SciChem Reviewer .

Made by the Class Officers of IX - Becquerel of S.Y. 2024-2025

History: Atomic Models

Atomic Theory - Democritus

● 400 B.C.
● matter was composed of very small particles called “atomos” meaning indivisible
○ float around an empty space and changes form within that space

Aristotle’s Four Elements

● 330 B.C.
● all matter on earth were composed of 4 elements: fire, air, earth, water
○ philosophical and prioritized form and substance over physical properties

Problems:
1. mali lang talaga

Solid Sphere / Billiard Ball Model - John Dalton

● John Dalton - “Father of Atomic Theory”
● 1803
● these balls change from one element to another
● coined the term “atom” from “atomos”

Problems:
1. stated that atoms were indivisible which disregards subatomic particles

Plum Pudding Model - Joseph John Thomson

● also known as: Thomson Model, Raisin Pudding Model, Watermelon Model
● 1897
 ● discovered electrons and stated that it was embedded within a membrane of
positive charges
● first atomic model to have an internal structure

Problems:
1. stated that this model yielded a neutral atom, disregarding the existence of ions

Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

The cathode ray inside the tube went towards the positive side when deflected with a
negative magnet. Thomson concluded that there must be negative charges in the ray for
this to happen.

Nuclear Model - Ernest Rutherford

● 1911
● discovered the nucleus using Alpha-Scattering/Geiger-Marsden experiment

Problems:
1. unstable
● stated that electrons constantly emitted energy
● According to Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theorem, when a charged object
that’s constantly emitting energy orbits an oppositely charged one, it will
eventually lose energy and collapse inward.
2. no arrangement of particles
3. no presence of energy levels
Alpha-Scattering Experiment
● If J.J. Thomson’s theory was really correct, there would only be slight deflections once
Rutherford fires the alpha particles on the gold foil. While most of the alpha particles
were indeed not deflected, a very small percentage (about 1 in 8000 particles)
bounced off the gold foil at very large angles. Some were even redirected back
toward the source.

Nuclear Atomic Model (Planetary Model) - Neils

Bohr
● 1913
● bridged classical and quantum mechanical physics
● electrons moved in fixed energy levels or orbitals and have defined positions

Problems:
1. focuses only on the Hydrogen atom
2. violates Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
● in Neils Bohr’s model, electrons had a definite position
● According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, the more known the
electron’s position is, the more uncertain its momentum. In simpler terms.
position and momentum are indirectly proportional to each other.
3. no explanation for Stark and Zeeman effect
● Stark Effect
○ shifting/splitting of spectral lines under the influence of a strong
electrical field
● Zeeman Effect
○ spectral lines splitting under the influence of a strong, externally
applied magnetic field

The Atomic Spectra

● electron moves to higher energy level = dark line in the spectrum
● electron moves to a lower energy level = emits a photon in the spectrum
Quantum Mechanical Model - Erwin Schrödinger
● 1926
● most “realistic” depiction of an atom
● electrons are waves that encapsulate the nucleus

Principles

1. Aufbau Principle
● electrons fill the lowest orbital available before occupying higher orbitals
● increasing energy level

2. Hund’s Rule
● electrons occupy orbitals with the same energy level singly before pairing up

3. Pauli Exclusion
● no two electrons in an atom can have the same combination of spin quantum
number (-½, +½) and the same set of quantum numbers (n, l, m)

4. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
● we cannot precisely measure the momentum and position of an electron at
the same time
● helps explain integral quantum numbers and why n=2.5 cannot exist as a
principal quantum number

Quantum Numbers
● set of numbers describing position and energy of electron in atoms
● four quantum numbers:
○ principal
○ azimuthal
○ magnetic
○ spin

Principal (n)
● determines: the most probable distance of electrons from the nucleus / energy level
● designates the principal electron shell
 ● the larger the n, the farther the electron is from the nucleus
● period in the periodic table
○ energy level/orbit
● n = 1-7
● for each orbital:
○ d = n-1
○ f = n-2

Azimuthal/Orbital Angular Momentum (l)

● determines: shape of orbital
● # of angular nodes = value of angular momentum quantum l
● value of l is dependent on quantum # n
● s=0;p=1;d=2;f=3

Magnetic Quantum Numbers (Ml)

● determines: number of orbitals and their orientation within a subshell
● value depends on the OAM l
● for each orbital:
○ s=0
○ p = -1, 0, 1
○ d = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
○ f = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

Electron Spin (Ms)

● determines: atom’s ability to generate a magnetic field
● does not depend on other quantum numbers
● up arrow
○ positive ½
● down arrow
 ○ negative ½

