeves.The inclining of the swivel axis or the tilting of
thekingpin can be arranged by using one of the following
methods:
1 Upper independent suspension members mounted slightly to
the rear of the lower members.
2 Tilting the axle beam of a light truck by:
afitting wedges between axle and spring
bmounting the axle towards the front of a laminated spring
cinclining the laminated spring.

5. TURNING RADIUS.The front-end assemblyof the modern

motor vehicle requires careful design andadjustment because
each front wheel is pivoted
separately on a steering knuckle. Because of thisconstruction,
the front wheels are not in the same radiusline (drawn from the
center of rotation when
a vehicle is making a turn. Because each wheel shouldbeat
right angles to its radius line, it is necessary for thefront wheels
to assume a toed-out position whenrounding curves. If they do
not, the tires slip, whichcauses excessive tire wear. The inner
wheel (the onecloser to the center of rotation) turns more than
the outerwheel, so it will travel in a smaller radius.
Thisdifference in the turning ratios of the two wheels iscalled
toe-out. It is usually specified as the number ofdegrees over 20
that the inner wheel is turned when the
outer wheel is turned 20 degrees. The-out on turns maybe
checked, but there is no provision made for itsadjustment. The
steering linkage must be examined
carefully for bent or defective parts if this angle is notwithin the
manufacturer’s specifications.
Toe:
Toe is defined as the difference in distance apart, at the front
and at therear, of the steering-axle tires as seen in a top view
of the truck. Toe-inexists when the tires are closer together in
the front than in the rear and excessive toe-in results in feather
wear in the direction shown by thearrows. 4. TOE-IN.

Toe-out exists when the tiresare closer together in the rear

than inthe front and excessive toeout results in the feather
wear in thedirection

Prior to aligning the wheels, certain preliminaries

should
be undertaken; these include:
_ checking the tyre pressures
_ setting the correct load on the vehicle
_ positioning the wheels in the straight-ahead position
_ moving the vehicle forward to ‘settle the steering’
_ checking the run-out (buckle) of the wheel; the
maximum run-out should be positioned so that it does
not affect the alignment measurement

Ifthere is excessive free play, then

one of the followingproblems may
have occurred:
_ Worn steering linkage
_ Steering wheel not secured properly
_ Worn wheel bearings
_ Worn steering rack, or incorrect adjustment of
steering gear
_ Loose main shaft joint

Other factors that can affect wheel

alignment are:
_ tyre pressure
_ vehicle ground clearance
_ tyre run out
_ difference between left and right wheelbase
_ wheel alignment being carried out on unevenground.

=The components that suffer fromwear

and can affect the wheel alignment are:
_ tie-rod ends
_ steering linkage
_ wheel bearings
_ suspension components.

=The steering and

suspensionsettings that can be
checked by the equipment are:
_ wheel toe (toe-in or toe-out)
_ wheel camber (negative and positive)
_ wheel caster (positive and negative)
_ wheel set back (alignment of wheel axle).

= Signs of Failure for tie-rod ends are ---

• Front-end shimmy, shake or vibration.
• Abnormal front-end noise.
• Hard steering.
• Steering wheel doesn't return to center properly.
• Vehicle wanders.
• Steering feels unstable, loose or has excessive play

= High Pedal and Steering Effort:

-A loose or broken power steering belt,
- low pump fluid level,
-low engine idle,
-a restriction in one or more hydraulic lines,
- a defective power steering pump will cause these symptoms .

Curing Steering Wander

-A deteriorated rag joint disc can cause slop in the steering.
--Low tire pressure will cause a wheel to pull.
--camber changes due to springs or torsion bars sag with age,
--Need for Minor adjustment to the clearance of a high-mileage steering box can
tighten up the steering
-Worn tie-rod ends let the wheels wander, making steering vague.
--Deteriorated upper control arm bushings

Steering faultsDiagnosis of steering faults

FaultPossibl Diagnosis
e cause
Car pulls Set Back? Check the position of the front
to one wheels. Are they in line
side

