Maritim e

E lectro n ic Apparatus

Contents
Introduction 002

Chapter 1 Passive Element

1.1 Resistor 010
1.2 Capacitor 014
1.3 Inductor 020
1.4 Transformer 024

Chapter 2 Semiconductors
2.1 What is a semiconductor? 029
2.2 Diode 034
2.3 Transistor 037
2.4 Thyristor 039
2.5 IGBT 043
2.6 MOSFET 044

Гъ
Chapter Sequence Control
3.1 Objective of Sequence Control 047
3.2 Switch, Relay and Contactor 049
3.3 Sensor switch 056
3.4 Others 059
3.5 How to Read Sequence Circuit 065
 4.1 Series Regulator 076
4.2 DC to DC Converter 078
4.3 AC to DC Converter 080
4.4 Inverter (DC to AC) 084
4.5 Applications of power conversion circuit 086
4.6 Things to be kept in mind 088

Chapter Sensors and Signal Transfer

5.1 Measurement of Voltage and Current 095

5.2 Temperature Measurement 097
5.3 Pressure Sensor 101
5.4 Oxygen Analyzer 102
5.5 Level Meter 103
5.6 Optical Sensor 105
5.7 Tachometer (Revolution Counter) 106
5.8 Torque Meter 107
5.9 Flow Meter 108
5.10 Viscometer (Viscosity Meter) 108
5.11 Transducer 109
5.12 A/D Conversion, D/A Conversion 110

Annex
1 Tester 112
2 Insulating-Resistance Tester (Megger) 116
3 Clamp Meter 117
4 How to Denote and Read Sequence Control equipment 118
5 Control Appliance Numbers 120
F u n d a m e n ta ls o f M aritim e E le c tro n ic A p p a ra tu s
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-^ IMMAJ Ec *er
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Secretariat: Hirobumi OHUCHI, President, Japan M arine Engineers’ Association
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Mieko ITO, Designer
Introduction
It g o es w ith o u t sa y in g th at, in o rd e r fo r a sh ip to c o n tin u e to n a v ig a te safely, n o t o n ly th e m a in e n ­
g in e b u t a lso a u x ilia ry m a c h in e s su ch as th e g e n e ra to r, p u m p s a n d fan s m u st b e m a in ta in e d in
p ro p e r w o rk in g co n d itio n . O n b o a rd e le c tro n ic e q u ip m e n t m o n ito rs all such m a c h in e ry a n d e q u ip ­
m e n t, d isp la y in g , re c o rd in g a n d tra n s m ittin g in fo rm a tio n to th e c o n tro l ro o m . T h e fu n c tio n o f e le c ­
tro n ic e q u ip m e n t e x te n d s to a u to m a tic c o n tro l o f p u m p s a n d c o m p re sso rs as w ell as th e so u n d in g o f
a la rm s w h e n a n o m a lie s are d e te c te d .
E le c tro n ic c irc u it b o a rd s fo u n d in c o m p u te rs, c o n tro l e q u ip m e n t a n d n a u tic a l in s tru m e n t in c o rp o ­
ra te, in a d d itio n to re sista n c e , c a p a c ito rs a n d co ils, a v a rie ty o f c o m p o n e n ts c o m p rise d o f se m ic o n ­
d u c to rs.
R e g a rd in g th e F.O. se ttlin g ta n k , th e q u a n tity o f fu el o il is m e a s u re d b y a level m e te r th a t a u to m a ti­
c a lly co n tro ls p u m p o p e ra tio n to e n su re th a t th e ta n k is c o n sta n tly fille d w ith th e p re s c rib e d v o lu m e
o f fu e l oil. In th e se rv ic e ta n k , fu el o il te m p e ra tu re is m e a s u re d a n d fu e l o il th a t h a s p a ss e d th ro u g h
th e F.O. h e a te r is m o n ito re d fo r v isc o sity , p re s su re a n d flo w rate. M e a s u re m e n t o f re v o lu tio n sp e e d
an d to rq u e is in d isp e n sa b le fo r m e a s u rin g th e m a in e n g in e ’s o u tp u t. R ev o lu tio n sp e e d , to rq u e an d
e x h a u st g as te m p e ra tu re d a ta a re c o n v e rted in to e le c tric sig n als w h ic h are th e n tra n s m itte d to th e
c o n tro l ro o m an d re c o rd e d as d ig ita l d a ta there.

5.3 P ressure gnuee

т т т т ъ Service tank

r-
f l

F.O.. heater
F.O hi
 5-12 A/D co n v erter

ш иш и»

5.12 Л /D converter
V oltage an d c u rren t are m e a su re d fo r th e p u rp o se o f m a in ta in in g th e g e n e ra to r’s o u tp u t v o lta g e at a
co n sta n t rate. G e n e ra to r v o ltag e , ste p p e d d o w n b y a tra n sfo rm er, is su p p lied to o n b o a rd lo ad s su ch as
n a u tic a l in stru m en ts and lights. N a u tic a l in stru m e n ts co n ta in n u m e ro u s se m ic o n d u c to r dev ic e s w h ich
re ly on D C v o ltag e fo r th e ir o p eratio n . A d ev ic e c a p ab le o f c o n v ertin g A C p o w e r to D C p o w e r is u sed
fo r th is p u rp o se. M o to rs fo r L N G c a rr ie r’s carg o p u m p a n d e le v a to r are c o n tro lled b y in v erters.
Nautical instrument

Generator
control panel
R eg ard in g the au x iliary b o iler, b u rn e r flam e, w a te r level a n d ste a m p re ssu re are c o n sta n tly m e a su re d
an d m o n ito red . T h e re su lta n t d a ta allo w s fo r a u to m a tic co n tro l o f th e am o u n t o f fu el oil a n d a ir su p ­
p lie d by the se q u en ce co n tro ller.

ЕЕН Е^ВЭ

QDS9
Ш Ш 1

СЕШЕЗ

& Auxiliary boiler

3.2 Overcurrent Drotection

Chapter

Passive Element
The electronic circuit is made up of various components. It can be classified into passive
element and active element. This chapter mainly describes the passive element.

Od Resistor
Purpose
F i g .l - l sh o w s v a rio u s ty p e s o f re sisto rs.
A lm o s t all th in g s th a t e x is t a ro u n d u s have
e le c tric re sista n c e . T h e re s isto rs a re th in g s in
w h ic h th e s e c h a ra c te ristic s a re p o sitiv e ly u se d
w ith in a circu it.
R e sisto rs a re u se d w ith th e in te n tio n o f
1) c o n tro llin g th e flo w in g c u rre n t an d
2) c o n v e rtin g th e c h a n g e s in
c u rre n t to voltage.

Types of resistors
R e sisto rs a re c o m m e rc ia liz e d a c c o rd in g
to th e ir u sa g e in v a rio u s p ro d u c ts. T h ey
a re a v ailab le in v a rio u s sizes, sh a p e s a n d m a te ria ls. E x a m p le s o f g e n e ra lly u se d re s isto rs a re sh o w n
fro m a ~ g below . T h e re sisto rs fro m a ~ e are c a lle d fix e d re s isto rs a n d a re sh o w n in th e e le c tric c ir­
c u it o f F ig.1-2. O n th e o th e r h a n d , F ig .1 -3 sh o w s th e v a ria b le re s isto r m e n tio n e d in f a n d g.

a Chip resistor.

F u n d a m e n t a l s of M a r i t i m e E l e c t r o n i c A p p a r a t u s
The reading of the color code of the resistance value
T he u n it o f resistan ce is Г2 an d sh o w s th e d iffic u lty in th e flo w o f th e c u rre n t. C o lo r co d e in d ic a tin g
th e v alu e o f re s ista n c e is p rin te d o n th e resisto r. T h e ir re s ista n c e v alu e ca n b e rea d . T h e c o lo r co d e
h a s 4 an d 5 b an d s. T h e re s isto rs w ith 4 b a n d s a re low c o st ca rb o n re s isto rs an d th e re sisto rs w ith
5 b a n d s a re h ig h ly p re c ise m e ta l film re sisto rs. T h e la test c irc u it b o a rd s o fte n u se ch ip re sisto rs to
re d u c e th e size. H ow ever, sev e ral low c o st c a rb o n -film re sisto rs c a n be se e n o n th e c irc u it b o a rd
ev e n now . T h e m e th o d to re a d th e c o lo r co d e o f th e c a rb o n -film re s isto r is e x p la in e d h ere.
N u m b e rs a re a lre a d y a ssig n e d to th e p rin te d c o lo r a s sh o w n in T a b le.1 -1 . A lso th e c o lo r co d e is
p rin te d fo w ard an y on e te rm in a l as sh o w n in F ig .1 -4 . T h e re s ista n c e v alu e is c a lc u la te d e a sily by
p u ttin g v a lu e s sh o w n fo r e a ch c o lo r b an d in F o rm u la 1-1.

Color wh |svJ GL

Figure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Error ± 20 % ± 1% ± 2% - - - ±10% ±5%
BK •■••Black BR ■•••Brown RD • • Red O R ----- Orange YE • •Y e llo w GN ■■■■Green
B U ----- Blue P R ------Purple GY ■ • G ray WH ♦••■W hile SV • •S ilv e r G L ----- G old Table.1-1

ic
a\ j b i x i o ± ;d %

r Fig.1-4
\ ':
J I___I
Figure Error

rcl
R = [a][b]x 10 П ± 0 %
Formula 1-1

F o r e x a m p le , the c a rb o n - film re s is to r in F ig .1 -5 h a s y e llo w = 4 , p u rp le = 7, re d = 2 , g o ld = 5%

in se q u e n c e fro m left. T h e re fo re w e c a n u n d e rs ta n d th a t th e re s ista n c e v alu e is 4 .7 k £2 .
Ohm’s law
F ig .l- 6 is a n e le c tric c irc u it m a d e u p o f a b a tte ry , sw itc h a n d resisto r. T h is e le c tric c irc u it c an be
sh o w n w ith a c irc u it d ia g ra m illu s tra te d in F ig .l-6 . I f th e sw itch tu r n s O N , v o lta g e E [V ] is ap p lie d
to th e re s isto r R [£2] an d c u rre n t I [A] sta rts flo w in g . T h is c a n b e e x p re s se d w ith th e fo rm u la below .

E= I X R F orm ulal-2

rlE E( i k ~r )E К

Switch ON Switch OFF

K i£.l-b

F o r ex am p le, i f th e v o ltag e E is 100V an d th e re s isto r R is IООП, th e flo w in g c u rre n t I is 1A.

I f th e flo w in g c u rre n t is to b e c o n tro lle d at h a lf o f 1A i.e. 0.5A , th e n R sh o u ld b e 2 0 0 Q . C o n tro llin g
th e c u rre n t is o n e o f the fu n c tio n s o f th e resisto r. O n th e o th e r h a n d , w e c a n also in te rp re t th a t 100V
b e tw e e n the re s isto r te rm in a ls g e ts g e n e ra te d i f e le c tric c u rre n t 1A is p a sse d th ro u g h re sisto r o f 100
£1 F o r e x am p le, re s ista n c e o f 1 000Q w ill b e u se d to c o n v e rt c u rre n t o f 0.1 A in to 100V.

Electric power consumption

i
H e a t is g en erated w h en c u rre n t flo w s in the resistor. T h is
m e an s th a t resisto r co n su m es e lec tric pow er. T h e follo w in g
fo rm u la w ill be established, i f th e voltage o f resistan ce is c o n ­
sid ered as E , c u rre n t as I an d e lectric p o w e r as P.

P =E X I Form ula 1-3

I f th e O h m ’s law (F o rm u la 1-2) is s u b s titu te d o v er h ere

w e g et the fo llo w in g fo rm u la.

P = I 2x R Form ula 1-4

P = E 2/ R Form ula 1-5

F ro m th is fo rm u la it is c le a r th a t a s th e c u rre n t flo w in g in
F ig .l-7
th e re s isto r in c re a se s th e e le c tric p o w e r c o n su m p tio n also
in c re a se s. A s a re s u lt, te m p e ra tu re o f th e re s isto r in c re a se s d u e to th e g e n e ra tio n o f heat. T h e re fo re ,
th e re s isto r w ill b u rn i f th e re is a n ex c e ss o f c u rre n t (F ig .l-7 ).
A m a x im u m v a lu e o f allo w ed e le c tric p o w e r is d e te rm in e d fo r all re sisto rs.
T h e re are p ro d u c ts th a t also c o n tro l th e h e a t g e n e ra tio n o f th e re s isto r b y fo rce d a ir c o o lin g o r w a ­
ter c o o lin g ,/h e n re sisto rs w ith h ig h p o w e r c o n su m p tio n a re re q u ire d (F ig .1 -8 ).

F ig .1-8

I f th e c o lo r o f th e p rin t b o a rd o r re s isto rs is ch a n g e d o r it is b u rn t, it c a n b e th o u g h t th a t ex­

c ess c u rre n t flo w e d du e to h ig h v o lta g e in th e circu it.
№ Capacitor
Capacitor
T h e c a p a c ito r is an e le m e n ta l d e v ic e w h e re in th e e le c tric c h a rg e is te m p o ra rily sto red . In d e e d v a ri­
o u s k in d s o f p ro d u c ts u se th e c a p a c ito r d e p e n d in g u p o n th e ir u sa g e; ev en in sm a ll e le c tro n ic d ev ic e s
lik e m o b ile p h o n e a lm o st 100 c a p a c ito rs a re u se d . T h e c a p a c ito rs a re u se d for:

У T e m p o ra ry e le c tric a l e n e rg y sto ra g e
П A C a n d D C se p a ra tio n a n d selectio n
В P h a se s h ift b e tw e e n v o ltag e an d c u rre n t
Q S ig n a l d iffe re n tia tio n a n d in te g ra tio n , etc.

Purposes f

Shift phase
using capacitor

Differentiation

Г \ Г _ Integration
Types of capacitors
T h o u g h th e e x te rn a l a p p e a ra n c e a n d s tru c tu re o f th e c a p a c ito r co m e in v a rio u s ty p e s , its b asic
s tru c tu re ca n be sh o w n by th e p a ir o f p a ra lle l e le c tro d e s as sh o w n in F ig.1-9. I f th e v o lta g e is ap p lie d
b e tw e e n th e s e e le c tro d e s , th e e le c tric c h a rg e w ill be a c c u m u la te d o n th e su rfa c e o f th e elec tro d e s.
W id er th e a re a o f th e e le c tro d e s, la rg e r th e a m o u n t o f e le c tric c h a rg e ca n b e sto red . M o reo v er, le sse r
th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e ele c tro d e s, la rg e r th e a m o u n t o f e le c tric c h a rg e c a n b e sto red .

V i

Electrode

Electrode • -b-fc-fa + + ; - f e - f c i + + Dielectric

-Ь + 4т + + - Ь + + -Ы »
! E f i ? s e ? e e *
' e « ; e e e ; « e e

■ ■
Dielectric
Electrode

F ig .l-9
F u rth e rm o re , th e a m o u n t o f sto ra b le e le c tric c h a rg e v a rie s b y in s e rtin g an in s u la tio n c a lle d as d i­
e le c tric b e tw e e n th e se e le c tro d e s.T h e c a p a c ito r d iffe rs in its c h a ra c te ristic s a c c o rd in g to th e ty p e
o f d ie le c tru used; v a rio u s c a p a c ito rs are u se d for v a rio u s ap p lic atio n s. E x a m p le s o f m o s t c o m ­
m o n ly u se d cap a c ito rs a re g iv en in a ~ g , w h ic h d o es n o t in c lu d e all ty p e s, a ■- d c ap a c ito rs do n o t
h av e p o la rity w h ile e - g cap a c ito rs h a v e p o la rity . In e le c tric c irc u it d ia g ra m th e c a p a c ito rs a re in ­
d ic a te d as sh o w n in F ig.1-10, a n d a re sim ila r to its b a sic c o n c e p t(F ig .l-9 ). H o w ev er, to d iffe re n ti­
a te e ~ g fro m o th e r cap a c ito rs, it is sh o w n as in F ig.1-11.

Polypropylene
a Ceramic capacitor b M icacapacito: с Polyester film capacitor d film capacitor

Aluminum X Electric double

e Tantalum capacitor f electrolytic capacitor g layer capacitor

Fig.1-10 Fig.1-11
Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Relation between amount of electric charge and voltage

W h e n v o ltag e E is ap p lied b e tw e e n te rm in a ls o f c a p ac ito r, th e e lec tric c h arg e Q p ro p o rtio n a l to E
is sto re d in th e capacitor. T h is p ro p o rtio n c o e ffic ie n t С is k n o w n as e le c tro sta tic c a p a c ita n c e an d
h as th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la.

Q = CE Form ula 1-6

T h e u n it o f th is e le c tro s ta tic c a p a c ita n c e is F (farad). P ra c tic a lly th is u n it is to o larg e, th erefo re ,
m o st o f th e c o m m e rc ia l ca p a c ito r a v a ila b le in m a rk e t co m e s in sm a ll u n its lik e m F (m ili farad ;
0.001F=10"3F ), (xF (m icro fa ra d ; 0 .0 0 0 0 0 1 F = 1 0 -6F ), n F (n an o fa ra d ; 0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 F = l(r9F ), pF
(p ico fa ra d ; 0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 F = 1 0 -12F).
Handling electrolytic capacitors

As the aluminum electrolytic capacitors comes with high capacitance and low price, it is
widely used in the applications wherein voltage of the electric circuit board is to be kept con­
stant. However, as compared to other capacitors it has short life, normally it is about 7-8 years
However, it does not mean that it cannot be used after 7-8 years. There are cases where elec­
tronic instrument that use the aluminum electrolytic capacitor become more liable to generate
heat or make louder noise, its life span increase. For instance, if surrounding environment
temperature lowers by 10°C, the life span doubles and if it lowers by 20°C, then the life span
triples.

Long Life!

Short Life!
Point
In many electronic circuit board, multiple numbers of aluminum electrolytic capacitors are
used. It can be said that the life span of these electronic circuit boards is determined by the life
span of aluminum electrolytic capacitors used. A spare electronic circuit board is provided on
board ships in case the board in use breaks. This spare electronic circuit board must be placed
in cool space to use it for long time. However the parts of electronic circuit boards may be­
come rusty if this cool place is humid. To prevent this, some electronic circuit boards are
stored in plastic bag along with a dehumidifying agent.

Moreover, though the power supply is cut OFF, the electric voltage still remains in the capaci­
tors of the electronic circuit board. Handle the electronic board with due care as there is a risk
o f shock while touching it.
Q o Inductor
Inductor
In d u c to r is a c irc u it c o m p o n e n t a ro u n d w h ic h an in s u la te d e le c tric a l w ire is sp ira lly w o u n d . In d u c ­
to r te m p o ra rily sto res th e m a g n e tic en erg y . T h o u g h c a p a c ito rs a re c o m m o n ly u se d , se v e ral in d u c ­
to rs a re fo u n d in an y ty p e o f ele c tro n ic c irc u it b o a rd . F u n c tio n s o f th e in d u c to r are:

П T e m p o ra ry e n e rg y sto ra g e
В AC an d D C se p a ra tio n a n d se lec tio n
В P h a se s h ift b e tw e e n v o lta g e a n d c u rre n t
□ M a g n e tic fie ld g e n e ra tio n , etc.

