Network Security

Network Models:
A network model defines the architecture of a network and how devices
communicate. The two primary models are:
1. OSI Model: 7 layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, Application) defining standardized
communication.
2. TCP/IP Model: 4 layers (Network Access, Internet, Transport,
Application) designed for practical implementation in the internet.

Physical vs Logical Topologies:

1. Physical Topology: The actual layout of cables, devices, and
hardware in a network (e.g., star, bus, ring).
2. Logical Topology: The way data flows within the network,
regardless of its physical design (e.g., logical bus, logical ring).

Physical represents structure; logical represents functionality.

OSI Model Layers Duties and Responsibilities:

1. Physical Layer: Handles hardware, transmission of raw bits over
physical medium (e.g., cables, switches).
2. Data Link Layer: Ensures error-free data transfer between
adjacent nodes, handles MAC addresses, and framing.
3. Network Layer: Manages routing and addressing for data packets
(e.g., IP addresses).
4. Transport Layer: Provides reliable data transfer, error detection,
and flow control (e.g., TCP/UDP).
5. Session Layer: Manages sessions, connections, and dialogs
between applications.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates data formats (e.g., encryption,
compression).
 7. Application Layer: Interfaces directly with the user, providing
network services (e.g., HTTP, FTP).

Types of Addressing in Networking:

1. Physical Addressing: Refers to the MAC (Media Access Control)
address of devices, used within a local network.
2. Logical Addressing: Refers to IP (Internet Protocol) addresses,
used for identifying devices across different networks.
3. Port Addressing: Identifies specific processes or services on a
device (e.g., Port 80 for HTTP).
4. Application-Specific Addressing: Used by applications, such as
email addresses (for SMTP) or URLs (for HTTP).

Cryptography:
The practice of securing communication by encoding data to protect it
from unauthorized access.

Types of Cryptography:
1. Symmetric Key Cryptography: Uses a single shared key for both
encryption and decryption (e.g., AES, DES).
2. Asymmetric Key Cryptography: Uses a public key for encryption
and a private key for decryption (e.g., RSA, ECC).
3. Hash Functions: Produces a fixed-length hash value from data for
integrity verification (e.g., SHA, MD5).

Network Devices:
1. Router: Connects multiple networks and routes data packets
between them.
2. Switch: Connects devices in a LAN and forwards data based on
MAC addresses.
3. Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices in a network; less efficient than
a switch.
4. Modem: Converts digital signals to analog for internet access and
vice versa.
 5. Access Point: Provides wireless connectivity to devices in a
network.
6. Firewall: Protects the network by filtering incoming and outgoing
traffic.

DNS (Domain Name System):

DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.google.com)
into IP addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.1) that computers use to identify each
other on a network.

Key Components of DNS:

1. DNS Resolver: Client-side system that queries DNS servers.
2. DNS Server: Stores and resolves domain names to IP addresses.
3. DNS Records: Includes types like A (Address), MX (Mail Exchange),
and CNAME (Canonical Name).

Congestion Control:
Congestion control manages network traffic to prevent overloading and
ensure efficient data transfer by avoiding congestion, packet loss, and
delays.

Methods:
1. Slow Start: Gradually increases the sending rate until congestion is
detected.
2. Congestion Avoidance: Adjusts the rate based on network
conditions to avoid congestion.
3. Fast Retransmit & Recovery: Quickly retransmits lost packets
and recovers from congestion.
4. AIMD (Additive Increase/Multiplicative Decrease): Increases
the rate slowly and decreases it quickly when congestion occurs.
5. ECN (Explicit Congestion Notification): Routers signal
congestion, allowing senders to adjust their rates without packet loss.

Open Loop Congestion Control:

In open loop congestion control, no feedback from the network is used to
adjust the sender’s transmission rate. The sender operates based on
predefined settings, assumptions, or algorithms. This approach does not
dynamically respond to network conditions, and congestion may not be
detected until it becomes severe.