Incorrect camber Car will pull towards the side with

the most positive camber. Check
for worn ball joints, control arm
bushes, sagging or broken
springs,
 bent strut assembly.
Uneven tyre Check that both tyres carry
inflation the same pressures. The car
will pull
towards the side with the
lowest pressure.
Mismatched Both front tyres must be the
tyres same size, same design and
approximately the same
amount of tread. Mixing of
radial-ply and
cross-plytyres should not take
place.
Incorrect Caster must be the same on
caster both front wheels. Check for
worn control
arms or strut bushes.
Dragging Corroded brake calliper
brake pistons and misaligned
handbrake cables can
cause brakes to drag. Car will
pull towards side with
dragging brake.
Misaligned Rear axle steer is caused
rear axle when the rear axle is not
perpendicular to
the vehicle’s centre line.
Check rear suspension for
worn control arm
 bushings, sagging springs.
Power-steering Check for even steering
balance by raising the front
problem
wheels off the
ground and running the
engine. There should be no
tendency for the
steering to go to one side. If
there is, check for leaky
control valve.
Steering should be equal in
both directions.
Problem tyre Faulty tyre construction may
cause steering pull.
Car Loose steering Inspect tie rod end, idler arm
wanders parts and steering assembly
mountings.
Worn steering Adjust the components if
gear possible. If no adjustment is
available, parts
should be replaced and set up
correctly.
Incorrect Incorrect caster adjustment
caster can make the car unstable.
Check also for
worn strut or control arms
and bushes.
Wheel If loose, remove and inspect
bearings for damage.
Vibratio Bent or out-of- Inspect wheels for damage
n round and that they are true.
wheel rims

Improper tyre Correct tyre balance.

balance
Worn
suspension Check components and
parts bushes for wear and damage.
Inspect tie rod
ends, idler arm and steering
gear mountings.
Worn wheel Check for play and adjust or
bearings replace.
Damaged or Check discs, pads and
worn callipers.
brake
components

STEERING AND ALIGNMENT

TROUBLE
The driver can sense steering and alignment trouble.He or she
can detect hard steering or play in the steeringsystem and will
call you to find the trouble and remedyit. The following are
some complaints and their
Possiblecauses;
. 1. When braking, vehicle pulls to one side:.
A .Uneven tire pressure
B .Brakes grab
C .Caster incorrect or uneven
D Wheel bearing too tight
2. Shimmy at low speeds:
a. Low or uneven tire pressure
b. Loose linkage
c. Worn ball joints
d. Caster incorrect or uneven

3. Vehicle wanders:
a. Tire pressure incorrect
b. Caster or toe incorrect
c. Suspension components
or damaged

4. Steering wheel not centered: or unequal excessively worn

--Toe-in out of adjustment

--Steering components bent
--Steering wheel not properly placed on
--steering shaft

5. Steers hard:
a. Low tire pressure
b. Binding steering assembly or misadjusted
c. Excessive caster
d. Steering and suspension units not properly lubricated

6. Tire wear
--Underinflation causes wear at tread sides
--Overinflation causes wear at tread center
--Excessive camber causes wear at one tread side
--Excessive toe-in or toe-out on turns causes tread to
featheredge
 Steering clutches and final drive
The main components of the steering clutches and final drive are; bev
gear ,bevel gear shaft, steering clutch inner hub (drum), disc
assemblies, steel discs, steering clutch outer hub (drum) /brake drum,
final drive pinion, idler pinion, final drive gear ,sprocket shaft and
sprocket.

The bevel gear and steering clutches are in the bevel gear and steerin
clutch case. The bevel gear case is a reservoir for the transmission and
steering hydraulic systems. As the bevel gear turns the lubricant is
thrown on to the bevel gear, bevel pinion, and steering clutches for
lubrication. The bearings for the bevel gear shaft get lubrication from
the control v/v for the steering clutches.

The final drive case is fastened to the bevel gear and steering clutch
case. The final drive case is oil reservoir for the final drive.

With a steering engaged, the force of the double coil springs keeps
pressure plate, steel discs and disc assemblies against inner hub
(drum).The power goes from inner hub (drum) through the steel disc
and disc assemblies to the outer hub (drum),steering clutches are
normally engaged.

With steering clutches released, pressure oil from hydraulic controls f

steering clutches moves the piston towards the outside of the machin
discs and disc assemblies. Power cannot go from inner hub (drum) to
outer hub (drum).
inner hub (drum) turns steel discs, the steel discs turn the disc
assemblies, the disc assemblies turn the outer hub (drum), outer hub
(drum) turns the final drive pinion, the final drive pinion turns idler
gear, the idler gear turns final drive gear, the final drive gear turns
sprocket and the sprocket turns the tracks.
When a steering clutch is not engaged, the connection between
bevel gear and final drive pinion is broken. Power does not go
through the final drive to the track.
Brakes

Two band-type brakes are used on the machine, one on each

steering clutch drum. These brake bands stop or reduce the
movement to the machine. The brakes also give assistance to the
steering clutches to turn the machine. The operation of each brake
gets assistance from the hydraulic control mechanism. The operation
of each brake is separate from the other. The brakes can be held in
the ON position by the pawl on the linkage