Current
Charging
energy
temporarily

Purposes 1
using inductor

Generating
magnetic
force
Types of inductor
T h e b asic p rin c ip le o f in d u c to r is sh o w n in
F ig .1 -1 2 . T h e re a re v a rio u s e x te rn a l a p p e a r­
a n c e s and s tru c tu re s o f in d u c to r, b u t b a s i­
c a lly th e w ire is w o u n d as sh o w n in fig u re .
T h e in d u c to r c a n b e c la s sifie d in to tw o
ty p es: so len o id co il a n d p a n c a k e coil. Solenoid type

T h e in d u c to r u s e d in e le c tro n ic c irc u it b o a rd is m o stly a so le n o id co il. M o re m a g n e tic e n e rg y c a n b e

sto red b y in s e rtin g m a g n e tic m a te ria l k n o w n as co re in so le n o id coil. A c c o rd in g to th e ap p lic atio n
a n d v o lta g e /c u rre n t, v a rio u s sh a p e s o f th e c o re a re u se d (F ig .1 -1 3 ).

Fig.1-13

Inductance
T h e la rg e r the c u rre n t th a t p a ss e s th ro u g h th e co il, th e m o re m a g n e tic e n e rg y is sto re d in in d u ctor.
M o reo v er, th is c h a ra c te ristic v a rie s d e p e n d in g o n th e n u m b e r o f tu rn s in co il a n d th e sh ap e o f th e
co re, etc. T h e c h a ra c te ristic s o f in d u c to r a re k n o w n a s in d u c ta n c e (o ften a b b re v ia te d as L) an d its
u n it is H (h en ry ).
Concrete application
example of inductor
In elec trica l eq u ip m en t, the
e lectrical noise k n o w n as
n o ise is gen erated .
I f p recisio n eq u ip m en t like a
te m p e ra tu re m e a su rin g d e ­
v ice are elec trically co n ­
n ecte d w ith electrical e q u ip ­
m en t th a t g en erates the
noise, th e n o rm al operation
m ig h t get hin d ered .
To avoid such p ro b lem s, the
in d u cto r m ay b e u se d as a
n oise filte r (Fig.1-14).

Motor

m ПЯ.Ы4

Г | | p •’''in1 ^
T he cases o f dam ag e o f in d u c to r are less as com pared to th e cases o f d am ag e o f resistors an d ca­
pacitors. M oreover, in m an y cases it is d ifficult to id en tity th e d am ag e caused to the coil fro m
its ex tern al appearance. T h e insulation film applied to th e coil keeps deterio ratin g in h ig h te m ­
p eratu re environm ent, an d in th e w orst cases, th e coil short-circuits and th e fu n ctio n as in d u c ­
to r fails. M oreover, coils are used in th e m otor o f th e sea w ater pu m p s as well as fresh w ater
pum ps; th e insulation w eakens i f the coil absorbs m oisture. T h e m a in p u rp o se o f m easu rin g the
insulation resistance using m egger (R efer to A n n ex 2) betw een the m otor w in d in g coil and
e a rth in g at the o u tp u t end te rm in a l o f th e M C (R efer to 3.3) is to check if th e coil insulation has
degraded or not.
Оо Transformer
Transformer
T h e tra n s fo rm e r h a s a s tru c tu re w h e re 2 o r m o re
c o ils sh a re on e co re (F ig.1-15 ). M a g n e tic e n e rg y
g e n e ra te d in on e coil is tra n s m itte d to th e o th e r
c o il th ro u g h th e core. T h e m a in fu n c tio n s o f th e
tra n s fo rm e r are: 1) to in c re a se o r d e c re a se th e
A C v o ltag e an d A C ; 2) to in su la te th e m u ltip le
n u m b e rs o f e le c tric a l circ u its, etc.

Fig.1-15

Transformer turns ratio

L e t u s see th e tra n sfo rm e rs w h ic h u se th e tro id a l co re. I f w e ta k e n u m b e r o f tu r n s o f p rim a ry w in d ­
in g o f tra n s fo rm e r as N i, n u m b e r o f tu r n s o f se c o n d a ry w in d in g as N 2 , in p u t v o lta g e ap p lied to p ri­
m a ry w in d in g as E i and th e o u tp u t v o ltag e o f se c o n d a ry w in d in g as Ez, it w ill w o rk o u t as follow s.

N 1 •N 2 = E 1•E 2 Form ula 1-7

I f w e re w rite th is, th e n th e fo rm u la w ill b e as follow s.

E 2 = ( N 2/ N l ) X E i Formula 1-8

A g a in , i f w e ta k e th e c u rre n t flo w in g fro m p rim a ry

w in d in g as Ii a n d c u rre n t flo w in g fro m se c o n d a ry
w in d in g as L , th e n the fo rm u la w ill b e as follow s.

N i : N 2 = I 2:Il F o rm u la l-9

I f w e re w rite the fo rm u la , it w ill b e as follow s.

I 2 = ( N . / N 2) X Ii Form ula 1-10

H o w e v e r, th e tr a n s f o r m e r c a n h a n d le o n ly A C v o lta g e a n d A C c u r r e n t, a n d it c a n n o t c o n v e r t
D C v o lta g e a n d D C c u r r e n t. C o n v e r s io n o f D C v o lta g e a n d D C c u r r e n t w ill b e d is c u s s e d in
4 .1 a n d 4 .2 .
Example of transformer application

L e ts u s see th e v o ltag e u se d for lig h ts in ship. W h e n th e v o lta g e o f th e g e n e ra to r is 440V , th e v o lt­

ag e 110V fo r lig h ts in ship ca n b e o b ta in e d b y se ttin g tu r n s ratio o f p rim a ry w in d in g an d s e c o n d ­
a ry w in d in g to 4:1.

N i:N 2 = 440:110 = 4:1 Formuiai -11

N o w a d a y s, la rg e -sc a le c o n ta in e r sh ip s h a v in g g e n e ra to r v o lta g e o f 6 6 0 0 V are in c re a sin g . T u rn s

ratio o f tra n s fo rm e r to c o n v e rt th is v o lta g e to 2 2 0 V o f e n g in e ro o m p u m p is as follow s.

N i :N2 = 6600: 220 = 30:1 F orm u lal-12

 JD Point

T h e c u rre n t flo w in g fro m s e c o n d a ry w in d in g o f

tra n s fo rm e r in c re a se s w h e n m a n y p ie c e s o f e le c tric a l
e q u ip m e n t a re u se d sim u lta n e o u sly . A s a re su lt, tr a n s ­
fo rm e r m a y g e n e ra te h eat, a n d c a u se p ro b le m s lik e
b u rn in g o r d e te rio ra tio n o f in su la tio n . M o reo v er, r e ­
c en tly p ro b le m s, lik e tra n s fo rm e r g e ttin g a b n o rm a lly
h eate d d u e to h a rm o n ic c u rre n t th a t is g e n e ra te d fro m
in v e rte r c o n tro l e q u ip m e n t, a re re p o rte d on e lec tric al
in s ta lla tio n s on land. T h e in s u la tio n re s ista n c e is
m e a s u re d u sin g th e m e g g e r (R efer to A n n e x 2) also to
p re v e n t su ch p ro b le m s in a d v an ce.
 T h e re are m an y se m ic o n d u c to r p ro d u c ts aro u n d u s su ch as c e llu la r p h o n e s, p e rso n a l c o m p u ters, and
D V D s. M o reo v er, a v a rie ty o f e le c tro n ic e q u ip m e n t th a t u se sem ic o n d u c to r p a rts are seen o n sh ip s. F o r
ex a m p le, n au tical in stru m en ts at th e s h ip ’s b rid g e an d co n tro l b o ard s in a th e c o n tro l room .
In th is chapter, w e w ill learn b a sic s o f se m ic o n d u c to rs to b u ild th e fo u n d a tio n fo r fu tu re study.

•0 F u n d a m e n t a l s of M a r i t i m e E l e c t r o n i c A p p a r a t u s
00 What is a semiconductor?
Role of semiconductor devices
C opper, a lu m in u m , stain less steel, an d iro n h av e sm all elec trical re sista n c e and co n d u c t c u rre n t
w ell. S uch m a terials are c a lled co n d u c to rs ( F ig .2 -1 ). O n th e o th er h an d , th e elec tric a l re sistan c e o f
m a terials su ch as g lass an d c e ra m ic s is e x trem e ly h ig h an d c u rre n t can h ard ly flo w th ro u g h them .
S uch m a terials are c a lled in su lato rs. S e m ico n d u c to rs h av e in term e d iate p ro p ertie s. T h e fu n c tio n in g
o f a se m ic o n d u c to r d ev ice is c o m p a ra b le to a w a te r fau cet. T h is is ex p la in e d in d etail in th e fo llo w ­
in g ch ap te rs ( F ig .2 -2 ).
T h e re sista n c e th a t w a te r faces
d e creases w ith the o p e n in g o f
the fa u cet and a lot o f w a ter
flo w s out. O n the contrary , if
th e tap is g rad u ally clo sed , it
b ec o m e s d ifficu lt fo r w a te r to
flo w o u t fro m the tap as th e re ­
sista n c e to w ater in creases re ­
su ltin g in d ecrease in th e v o l­
u m e o f w ater. In ad d itio n , i f the
tap is clo sed further, w a te r re ­
c eiv es stro n g resistan ce and
stops flo w ing. In se m ic o n d u c ­ i i i i I
сe nc c
- <D ra </>
to r d ev ice s, w h en an elec trical
I I 1C ;*.1О (0 ra
5 Та
signal is p ro v id ed in ste ad o f f Сn *
CO
cG
w ater, it b eco m e s p o ssib le to I
СЛ
(3 О
з
let the c u rre n t flo w like a c o n ­
ductor: o r to a rrest th e flo w o f
cu rren t like an in su la to r o th e r­
w ise. In sh o rt, th e se m ic o n d u c ­
to r d ev ice can co n tro l the flow
o f cu rren t. P ro cessin g o f e le c ­
tric sig n als and co n v ersio n o f
electric p o w e r ca n b e d o n e u s ­
ing th is function.

Fluid resistance
Composition of semiconductors
M a n y se m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e s th a t a re a v a ila b le in th e m a rk e t are m a d e fro m silico n . T h e cry sta l o f
p u re silico n is an in trin sic se m ic o n d u c to r (F ig .2 -3 ). A n in trin sic s e m ic o n d u c to r is e le c tric a lly v e ry
stab le. A c u rre n t h a rd ly flo w s d u e to th e stro n g a ss o c ia tio n o f an a to m w ith its e le c tro n s. A se m ic o n ­
d u c to r d ev ic e is m a d e u sin g a silico n c ry s ta l w ith a little a m o u n t o f a rs e n ic (A s ) o r b o ro n (B ) in ­
c lu d ed. T h e se m ic o n d u c to r w ith a rs e n ic is c a lle d a n N ty p e se m ico n d u c to r. It is p o ssib le to let th e
c u rre n t flo w as a fre e e le c tro n m o v es in th e c ry s ta l (F ig .2 -4 ). O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e se m ic o n d u c to r
w ith b o ro n is ca lle d a P ty p e se m ico n d u c to r. It b e c o m e s p o ssib le fo r c u rre n t to flo w as h o les in th e
c ry s ta l m ove (F ig .2 -5 ).
T h e se h o les an d free e le c tro n s a re c a lle d c a rrie rs . __------------------- -— ----- -

Free electron

> © j © © j c j о с

J © J Г © v >©

Si) Si) Si) SL Si " Si) Si) Si

Fig.2-3
 Free electron

& Ъ О С Q © О © Q © J С

О © Q © Q © О- - С j&z © Э ©

Fig.2-4

Fig.2-5
V _______ у
T h e s e m ic o n d u c to r d e v ice th a t is in tro d u c e d in th e la te r c h a p te r is c o m p o se d o f a c o m b in a tio n o f an
N ty p e s e m ic o n d u c to r and a P ty p e sem ic o n d u c to r. T h e flo w o f c u rre n t c a n b e c o n tro lle d b y g iv in g
a n e le c tric sig n al. H ow ever, it b e c o m e s e a sy fo r c u rre n t to flo w b e c a u se th e a ss o c ia tio n o f th e sili­
co n a to m an d its e le c tro n s w e a k e n s as th e te m p e ra tu re o f th e in trin sic s e m ic o n d u c to r rise s. T h e n , it
b e c o m e s d iffic u lt to c o n tro l th e c u rre n t as c u rre n t k e e p s flo w in g re g a rd le ss o f th e e le c tric signal
c o n tro llin g sy stem . T h e re fo re , it is re q u isite to m a in ta in th e in te rn a l te m p e ra tu re o f th e se m ic o n ­
d u c to r d ev ice , w h ich is c o m p o se d o f silic o n , b elo w 150 °C. S in ce th e s e m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e m o re o r
less g e n e ra te s heat, the h eat sin k a n d th e fan m ay be u se d to p ro te c t th e s e m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e fro m
h ig h te m p e ra tu re th a t is p ro d u c e d by th is h e a t ( F ig .2 -6 ).

Cooling fan

Semiconductor devices

Heat sink

Fig.2-6
 f ) Point
T h e siiico .i c ry s ta l o f m o st s e m ic o n d u c to r d ev ic e s is p ro te c te d b y sy n th e tic resin . T h e re ­
fo re, th e te m p e ra tu re o f silic o n c a n n o t b e m e a s u re d d irectly . P e rm issib le e n v iro n m e n t te m ­
p e ra tu re is a lre a d y d ec id e d fo r m a n y se m ic o n d u c to r d ev ice s. H o w ev er, to p re v e n t th e m a l­
fu n c tio n o f se m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e s, it is alw ay s p re fe ra b le to k e e p th e o p e ra tin g e n v iro n m e n t
te m p e ra tu re low, m a k in g a ss u ra n c e d o u b le sure. To m a in ta in a low e n v iro n m e n ta l te m ­
p e ra tu re , it is im p o rta n t to p e rio d ic a lly c o n firm th a t th e fan p ro v id ed fo r a ir c o o lin g is
w o rk in g n o rm a lly and th a t th e filte r in th e in ­
ta k e v en t o f th e p a n e l is no t b lo c k ed w ith d u st
an d oil m i s t .

.L U U

Check and clean filter element

 0 Diode
Use of diodes
A d io d e is a se m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e th a t w o rk s as a c h e c k v alv e in e lec tric al circu its. It is also called
a re c tifier. C h eck v alves p re v e n t w ater, ste a m , o r fu e l in th e p ip in g fro m flo w in g b a c k w a rd an d are
u sed to let the liq u id flo w in o n e d ire c tio n o n ly (F ig .2 -7 ). D io d e s allo w s c u rre n t to flo w o n ly in one
d ire c tio n a n d do n o t allo w it to flo w in th e o p p o site d irec tio n . P ositive o r n eg ativ e sig n a l is a c q u ire d
u sin g th is fu n c tio n o f diode. D io d e also c o n v e rts a lte rn a te c u rre n t in to d ire c t c u rren t.
Structure of diodes
A s sh o w n in F ig .2 -8 (a ), a d io d e is c o m p o se d o f a co m b in atio n o f P ty p e se m ic o n d u c to rs and N
ty p e sem ico n d u cto rs. It is in d ica te d in e lec trical circ u its as sh o w n in F ig .2 -8 (b ). T h e term in a l on
th e P ty p e sem ic o n d u c to r side is c alled an a n o d e, and th e te rm in a l on th e N ty p e se m ic o n d u c to r
side is called a cathode. T h e ju n c tio n su rfa c e b e c o m e s elec tric ally n e u tra liz e d as th e ele c tro n hole
in th e P typesem icon-
d uctor and a free elec­ a) B a s i c c o n f i g u r a t io n b) D io d e c ir c u i t
tron in the N ty p e se m i­ d ia g r a m

c o n d u c to r pull ag ain st P -ty p e N -ty p e

each other.
T h is is c a lled a d e p le ­
^ & +' 1 i Э ^
Anode
> Cathode
tio n layer. * +J : : ф
Г
Hole de pletion layer Free electron
Fig.2-8

T h e D C v o lta g e so u rce is c o n n e c te d w ith th e se m ic o n d u c to r o f th is P -N ju n c tio n as sh o w n in

F ig .2 - 9 . A t this tim e, th e h o le in th e P ty p e se m ic o n d u c to r is a ttra cte d to w a rd s th e n e g a tiv e side
o f th e D C v o ltag e source. M o reo v er, a free ele c tro n o f th e N ty p e se m ic o n d u c to r is d ra w n to the
p o sitiv e side. T h e re ­
fore, th e d ep letio n lay er
■b ■ : э
in the P -N ju n c tio n ex ­ # ' •; ^
^
p ands, thus d istu rb in g
th e m o v e m e n t o f the (
-1

«
4»
! ,
:
^
* i
on layer
electric ch arge. A s a re ­ I
T_
sult, th e c u rre n t does
i |
n o t flo w th ro u g h the
d iode. - " - Fig.2-9

M ean w h ile, th e state o f c o n n e c tin g th e D C p o w e r su p p ly in th e o p p o site d ire c tio n is sh o w n in

F ig .2 -1 0 . A s m en tio n ed earlier, th e h o le in the P ty p e sem ico n d u cto r is attracted to w ard s th e n eg a ­
tive side and a free elec­
tron o f the N type sem i­
conductor is attracted
tow ards the p ositive
side. A s a result, carri­
ers from both sides
ju m p into the opposite
sem ico n d u cto rs and the
cu rren t starts flow ing. Fig.2-10
 Types of diode
T h e re a re v a rio u s ty p e s o f d io d e. S o m e e x am p les are liste d b e lo w ( F ig . 2 -1 1 ).

Fig.2-11

It converts single-phase AC voltage o r three-phase AC voltage into D C current.

It is com posed o f 4 or 6 diodes and has a plastic (synthetic resin) cover.

L
* W

A A A

Z\

О Diode rectifier

It is used w hen a high-speed It is used in a circuit that sup­ The PN ju n ctio n em its light
operation such as DC power plies constant voltage. It sim ­ w hen current is passed
supply or inverter functional­ plifies the constant voltage through it. Its m ain advan­
ity is needed. circuit, but decreases effi­ tages are low pow er con­
ciency. sum ption and a long life.

Чч

Ш High-speed recovery diode 3 Zener diode LED (Light emitting diode)

€ te Transistor
Structure of transistors
A tra n sis to r is m a d e by a d d in g o n e m o re se m ic o n d u c to r la y e r to a d io d e. In sh o rt, it h a s a 3 -layei
stru c tu re . A c c o rd in g to s tru c tu re , it is p o ssib le to c la s sify it in to tw o ty p e s: th e P N P ty p e a n d

N P N ty p e (F ig .2 - 1 2 ).