Outermost Level

Valence Shell
● determines many of the properties of an atom
● atom is most stable if its outermost energy level contains as many electrons as it can
hold

Periodic Trends

Octet’s Rule
● elements tend to bond in such a way that each atom has eight valence electrons,
giving it the same e-config. as a noble gas

Electronegativity
● measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond
○ high electronegativity = higher attraction (higher chance of forming polar
covalent and ionic bonds)
○ low electronegativity = lower attraction (donates more electrons and forms
cations)
Ionization energy
● energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous state
○ low ionization energy = cations / loses electrons easily
○ high ionization energy = anions / gains electrons easily
● additional info: kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol) or electron volts (eV)

Note: Ionization Energy and Electronegativity have the same periodic trend. (Down-up,
left-right)

Atomic Bonds

Valence Electrons
● outermost part
● rare/noble gasses do not form compounds with other elements except in specific
instances
● electron state of these elements is stable
Octet Rule
● Vilbert Lewis, Irving Langmuir, and Albert Kossel proposed that atoms acquire the
electron configuration of a rare gas
● tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in the valence shell to be stable

Helium (H)
● noble gas despite having only two valence electrons because its electron shell is full
(principal quantum number "n" being equal to 1)

Ionic Bond
● type of linkage formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions
● forms when the valence electrons of an atom are transferred permanently to another

Electronegativity
● tendency of an atom to attract electrons toward itself
● elements with low electronegativity transfer electron to higher electronegativity
● affected by both atomic number and the distance the valence electrons reside from
the charged nuclei

Electrostatic Force
● oppositely charged particles attract each other
● holds ions together in an ionic compound
Covalent Bond
● interatomic linkage from the sharing of an electron pair between atoms
● share electrons to obtain stability
● non-metals have high electronegativity compared to metals

Non-Polar Polar

electronegativity difference none present

sharing of electrons equal unequal

Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS)

● diagrams that describe the chemical bonding between atoms in a molecule
● display the total number of lone pairs present in each of the atoms
● Lone Pair of Electrons - 2 dots together

Procedures
1. How many valence electrons?
2. What is the central atom or the singular atom?
3. Draw single bonds to the central atom
4. Put all of the remaining valence electrons on atoms as lone pairs
5. Turn lone pairs into double or triple bonds to give every atom an octet
a. Exception: Hydrogen does not need an octet because it is already stable

Number of Bonds
1 line = single bond = 2 electrons
2 lines = double bond = 4 electrons
3 lines = triple bond = 6 electrons
Examples

Naming Compounds
● communication
● identification
● safety
● regulation

Cation
● positively-charged ion (lost electrons)
● name of the element followed by ion
● EXAMPLES: Na+ (sodium ion), Al3+ (aluminum ion), Ca2+ (calcium ion)

Anion
● negatively-charged ion (gained electrons)
● stem of the element name, suffix -ide, and ion.
 ● EXAMPLES: Cl− “chlor-” + “-ide ion” (chloride ion), O2− (oxide ion), Se2− (selenide ion)

Rules in Writing Chemical Formulas

1. Symbol and charge of cation/metal before anion/nonmetal

2. Positive charge becomes the anion’s subscript and negative charge becomes
subscript of cation
a. they exchanged numbers nalang
3. Reduce to lowest ratio

Binary Ionic Compounds

Stock System
● positive charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses after the element
name, and ion
● form more than one common
Common System
● metals have two common cations
● two suffixes (-ic and -ous) that are appended to the stem of the element name
○ -ic - greater of the two cation charges
○ -ous - lower

Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

Binary Molecular Compounds
● first element - name of the element
● second element - taking the stem and adding -ide
● system of numerical prefixes -number of atoms

When do we use these greek prefixes in naming compounds?

● used for nonmetals-nonmetals

List: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca

Additional Notes
● less electronegative element is written first in the formula
● nonmetals in binary compound formulas: C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F
● a or o at the end of a prefix is dropped when the element begins with a vowel (EX.
Tetroxide instead of Tetraoxide)
● mono is not added to the first element’s name if there is only one atom in a molecule

Properties of Molecules
● depend on the type and strength of their intermolecular forces of attraction
Difference Ionic Covalent

Source metal-nonmetal nonmetal-nonmetal

Electrons transferred shared

Normal Atmospheric Pressure crystalline solid solid, liquid, gas

● arranged in an alternating ● no full ionic charges are formed
positive and negative ion bonded ● particles are not strongly attracted to one
together in a matrix another

crystalline lattice
● symmetrical three-dimensional
arrangement of molecules inside
a crystal

Melting/Boiling Points Higher Lower

● more thermal energy is needed ● weak intermolecular attraction
due to its crystalline lattice
structure

