Introduction to Spatial Data Analysis

Spatial data analysis is a set of techniques and tools used to examine the spatial or geographic
patterns in data. It focuses on understanding the relationships, distributions, and trends that
exist within data tied to a specific location. This type of analysis is essential in disciplines like
geography, urban planning, environmental science, and remote sensing.
Key Components:
1. Spatial Data Types:
o Vector Data: Represents geographic features as points, lines, and polygons (e.g.,
cities, rivers, boundaries).
o Raster Data: Composed of grid cells, often used for continuous data like satellite
imagery or elevation models.
Overlay Function in GIS
The overlay function in GIS refers to the process of combining two or more spatial datasets to
create a new dataset that provides additional insights by integrating the data. It is one of the
most powerful tools in spatial analysis, as it helps to examine the relationships between
different geographic features.
Types of Overlay Operations
1. Vector Overlay:
o Combines vector data layers (points, lines, polygons).
o Common operations:
▪ Union: Combines all geometries and attributes from two layers, retaining
everything.
▪ Intersection: Retains only the areas where the geometries from both layers
overlap.
▪ Difference: Removes the overlapping areas of one layer from another.
▪ Symmetrical Difference: Keeps only the areas that do not overlap between
the two layers.
2. Raster Overlay:
o Combines raster data layers, often using cell-by-cell mathematical operations.
o Examples:
 ▪ Adding or subtracting values in corresponding cells (e.g., combining
elevation and rainfall data).
▪ Using Boolean operations to determine areas that meet multiple criteria.

Overlaying Operations (RASTER)

Overlaying operations are methods used in GIS to combine multiple spatial datasets and
analyze their relationships. These operations are classified into three main types based on the
mathematical and logical functions applied:

1. Arithmetic Operations
These involve mathematical calculations applied to overlay raster datasets, often on a cell-by-
cell basis. They are used to analyze continuous data, such as temperature, rainfall, or elevation.
• Common Operations:
o Addition (+): Combines values from two layers to get cumulative effects (e.g.,
rainfall + irrigation water).
o Subtraction (-): Finds the difference between two layers (e.g., current
temperature - historical temperature).
o Multiplication (×): Amplifies values or applies weights (e.g., risk scores ×
vulnerability factors).
o Division (÷): Normalizes or finds ratios (e.g., population density = population /
area).
• Example: Combining layers of rainfall and evaporation to calculate the net water
availability for agriculture.

2. Comparison Operations
These operations compare values in corresponding cells from two or more layers and return a
result based on the specified condition. They are typically used for categorical or continuous
data to identify patterns or changes.
• Common Operations:
o Greater Than (>): Identifies cells in one layer with values higher than another
(e.g., temperature > threshold).
 o Less Than (<): Finds areas with lower values in one layer compared to another.
o Equal To (=): Locates areas where the values in two layers are the same (e.g.,
matching land use types).
o Not Equal To (≠): Highlights cells with different values between layers.
• Example: Comparing current and previous forest cover to detect areas of deforestation.

3. Logical Operations
Logical (Boolean) operations evaluate conditions in spatial data and return binary outcomes
(true/false, 1/0). They are used in suitability analysis and multi-criteria decision-making.
• Common Operations:
o AND: Returns cells that satisfy conditions in all layers (e.g., high rainfall AND fertile
soil).
o OR: Returns cells that meet conditions in at least one layer (e.g., slope ≤ 5% OR
land classified as "flat").
o NOT: Excludes cells meeting a specific condition (e.g., NOT urban areas).
• Example: Identifying areas suitable for agriculture by combining layers using:
o Fertile soil AND flat land AND adequate rainfall.
Types of Overlay Operations in GIS(vector)
Overlay operations are essential spatial analysis techniques in GIS used to combine multiple
layers of data. The primary types are Clipping, Intersection, and Union, which are mainly
applied to vector data.