N PN -transistor PN P -tran sistor

. C ollector C ollector

C С
О Q

/ /
Base BO- Base BC-

О
E

Em itter Emitter
I «U-2-I2

A tra n s is to r h a s th re e te rm in a ls: a co lle c to r,

b ase, an d e m itte r ( F i g .2 -1 3 ).

Em itter
C o lle cto r Base

Fig.2-13
Operation and role of transistors
A s sh o w n in F ig.2-2, a tra n s is to r is a s e m i­
c o n d u c to r d ev ice th at h as fu n c tio n a lity
sim ila r to a w a te r faucet. L ik e th e o p e ra ­
tio n o f a fau cet, th e re s ista n c e a g a in s t flo w
o f c u rre n t th ro u g h th e co lle c to r a n d e m it­
te r also ch an g es w ith th e c h a n g e in c u rre n t
I b th a t flo w s to b ase. A s a re su lt, th e c u r­ Ic
re n t Ic o f th e co lle c to r also ch an g es. It b e ­
co m es p o ssib le to co n tro l th e larg e c o lle c ­
-I* Ik
to r c u rre n t Ic by the sm all b a se c u rre n t Ib ,
w h en th e v o ltag e b e tw e e n th e c o lle c to r
a n d e m itte r is h ig h (F ig.2-1 4 ). T h is a c tio n
o f th e tra n s is to r is c a lled th e e ffe ct o f a m ­
In It

win
p lificatio n .

Fig.2-14

A m ic ro p h o n e c an b e g iv en as an ex am p le
th at u se s th e a m p lific a tio n fu n c tio n a lity o f
a tran sisto r. E v en i f th e sp e a k e r is c o n ­
n e c te d , so u n d is h a rd ly p ro d u c e d as th e
e le c tric sig n al fro m th e m ic ro p h o n e is
sm all. A loud so u n d can b e o b ta in e d by
se n d in g th e ele c tric sig n al to the sp e a k e r
a fte r a m p lify in g it u sin g a tra n sis to r
(F ig.2-15).

Microphone

Fig.2-15
@ 6 Thyristor
What is a thyristor?
A th y risto r is a se m ic o n d u c to r d ev ic e th a t can h a n d le larg e
e le c tric pow er. (F ig.2-16 show s a n ex am p le o f a sm a ll th y ­
ristor.) In o th e r w ords, it b e c o m e s p o ssib le to u se it for
elec trical circu its o f a h ig h v o ltag e w ith larg e cu rren t. T o­
A (Anode)
day, th y risto rs u sed for h ig h v o ltag e c irc u its (12kV ) are A
av ailable in the m ark et. M o reo v er, th y risto rs th a t can
h a n d le a c u rre n t as large as 5 0 0 0 A a re also available.

V
Structure of a thyristor N GX
(Gate)
A s sh o w n in F ig .2 -1 7 , the th y risto r is a sw itc h in g d ev ic e in
Q
w h ich layers o f sem ic o n d u c to r are c o n n e c ted to each o th e r
N К
in th e o rd e r o f P N P N . T w o ele c tro d e s are fix ed to the (Cathode)
o u ter P lay er and N layer resp ectiv ely . T h e y are called a n ­
o d e and cath o d e re sp e c tiv e ly lik e th e e lec tro d e s fo r d iode. К Fig.2-17
M o reo v er, electro d e, are also fix ed to th e in n e r lay er called
th e P layer. T h is is k n o w n as a gate. T h e sw itc h in g d ev ice is a se m ic o n d u c to r d ev ic e th a t is u se d
lik e “C ” w hen c u rre n t d o e s n ’t flo w o r lik e “A ” w h en c u rre n t flo w s easily as sh o w n in F ig .2 -1 . O p ­
era tin g life is long b ecau se u n lik e a m e c h a n ic a l sw itch , th ere are n o m o v in g p arts an d th e sw itch ­
in g sp eed is also fast. W h en v o lta g e is a p p lie d b e tw e e n th e an o d e an d c a th o d e o f th e th y risto r in
th e fo rw a rd d irectio n , and w h e n p u lse c u rre n t flo w s th ro u g h th e g ate, th e th y risto r tu rn s O N
(F ig.2-18). T h e O N state is m a in ta in e d o n ce th e th y risto r is tu rn e d O N . T h e c u rre n t flo w s in the
fo rw ard d irectio n like a d io d e d u rin g th e O N state. H o w e v e r c u rre n t d o es n o t flow in th e re v e rse
d irectio n . It is tu rn ed O F F b y e ith e r m a k in g th e flo w in g c u rre n t ze ro u sin g so m e m e th o d o r b y a p ­
p ly in g rev erse v o ltag e to th e thyristor. O th e r th a n th is, th ere is th e LTT (L ig h t T rig g ered T h y risto r)
th at can tu rn it O N b y rad iatin g lig h t to th e P layer. T h e o p tic al th y risto r h a rd ly m a lfu n c tio n s due
to n oise. A lso , th e T R IA C w ith an ti-p a ra lle l c o n n e ctio n o f th y risto r can co n tro l tw o -w a y cu rren t.
Thyristor applications
T h e re a re v a rio u s ty p e s o f th y risto rs d e p e n d in g u p o n th e ty p e o f sh ip s o r u sag e. S h a ft p o w e r g e n e ra ­
to rs a re w id ely u se d as d ev ice s th a t g e n e ra te p o w e r b y e x tra c tin g p a rtia l p o w er fro m th e o u tp u t sh a ft
o f th e m a in d iesel e n g in e o r ste a m tu rb in e s. In th is sh a ft g e n e ra tin g sy ste m , th e fre q u e n c y o f th e g e n ­
e ra tin g v o ltag e re m a in s u n sta b le as th e n u m b e r o f ro ta tio n s o f th e o u tp u t sh a ft v a rie s a c c o rd in g to th e
sh ip speed. A n ele c tric p o w e r c o n v ersio n sy ste m w ith th y ris to r (called th y ris to r in v erte r) is o fte n
u se d to reso lv e this p ro b lem (F ig.2-19).
T R IA C is u se d in h o m e ap p lia n c e s fo r fu n c tio n a lity su ch as d im m in g o f a b u lb , h e a te r te m p e ra tu re
co n tro l, an d m o to r control.
j ! JD P o in t

It is im p o rta n t to g u a rd a g a in s t sta tic e le c tric ity w h ile h a n d lin g se m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e s or

e le c tro n ic c irc u it b o ard s. A lth o u g h th e a m o u n t o f c u rre n t th a t flo w s is v e ry sm a ll in th e case
o f sta tic elec tricity , th e v o lta g e c a n b e se v e ra l k V o r m o re. E sp ecia lly ,
p e rs o n s a re liable to g et e le c trifie d and se v e ra l kV o f sta tic e le c tric ity can
g et a c c u m u la te d b efo re th e y k n o w it. T h e n , th e m o m e n t y o u to u c h th e ^
# _ я
se m ic o n d u c to r d ev ice , th e s e m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e m a y b re a k d o w n
w ith o u t an y v isib le ch an g e. W h e n h a n d lin g th e s e m ic o n d u c to r d e ­
v ic e a n d th e e le c tric c irc u it b a se , it is n e c e s s a ry to rem o v e
sta tic e le c tric ity fro m th e b o d y fo r p re v e n tin g e le c tro s ta tic
d e stru c tio n . Y ou c a n k eep aw ay fro m th e sta tic e le c tric ity
u sin g sim p le m e th o d s su ch as to u c h in g a fa u c e t w ith a
b a re h and.

T o u ch in g th e steel d eck b o a rd , flo o r, o r sh ip side

fo r se v eral se c o n d s w ith y o u r b a re h a n d is e ffe c ­
tive. H ow ever, th ere c o u ld b e rev e rse e ffe c ts if
y o u to u ch a n F R P w all su rfa c e o r w in d o w g lass.

J
 IGBT
Features and structure of IGBT
A s sh o w n in F ig .2 -2 0 , IG B T s (In su la te d
G ate B ip o lar T ran sisto rs) co m e in v ario u s
sh a p es an d sizes d e p e n d in g u p o n th e a p p li­
c a tio n o r v o ltage. T h e IG B T is a se m ic o n ­
d u c to r sw itc h in g d e v ice s im ila r to th e th y ­
risto r. T h e IG B T is re p re se n te d in th e c irc u it
d ra w in g as sh o w n in F ig .2 -2 1 (a ). It h as
th re e te rm in a ls th a t hav e n a m e s d iffe re n t
fro m th o se o f th e th y risto r. T h e IG B T tu rn s
O N o n ly w h en th e v o ltag e is a p p lie d b e ­ Fig.2-20

tw e e n th e g ate an d th e em itter. T h u s, tu rn a ) IGBT b) IG BT w ith d io d e

O N as w ell as tu rn O F F o p e ra tio n s c a n b e Collector Collector
О
c o n tro lle d u sin g gate v oltag e. In te rm s o f
ap p lic a tio n , it is m o re c o n v e n ie n t to c o n n e c t
a n ti-p a ra lle l d io d es in IG BT. T h e re fo re ,
m o st o f th e co m m e rc ia l IG B T s h av e d io d es
in c o rp o ra te d as sh o w n in F ig .2 -2 1 (b ). T h is GateC-

d io d e is also ca lle d a w h eel d iode.

N o w a d a y s, th e u sag e o f IP M (In te llig e n t
O О
P o w er M odule) in te g ra te d w ith IG B T a n d a Emitter Emitter
Fig.2-21
p a rt o f the c o n tro l c irc u it has in c re ase d .

Applications of IGBT
IG B T h a s a fa s te r sw itc h in g sp ee d
th a n th e th y ris to r an d o p e ra te s
fro m sev eral k H z ~ 1 0 k H z. T h e re ­
fore, it is o fte n u se d in in v e rto rs
for m o to r sp e e d co n tro l. It is in ­
d isp e n sa b le to c o n tro llin g ro ta ­
tio n a l sp e e d and to rq u e o f th e m o ­
tor. IG B T in v e rte r-c o n tro lle d
m o to rs are o fte n seen in a n c h o r
w in c h e s a n d m o o rin g w in c h e s
(F ig.2-22).
©Э MOSFET
Structure and features of MOSFET
M O S F E T (M etal O x id e S e m ic o n d u c to r F ield
E ffe c t T ra n sisto r) is a s e m ic o n d u c to r sw itc h ­
in g d e v ice sim ila r to th e IG B T (F ig .2 -2 3 ).
M O S F E T is c lassified as e n h a n c e m e n t ty p e
a n d d ep le tio n ty p e a c c o rd in g to stru c tu re . T h e
M O SFET fo r e le c tric c irc u it (also c a lle d
P o w er M O S F E T ) is a ty p e o f e n h a n c e m e n t
ty p e M O S F E T . F ig .2 -2 4 illu s tra te s a M O S ­
F E T c irc u it sy m b o l, (a) is P c h a n n e l ty p e an d
(b ) is N c h a n n e l ty p e . T h e re a re 3 te rm in a ls
Fig.2-23
a n d th e ir n a m e s d iffe r fro m th e th y ris to r and
IG B T. T h e sw itc h in g co n tro l is id e n tic a l to th e
IG B T a n d th e M O S F E T tu r n s O N o n ly w h en
a) P -c h a n n e l b) N - c h a n n e l
v o lta g e is ap p lie d b e tw e e n th e g a te a n d th e
em itter. T h u s, n o t o n ly tu r n O N b u t e v e n tu rn Drain Drain
O F F a re c o n tro lle d w ith th e g a te v o ltag e. Q О

A lso , m o s t M O S F E T s are m o d u la riz e d b y in ­

c o rp o ra tin g th e a n ti-p a ra lle l d io d e (F ig .2 -2 5 ).
M O S F E T is u se d in th e ra n g e o f 10kH z ~ K -
1 0 0 k H z b e c a u se it h a s a fa s te r sw itc h in g
Gate Gate
sp e e d th a n th e IG B T. H ow ever, it is u n su ita b le
fo r larg e c u rre n t as th e re s ista n c e in th e O N
О o
sta te is g re a te r th a n th e IGBT. Source Source

Fig.2-24

Drain
Applications of MOSFET О

It p lay s a n im p o rta n t ro le in e n h a n c in g th e
p e rfo rm a n c e o f p o w er d e v ic e s b e c a u se o f its
fa s te r sw itc h in g sp eed . F o r e x a m p le , th e e le c ­
14-
tro n ic c irc u it b o a rd o f th e c o m m u n ic a tio n d e ­
Gate o -
v ic e o r co n tro l d e v ice o p e ra te s w ith a D C v o lt­
ag e in w h ic h M O S F E T is re q u ire d to sta b iliz e
o
th e D C v o lta g e for a b e tte r p o w e r supply. Source
Fig.2-25
Warming-up operation is extremely important for starting the main engine. Initially, in
the warming-up operation, primary air compressor and fuel filter are operated, and then
the heat circulation of the fuel oil system is started by heating the lubricating oil and
fresh water and circulating them in the main engine. Most of these warming-up opera­
tions are automated. The mechanism in which machine is operated step by step in
sequence according to the prescribed procedure like warming up operation is known as
sequence control. For example, the operation where the pump starts and fuel oil is
supplied to the tank whenever fuel oil in the tank reduces and pump stops when oil level
reaches the set level is performed using sequence control. Besides this, there are many
devices on the ship which are operated automatically using the sequence control. This
chapter introduces the basics of sequence control to prepare for full-scale study.
00 Objective of Sequence Control
Examnle of automatic pump control
A s a sim p le ex am p le o f se q u e n c e c o n tro l, th e se q u e n c e c irc u it w h ic h su p p lie s fu el oil a u to m a ti­
cally to s e ttlin g ta n k by F.O. tra n s fe r p u m p is in tro d u c e d here. It is n e c e s s a ry to e n su re th a t level
o f th e fu el oil in th e s e ttlin g ta n k re m a in s w ith in th e se t level ra n g e (F ig .3 -1 ) so th a t s e ttlin g ta n k
w ill n o t e m p ty o r o verflow . To a c h ie v e it, it is n e c e s s a ry to c o n tro l th e o p e ra tio n o f F.O. tra n sfe r
p u m p , sto p p in g th e p u m p befo re fu e l oil o v e rflo w s o r s ta rtin g th e p u m p w h e n fu el oil level go es
d o w n b elo w th e set low level in th e ta n k .
M o reo v er, m o to r w h ic h su p p lie s p o w e r to th e p u m p g e n e ra te s m o d e ra te a m o u n t o f h e a t w h ile o p ­
e ratin g . H ow ever, w h e n m o to r h as b e e n sto p p e d , its te m p e ra tu re d e c re a se s g ra d u a lly b u t th e re is
a p o ss ib ility o f c o n d e n sa tio n o f c a sin g a n d co il i f te m p e ra tu re o f th e m o to r co o ls d o w n b elo w th e
s u rro u n d in g te m p e ra tu re . I f th e in n e r p a r t o f m o to r is c o n d e n se d , a n o v e r-c u rre n t m a y flo w due
to e le c tric sh o rt-c irc u it as th e in s u la tio n re s ista n c e b e tw e e n th e c o ils d ro p s. B esid es, th e re is a
p o ss ib ility o f e le c tric leak a g e i f th e in s u la tio n re s ista n c e b e tw e e n th e co il a n d m o to r fra m e is r e ­
d u ced . To p re v e n t su ch acc id e n ts in a d v a n c e , e le c tric h e a te r c a lle d sp ace h e a te r c a n b e in sta lle d
in th e m otor. S p ace h e a te r is O F F w h e n th e m o to r is ru n n in g a n d it tu r n s O N w h e n a fix e d p e rio d
o f tim e p a sse s a fte r th e m o to r c a m e to a stop.

Float type
level switch

Fig.3-1
A b o v e m e n tio n e d o p e ra tio n s o f s ta rt a n d sto p o f th e m o to r a n d tu r n in g O n /O ff o f th e sp a c e h e a te r
a re a u to m a te d by th e se q u e n c e c o n tro l c ircu it. F ig .3 -2 sh o w s th e se q u e n c e c irc u it d ia g ra m . T h e
u p p e r h a lf is th e m a in c irc u it su p p ly in g th re e -p h a se e le c tric su p p ly o f 4 4 0 V to th e m o to r, a n d low er
h a lf is th e se q u e n c e c irc u it to c o n tro l th e p o w e r supply. T h o u g h sin g le -p h a s e A C v o lta g e o f 110V is
u se d in th e se q u e n c e c irc u it, in so m e c a ses A C 4 4 0 V o r D C 12V is u se d d e p e n d in g u p o n th e p la c e
o f u sa g e a n d co n d itio n s.

Notation methods of sequence control circuit

T h e re a re tw o ty p e s o f n o ta tio n m e th o d s k n o w n as O ld n o ta tio n m e th o d (re fe rre d to a s old JIS in Ja ­
p an ) a n d N e w n o ta tio n m e th o d (re fe rre d to as N e w JIS in Ja p a n a n d also as IE C s ta n d a rd in te rn a ­
tio n ally ) fo r th e se q u e n c e c irc u it d ia g ra m . G lo b ally , th e n o ta tio n m e th o d fo r th is se q u e n c e c o n tro l
c irc u it d ia g ra m is b e in g u n ifie d in to IE C sta n d a rd . H o w ev er, in re a lity o ld JIS n o ta tio n m e th o d is
u se d in m a n y c a se s as re q u e s te d b y d o c k y a rd s, e le c tric e q u ip m e n t m a n u fa c tu re rs o r sh ip o w n ers.
M o reo v er, th e re a re m a n y n o ta tio n sy m b o ls th a t a re u se d o n ly fo r th e se q u e n c e c irc u it o f th e ship.
T h e re fo re , e n g in e e rs sh o u ld u n d e rs ta n d d iffe re n t n o ta tio n m e th o d s o f se q u e n c e circu it. T h e m o st
c o m m o n ly u s e d n o ta tio n m e th o d s a re illu s tra te d in F ig .3 -2 a n d th e n o ta tio n s to b e u se d as p e r IE C
s ta n d a rd a re illu s tra te d in F ig.3 -3 .

Old JIS IEC

€ te Switch, Relay and Contactor
In th e sw itch operatio n , o p eratio n s like p assin g th e cu rre n t b y c losin g th e circu it an d sw itc h in g o v er
th e circu it th ro u g h w h ich cu rre n t is p a sse d are p erfo rm ed . T h ere are d ifferen t ty p es o f sw itch es
in clu d in g m an u ally o p erated sw itch es, rela y sw itch es an d sen so r sw itches. T h e sw itch an d th e relay
can be classified into three ty p es a cco rd in g to m eth o d o f opeation: m a k e con tact, b reak co n tac t an d
c h an g e-o v er contact.