Closed Loop Congestion Control:

In closed loop congestion control, the sender adjusts its transmission rate
based on feedback from the network. This feedback typically comes from
routers or receivers.

Five Policies of Open Loop Congestion Control:

1. Fixed Window Size: The sender transmits data at a constant rate
without adjusting based on network conditions.
2. Traffic Shaping: Predefines a traffic flow pattern, limiting the
amount of data sent at any given time.
3. Token Bucket: Allows a certain amount of data to be sent over
time, controlled by a “token” system.
4. Leaky Bucket: Data is sent at a steady rate, and excess data is
discarded or delayed.
5. Rate Control: Limits the rate at which data is sent based on preset
parameters to avoid congestion.

Backpressure in Closed Loop Congestion Control:

Backpressure occurs when a receiver or intermediate network device
signals the sender to slow down or stop transmitting data due to
congestion or buffer overflow. This feedback mechanism helps to prevent
further congestion by reducing the transmission rate.

In closed-loop systems, backpressure is a key method for dynamically

adjusting data flow based on network conditions, preventing packet loss
and ensuring efficient data delivery.

Improving QoS (Quality of Service):

QoS refers to the overall performance of a network, particularly in terms
of its ability to deliver reliable, high-priority services with minimal delays
and packet loss.
Methods to Improve QoS:
1. Traffic Prioritization
2. Traffic Shaping
3. Bandwidth Management
4. Load Balancing
5. Congestion Control
6. Latency Management

Types of Ciphers:
1. Substitution Cipher: Each element of the plaintext is replaced by
another (e.g., Caesar Cipher).
2. Transposition Cipher: The positions of characters in the plaintext
are rearranged (e.g., Rail Fence Cipher).
3. Stream Cipher: Encrypts data one bit or byte at a time (e.g., RC4).
4. Block Cipher: Encrypts data in fixed-size blocks (e.g., AES, DES).
5. Hybrid Cipher: Combines both symmetric and asymmetric
encryption (e.g., RSA with AES).

Classful Addressing:
Classful addressing divides IP address space into fixed classes (A, B, C,
etc.) with predefined subnet masks, leading to inefficient IP address
allocation.

Classless Addressing (CIDR):

Classless addressing allows flexible subnetting with variable-length
subnet masks (VLSM), providing more efficient use of IP address space.

Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals or data
streams into one shared medium or channel, allowing efficient use of
resources and reducing the need for multiple transmission lines.
Types of Multiplexing:
1. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Allocates specific time slots
to each signal.
2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Divides the available
bandwidth into frequency bands, each carrying a separate signal.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Similar to FDM, but
used in optical fiber communications by multiplexing different light
wavelengths.
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): Uses unique codes to
distinguish multiple signals transmitted over the same channel.

Network Delays:
Network delays refer to the time it takes for data to travel from the
sender to the receiver across a network. These delays can occur due to
various factors in the transmission process.

Types of Network Delays:

1. Propagation Delay: Time taken for a signal to travel from the
sender to the receiver, depending on the distance and medium.
2. Transmission Delay: Time required to push all the bits of a
message onto the transmission medium.
3. Queuing Delay: Time data spends in queues at routers or switches
before being transmitted.
4. Processing Delay: Time spent by routers or switches to process
packet headers, check for errors, and determine routing.
5. Application Delay: Delay introduced by the application itself, such
as user input or server response time.

In-Order Delivery:
In-order delivery ensures that data packets are delivered to the receiver
in the same sequence in which they were sent, maintaining the correct
order of transmission.

Key Points:
• Used in protocols like TCP to guarantee that all packets are
received in the correct order.
 • Ensures reliable communication, preventing data corruption or
confusion.
• If packets arrive out of order, they are buffered and reassembled in
the correct sequence before being delivered to the application.

Network:
A network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers, servers,
routers) that communicate with each other to share resources and
information. It can be local (LAN) or span larger areas (WAN).
Internet:
The internet is a global network of networks that connects millions of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks. It enables
worldwide communication and access to services like the web, email, and
file sharing.