Characteristics Hard/brittle Soft/flexible

● hard and not easily scratched but ● molecules are weakly attracted to each
is brittle other and can be easily displaced

Polarity High Low

● distribution of electrical ● higher electronegativity = higher ● lower electronegativity = lower polarity
charge over polarity
chemically-joined atoms

Solubility More soluble Less soluble

● ability of a solute to
dissolve in a solvent

Flammability Less flammable More flammable

● ability of a chemical
substance to burn
causing fire

Conductivity Good conductors Bad conductors

● ability to transmit heat ● presence of solid electrolytes can ● weak intermolecular force which makes
and electricity transfer electrical charge heat transfer less efficient
Properties of Matter
Extensive Properties
● depend on the amount of substance being measured
○ weight, length, volume, entropy

Intensive Properties
● do not depend on the amount of substance
○ temperature, boiling point, concentration, luster

Properties of Metals

Arrangement of Atoms in Metals

● valence electrons are free to move between atoms forming a sea of delocalized
electrons
● metal ions in a lattice structure are surrounded by these electrons

Metalloid Elements
● have the properties of both metals and nonmetals

1. Boron
2. Germanium
3. Silicon
4. Antimony
5. Arsenic
6. Tellurium
7. Polonium

Alkali metals
● Group 1 A
 ● very reactive
● storing in kerosene is necessary to become inert
● soft and can be cut with a knife
● low densities
○ Sodium, Potassium, Lithium densities are lower than water
● most are soluble

Alkaline earth metals

● Group 2 A
● tarnish readily in the air except for Beryllium
● react with O and H2O in the air
● commonly used to make alloys
Transition metals
● Periods 4-7 between G2A and 13
● shiny, easy to shape, hard and strong (except Hg)
● what comes into mind when hearing the word metals

Noble Metals
● pure, non reactive, non-corrosive
○ Cu, Pa, Ag, Pt, Au

Poor Metals
● soft, useful when added to other substances, useless on its own (that’s so sad)
○ Al, Ga, Sn, Tl, Bi

Inner Transition Metals

● Actinides (synthetic)
● Lanthanides (natural)
 Physical Properties of Metal Atoms

DELMTH Description Explanation

Ductility ability to be drawn into wires Delocalized electrons allow metal atoms to be
flexible and rearrange themselves when stress
additional definition: is applied, which prevents the metal from
● material’s ability to undergo breaking. Instead of shattering, the metal can
significant plastic stretch and bend.
deformation under tensile
stress before rapture

Electrical Conductivity ability to carry electrical current They are electrically conductive due to the
highly mobile electrons which can transfer or
emit charges

Luster shininess due to light reflection Delocalized electrons move freely, causing any
light incident to bounce back

Malleability ability to be hammered or rolled into Even though metal ions are arranged in a
flat sheets without breaking lattice structure, delocalized electrons and
non-directional bonding of metals allow layers
to slide over each other
Thermal Conductivity ability to transfer heat Delocalized valence electrons acquire heat
faster and transfer heat to its neighboring
electrons and cations

High Melting Point temperature at which solid turns into A high amount of energy is needed to
liquid overcome the bond strength which is generally
high in metals due to the attraction between
cations and electrons.

This property is also related to tensile strength

and hardiness of metals

Tungsten
● used to make the filament of electric bulbs:
○ high melting point
○ lowest vapor pressure
○ greatest tensile strength among any other metals

Alloys
● mixtures of metals with other metals/nonmetals
● provides additional qualities:
○ lower melting points, toughness, enhanced tensile strength

Why is it easier to make alloys using metals?

Electrons can readily migrate from one atom to another because they are
delocalized. When metals react together, the atoms normally mix into a lattice structure
forming a metallic bond without a fixed proportion and with random distribution.

Types of Alloys

Interstitial Alloys
● from the prefix “inter-” meaning between or among
● have smaller atoms that fit into gaps between larger atoms
Steel
● lower melting point than iron
● has:
○ chromium - more resistant to pressure (hard)
○ cobalt - heat resistance
○ nickel - resistance to corrosion

Substitutional Alloys
● from the word “substitute” meaning to take the place or function of another
● have similar-sized atoms that replace each other in the crystal lattice
 Alloy Composition Uses

Bronze 85-55% copper sculptures, musical instruments, medals,

● 12-12.5% tin industrial applications
addition of other metals (Al, Mn, Zn, Ni)

Steel Iron w/ 1% carbon road, railway, airport, bridge construction;

11% chromium by mass making of construction materials, household
1.2% carbon by mass products, etc.