Make contact (a-contact, Form A, NO)

A lso re fe rre d to as “arb e it c o n ta c t”, m a k e c o n ta c t c a n b e

a b b re v ia te d as “a -c o n ta c t" o r F o rm A . I f a -c o n ta c t d o es n o t
o p e ra te , c irc u it re m a in s o p e n a n d O F F sta te is m a in ta in e d .
F o r th is, N O (N o rm a lly O p en ) sh o u ld b e m e n tio n e d o n th e
te rm in a l o f th e a-c o n ta c t. C irc u it re m a in s clo sed an d O N state
is m a in ta in e d o n ly w h ile th e a -c o n ta c t is o p e ra te d . F ig .3 -4 is
th e im a g e o f the p u sh b u tto n sw itch o f th e a -c o n ta c t an d
F ig-3 -5 is th e o u tlin e d ia g ra m o f th e sam e. In th e o p e ra tio n o f
a -c o n ta c t p u sh b u tto n sw itc h , it c lo ses th e c irc u it w h e n th e
b u tto n is p re sse d an d o p e n s th e c irc u it w ith th e sp rin g fo rce
w h en h a n d is rem o v e d fro m th e b u tto n . F ig .3 -6 is th e
sc h em atic sy m b o l o f th e a -c o n ta c t p u sh b u tto n sw itch .

Fig.3-4

Fig.3-5

Old JIS
1
o

Fig.3-6
S r q u in r e ( ontrol

Break contact (b-contact, Form B, NC)

B re a k c o n ta c t ca n b e a b b re v ia te d as b -c o n ta c t o r F o rm B. I f
b -c o n ta c t is n o t o p erated , c irc u it re m a in s c lo sed an d O N state
is m ain tain ed . F o r th is, N C (N o rm a lly C lo se) is m e n tio n e d on
th e te rm in a l o f th e b -c o n ta c t. C irc u it re m a in s o p e n a n d O F F
s ta te is m a i n ta i n e d o n ly w h e n th e b - c o n t a c t is o p e r a te d .
F i g . 3 - 7 is th e im a g e o f th e p u s h b u t t o n s w i t c h o f th e
b -c o n ta c t a n d F ig .3 - 8 is th e o u tlin e d ia g ra m o f th e sam e. In
th e o p e ra tio n o f b -c o n ta c t p u s h b u tto n s w itc h , it o p e n s th e
c ir c u it w h e n th e b u tto n is p r e s s e d a n d it c lo s e s th e c ir c u it
w ith th e sp rin g fo rce w h en h a n d is re m o v e d fro m th e b u tto n .
F ig . 3 -9 is th e sc h e m a tic sy m b o l o f th e b -c o n ta c t p u sh b u tto n
sw itch.

Fig.3-7

Fig.3-8

Old JIS

-n I ГУ К .

Fig.3-9
 2 Switch, Relay and Contactor

Change-over contact (c-contact, Form C)

C h a n g e - o v e r c o n ta c t c a n b e a b b r e v i a te d a s c - c o n t a c t o r
F o rm C. C -c o n ta c t is b a s e d o n a c o m b in a tio n o f a -c o n ta c t
a n d b -c o n ta c t. P rio r to o p e ra tio n , a -c o n ta c t is in O F F sta te
a n d b -c o n ta c t is in O N s ta te a n d w h e n s w itc h is o p e ra te d ,
a -c o n ta c t tu rn s O N an d sim u lta n e o u sly b -c o n ta c t tu rn s OFF.
F i g . 3 -1 0 is th e im a g e o f th e p u s h b u tt o n s w it c h o f th e
c -c o n ta c t an d F ig .3 -1 1 is th e o u tlin e d ia g ra m o f th e sa m e.
T h e a - c o n t a c t c lo s e s a n d th e b - c o n t a c t o p e n s w h e n th e
b u tto n is p re s se d and it retu rn s b a c k to o rig in a l state w ith the
sp rin g fo rce w h en hand is rem o v ed fro m the bu tto n .
F i g . 3 -1 2 is th e s c h e m a tic s y m b o l o f th e c - c o n t a c t p u s h
b u tto n sw itch . T h e tu rn o v e r sw itc h sh o w n in F ig .3 -1 3 is th e
c -co n tact w ith resid u al fun ctio n .

Fig.3-10

Fig.3-11

Old JIS

-o !i c­ V
-Г) I o -

Fig.3-12 Kig.J-13
Control relay

Fig.3-14 sh o w s c o n tro l re la y an d Fig.3-15 is a sc h e m a tic d ia g ra m o f th e sam e.

C o n tro l re la y is c o m p o se d o f sp rin g , e le c tro m a g n e tic c o il, m o v in g iron an d the

relay. W h en th e cu rre n t is p assed in th e co n tro l relay coil, coil turns into electro ­

m a g n e t an d it p u lls th e m o v in g iro n . R e la y is tu rn e d O N o r O F F in te rlo c k in g

w ith th e m o v in g iro n . T h e e le c tro m a g n e tic p o w e r o f the co il v an ish e s w h e n the

c u rre n t p a s s e d in th e c o il b e c o m e s z e ro an d so th e m o v in g iro n re tu rn s to its

o rig in a l p o s itio n d u e to th e s p rin g fo rc e . A s sh o w n in th e s c h e m a tic d ia g ra m ,

m an y co n tro l relay are o f c-co n tact (F o rm C ) type. T h o u g h all the co m p o n en ts o f

co n tro l relay s are set in one case, coil an d relay are o ften sh o w n se p ara te ly in the

s e q u e n c e c ir c u it d ia g ra m (Fig3-2 and Fig.3-16). In m o st c a s e s, the d o tte d lin e

w h ich sh o w s th e relatio n b etw een coil an d relay is o m itted in th e actual sequence

c irc u it d iag ram . M o reo v er, n u m b e r “4 ” is a llo tted to c o n tro l relay. It rep re sen ts

the c o n tro l d e v ic e n u m b er. T h e c o n tro l d e v ic e n u m b e r is a llo tte d to ea c h m ain

dev ice used in the se q u en ce circuit in ad v an ce d ep en d in g upon the ro le (Refer to

Annex 3). T h e n u m b e r ”4 ” in d ic a te s th e c o n tro l relay u se d in the m a in co n tro l Fig3 -14

circu it. W h en th e c u rre n t is p a s se d th ro u g h th e co il “ 4 ” , all re la y s w ith n u m b er

“4 ” o p erate sim ultaneously. S om etim es “ X ” sym bol is u sed for the control relay in the IE C standard.

Ola JIS

-< 4 >

i X-a
-o— i1—ся-
4
I
_ i -4 X-b
-o i u — Fig.3-16
 2 Switch, Relay and Contactor

Main Contactor

M ain c o n ta c to r is u sed fo r tu r n in g O N o r O F F th e h e a v y load

c u rre n t su p p lied to th e m o to r o r h e a te r (Fig.3-17). F u n d a m e n ­
tally, s tru c tu re o f th e m a in c o n ta c to r is sim ila r to th a t o f
c o n tro l relay. It tu rn s O N (a-co n tact) w h e n th e c u rre n t is
p a sse d th ro u g h th e b u ilt-in co il. A u x ilia ry rela y s im ila r to
sm a ll co n tro l relay s is a tta c h e d to it a n d it is lin k e d w ith th e
o p e ra tio n o f m ain co n tac to r. M a n y a tim e s it is a b b re v ia te d
as “ M C ” in th e c irc u it d ia g ra m (Fig.3-18). M o reo v er, “ 8 8 ” is
c o n tro l d e v ic e n u m b e r o f M C . In th e M C u se d in sh ip s,
n o ta tio n m e th o d s u se d in c irc u it d ia g ra m a re d iffe re n t fro m
O ld JIS an d IE C (Fig.3-3). T h o u g h , th e re la y a p p e a rs to b e a
c a p a c ito r at a g la n c e (I .efer to 1.2), th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
the relay an d th e c a p a c ito r c an b e e a sily id e n tifie d as n u m b e r
“ 88” is p ro v id ed .

Old JIS IEC For ships only

^ > 8 8 . MC 88

- o ^ c -----

i
,- r '
I

hM C

Fig.3-18
Sequence Control -

Timer Relay

T im e r relay is a k in d o f co n tro l relay. T h e re lay o p e ra tio n can

b e p ro lo n g ed o n ly fo r a p a rtic u la rly se t p e rio d o f tim e
(F ig .3 -1 9 ). W ith m o s t tim e r rela y s, th e re are d iffe re n t m e th ­
o d s o f o p e ra tio n (o p e ra tio n m ode). A n y o n e o p e ra tio n m o d e
c an b e se lected fro m th e s e d iffe re n t m o d e s an d u sed . T h e re
are O n -d e la y and O ff-d e la y m o d e s av ailab le as ty p ic a l o p e ra ­
tio n m o d es. In O n -d e la y m o d e, relay b e g in s to o p e ra te w h e n
a set tim e is o v er a fte r p a ss in g c u rre n t in th e co il. H o w ev er,
w h e n th e c u rre n t p assed in th e co il b e c o m e s zero , relay
re tu rn s b a c k to th e o rig in a l sta te im m e d ia te ly In the
O ff-d e la y m o d e , relay o p e ra te s im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e c u rre n t
sta rts p a ss in g th ro u g h th e co il. H o w ev er, w h e n c u rre n t
p a sse d in coil b eco m e s zero , rela y re tu rn s b a ck to its o rig in a l
sta te a fte r a set tim e h a s elap se d . T h e re a re d iffe re n t
sc h e m a tic sy m b o ls fo r O n -d e la y tim e r (F ig .3 -2 0 ) and
O ff-d e la y tim e r (F ig .3 -2 1 ).
Fig.3-19

On-delay Old JIS

timer
TLR
-ф "
A TLR-a

-О Л О
Fig.3-20

Off-delay Old JIS

timer
TLR

: TLR-a
-oV c- r ff.
TLR-b
-o 1C —
“ A ---------- Fig.3-21
 Switch, Relay and Contactor

Thermal Relay

“51” o f F ig .3 -2 an d “ T H R ” o f F ig .3 -3 a re th e rm a l relays.
T h e rm a l relay ca n b e u se d to c u t o f f th e c irc u it w h e n e x c e s­
sive c u rre n t is p assed in th e c irc u it (F ig .3 -2 2 ). T h e rm a l relay
is c o m p o se d o f m a in c irc u it te rm in a l a n d a u x ilia ry relay w ith
b u ilt-in h e a te r an d b im eta l (F ig .3 -2 3 ). W h e n th e ex cessiv e
c u rre n t is p a sse d to th e m a in c irc u it te rm in a l, h e a t is g e n e r­
ated by th e h e a te r w h ich d e fo rm s b im e ta l. T h e d e fo rm a tio n
in th e b im e ta l c a u ses a u x ilia ry relay to o p erate.
In th e seq u e n c e circ u it, ex c e ssiv e c u rre n t can be d e te c te d b y
o p e ra tin g th e a u x ilia ry relay. A u x ilia ry relay d o e s n o t re tu rn
to o rig in a l state au to m a tic a lly e v en i f th e e x cessiv e c u rre n t is
sto p p ed . T h e refo re, a u x ilia ry re lay sh o u ld b e re tu rn e d to its
o rig in a l sta te m a n u a lly a fte r re s o lv in g th e e x cessiv e c u rre n t
e rro r a n d c o n firm in g safety. In m a n y c a se s, th e rm a l re lay is
b u ilt in M C CB (R efer to 3 .4 ) o r in m a in co n tac to r.

Fig.3-22

Old JIS

51 ~j THR

51 THR
-Q f>

Fig.3-23
€ te Sensor switch
A v a rie ty o f se n s o r sw itc h e s a re u sed in th e se q u e n c e c ircu it. W ith s e n s o r sw itch , th e relay o p e ra te s
w h en th e te m p e ra tu re , p re s su re an d w a te r level re a c h e s set v alu es. T h is se c tio n d e sc rib e s a few
se n so r sw itch es.

Pressure Switch

F ig .3 -2 4 is a n ex am p le o f p re s su re sw itch . P re s su re sw itc h is
c o m p o se d o f co m p o n e n ts th a t d e te c t p re s su re , an d a u x ilia ry
relay. R elay o p e ra te s w h en p re s su re g o e s ab o v e o r b elo w a
set v a lu e (F ig .3 -2 5 ). P re s su re sw itc h is u se d fo r co n tro llin g
th e a ir c o m p re sso r a n d a ir c o n d itio n in g co m p resso r.

Fig.3-24

Old JIS

63

-Q__ Q- PRS
63

If:
Fig.3-25
Scqucocc С imirol

Level Switch

A u x ilia ry relay o p e ra te s w h e n w a te r level in th e ta n k

g o es abo v e o r b elow a c e rta in level. T h e re a re v a rio u s
m e th o d s to d e te c t th e w a te r level. F o r ex am p le, F ig .3 -
26 in d ic a te s a flo a t ty p e level sw itch . R elay o p e ra te s
ac c o rd in g to th e v e rtic a l m o v e m en t o f th e flo a t. S c h e ­
m atic sy m b o ls are sh o w n in F ig .3 -2 7 . S in ce a lim it
sw itch is u se d fo r th e relay o f level sw itc h , th e level
sw itch is o fte n re p re se n te d w ith th e sam e sy m b o l as
lim it sw itch in d iag ram .
B esid es th is, th e re is an e le c tro d e ty p e level sw itch
(F ig .3 -2 8 ). W hen m u ltip le e le c tro d e s w ith v a rie d
le n g th s a re in s e rte d in th e ta n k , th e sta te o f w a te r level
in th e ta n k can b e k n o w n b y d e te c tin g th e sta te o f
c u rre n t p a ss in g th ro u g h e a c h e lec tro d e . U p p e r an d
lo w er lim its o f w a te r level in th e ta n k a re d e te rm in e d b y
in s ta lla tio n p o sitio n s o f th e e le c tro d es.

Fig.3-26

Sequence
Old JIS
circuit

-O C-
FS FLTS

T lts

Fig.3-27 Fig.3-28
Sequence Control

Temperature Switch

F ig .3 -2 9 sh o w s an ex am p le o f th e te m p e ra tu re sw itch . In th e
te m p e ra tu re sw itch, the re la y o p erate s w h e n th e te m p e ra tu re
to be m e asu red g o es ab o v e a se t v alu e. T h e rm isto r (R e fe r to
5 .2) an d b im e ta l are o ften u se d in th e te m p eratu re d ete c tio n
co m p o n en t. M o reo v er, in so m e te m p e ra tu re sw itch es, re la y is
o p e ra te d b y u sin g the p h e n o m e n o n w h e re sp e c ial liq u id th a t is
e n c lo se d in th e sen so r e x p a n d s due to heat. In m a n y cases, th e
te m p e ra tu re sw itch is sh o w n as th e lim it sw itc h in circu it
d ia g ra m w ith the sam e sy m b o l as o th e r se n so r sw itch es
m e n tio n e d earlier (F ig .3 -3 0 ).

Fig.3-29
@ 0 Others
H ere, devices from the sequence circu it d iag ram o f F ig.3-2 and Fig.3-3 are m ain ly explained.

MCCB

D 9
•
F ig.3-31 is M C C B and F ig .3 -3 2 is its sc h e m atic sy m b o l in f rm
© в
d ia g ra m . M C C B (M o ld ed C a se C irc u it B re a k e r) a re re fe rre d • •

to as N F B (N o n F u se B reak er) o r sim p ly “ B re a k e r”. W h e n

th e c u rre n t g re a te r th a n th e ra te d c u rre n t o f M C C B is p a ss e d
th ro u g h th e c ircu it, c irc u it b re a k s. B e sid es th is, th e re is
M C C B c o m in g w ith a fu n c tio n w h e re c irc u it b re a k s if
e le c tric leak a g e o r p h a se in te rru p tio n is d e te c ted . E le c tric
le a k a g e im p lies th e situ a tio n w h e re c u rre n t lea k s w h e n the
w irin g o f the c irc u it o r a p a r t o f th e te rm in a l to u c h es th e
d ev ic e o r ship b o d y w h ic h is n o t a p a rt o f th e e le c tric a l
circu it. P h ase in te rru p tio n m eans th e situ a tio n w h e re
c u rre n t fro m an y o ne o f th e th re e -p h a s e w irin g s fa ils to p ass
th ro u g h th e circu it.

Fig.3-31

Old JIS IEC For ships only

52 MCCB
-О О -X

-o o -X

-o o- -X

Fig.3-32
Sequence Control

Transformer

F ig .3 -3 3 sh o w s a tr a n s f o r m e r a n d F ig .3 -3 4 sh o w s its s c h e ­
m a tic sy m b o l. A s d e s c rib e d in 1.4, A C v o lta g e c a n b e ra is e d
o r d e c r e a s e d b y u s in g th e tr a n s fo r m e r. It is m a in ly u s e d in
th e s e q u e n c e c ir c u it to re d u c e th e v o lta g e a s a s te p - d o w n
tr a n s fo r m e r. In a d d itio n , it c a n a ls o b e u s e d to in s u la te th e
p rim a ry an d se c o n d a ry circ u its.

Fig.3-33

Old JIS IEС ^ Ш For si ups only

u
n
1л л а ]
p r v V |

T
Fig.3-34
Fuse

F ig .3 -3 5 show s a fu se a n d F ig .3 -3 6 sh o w s its sc h e m a tic

sy m b o l. F u se cu ts o f f th e e le c tric c irc u it w h e n a n ex cessiv e
c u rre n t g re a te r th a n a c e rta in set v alu e flo w s th ro u g h the
circu it. V ario u s circ u its su ch as m a in c irc u it an d c o n tro l­
lin g c irc u it a re p ro te c te d fro m th e e x cessiv e c u rre n t b y
u sin g th e fu se. H ow ever, o n ce a fu se is b lo w n , it c a n n o t be
reu sed . It sh o u ld be rep lac ed .

Fig.3-35

Old JIS For ships only

Fig.3-36
Scoucncc Control

Lamp

L a m p s a re u sed to d isp lay th e o p e ra tio n sta te o f th e m o to r or

to d isp lay an E rro r (F ig .3 -3 7 ). L E D is u se d in la te st la m p s due
to its m e rits lik e lo n g life, h ig h lu m in a n c e a n d low p o w e r
c o n su m p tio n . F ig .3 -3 8 sh o w s sc h e m a tic sy m b o l o f th e lam p
(R ed). E sp ecia lly , in c a se w h e re th e se q u e n c e c irc u it is
o p e ra te d by D C and th e + - d ire ctio n s o f L E D n eed to be
clearly in d icated , so m etim e s th e n o tatio n s as sh o w n in F ig .3 -3 9
a re used . T h e n o tatio n o f the la m p ’s c o lo r in O ld JIS is d ifferen t
fro m IE C stan d ard (T ab le .3 -1 ).