1. Clipping
Clipping is a tool used to extract features from one layer based on the spatial extent of another
layer, referred to as the "clip layer." It is like using a cookie-cutter to cut out the desired portion
of the data.
• How it Works:
o The input layer's features are "cut" to match the boundary of the clip layer.
o Attributes of the input layer are retained, but those outside the clip layer are
excluded.
• Application:
o Extracting the road network for a specific city from a national dataset.
o Isolating land use within a protected area boundary.
• Key Point:
o No new features are created; only the extent of the data is modified.
2. Intersection
The intersection operation identifies the overlapping area between two layers and creates a
new layer containing only the common spatial features. The attributes from both layers are
preserved in the output.
• How it Works:
o Combines geometries and attributes where features from both layers overlap.
o The output includes the intersected area only.
• Application:
o Identifying forested areas within wildlife reserves.
o Finding land parcels affected by a proposed development project.
• Key Point:
o Outputs features with combined attributes of both layers, limited to their
overlapping regions.

3. Union
The union operation merges two layers to create a new layer that contains all areas from both
datasets, whether they overlap or not. The output includes combined geometries and
attributes of all features.
• How it Works:
o Creates new polygons for overlapping and non-overlapping regions.
o All attributes from both layers are included in the output.
• Application:
 o Combining administrative boundaries with land cover maps to generate a
comprehensive dataset.
o Creating a single layer representing all areas of interest.
• Key Point:
o The output covers the full extent of both layers.

VECTOR OVERLAY
Optimal path
Network or Location-Allocation in GIS
Location-allocation is a spatial analysis technique in GIS that helps in optimizing the placement
of facilities relative to demand points. It considers both the supply (facilities) and demand
(people, buildings, or other entities) to determine the most efficient or effective configuration.

Key Components
1. Facilities: Represent the supply points, such as fire stations, retail stores, or hospitals.
2. Demand Points: Represent the entities requiring service, such as buildings, customers,
or distribution centers.
3. Objective:
o Minimize overall distance or travel time between facilities and demand points.
o Maximize coverage of demand points within a specified distance or time.
o Balance demand distribution among available facilities.
Applications
1. Emergency Services:
o Example: Selecting optimal locations for fire stations to minimize response time.
2. Retail Optimization:
o Example: Deciding which stores to retain or close while maintaining service levels.
3. Logistics and Distribution:
o Example: Identifying the best location for a factory to minimize shipping costs to
distribution centers.

Steps in Location-Allocation Analysis

1. Input Data:
o Facilities layer (e.g., existing fire stations).
o Demand points layer (e.g., buildings or population centroids).
o Network data (e.g., road network, travel speeds, or distances).
2. Define Parameters:
o Maximum allowable distance or response time (e.g., three minutes for fire
stations).
o Objective function (e.g., minimize travel time or maximize coverage).
3. Run the Solver:
o Use GIS tools to process the data and identify optimal facility locations or
redundant facilities.
4. Interpret Results:
o Identify which facilities to retain, close, or add to achieve the desired objective.

Example: Fire Stations in a City

• Scenario: A fire department evaluates the efficiency of its stations while maintaining a
three-minute response time.
• Input:
 o Fire stations (facilities).
o Midpoints of streets (demand points).
o Network data with travel times.
• Result:
o The solver determines that 9 stations can close while maintaining service levels.
o A minimum of 7 stations is required to ensure all locations are covered within
three minutes.

GIS Tools for Location-Allocation

1. ArcGIS: Network Analyst extension supports location-allocation analysis.
2. QGIS: Plugins like "Location Allocation" or integration with Python libraries.
3. Python/R Libraries:
o Python: NetworkX, OSMNX, ortools.
o R: Packages like spatialEco.

Benefits of Location-Allocation Analysis

• Improves Efficiency: Reduces costs while maintaining service levels.
• Informed Decision-Making: Provides data-driven insights for resource allocation.
• Scalable: Applicable across domains like emergency management, retail, and logistics.
This analysis ensures optimal resource use while addressing spatial and logistical challenges
effectively.