Brass copper and zinc with other elements (As, Pb, P, decoration items, locks, zippers, gears,
Al, Mn, Si) doorknobs, musical instruments, plumbing
purpose, electrical applications

Sterling Silver 92.5% silver, 7.5% other metals (usually copper) cutlery, jewellery, musical instruments, diff.
medical tools

White Gold gold w/ at least one white metal (Ag, Ni, Pd) rings and pins

Aluminum Alloy aluminum with a small amount of other transportation and aerospace industries
elements (Cu, Mg, Mn, Si, Sn, Zn)

Titanium Alloy titanium with small amount of other elements military, airline, aerospace industries;
(Sn, Al, Mo, Si, Va) consumer electronics, sporting goods, medical
and dental implants
Carbon

Nature of Carbon
Catenation
● bonding of atoms of the same element into a series called a chain

Carbon exhibits maximum catenation because of its strong carbon-carbon bond and
tetravalency (4 valence electrons).

Carbon can form:

1. straight chain
2. branched chain
3. ring structures

Compounds of carbon are very stable.

Organic Compounds
● any large class of compounds with one or more atoms are covalently linked to atoms
of other elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen)
● simple terms: compound with carbon and other elements such as H, O, N

Examples:
1. deoxyribonucleic acid (C15H31N3O13P2)
2. table sugar (C12H22O11)
3. methane
4. ethanol (alcohol)
5. cellulose (paper)
6. fatty acid salt (soap)

Allotropy
● the existence of two or more different physical forms of a chemical element
● most commonly known types of carbon allotropes are graphite and diamond
 a. diamond
b. graphite
c. Ionsdaleite
d. Buckballs C6
e. Buckballs C540
f. Buckballs C70
g. Amorphous Carbon
h. Carbon Nanotube

Diamond Graphite

Color Transparent w/o color Opaque, black

Texture Hard Soft, spongy

Conductivity Cannot conduct electricity Good conductor of electricity

Facts atomic bonding makes it has multiple uses: writing

the hardest naturally materials, lubricants, nuclear
occurring metal to date reactors, batteries

Both are solid, non-gaseous, and insoluble in water.

Hydrocarbons
● organic compounds with carbon and hydrogen only
 ● main source of fuel for the industry

Saturated Unsaturated

Alkanes (1) Alkenes (2) Alkynes (3)

● single bonds ● double bonds ● triple bonds

Tip:
In remembering which ending to use in single, double, and triple bonds. Think of the order of
the alphabet. “a” is 1, “e” is 2, and “y” is 3.

1. Meth-
2. Eth-
3. Prop-
4. But-
5. Penta-
6. Hex-
7. Hept-
8. Octa-
9. Nona-
10. Deca-
11. Undec-
12. Dodec-

Formulas
Empirical Molecular

● simplest whole number ratio of atoms ● kind and number of atoms of each
in a compound element in a molecular compound

IUPAC Nomenclature (Brief Steps)

Prefix - Root Name - Suffix

1. Identify the longest chain:

● the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms
● serves as the base name of the compound

2. Number the carbon atoms:

● number the carbon atoms in the longest chain starting from the end closest to
the highest priority functional group, giving the substituents the lowest
possible numbers

3. Identify and name substituents

● identify all the substituents (groups attached to the main chain)
● name each substituent and assign it a number corresponding to its position
on the main chain (from step 2)

4. Assemble the name:

● combine the names and positions of the substituents with the base name of
the longest chain
● prefixes (like di-, tri-, tetra-) are used if there are multiple identical
substituents

Helpful Video Links:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYZJXWBMqBE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cExhtwVT1v0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HhT2E7wuAgg

Notes:
IUPAC Nomenclature states:
● when naming substituent groups, disregard prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-) and arrange
them in alphabetical order

Example:
2-chloro-3,4-dimethylhexane NOT 3,4-dimethylhexane-2-chloro

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry
● refers to the measurements based on the quantitative laws of chemical combination

Formula Mass Molecular Mass

● ionic compounds or primarily ionic ● covalent compounds or primarily

bonding covalent bonding
Mole
● a standard scientific unit for measuring large quantities of very small entities such as
atoms, molecules, or other specified particles

Avogadro’s Number (N)

● a mole of any element contains the same number of atoms as a mole of another
element

Problem Solving
● use dimensional analysis

Calculating moles

Calculating the # of Moles of Oxygen in 24.0g of O2

We know that the atomic mass of Oxygen is approximately 16g. Using dimensional analysis:
Calculating mass

Determine the mass of one molecule of hydrogen gas from the definition of
mole
The definition of a mole is Avogadro’s number.
Calculating # of molecules

If you consumed 500g of sugar (C12H22O11) in one week, how many molecules
of sugar did you use?
Use this