Fig.3-37

■ ;T T « !T 1
Old JIS RL BL YL WL GL OL
IEC RD BU YE WH GN

Table.3-1

Old JIS

О # ■

Fig.3-38 Fig.3-39
Motor

E le c tric m o to rs a re c la s sifie d in to a sin g le -p h a se m o to r th a t o p e ra te s b y sin g le -p h a se AC

v o ltag e an d 3 -p h a se m o to r th a t o p e ra te s b y 3 -p h a se A C voltage.
W h ile th e sin g le -p h a se m o to r is u se d fo r v e n tila tio n fan s a n d sm a ll c o o lin g fa n s, a lm o st
all th e m o to rs u se d in th e sh ip a re 3 -p h a se m o to rs.
Im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e m o to r s ta rts , th e h e a v y c u rre n t c a lle d s ta rtin g c u rre n t sta rts
flo w in g , w h ich is 5 tim e s g re a te r th a n th e ra te d c u rre n t. W h e n su ch s ta rtin g c u rre n t is
p a sse d , M C C B m a y b re a k th e c irc u it by m is ta k in g it as a n e x cessiv e c u rre n t. S in ce a h u g e
a m o u n t o f sta rtin g c u rre n t flo w s in p ro p o rtio n to th e size o f th e m o to r, it b e c o m e s n e c e s ­
sa ry to c o n tro l th e sta rtin g c u rre n t w h e n s ta rtin g a larg e m o tor. T h e re a re 5 m e th o d s o f
sta rtin g th e m otor.

a. D ir e c t co n n e c t sta r tin g
b. Y-A c o n n e c t sta r tin g
c. A u to -tr a n sfo r m e r sta r tin g (K o n d o r fe r sta r tin g )
d. R ea cto r sta r tin g
e. R o to r -r e sista n c e sta r tin g

D ire c t c o n n e c t s ta rtin g is a m o to r s ta rtin g m e th o d w h e re s ta rtin g c u rre n t is n o t c o n tro lle d ;

th is m e th o d is u se d at m a n y p la c e s o n th e ship. T h e sta rtin g c u rre n t is c o n tro lle d in “ b ~ e ”
s ta rtin g m e th o d s. D iffe re n t s ta rtin g m e th o d s in clu d e d in “ b ~ e ” sta rtin g m e th o d s a re u se d
a c c o rd in g to m o to r size a n d ty p e o f load. R e fe r to o th e r te x tb o o k s fo r d e ta ils. In b o th IE C
a nd O ld JIS , th e sc h em atic sy m b o l “ M ” is sh o w n in a c irc le (F ig .3 -4 0 ). Fan m a rk and
p u m p m a rk m ay be p ro v id ed o n th e m o to r (F ig .3 -4 1 ).

Motor for fan Motor for pump

M M
нЭ (— 0

Fig.3-40 Fig.3-41
 о

Programmable Controller

In th e se q u e n c e c o n tro l c irc u it s tu d ie d in th is c h a p ­
te r , a s s h o w n in F ig .3 - 2 a n d F i g . 3 -3 , th e c o n tr o l
c ir c u it is c o m p o s e d o f m u tu a lly c o n n e c te d d e v ic e s
s u c h a s s w itc h e s , t i m e r s a n d c o n tr o l re la y s . B e ­
c a u s e o f th is , w ir in g o f th e c ir c u it b e c o m e s c o m ­
p lex . M o reo v er, w h en the c o n tro llin g ta rg e ts o r c o n ­
tr o llin g m e th o d s a re to b e c h a n g e d , it is n e c e s s a ry
to r e p la c e th e w ir i n g a s w e ll. T h e r e f o r e , it is n o t
s u ita b le fo r th e c o m p le x c o n tro l ta s k s. O n th e o th e r
h a n d , w h en a p ro g ra m m a b le c o n tro lle r (F ig .3 -4 2 ) is
u s e d , c o n n e c tin g a lm o s t all th e d e v ic e s to p ro g ra m ­
m a b le c o n tr o lle r s u f f ic e s , m a k in g th e w ir in g a ls o
s im p le . M o re o v e r, w h e n th e c o n tr o llin g m e th o d is
c h a n g e d , o n ly th e p r o g r a m h a s to b e r e w r i t t e n ,
e lim in a tin g th e n e e d to c h a n g e th e w irin g .
T h e re fo re , p ro g ra m m a b le c o n tro lle r is th e ch o ic e for
c o m p lic a te d se q u e n c e c o n tro lle r. T h o u g h th e r e a re
v a r io u s p ro d u c ts a v a ila b le a c c o r d in g to m a n u f a c ­
tu r e r an d ty p e , in m a n y c a se s, O N /O F F rela y is u se d
fo r “c o n tro l o u tp u t”. M o re o fte n th a n n o t, a -c o n ta c t
o f th e o u tp u t te rm in a l is d isp la y e d as N O (N o rm a lly
O p e n ) a n d b -c o n ta c t is d is p la y e d as N C (N o rm a lly
C lo se ). P r o g r a m m a b le c o n tr o lle r is r e f e r r e d to as
P L C (P ro g ra m m a b le L o g ic C o n tro lle r) o r P ro g r a m ­
m ab le R elay o r sim p ly S eq u en cer.

Fig.3-42
 © How to Read Sequence Circuit
S e q u e n c e c irc u it c o n tro ls w ith in a se t ra n g e th e level o f th e F.O. S e ttlin g ta n k , as e x p la in e d in 3.1,
is c o m p o se d o f v a rio u s d ev ic e s d e sc rib e d in 3 .2 ~ 3 .4 (F ig .3 -4 3 ). H ig h level a n d low level flo a t
sw itc h e s are o f “ b -c o n ta c t” ty p e a n d relay is o f “ n o rm a lly clo se” ty p e . R elay o p e n s w h e n flo a t rises.
O p e ra tio n o f se q u e n c e c irc u it u sin g th e se q u e n c e c irc u it o f th e IE C sta n d a rd is e x p la in e d in th is
se c tio n . T h o u g h th e n o ta tio n m e th o d s a re d iffe re n t b e tw e e n IE C sta n d a rd a n d O ld JIS , o p e ra tio n o f
th e c irc u it is th e sam e.

Induction

$
IT Space motor
Heater for
MCCB Heater pump
Contactor
M C - sh

Fuse

p m rj

* ■f
f WH
i)

Float switch [
(low level) lamp Coil

- jf^ L i Auto ......... X,

THR Tr ^ : Г~ , I
LS-h I L_r
PBS-a Manuail PBSb Float switch
(high level)
lC

X -a -''' COS/
Form С е л а
Relays& X -a - Coil 3r r r r

I— I M C - s h
£ H r.3-43
When tank is empty
(Automatic control)
A s a n in itia l c o n d itio n , it is a ss u m e d th a t ta n k is
e m p ty (F ig .3 -4 4 ). C o n sid e r th a t th e rela y s o f
h ig h level an d low level flo a t sw itc h e s are
clo sed . M o reo v er, a ssu m e th a t th e c h a n g e -o v e r
sw itch , w h ich selects A u to c o n tro l o r M a n u a l
c o n tro l, is set to M a n u a l m od e. O p e ra tio n s o f
su ch se q u e n c e c irc u it (F ig .3 -4 5 ) a re as follow s:

[1] M C C B is tu r n e d O N . Fig.3-44
L[2] V oltage is su p p lied to seq u e n c e c irc u it
th ro u g h th e tra n sfo rm e r, e n a b lin g [3-l][3 -2 ] o p e ra tio n s to b e c a rrie d o u t sim u ltan eo u sly .
—13-1] W h ite lam p W H is tu rn e d O N .
I—(3-2] C u rre n t is p a ss e d th ro u g h X -b a n d co il o f O N d e lay tim e r T L R is e x cited . H e re re la y o f
T L R o p e ra te s i f no o p e ra tio n is c a rrie d o u t fro m th e tim e o f ex c ita tio n till a set tim e h as
e la p se d (10 m in u te s in th e F igure). H o w ev er, h e re p u m p is o p e ra te d im m e d ia tely .
-[ 4 ] P u s h b u tto n sw itc h “P B S -a ” is p re sse d . T h e c u rre n t is p a ss e d th ro u g h P B S -a -*■
c h a n g e -o v e r sw itch (C O S ) -*• p u sh b u tto n sw itc h (P B S -b ) -»• h ig h level flo a t sw itch
(L S -н) —►c o n tro l re lay (X ) co il a n d fin a lly X co il is ex cited .
T h is e n ab le s [5-l][5-2][5-3][5-4] o p e ra tio n s to b e c a rrie d o u t sim u ltan e o u sly .
-[5 -1 ] is tu rn e d O N , th e c u rre n t is p a ss e d th ro u g h X -a —* P B S -b —►L S - i-i —►X .
T h e refo re, ev en th o u g h th e fin g e r is re m o v e d fro m th e P B S -a, X c o n tin u e s to b e excited .
T h is state is c a lle d se lf-h o ld in g state o f X .
-[5 -2 ] is tu r n e d O N , th e co il o f M C is e x cite d , e n a b lin g th e o p e ra tio n [6] to be
c a rrie d out.
- [ 5 - 3 ] W h e n X -a is tu rn e d O N , o p e ra tio n lam p (G reen ) illu m in a te s.
I - [5-4] is tu r n e d O FF, tim e r c o il T L R is d e m a g n e tiz e d .
Ц ч W h e n M C co il is e x c ite d , c o n ta c to r o f M C is tu r n e d O N a n d c u rre n t is p a sse d
to m o to r th ro u g h M C C B , M C a n d T H R , a n d m o to r sta rts . T h e n th e p u m p sta rts
o p e ra tin g to su p p ly w a te r in to th e ta n k .

G e n e rally , th e c h a n g e -o v e r sw itch is sw itc h e d o v e r to A u to m o d e a fte r c o n firm in g th e s ta rt o f th e

p u m p o p e ra tio n as th e F.O. tra n s fe r p u m p u s u a lly o p e ra te s in “A u to c o n tro l o p e ra tio n ” m o d e. T h e
p u m p o p e ra tio n co n tin u e s as X re m a in s in se lf-h o ld in g sta te e v e n a fte r it w as sw itc h e d over.
Fig.Л-45
When tank is full
(Automatic control)
I f th e p u m p o p e ra tio n c o n tin u e s, th e F.O. level
rise s as sh o w n in F ig .3 -4 6 . H e re , L S -н flo a t
rise s a n d L S -н relay tu r n s O FF. W e w ill ex p la in
th e o p e ra tio n o f se q u e n c e c irc u it fro m th is sta te
(F ig .3 -4 7 ).

[7] W h e n L S -н relay is tu r n e d O FF, c u rre n t

p a ss e s th ro u g h X -a —* P B S -b —►L S -н —*■ X
is c u t o f f an d X coil is d e m a g n e tiz e d , e n a lin g [8-l][8 -2 ][8 -3 ][8 -4 ] o p e ra tio n s to b e c a rrie d o u t
sim u ltan eo u sly .
-18-1] X d o es n o t re m a in in se lf-h o ld in g sta te as X -a tu r n s O FF.
-[8 -2 ] M C coil is d e m a g n e tiz e d as X -a tu r n s O FF. T h e n o p e ra tio n [9] is c a rrie d out.
- [ 8 - 3 | O p e ra tio n lam p (G reen ) g o es o u t a s X -a tu r n s OFF.
4 8 - 4 ] T im e r (T L R ) coil is ex c ite d b y tu r n in g O N th e X -b. T h e n th e o p e ra tio n [10] is c a rrie d out.
L |9] W h e n th e c o n ta c to r o f M C tu r n s O FF, th e p o w e r su p p ly to m o to r is c u t o f f a n d a s a re s u lt
th e p u m p stops.

L [10] T L R relay tu r n s O N a fte r a n ela p se o f se t p e rio d o f tim e (lO m in in F ig .3 -4 7 ). M C -sh

Lc co il is excited.
LiI l l ] W h e n M C - sh is e x cited , c u rre n t is p a ss e d to sp a c e h e a te r as th e c o n ta c to r o f M C - sh
tu r n s O N . T h is p re v e n ts c o n d e n sa tio n o f th e m o to r w h ic h o c c u rs d u e to co o lin g .

M o reo v er, i f liq u id level g o es d o w n g ra d u a lly w h ile p u m p is sto p p e d , th e L S -н flo a t d ro p s an d , as a

re s u lt, L S -н relay tu r n s O N a g ain . H o w ev er, m o to r re m a in s sto p p ed b e c a u se th e X co il is n o t
e x cited . F u rth e r, w h e n th e w a te r level g o es d o w n a n d i f L S - l flo a t also falls, th e L S - l re la y tu r n s
O N . I f C O S is set to A u to m o d e, X g e ts ex c ite d a n d re tu rn s to se q u e n c e o p e ra tio n [5-1]. B y re p e a tin g
th is o p e ra tio n , th e level in th e ta n k is c o n tro lle d w ith in th e set level. H o w ev er, i f th e C O S re m a in s
in m a n u a l m o d e, X is n o t e x c ite d e v e n th o u g h th e L S - l is tu r n e d O N , p u m p d o es n o t o p e rate . T he
ta n k b e c o m e s e m p ty in tim e.
Manual operation
N e x t, le t u s ta k e a n ex am p le
Auto level
controller
w h e re p u m p is sto p ed m a n u ­
a lly a n d is sta rte d ag ain . A s Auto _ M anu

sh o w n in F ig .3 -4 8 , w a te r level 0
in th e ta n k is h a lf a n d it is
a ss u m e d th a t th e pum p is ©о
Start Stop
o p e ra tin g in A u to m ode. T h is
tim e , L S -n re lay is O N and
L S - l relay is O F F (F ig .3 -4 9 ).

Fig.3-48

[12] P B S -b is p re s se d . C u rre n t p a ss in g th ro u g h X -a —* P B S -b —►L S -н —►X is c u t a n d X is d e m a g ­

n e tiz e d . A fte r th is, se q u e n c e o p e ra tio n c o n tin u e s to [8-1] an d , at th e en d , p u m p is sto p p e d . N ex t,
th e p u m p o p e ra tio n is re su m e d .
[13] F irst, c h a n g e -o v e r sw itc h is se t to M a n u a l m ode.
I— [14] W h e n P B S -a is p re s se d , c u rre n t p a ss e s th ro u g h P B S -a —►C O S —►P B S -b —* L S -н -*■ X
an d X is excited. T h e n se q u e n c e o p e ra tio n c o n tin u e s to [5-1] an d p u m p o p erate s.

F u rth e r, it is a ss u m e d th a t ex cessiv e c u rre n t g re a te r th a n th e ra te d o n e is p a ss e d to m o to r d u rin g th e

p u m p o p e ra tio n . F o r ex am p le, a ssu m e th a t m o to r sto p s d u e to d a m a g e to th e m o to r b e a rin g o r large
q u a n tity o f d ir t stic k in g th e v a in in th e ta n k , c a u sin g th e lo a d o n th e m o to r to in c re a se trem en d o u sly .
T h e se q u e n c e c irc u it o p e ra tio n in su c h c o n d itio n is g iv e n as follow s:

115] A a ex cessiv e c u rre n t p a sse s to th e m o to r, h e a t g e n e ra te s in th e h e a te r o f th e th e rm a l re lay T H R .

1— [16] T H R relay o f th e seq u e n c e c irc u it o p e n s d u e to h e a t g e n e ra tio n in th e T H R h eater.
I— [17] C u rre n t is c u t o f f b e c a u se th e T H R re lay o p en s. X c o il d e m a g n e tiz e s as a r e s u l t .

A fte r th is, th e seq u e n c e o p e ra tio n c o n tin u e s to [8-1]. H o w ev er, T H R re la y d o es n o t re tu rn a u to m a ti­

cally. T h e re fo re , i f th e relay is le ft in sa m e sta te , ta n k b e c o m e s e m p ty e v e n th o u g h th e L S - l flo a t
fa lls d o w n sin ce th e m o to r is n o t o p e ra te d au to m a tic a lly . M C C B sh o u ld b e tu r n e d O F F w h ile e x a m ­
in in g th e re a s o n o f ex cessiv e c u rre n t p a ss in g th ro u g h th e m o to r. I f th e p ro b le m h a s b e e n so lv ed , tu rn
M C C B an d T H R O N an d s ta rt o p e ra tio n fro m [13].
Н*.Д-49
D u s t c a n ea sily a c c u m u la te in sid e th e c o n tro l p anel
in w h ic h se q u e n c e c o n tro l c irc u it is fitte d . I f th is
d u st g ets a c c u m u la te d b e tw e e n th e c o n tro l relay
te rm in a l an d th e M C te rm in a l, th e e le c tric c u rre n t
m a y flo w rig h t th ro u g h it. In su ch a case , h e a t w ill
b e g e n e ra te d in th e a c c u m u la te d d u st w h ic h m ay
le a d to fire. M o reo v er, th is fire m a y b u rn o u t th e
e le c tric cab les w h ic h a re la id in sid e th e p an e l an d in
th e w o rst case it m a y b u rn o u t th e w h o le c o n tro l
p a n e l itself. In o rd e r to p re v e n t o c c u rre n c e o f su ch
in c id e n ts, it is n e c e ss a ry to b lo w o f f th e d u st a c c u ­
m u la te d in s id e th e c o n tro l p a n e l a n d th e sw itch
b o a rd w ith th e h elp o f c o m p re sse d a ir at re g u la r in ­
te rv a ls. H o w ev er, i f c o tto n w a ste is u se d , th e oil
ft ft ft
sm u d g e d o n th e c o tto n w a ste m a y stic k to th e te r­
m in a l b o a rd a n d d u st w ill all th e m o re e a sily a c c u ­
m u late. U se o f c o tto n w a ste sh o u ld b e avoided.

T h e eq u ip m e n t lik e p u sh b u tto n sw itc h a n d relay

a re c o n n e c te d to each o th e r w ith e le c tric cables.
S crew s th a t fix th e c o n n e c tio n te rm in a l o f th e s e
e le c tric cab les a re liab le to lo o se n d u e to v ib ra tio n s.
T h u s, it is n e c e s s a ry to p e rio d ic a lly ch e ck w h e th e r
th e screw s a re tig h t o r not.
All electrical machinery and apparatuses consume electric power. For example, sea
water cooling pump needs three-phase 220V AC voltage. On the other hand, fluorescent
lamp needs 110V single-phase AC voltage, and telecommunications equipment and
computers need 42V, 12V, 5V, and 3.3V DC voltage. However, many of generators
installed on ship output 440V three-phase AC voltage (recently, generators that output
6600V or higher voltage are used in large container ships). Therefore, voltage generated
from the generator can not be directly used on many of these devices. It becomes neces­
sary to use electric power conversion circuit, when type of the generated electric power
and type of the consumed electric power differ.

AC DC

' V Conversion

Purposes for us

Frequency control
 Power conversion processes like conver­
sion from AC to DC, DC to AC, step­
ping up / stepping down of voltage,
maintaining the stable voltage, changing
of frequency are carried out by the
power conversion circuit. In this chap­
ter, we will learn about roles of the
electric power conversion circuit based
on what we have studied in Chapter 1
and Chapter 2.

DC
DC

Step up/down

iwer Converter

Stabilizing
and
smoothing
Qo Series Regulator
S c rie s re g u la to r is a se m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e u se d fo r m a in ta in in g c o n sta n t D C v o lta g e (F ig .4 -1 ). P re ­
cisio n eq u ip m e n t in c o rp o ra tin g se m ic o n d u c to rs re q u ire s D C v o ltag e for p o w e r supply. T h is D C
v o lta g e sh o u ld b e c o n sta n t and sh o u ld n o t b e tim e -v a ria n t; se m ic o n d u c to rs in s ta lle d in la te st c o m ­
p u te rs re q u ire th e p o w er su p p ly u n it o f 1.2V ±5% (i.e. 1.14V -1.26V )
— a h ig ly d e m a n d in g re q ire m e n t. T h e se rie s re g u la to r c a n b e u se d to
g e n e ra te su ch ty p e o f ste a d y a n d c o n sta n t v oltag e.

In Series
Regulator
Gnd

v .\ Vi

'
In Gnd
f \Out
Fig.4-1

I] j 5 M nt ^

T h e in p u t v o lta g e o f se rie s re g u la to r sh o u ld b e h ig h e r b y a t-le a s t 1,4 V th a n o u tp u t v o lta g e.

T h e re a re e v e n se rie s re g u la to rs w ith th e v o lta g e d iffe re n c e o f m o re th a n 3V. L a rg e r th e d iffe r­
e n ce b e tw e e n in p u t a n d o u tp u t v o lta g e , th e g re a te r th e p o w e r lo ss g e n e ra te d b y se rie s re g u la to r.
F o r in s ta n c e , su p p o se th e in p u t v o lta g e is 12V a n d in p u t c u rre n t is 1A , a 12W p o w e r is su p p lie d
to th e se rie s reg u lato r. I f o u tp u t v o lta g e is 5 V an d o u tp u t c u rre n t is 1A, o u tp u t e le c tric p o w e r
b e c o m e s 5W . T h is d iffe re n c e o f 7 W b e tw e e n 12W in p u t p o w e r a n d 5W o u tp u t p o w e r is th e
p o w e r lo ss in th e series re g u la to r. In o th e r w o rd s, th e p o w e r c o n v e rs io n e ffic ie n c y o f th is se rie s
re g u la to r is (5 W /1 2 W ) X 100% = 4 1 .7 % .
T h e o p e ra tio n o f the se rie s re g u la to r is e x p la in e d in F ig .4 -2 w ith th e help o f a w a te r ta n k .
T h e w a te r p re ssu re Pi av aila b le fro m Tank-1 is p ro p o rtio n a l to w a te r level Hi o f th e ta n k . W h e n
th e p re s su re P 2 w h ich is less th a n Pi is re q u ire d , an o v e rflo w p ip e lik e T ank-2 n e ed s to b e p ro ­
v id e d . a s a re su lt, w a te r level H 2 o f th e T ank-2 c a n b e lo w ered th a n Hi, an d th e w a te r p re s su re P 2
av ailab le fro m T ank-2 is lo w ered in p ro p o rtio n to th e w a te r level H 2 . T h o u g h th e p rin cip le is v e ry
sim p le, th e w a sta g e is sig n ific a n t as w a te r alw ay s flo w s o u t fro m th e o v e rflo w pipe.
A s th e w a ste fu l c u rre n t fro m G N D te rm in a l flo w s o u t, th e e ffic ie n c y o f th e se rie s re g u la to r also
d e c re a se s. H en ce it c a n n o t b e u se d in e le c tric c irc u its re q u irin g h ig h p o w e r c o n su m p tio n . H o w ­
ever, it is u sed as a p o w e r su p p ly in sm a ll e le c tric c irc u its as it h as fe a tu re s su ch as low n o ise an d
low v o ltag e ripple.

Load 1 Load 2
Fig.4-2

A s th e w h o le p o w e r loss c o n v e rts in to h e a t, th e
se ries re g u la to r b e c o m e s h o t d u rin g o p e ra tio n . To
p re v en t th e d a m a g e fro m th is h e a tin g , th e series
re g u la to r is o fte n co o led w ith th e h e a t sin k .
О ё) DC to DC Converter
T h e A C v o ltag e can be ea sily ra is e d a n d d ro p p e d b y u sin g tra n s fo rm e r (R e f e r to 1.4).
H o w ever, th e D C v o ltag e c a n n o t b e c o n v e rte d to h ig e r a n d lo w e r v o ltag e b y u sin g a tra n sfo rm e r
alo n e. M o reo v er, w h en larg e c u rre n t o f h ig h -v o lta g e D C p o w e r is o u tp u t, th e lin e a r re g u la to r is n o t
a p p ro p ria te b e c a u se o f its low efficien cy . T h e b a tte ry sh o u ld n o t b e w a ste d so as to u se th e e q u ip ­
m e n t lik e tra n sc e iv e rs, w h ic h o p e ra te s o n b a tte ry fo r a lo n g tim e ev e n i f p o w e r c o n su m p tio n is low.
T h e refo re, D C -D C p o w e r co n v ersio n d e v ice b e c o m e s n e c e ss a ry th a t u se s th e p o w e r se m ic o n d u c to r
d e v ic e s as d e sc rib e d in C h a p te r 2. It is u se d at v a rio u s p la c e s lik e m e a s u rin g eq u ip m e n t a n d e le c ­
tro n ic e q u ip m e n t o f p o rta b le ty p e , c o m p u te r, e le c tric c irc u it b o a rd in c o n tro l p an e l a n d ra d io c o m ­
m u n ic a tio n e q u ip m e n t, etc. It h a s b e c o m e a n in d isp e n sa b le d e v ic e fo r e n e rg y c o n se rv a tio n .
D C -D C p o w e r co n v ersio n d e v ic e c a n b e ro u g h ly c la s sifie d as D C -D C c o n v e rte r w h e re in in p u t an d
o u tp u t a re in s u la te d , an d n o n -in su la te d D C ch o p p er. H ere, D C c h o p p e r is b rie fly e x p lain ed .

Иц.4.1
/ 1.

£>l.f Г' DZi t

T h e b u c k c h o p p e r sh o w n in F ig .4 -3 is u se d fo r o b ta in in g o u tp u t D C v o lta g e Voat b y ste p p in g d o w n

th e in p u t D C v o ltag e Vm . IG B T an d M O S F E T a re u se d as s e m ic o n d u c to r sw itc h Sw. F ig .4 - 4 is a
sim p lifie d d ia g ra m o f th e o p e ra tio n o f th is c irc u it. H ere, th e w a te r level H i o f Tank-1 re p re se n ts in ­
p u t v o lta g e Via, w a te r level H 2 o f T ank-2 re p re se n ts o u tp u t v o lta g e Voni, w a te r s c o o p e d o u t fro m
Tank-1 to T ank-2 re p re se n ts c u rre n t t i n p a ss in g th ro u g h Sw, w a te r o u tp u t fro m T ank-2 re p re sen ts
c u rre n t co n su m e d by lo ad resistan ce
Fig.4-4 * Rload an d m o v em en t o f p erso n and
lad le rep resen ts Sw+D+L. T h e b u ck
c h o p p er o b serv es th e w a te r level o f
T ank-2 or am o u n t o f w a te r fro m
T ank-2 flo w in g to load, a n d tran sfe rs
th e a m o u n t o f w a te r n e c e ssa ry for
m a in ta in in g th e sp ec ifie d w a te r level
1 Set
level H 2. T h e b uck ch o p p e r can lo w er the
voltage ( V'm> Vout), a n d m a in ta in it
at c o n sta n t level b y u sin g th is basic

Tank-1 principle.
Load
 F ig .4 -5 sh o w s a b o o st c h o p p e r
th a t is u se d fo r ra isin g D C v o lt­
age. O u tp u t D C v o lta g e Voat is
level o b ta in e d b y ste p p in g u p th e in p u t
D C v o lta g e V m . IG B T a n d M O S -
F E T a re u se d as se m ic o n d u c to r
sw itc h Sw . F ig .4 -6 is a sim p li­
fie d d ia g ra m o f th e o p e ra tio n o f
th is circu it.
A s th e se c h o p p e rs do n o t p a ss
w a ste c u rre n t, u n lik e lin e a r re g u ­
Tank-t lato r, th ey are v e ry efficien t.

W a ter sc o o p in g o u t o p e ra tio n re p re se n ts "O N " a n d "O F F " o p e ra tio n o f se m ic o n d u c to r sw itch .

It w ill be ea sy n o w to im a g in e th a t th e c h a n g e s in w a te r level H 2 ca n b e re d u c e d b y re d u c in g the
q u a n tity o f o u tp u t w a te r at a tim e a n d in c re a sin g th e sp e e d (F ig .4 -7 ). T h e w a te r sc o o p in g o u t
sp e e d is a sw itc h in g fre q u e n c y in ch o p p er. F lu c tu a tio n s in Vout c a n b e re d u c e d b y m a k in g th e
sw itc h in g fre q u e n c y higher. T herefore,
generally, th e sw itch in g fre q u e n cy o f
ch o p p er is v e ry high (several 10kH z to
several 100kH z).
E v en so, flu c tu a tio n s in Voat c a n n o t b e
e lim in a te d com pletely.
S uch slig h t flu c tu a tio n s in v o ltag e b e ­
co m e n o ise an d m ay affe c t v a rio u s
k in d s o f ele c tro n ic e q u ip m e n t. F o r in ­
sta n c e , d a ta o b ta in e d fro m th e te m p e ra ­
tu re se n so r an d th e to rq u e se n so r m a y
b e c o m e in a c c u ra te d ue to th e n oise.
M o reo v er, c o n tro l c irc u its an d c o m p u t­
ers m ay a lso m a lfu n c tio n d u e to n oise.
T h is p h e n o m e n o n can n o t o n ly b e se e n
in c h o p p e r but in all ty p e o f p o w e r c o n ­
v e rte rs in c lu d in g in v e rte rs as w ell. A n
ex a m p le o f p ro b le m (E M I) th a t o c c u rs
d u e to th is n o ise a n d its so lu tio n is ex­
p la in e d in 4.6.

Fig.4-7
C te AC to DC converter
T h e c o o lin g fre sh w a te r p u m p a n d flu o re sc e n t lig h t tu b e , etc. a re o p e ra te d b y 6 0 H z A C voltage.
H ow ever, th e se m ic o n d u c to r in c o n tro l c irc u it b o a rd an d c o m p u te r is o p e ra te d b y D C v o ltag e
(F ig .4 -8 ). T h e c irc u it th a t su p p lie s D C p o w e r to th e s e m ic o n d u c to r is an A C -D C c o n v e rte r (it m ay
be c a lle d a converter).

Fig.4-8
T h e D r v o ltag e is re q u ire d to c h a rg e th e b a tte ry o f tra n sc eiv er. T h e b a tte ry c h a rg e r is n o th in g less
th a n an A C -D C c o n v e rte r (F ig .4 -9 ). In A C -D C c o n v e rte r, th e p o w e r c o n v e rsio n c irc u it is c o n fig ­
u red b y p assiv e d ev ice s an d se m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e s as d e sc rib e d in C h a p te r 1 a n d C h a p te r 2. V a ri­
ous c irc u it c o n fig u ra tio n s are av a ilab le d e p e n d in g on ap p licatio n s.

DC

Fig.4-9
T h e sim p le st fo rm o f A C -D C c o n v e rte r is a re c tifie r c o m p o se d o f se v era l d io d es. T h o u g h th e d io d e
re c tifie r ca n e a sily c o n v e rt A C in to D C , its o u tp u t v o lta g e V i h as a la rg e rip p le (F ig .4 -1 0 ).
M o reo v er, th e o u tp u t v o ltag e c a n n o t b e c o n tro lle d . T h e re fo re , th e d io d e re c tif ie r c a n n o t b e u se d for
th e e q u ip m e n t th a t n e e d s stab le D C p o w e r supply. A c c o rd in g ly , th e p o w e r c o n v e rsio n c irc u it w h e re
th e d io d e re c tifie r, c h o p p e r o r D C -D C c o n v e rte r is c o m b in e d is u sia lly u sed .
C o m m o n ly , th e h ig h -c a p a c ity a lu m in u m e le c tro ly tic c a p a c ito r (R e fe r to 1.3) is u se d to rem o v e the
rip p le ele m e n t o f o u tp u t v o ltag e o f d io d e re c tific a tio n circu it.

__ __ \

Va

)
Fig.4-10

F ig .4 -1 1 sh o w s the th re e-p h ase b rid g e re c tifie r th a t co n v erts th re e -p h a se v o lta g e to D C v o ltag e.

S in ce th e rip p le ca n b e easily re m o v e d fro m o u tp u t D C v o lta g e b y u sin g e le c tro ly tic cap acito r, it is
w id e ly used. H o w ev er, the in p u t c u rre n t b e c o m e s n o t sin u so id a l w a v e fo rm b u t d isto rte d w av e fo rm
b y u sin g th e e lec tro ly tic ca p a c ito r fo r re m o v in g rip p le. N o t o n ly is th e p o w e r fa c to r d ec re a se d bu t
also h ig h e r h a rm o n ic w av es are g e n e ra te d w h e n th e in p u t c u rre n t is d isto rted , w h ic h m a y affect a d ­
v e rse ly o th e r elec trical e q u ip m e n t (R efer to 4.6 ).

\
V a

3-phase diode rectifier

Fig.4-11
T h e re c tif ie r sh o w n in F ig .4 -1 0 a n d F ig .4 -1 1 c a n c o n v e rt A C v o lta g e to D C v o lta g e. H o w ev er,
it c a n n o t c o n tro l th e o u tp u t D C v o lta g e v a lu e . F o r e x a m p le , in F ig .4 -1 1 , o u tp u t D C v o lta g e JJd
b e c o m e s a lm o s t 2 8 0 V fo r in p u t th r e e -p h a s e A C v o lta g e 200V . O n th e o th e r h a n d , c h a rg e r
s h o w n ш F ig .4 -8 a n d F ig .4 -9 re q u ire s lo w v o lta g e ra n g in g fro m se v e ra l v o lta g e to 15V.
M o reo v er, sin ce th e o u tp u t v o lta g e V i o f th e re c tifie r co n ta in s th e rip p le e le m e n ts, it is re q u ire d
to p ro v id e a ste a d y D C v o ltag e by re m o v in g rip p le.
S o the a c tu a l c h a rg e r c o n ta in s D C -D C p o w e r c o n v e rte r lik e b u c k -c h o p p e r (R efer to 4 .2 ) alo n g
w ith A C to D C p o w e r c o n v e rte r (F ig .4 -1 2 ).

Step down
Rectifying
& Stabilizing

Line ESrftv ^ V C /D C * [£► Load

АСбОНг DC DC
QO Inverter (DC to AC)
In v e rte r is a p o w er co n v erter d esig n ed to co n v ert D C to A C (F ig .4 -1 3). T he ou tp u t A C voltage is n o t
lim ited to 6 0H z but it can o u tp u t freq u en cy re q u ire d for load, for in stan ce fro m several H z to several
h u n d red kH z. M oreover, it can o u tp u t n o t o n ly sin g le-p h ase cu r­
ren t but also th ree-p h ase curren t. In ad d itio n , th e am p litu d e o f
A C c u rren t an d o u tp u t A C voltage can b e ch an g ed to som e ex­
tent.
r DC

Fig.4-13

T h e e lectric m o to r on b o ard is o p e ra te d b y 6 0 H z A C v o ltag e a n d i f th e load d o es n o t ch an g e, it ro tates

alm o st in a co n sta n t ro tatio n al sp eed . T h e rev o lu tio n sp e e d o f e lec tric m o to r can b e c o n tro lled b y th e
voltage an d frequency. T h erefo re, th e in v e rte r is u sed to m in u te ly co n tro l th e rev o lu tio n sp e e d o f e lec­
tric m o to r (F ig .4 -1 4 ). D C vo ltag e is in p u t to inverter. T h e D C voltage is o b tain ed b y c o n v e rtin g th re e -
p h a se v oltage to D C v oltage w ith th e d io d e rectifier. T h o u g h in v e rter a c tu a lly co m es in co m b in atio n
w ith rectifier, th e w hole sy stem is u su a lly called inverter.

Induction M otor

i \ | Re _ ~
O th e r th a n th is, th e p o w e r su p p ly e q u ip m e n t c a lle d U P S is c o n n e c te d to im p o rta n t o n b o a rd
e q u ip m e n t su ch as c o m m u n ic a tio n s to o ls, c o n tro l d e v ic e s a n d m a in c o m p u te rs (F ig .4 -1 5 ). W ith
th e g e n e ra to r b lack o u t, m an y p ie c e s o f e le c tric e q u ip m e n t a re sto p p e d u n til a n o th e r g e n e ra to r
sta rts . H ow ever, to p re v e n t th e m a in e q u ip m e n t fro m sto p p in g b y th e b la c k o u t, th e U P S su p p lies
e le c tric p o w er for a c e rta in p e rio d o f tim e th ro u g h b atte ry . S in ce th e b a tte ry o u tp u t is o f D C v o lt­
age, th e in v e rte r is u se d to c o n v e rt D C v o ltag e to 6 0 H z A C voltage.

Inverter.

Kig.4-15
 Applications of power conversion circuit
H o w the p o w er co nversion circ u its th a t w e ’ve se e n are u sed ? S om e ex am p les are g iv en here. A n ex­
am p le o f h ig h voltage p o w er su p p ly for ra d a r is sh o w n in F ig .4 -1 6 . A fte r sin g le-p h ase A C voltage has
b ee n co n v erted to D C voltage, it is c o n v e rted to h ig h fre q u e n c y A C voltage b y th e inverter. F u rth er,
th e h ig h fre q u en cy voltage is ra ised u p to h ig h v o ltag e th ro u g h the ste p -u p tra n sfo rm e r, a n d th en th e
h ig h freq u en cy an d h ig h v o ltag e is c o n v erte d to D C h ig h voltage b y the rectifier.

10
T h o u g h th e tra n sfo rm e r is b u lk y an d h e a v y g e n erally , it can be m a d e c o m p a c t and lig h tw e ig h t if
th e fre q u e n c y o f su p p lie d c u rre n t is h ig h . A c co rd in g ly , to d o w n siz e th e ste p -u p tran sfo rm e r, th e
e le c tric p o w e r is c o n v e rte d to h ig h fre q u e n c y A C by u sin g h ig h fre q u e n c y inv erter. T h e th y risto r
in v e rte r is u sed on sh ip s e q u ip p e d w ith th e sh a ft g e n e ra to r (R e fe r to 2 .1 ). T h e o u tlin e o f th is th y ­
risto r in v e rte r is sh o w n in F ig .4 -1 7 . T h e th re e -p h a se v o lta g e , w h ic h is o u tp u t b y sy n c h ro n o u s m o ­
tor, is co n v erted to D C ele c tric p o w e r b y th e th y risto r c o n v e rte r a n d D C -reacto r. T h y ris to r in v e rte r
c o n v e rts th is D C ele c tric p o w e r to 6 0 H z th re e -p h a se p o w e r, su p p ly in g p o w e r o n b o ard .

Fig.4-17
00 Things to be kept in mind
A s w e ’ve seen, w e u n d e rsta n d th a t p o w e r co n v e rte rs are in d isp e n sab le for e lec tric eq u ip m en t. B ut, the
p o w er co n v erters m ay n o t alw ays o ffe r co n v en ien ce. W e h av e to k eep it in m in d th at th e y m ig h t b e a
p rim a ry cau se o f v ario u s prob lem s. E x am p les o f p ro b lem s, th e ir cau ses a n d resu lts, an d c o u n te rm e a ­
su res are d isc u sse d h ere th o u g h p ro b lem s th a t can be solv ed on b o a rd m ay be lim ited .

EMI (Electro-Magnetic Interference)

S im ilar to c h o p p e r (R efer to 4 .2 ), all th e p o w e r c o n v e rte rs re q u ire p o w e r se m ic o n d u c to r sw itch es
su c h as D IO D E (R efer to 2.2) an d IG B T (R e fe r to 2 .3 ). T h e p o w e r c o n v e rter c h a n g e s th e elec tric
p o w e r b y m ean s o f sw itch in g o p e ra tio n s o f th is se m ic o n d u c to r sw itch . T h is sw itc h in g o p eratio n
m a y g en erate h ig h fre q u e n c y e le c tro m ag n e tic n oise. T h is is calle d E M I (E le c tro -M a g n etic In te rfe r­
en ce). T h e re is a risk th a t this n o ise can su p e rim p o se th e o u tp u t v o lta g e an d o u tp u t c u rre n t o f p o w e r
c o n v e rte rs o r can be ra d ia te d as e le c tro m a g n e tic w av e s fro m p o w e r co n v erters, th u s c a u sin g m a l­
fu n c tio n o f v a rio u s control d ev ic e s, a n d n o ise m ix in g in w ire le ss e q u ip m e n t (R e fe r to F ig .1 -1 4 ).

||v P 1 > w in t ^

M a lfu n c tio n s in v a r io u s sen so r s

I f an elec tric p ro d u ct in clu d in g p o w er c o n v e rte rs su ch as in v e rte r is in sta lle d n e a r n o rm a lly
w o rk in g tem p e ra tu re m e a s u rin g in stru m e n t, d isp lay ed d ata m ig h t b eco m e an E rro r o r O v er
range. A s one o f th e reaso n s, it is a ssu m e d th a t th e n oise g e n erate d b y th e p o w e r c o n v erte r can
e n ter the th erm o -c o u p le. T h is n oise is k n o w n as co m m o n m o d e noise. Im p ro v em e n t m e a su res
for te m p e ra tu re m easu rem en t are as follow s:

• I f the therm o -co u p le is covered w ith a stainless steel sheath, ground this stainless steel sheath.

• I f the term in al block and data logger have G N D term in al, ground these equipm ent.

• W ind th e th erm o -co u p le w ire or its w ire leads around the ferrite core several tim es.

Sensor terminal
or
Thermo sensor with stainless steel sheath

-± - Winding on ferrite core

Earthing
Shaft voltage and Bearing current
W ith the in v erter-co n tro lled m otor, th e sh a ft v o ltag e m ay b e g e n e ra ted w h e n c o m m o n m o d e voltage
is g en erated by the inverter. I f th is sh a ft voltage reac h es d ielectric b re ak d o w n voltage o f th e m o to r’s
b e a rin g oil film , a c u rre n t (b e a rin g c u rren t) w ill flo w in th e b e a rin g , an d th e b e a rin g w ill c a u se e lec­
tric co rro sio n on th e b e a rin g (F ig .4 -1 8 ). T h is e lec tric c o rro sio n o f b e a rin g m ay c a u se m o to r b reak ­
d ow n. T h o u g h it m ay be d iffic u lt to deal w ith su ch p ro b lem s on b o ard , o n e should keep th e follow ­
in g in m ind:

• For the m o to rs o f w in ch and carg o p u m p th at co n tro l the sp eed , th e re is a p o ssib ility th a t th e life
o f th e m o to r b e a rin g s w ill be sh o rten ed .
• In stall a filte r circu it to p rev en t c o m m o n m o d e noise.

Inverter

Motor Bearing

Bearing current

Fig.4-18
Harmonic current
A s se e n in 4.4, th e re is alw ay s a re c tif ie r in in v e rte r fo r m o to r co n tro l. T h is re c tif ie r is o n e o f th e
A C -D C co n v e rte rs. W h e n a stab le D C v o ltag e is re q u ire d b y th e re c tifie r, a larg e a lu m in u m e le c tro ­
ly tic c a p a c ito r is u sed . In th is case , a c u rre n t w ith h ig h fre q u e n c y e lem en ts ca lle d h a rm o n ic c u rre n t
m a y flo w fro m th e re c tif ie r to th e sy stem . T h is h a rm o n ic c u rre n t is c o n v e rte d in to v o lta g e th ro u g h
th e im p e d a n c e o f th e o n b o a rd w irin g .

Inverter
Electromagnetic noise

AC 60Hz

Powerline

Telephone line

—" -­
Acoustic
noise Harmonic current

Fig.4-19
A s a re su lt, th e w a v e fo rm o f th re e -p h a se A C v o lta g e o f th e sy ste m m a y g et d is to rte d . I f th is p ro b ­
le m o f h a rm o n ic w av es b e c o m e s se rio u s, th e tra n s fo rm e r m a y g e n e ra te h e a t a b n o rm ally .
M o reo v er, th e ele c tro m a g n e tic n o ise c a u se d b y h a rm o n ic w av es m a y in v a d e sig n al lin e o f th e te le ­
p h o n e an d g e n e ra te ac o u stic n o ise (F ig .4 -1 9 ). U su a lly th is p ro b le m is liab le to o c c u r w h e n th e
p o w e r lin e an d th e sig n al lin e a re laid clo se to each o th e r a n d in p arallel.

1 1 1
1 ___I L J i m n n m i

a □ .
M M 1 I I • • 1 I i • 1

_
1

1 1 1

ЙШЩшЩ; |
1

I О Point ~
I I A ............. ^

It is d iffic u lt to solve th e fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m s o f h a rm o n ic w av es o n b o a rd . H o w ev er,

o n e effectiv e m e a s u re is to k e e p th e tra n sm issio n lin e a n d th e sig n al lin e aw ay fro m e a c h
other. It is also ad v isab le to c o n firm th e e a rth in g o f th e line. F o r in s ta n c e , w h e n th e tr a n s ­
m issio n lin e is co v e re d w ith b a sk e t arm o r, th e e a rth in g o f b a sk e t a rm o r sh o u ld b e c o n ­
firm e d . W h e n a c o a x ia l cab le is u se d as sig n a l w ire ,
ch e c k i f a rm o r m e ta llic sh ie ld is p ro p e rly g ro u n d e d .
In m a n y cases, su ch e a rth in g is d o n e w ith th e p a rt
th a t is c o n n e c te d to th e e le c tric eq u ip m e n t. It is b e tte r
to tig h te n th e screw o f g ro u n d in g te rm in a l w h e n e v e r
it h a s lo o sen ed .
Preventing breakdown and deterioration
In c lu d in g th e in v e rte r fo r m o to r c o n tro l, e le c tro ly tic c a ­
p a c ito rs a re u se d in a lm o st all p o w e r c o n v e rte rs.
T h e life o f th e s e e le c tro ly tic c a p a c ito rs b e c o m e s sh o rt a n d
th e y d e te rio ra te e a sily w h e n u s e d in e le c tro n ic c irc u its o f
p o w e r c o n v ersio n d ev ice s. T h e re fo re , it is n o e x a g g e ra tio n
to say th a t th e life o f th e p o w e r c o n v e rte r d e p e n d s u p o n th e
life sp a n o f ele c tro ly tic capacito r.
F o r effe c tiv e c o o lin g o f e le c tro ly tic c a p a c ito rs, ca re sh o u ld
b e ta k e n so th a t th e su c tio n a n d e x h a u st fan s o f th e in v e rte r
o r U P S a re n o t ch o k ed (F ig .4 -2 0 ).
M o reo v er, e ffectiv e re s u lts c a n b e a c h ie v e d i f re g u la r in ­
s p e c tio n o f fa n s is c o n d u c te d fo r n o rm a l o p e ra tio n a n d
d u st is rem o v ed .

Fig.4-20
The former chief engineer of a world-famous luxury liner once said, “Various
machines work in harmony on board a ship. Should any single function o f these
machines fail, the ship will lose the beautiful harmony o f safe navigation.
The ship engineer can be compared to the conductor o f an orchestra which is nothing
but a huge mechanical system.
The engineer needs to grasp the information generated by the machines by “seeing,”
“hearing,” “touching” and “smelling” just as the conductor o f an orchestra has an ear
for the sound o f instruments like the violin and flute.
In addition to engineers’ daily inspection o f the machines to grasp their symptoms, a
variety o f sensors help them to collect data. Based on their expertise and experience,
respectable first-class engineers can analyze these data, know what is occurring to the
machines, and foresee what may happen. Furthermore, they can reflect their judg­
ments in daily maintenance.
This chapter discusses sensors for you who aim to become respectable engineers.
 О Measurement of Voltage and Current
T h e te s te r is th e m o st u se fu l v o ltag e '
m e a s u re m e n t d ev ic e fo r e n g in e e rs
(R e fe r to A n n e x ').
T h e te s te r m e a s u re s th e c u rre n t an d
v o lta g e b y d ire c tly c o n n e c tin g the
p ro b e to m a in c irc u it as sh o w n in
F ig .5 -1 . O n th e o th e r h a n d , the
v o lta g e is u su a lly m e a s u re d b y in ­
su la tin g an d ste p p in g -d o w n th e
v o lta g e w ith m e a s u re m e n t tr a n s ­
fo rm e r (PT , C T ) u se d o n sw itc h ­
b o a rd an d m o to r s ta rtin g b o ard .
T h e b asic p rin c ip le s o f P T an d C T Fig.5-1
are th e sam e as th e n o rm a l tra n s fo rm e r (R e fe r to 1, !)• F u rth e r, in th is p a ra g ra p h , th e P T a n d C T
a re a ss u m e d as id eal tra n sfo rm e rs w ith n o p o w e r loss.

P T is a n a b b re v ia tio n o f P o ten tia l T ra n sfo rm e r a n d g e n e ra lly

Line voltage
th e tu r n s ra tio is b elo w 0.1 (F ig .5 -2 ).
0 * 9

Potential
transformer

4 . Ш
▼ Ц П
Sensed voltage

n rm —

Fig. 5-2
W h e n th e 100:1 P T is co n n e c te d to e lec tric c irc u it o f 440V , the acq u ire d v o lta g e V 2 is as fo llo w s
(R e fe r to F o rm u la 1-8).

y 2= ( N 2 / N . ) X У ,= (1 /1 0 0 ) X 4 4 0 = 4 .4 V
T h e v o lta g e m ea su rin g d e v ice c o n su m e s a p a rt o f elec tric p o w e r o f th e m ain c ircu it. W h e n the in p u t
im p ed an ce o f v o ltag e m e a su re m e n t d ev ice is Rinst, th e elec tric p o w e r Pinst co n su m ed b y th e
m e a su re m e n t dev ice is o b ta in e d by th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la (F o r m u la 5-1).

Pinst=V22 Rinst=(N2/ N l ) 2 X V i 2 -Г Rinst [W ] F orm u la 5-1

T h is is sim ilar to th e sa m p lin g o f lu b rica tin g oil. W h e n p ro p ertie s o f th e lu b ric atin g oil are to be
e x a m in e d , a sm all am o u n t o f oil is c o lle c te d o r co n su m e d fro m th e lu b ric a tin g oil sy stem . S im ilarly,
w h en the v o ltag e is m e asu red , a sm all a m o u n t o f ele c tric p o w e r o f th e m ain c irc u it is c o n su m e d by
th e m ea su rin g device. T h is in p u t im p ed a n c e Rinst is d e sig n e d large to re d u c e th e Pinst. T h e Pinst is
fo u n d b y the fo llo w in g eq uatio n : P in s t^ 0 .0 2 m W , w h en N i:N 2 = 1 0 0 :1, V i= 4 4 0 V , R in s t= lM Q .
H en ce, the elec tric p o w e r co n su m e d b y the m ea su rin g d e v ic e c a n b e ignored.

C T is a n a b b re v ia tio n o f C u rre n t T ra n sfo rm er, an d g e n e r­

ally its tu r n s ratio is m o re th a n 10 (F ig .5 -3 ). W h e n a 1:100
C T is c o n n e c te d to m o to r e le c tric c irc u it o f ra te d c u rre n t
50A , th e c u rre n t I 2 o b ta in e d a t th e tim e o f “ra te d o p e ra ­
tio n ” is as follow s (R efer to F o rm u la 1-10).

I 2= ( N . / N 2) X I ,= (1 /1 0 0 ) X 5 0 = 0 .5 A

E le c tric p o w e r Pinst co n su m e d b y c u rre n t m e a su rin g

d ev ic e is o b ta in e d b y the fo llo w in g fo rm u la.
Clump type current sensor
Pinst=L2 X Ri„st=(Ni / N 2) 2 X I , 2 X Rinst [W]
F o rm u la 5-2

It is n ecessary to increase the n u m b e r o f turns N 2 o f seco n d ­

ary w in d in g and reduce the Rinst to co n tro l the p o w er
c o n su m p tio n in cu rren t m easu rin g dev ice acco rd in g to the
F o rm u la 5-2. M ean w h ile, the cu rren t sen so r w ith hall
sen so r can m easure the cu rren t by d isco n n ectin g and
insulating, w ith o u t using the CT. T his cu rren t sen so r d etects th e m ag n etic field g en erated b y the cu rren t
and can m easu re both D C and A C . T h is h all sen so r is u sed in clam p ty p e cu rren t sen so r (F ig .5 -4 ). S ince
th e clam p sen so r is com posed o f precise sem ico n d u cto r co m p o n en ts and the p a rt sh o w n b y arro w in
F ig .5 -4 can b e easily dam aged. It sh o u ld b e h an d led w ith care.
 © Temperature Measurement
T h e e n g in e e r sh o u ld have th e te m p e ra tu re in fo rm a tio n a b o u t fu el, lu b ric a tin g oil, e x h a u st g as, sea
w ater, fre sh w ater, ste a m , an d air, etc. W h e n in s p e c tin g th e e n g in e ro o m , th e te m p e ra tu re is m e a ­
su re d by th e a n a lo g th e rm o m e te r c o n n e c te d d ire c tly to th e p ip e (F ig .5 -5 ). O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e
te m p e ra tu re d a ta m e a s u re d by e le c tro n ic th e rm o m e te r is in te n siv e ly m o n ito re d a n d re c o rd e d in
th e c o n tro l ro o m (F ig .5 -6 ). T h e re a re d iffe re n t ty p e s o f ele c tro n ic m e a s u re m e n t th e rm o m e te rs ,
a n d th e y c an b e cla ssifie d in to th e c o n ta c t ty p e a n d n o n -c o n ta c t ty p e.
T h e c o n ta c t ty p e te m p e ra tu re se n s o r m e a s u re s th e te m p e ra tu re b y d ire c tly c o n ta c tin g th e se n so r
to th e m e a s u rin g o b ject. F o r ex am p le , th e rm o c o u p le , re s ista n c e th e rm o m e te r, th e rm isto r a n d th e r­
m o sta t as th e rm a l sw itch . In o rd e r to p rev e n t d am ag e , p o llu tio n , c o rro sio n o f c o n ta c t ty p e te m ­
p e ra tu re se n so r w h ich o c c u r d u e to m e c h a n ic a l v ib ra tio n o r p re s su re , th e p a rt o f se n so r is p ro ­
te c te d w ith ce ra m ic , sta in le ss steel o r resin .
A ll m a te ria ls ra d ia te e le c tro m a g n e tic w av es d e p e n d in g on th e ir te m p e ra tu re s. F o r in sta n c e ,
h e a te d m e ta l tu r n s red . T h is p h e n o m e n o n is c a lle d th e rm a l ra d ia tio n . T h e n o n -c o n ta c t ty p e te m ­
p e ra tu re s e n s o r is a se n s o r o b ta in s te m p e ra tu re in fo rm a tio n b y m e a s u rin g th e rm a l ra d ia tio n o f th e
o bject.
Thermocouple
W h e n tw o ty p e s o f w ire s a re c o n n e c te d to e ach o th e r at th e en d s an d h e a t is p a ss e d to th e c o n ta c t
p o in t, a slig h t v o ltag e is g en e ra te d . It is calle d as S e eb e ck E ffect. In th is p h e n o m e n o n , a slig h t voltage
is g e n e ra te d b e tw e e n th e en d s o f w ire s. T h is v o ltag e is a m p lifie d an d m e a su re d , an d is c o n v e rte d into
te m p e ra tu re in fo rm a tio n (F ig .5 -7 ). T h e e n d s o f th e th e rm o c o u p le are c o v ered w ith sta in le ss steel for
co rro sio n co n tro l an d re in fo rc in g th e m e c h a n ic a l stre n g th .

I <<C

Fig.5-7

Resistance Thermometer
T h e e le c tric re s ista n c e o f th e m e ta l c h a n g e s a c c o rd in g to te m p e ra tu re . T h e te m p e ra tu re se n so r
b a se d on th is p ro p e rty is u s e d in re s ista n c e th e rm o m e te r. H ig h -p u rity p la tin u m w ire is o ften u se d to
o b ta in h e a t re s ista n c e a n d stab ility . T h e re s ista n c e th e rm o m e te r is o fte n d isp la y e d as PtlOO. "Pt"
m e a n s p la tin u m an d "100" in d ic a te s th a t th e re s ista n c e b e c o m e s 100Q at 0°C. T a b le.5 -1 sh o w s th e
re la tio n b e tw e e n th e te m p e ra tu re a n d re s ista n c e v a lu e o f sen so r. F o r in sta n c e , th e re s ista n c e o f se n ­
so r is 149.83Q at 130°C an d 240.18Q at 380°C. T ab le.5 -!

"C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 100.00 103.90 107.79 111.67 115.54 119.40 123.24 127.08 130.90 134.71
100 138.51 142.29 146.07 149.83 153.58 157.33 161.05 164.77 168.48 172.17
200 175.86 179.53 183.19 186.84 190.47 194.10 197.71 201.31 204.90 208.48
300 212.05 215.61 219.15 222.68 226.21 229.72 233.21 236.70 240.18 243.64
400 247.09 250.53 253.96 257.38 260.78 264.18 267.56 270.93 274.29 277.64
500 280.98 284.30 287.62 290.92 294.21 297.49 300.75 304.01 307.25 310.49
600 313.71 316.92 320.12 323.30 326.48 329.64 332.79 335.93 339.06 342.18

Thermistor
T h e rm is to r is a ty p e o f re sista n c e , w h e re in th e re sista n c e v a lu e ch an g es
a c c o rd in g to te m p e ra tu re . T h is p ro p e rty is u se d for a te m p e ra tu re sen so r
(F ig .5 -8 ). M e ta llic ox id es o f N i, C o, M n , a n d Fe a re u se d as a m aterial.
T h e rm isto rs ca n be c lassified in to th re e ty p e s: N T C (N eg ativ e T e m p e ra­
tu re C o efficien t), P T C (P ositiv e T em p e ra tu re C o efficien t), a n d C T R
(C ritical T em p e ra tu re R esistor). T h e N T C is w id e ly u se d as a te m p e ra tu re
se n so r fo r a ir c o n d itio n ers, re frig e ra to rs , c lin ical th e rm o m e te rs , etc. T h e P T C is u se d to p rev e n t o r
c o n tro l o v e rh e a tin g o f h eate rs. T h e C T R is u se d in te m p e ra tu re -w a rn in g d ev ices.
IC Temperature Sensor
T h is th e rm o se n so r u ses th e p h e n o m e n o n o f c h a n g e in th e v o lta g e b e ­
tw e e n e m itte r an d b ase o f tra n sisto rs, p ro p o rtio n a l to te m p e ra tu re .
S in ce ihe se m ic o n d u c to r is u sed as th e th e rm o sen so r, it c a n b e in clu d ed
in o n e IC p a c k a g e to g e th e r w ith c o n tro l c irc u it (F ig .5 -9 ). C o m p a c t y et
o ffe rin g h ig h accu racy , it also fe a tu re s little se c u la r ch an g es. M oreover,
its p ric e is c h e a p e r du e to its m a ss p ro d u c tio n . H ow ever, as th e sen so r is
m ad e u p o f sem ico n d u cto rs, th e m a x im u m te m p e ra tu re is +150°C.

Thermostat
T h e th e rm o sta t is a d ev ice in c o rp o ra tin g sen so r a n d sw itch , w h ic h tu r n s
O N o r O F F as c o n ta c t sw itch o p e ra te s a fte r te m p e ra tu re h a s re a c h e d a
set te m p e ra tu re . T h o u g h th ere a re v a rio u s ty p e s o f th e rm o sta ts , th e d isk
ty p e b im e ta l th e rm o sta t is m o st c o m m o n ly u se d (F ig .5 -1 0 ). Two ty p e s
o f th in m etal p lates w ith tw o d iffe re n t th e rm a l e x p a n sio n c o e ffic ie n ts
a re stu c k to g e th e r to fo rm a b im etal. It g ets d e fo rm ed , i f h e a t is applied.
T h e sw itch is tu rn e d O N o r O F F b y u sin g th e ex p a n sio n -d e fo rm a tio n o f
th e b im etal w h en h eate d (F ig.5 -1 1 ). C o n v ersely , i f th e b im e ta l g ets cold, it s h rin k s an d re tu rn s to
its o rig in a l shape. T h e sw itch is tu rn e d O N o r O F F b y u sin g th is p h en o m en o n . T h e th e rm o sta t is
u se d to m o n ito r th e te m p e ra tu re s o f m o to rs, p u m p s, etc. In th is case, w h en th e te m p e ra tu re rise s
to a p o in t h ig h e r th a n the set te m p e ra tu re , th e sw itch o p e ra te s and d isp lay s th e a la rm o f "H ig h te m ­
p eratu re."
Radiation thermometer
A s d e sc rib e d p reviously, all m a te ria ls ra d ia te e le c tro m a g n e tic w a v e s p ro p o rtio n a l to th e ir te m p e ra ­
tu re s. T h e ra d ia tio n th e rm o m e te r o b ta in s th e te m p e ra tu re in fo rm a tio n b y m e a s u rin g th e in te n sity o f
in fra re d w av es ra d ia te d b y th e o b ject (F ig .5 -1 2 ). H e n c e th e se n so r p a rt o f th e ra d ia tio n th e rm o m e te r
c a n m e a s u re the te m p e ra tu re o f th e o b ject w ith o u t an y c o n ta c t (F ig .5 -13 ). T h e refo re , th e ra d ia tio n
th e rm o m e te r is u se d in p lace s lik e b u s-b a r o n th e sw itc h b o a rd s w h e re th e c u rre n t flo w s o r w h ere
o th e r th e rm o m e te rs can n o t b e u sed . T h e e m issiv ity v a rie s a c c o rd in g to o b ject, th e re fo re i f em issiv -
ity is in c o rre c t, th e n c o rre c t te m p e ra tu re can n o t be m e a su re d . E sp ecia lly , e m issiv ity is low in o b jects
w ith lu ste r-c o a te d su rfa c e , h e n c e a h ig h p o ssib ility o f erro rs. F or in sta n c e , e m issiv ity o f a lu m in u m is
0.02-0.1 a n d th a t o f ru b b e r is a b o u t 0.95. M e an w h ile , th e e m issiv ity o f b la c k ob jec ts is a lm o st 1. W h e n
it is n e c e ss a ry to m e a s u re th e a c c u ra te te m p e ra tu re , th e m e th o d o f a p p ly in g b la c k ta p e o r b la c k p a in t
o f k n o w n em issiv ity on to m e a s u rin g p a rt, is v e ry e ffectiv e (F ig .5 -1 3 , F ig.5-14). In th is case th e
e m issiv ity b eco m e s alm o st 0.95. F u rth e rm o re , in th e ca se o f m e a s u rin g th e te m p e ra tu re o f ro ta tin g
o b jec ts lik e ro ta tin g ax is, b la c k ta p e o r th e b la ck p a in t sh o u ld b e ap p lied to th e s u rro u n d in g p a rt o f
th e ro ta tin g axis.
A s c o m p a re d to th e c o n ta c t th e rm o sen so rs, th e ra d ia tio n th e rm o m e te r c a n m e a s u re th e te m p e ra tu re
at h ig h sp eed . T h e re a so n fo r th e c o n ta c t th e rm o se n so rs b e in g slow in m e a s u re m e n t is th a t it tak e s
tim e fo r th e te m p e ra tu re o f th e m e a s u rin g o b je ct a n d se n so r to b e c o m e e q u a l d u e to th e rm a l c o n d u c ­
tio n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e ra d ia tio n th e rm o m e te rs c a n in s ta n tly m e a su re th e te m p e ra tu re as th ey
m e a s u re in fra re d w av es only.

Уиы Ы i в а ш
ЕЯ
м м

I ig.S-14
€fo Pressure Sensor
Pressure gauge
In sh ip s, th e p re s su re is m e a su re d a t Gear
v ario u s places. F o r in sta n c e , p re ssu re
g au g es (lik e b aro m eter) a re u se d in co m - j№ B o u rd o n
p re sso rs, p u m p o u tlets, lu b ric a tin g oil Needle Щ tube
lin es, etc. j
T h e c o n stru c tio n o f B o u rd o n tu b e p re s- Link
su re gau g e is sh o w n in F ig .5 -1 5 . T h e ш sJ l ____;____ Lever
B o u rd o n tu b e is a fla t e llip tic al m etal
tu b e at its cro ss-se c tio n an d is co iled in
"C" sh ap e w ith on e end sealed . W h e n
A
p re s su re is ap p lie d fro m th e o th e r en d o f
_ Fig.5-15
th e tu b e, the cro ss sectio n al a re a o f th e P re s s u re
tu b e w ill b eco m e c irc u la r in sh a p e a c ­
co rd in g to the ap p lied p ressu re . A s a re su lt th e c o iled tu b e g e ts d e fo rm e d to th e u n c o ilin g d ire c tio n ,
a n d the tip slig h tly m ov es o u tw ard . H ere th e d isp la c e m e n t o f th e end is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e applied
p ressu re. T h e p o in te r m o v es th ro u g h a lin k lev e r g e a r u sin g th is slig h t d isp lacem en t.
In a c tu a l ship o p e ratio n , p re s su re g au g es a re n o t o n ly u se d for re a d in g in d ic a te d v alu es, b u t also
o ften u se d to m o n ito r the p re ssu re at c o n tro l ro o m by c o n v e rtin g th e p re ssu re to ele c tric signal.

D ia p h ra g m p re ssu re se n so r is sh ow n in F ig .5 -1 6 .
W h e n th e p re ssu re is ap p lie d to th e fle x ib le d is c ­
sh a p e d d ia p h ra g m , th e p o in te r d isp la c e s slightly.
T h e re are m a n y ty p e s o f p re s su re se n so rs w hich
sh o w th e v alu e o f th e p re ssu re b y c o n v e rtin g th e
d isp la c e m e n t in to an e le c tric sig n al. D ia p h ra g m
p re s su re sen so rs a re b ro a d ly c la ssifie d in tw o
ty p e s: th e se m ic o n d u c to r stra in ty p e an d th e e le c ­
tric c a p a c ita n c e type.

Fig.5-16
@ 0 Oxygen Analyzer
O x y g e n a n a ly z e r is on e o f th e in s tru m e n ts to m e a s u re th e c o m b u stio n o f th e bo iler. T h e b o ile r is
e q u ip p e d w ith F D F (F o rced D ra ft Fan) to sen d a ir fo r c o m b u s tio n (F ig .5 -1 7 ). W h e n th e a m o u n t o f
v e n tila tio n b y th is F D F is lim ite d , in c o m p le te co m b u stio n o f fu el o c c u rs in th e b o ile r, g e n e ra tin g a
larg e a m o u n t o f d a rk sm oke. M o reo v er, w h e n th e a m o u n t o f v e n tila tio n is ex cessiv e, h e a t lo ss o c c u rs
as th e a ir th a t is n o t re q u ire d fo r c o m b u stio n g ets h e a te d a n d e x h a u ste d . F u rth e rm o re , w h en th e
a m o u n t o f v e n tila tio n is to o larg e, th e e x h a u ste d a m o u n t o f N O x in c re a se s. T h re fo re , it b ec o m e s
n e c e s s a ry to a p p ro p ria te ly co n tro l th e a m o u n t o f F D F v e n tila tio n .
T h e a m o u n t o f v e n tila tio n b y F D F c a n b e a d ju s te d b y c o n tro llin g th e ro ta tio n sp ee d o f th e fan m o to r
o r o p e n in g o f v an e. T h e fa n m o to r ro ta tio n sp e e d o f m a n y e x is tin g m o d e ls c a n b e a d ju s te d in 2
sta g e s b y c h a n g in g th e p o les o f th e m o to r. O n th e o th e r h a n d , in re c e n t tim e s , th e fa n m o to r ro ta ­
tio n a l sp e e d o f F D F is c o n tro lle d b y th e in v e rte r (R e f e r to 4 .4 ) in th e h u g e m a in b o ile r o f ship lik e
th e L N G c arrier. W h e n a d ju stin g th e a m o u n t o f v e n tila tio n b y th e v a n e , th e o p e n in g o f v a n e at the
F D F in le t is ad ju sted .
I f th e a m o u n t o f v e n tila tio n b y F D F is a p p ro p ria te o r n o t is d e te rm in e d b y m e a s u rin g th e o x y g en
c o n c e n tra tio n in th e b o ile r e x h a u st gas. F o r in s ta n c e , th e c o m b u stio n a ir c a n b e in s u ffic ie n t w h en
th e o x y g en c o n c e n tra tio n in th e b o ile r e x h a u st g a s is low. T h e re fo re , th e v e n tila tio n is in c re a se d by
in c re a sin g th e ro ta tio n a l sp e e d o f th e F D F fa n m o to r o r b y e n la rg in g th e o p e n in g o f th e v an e. O n th e
o th e r h a n d , w h e n o x y g en a n a ly z e r in th e e x h a u st g as is h ig h , th e ro ta tio n a l sp e e d o f th e fa n m o to r
is slo w ed d o w n o r th e a m o u n t o f v e n tila tio n is re d u c e d by re d u c in g th e o p e n in g o f th e v an e.
T h e Z irc o n ia ele m e n t is o fte n u se d in th e o x y g e n an aly z er. T h e o x y g en a n a ly z e r n e e d s to b e w a rm e d
u p for a ro u n d 10 m in u te s b efo re b e in g u se d . T h e re fo re , it is n e c e s s a ry to tu r n O N th e p o w e r o f th e
o x y g en a n a ly z e r b efo re o p e ra tin g th e b oiler.

I Demand of air flow

O 2 sensor probe J [Signal I

[converter]

Vane opening
instruction
Exhaust gas | Fuei oil

I FDF
(
Flame
J / ■
J ifc A _
J ? <•
I Boiler Burner Motor
Fan Fig.5-17
Vane
в© Level Meter
W e alw ay s n e e d to k n o w ab o u t h o w m u ch fuel o il is re m a in in g , o r w h e th e r p ro p e r
q u a n tity o f w a te r h as b een su p p lie d to th e b o ile r o r not. M o reo v er, w e n e ed to k n o w
e x a c tly h o w m u ch cru d e oil o r L N G w e h a v e load ed o n cru d e oil ta n k e r o r L N G c a r­
rier, or h o w m u ch has b een u n lo ad ed . F o r th e se reaso n s, lev el m e te rs are in sta lle d on
all tan k s o f ca rrie r ships. F u rth er, lev el m eters are also u se d fo r m e a su rin g th e d raft
o f th e ship as w ell as the b ilg e q uantity. A s sh o w n in F ig .5 -1 8 , th e lev el m e te r h av in g
g lass tu b e co n n ected to the ta n k sid e can b e u sed to m e a su re th e lev el b y sight.
M e an w h ile, th e fu el oil tank, b ilg e tan k , etc. are alw ay s m o n ito re d an d re c o rd e d in
th e c o n tro l ro o m . H ere, th e lev el m e te rs are ex p lain ed .

Fig.5-18

& Float Type Level Meter (F ig .5 -1 9 )

T h e p rin c ip le o f flo a t ty p e level m e te r is to d e te rm in e th e liq u id level b y d e ­
te c tin g th e p o sitio n o f th e flo a t o n th e liq u id su rfac e . T h e re are v a rio u s ty p e s
o f flo a t ty p e level m e te rs a c c o rd in g to m a n u fa c tu re r. W ith m o st flo a t ty p e
level m e te rs, a flo a t is se t a flo a t in th e ta n k o r m e a s u rin g tu b e a n d th e flo a t
p o sitio n is c o n v e rte d in to e le c tric sig n al.

Fig.5-19

Microwave Type (Radar Type) Level Meter

M ic ro w av e is a k in d o f e le c tric w ave. T h e m ic ro w a v e ty p e level
m e te r is in s ta lle d on th e to p o f th e ta n k , a n d it ra d ia te s e le c tric
w av es to w a rd s th e liq u id su rfa c e (F ig .5 -2 0 ). T h e d is ta n c e b e ­
tw e e n th e m icro w av e level m e te r a n d liq u id su rfa c e is c a lc u ­
la te d b y m e a s u rin g th e tim e ta k e n b y th e e le c tric w a v es to r e ­
tu r n , re fle c tin g fro m th e liq u id su rfa c e . T h e h e ig h t o f th e liq u id
level to b e m e a s u re d is th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e h e ig h t o f th e
I L
m ic ro w av e ty p e level m e te r fro m th e b o tto m o f th e ta n k a n d th e
h e ig h t o f th e m icro w av e ty p e level m e te r fro m liq u id su rfa ce .
T h e a c c u ra c y o f th e m icro w av e ty p e level m e te r is so h ig h th a t
it is u se d as L N G o r L P G ta n k level m eter. H o w ev er, flo a t ty p e
level m e te r is also u se d as a p ro v isio n a g a in s t a n y p o ss ib ility o f
b re a k d o w n .
Electro-Static Capacity Type Level Meter Си
Sensor
T h e e le c tro -sta tic c a p a c ity ty p e level m e te r is
m o st c o m m o n ly a d o p te d fo r L N G ta n k level m e ­
te r b e c a u se o f its h ig h accu racy . In e le c tro -sta tic
Liquid surface
c a p a c ity ty p e level m eter, as tw o c y lin d ric a l
e le c tro d e s a re in s ta lle d in the ta n k , it can b e r e ­
g a rd e d as a ty p e o f c a p a c ito r (F ig .5 -2 1 ). A s m e n ­ Internal —
.,
tio n e d in 1 2 th e c a p a c ito r is m a d e up o f 2 e le c ­
electrode
tro d e s, an d its c a p a c ita n c e in c re a se s i f d ie le c tric
External
su b s ta n c e is p u t b e tw e e n th e e le c tro d e s o f c a ­ electrode
p acito r. L N G th a t h a s e n te rd th e s e n s o r a c ts as a I iB.5 :i
d ie le c tric su b sta n c e . T h e refo re, th e c a p a c ita n c e
in c re a se s i f th e L N G level rise s an d it d e c re a s e s i f L N G level d ro p s. B y u sin g th is c h a ra c te ristic , liq ­
u id level c a n be d e te rm in e d by m e a s u rin g th e c a p a c ita n c e b e tw e e n th e e le c tro d e s in s ta lle d in th e
ta n k .

Pressure Type Level Meter

T h e p re s s u re p ro p o rtio n a l to th e p ro d u c t o f th e liq u id level h e ig h t a n d th e liq u id d e n sity is p re s e n t
at th e b o tto m o f the ta n k fille d w ith liq u id . T h is p re s su re is re fe rre d to as w a te r h e a d p re s su re
(W a ter h ead). L iq u id level ca n b e k n o w n b y m e a s u rin g th is w a te r h e a d p re ssu re . T h is is th e p rin ­
c ip le o f p re s su re ty p e level m eter. F ig .5 -2 2 sh o w s th e p rin c ip le o f p re s su re ty p e level m e te r u se d in
sm a ll ty p e o f a u x ilia ry boiler. T h e re a re tw o ty p e s o f p o rts in th e d iffe re n tia l p re s su re m eters: low
p iessu rc port and high pressure port.

Level condenser

Conduit pipe

Low pressure port

High pressure port

Differential pressure
meter ► Electric signal
By-pass valve

KiK.5-22
Drain valve
L ow p re s su re p o rt is c o n n e c te d to th e lo w er p o sitio n o f th e b o ile r w ith c o n d u it p ip e an d h ig h p re s ­
su re p o rt is c o n n e c te d to level c o n d e n se r w ith co n d u it pipe. W a te r h e a d p re s su re (P2+P3) p ro p o r­
tio n a l to th e h e ig h t o f th e H2 a n d Н з a n d ste a m p re s su re (Ps) a re a p p lied to the low p re s s u re p o rt.
In a d d itio n to P2, Pi an d Ps, th e w a te r h e a d p re s su re Pi p ro p o rtio n a l to h e ig h t o f H i is ap p lie d to
th e h ig h p re s su re p o rt. T h u s, p re s su re (A P ) m e a su re d by d iffe re n tia l p re s su re m e te r c an b e c a lc u ­
la te d w ith the fo llo w in g fo rm u la.

1 P=(P.+P2+P3+Ps) - (P2+P3+Ps)=P.
In o th e r w o rd s, th e w a te r h e a d p re s s u re fro m th e b o ile r’s w a te r su rfa c e to th e level c o n d e n se r is
m e a su re d . I f Pi is low, th e h e ig h t o f H i re m a in s low, m e a n in g w a te r level in th e b o ile r is h ig h . O n
th e o th e r h a n d , i f Pi is h ig h , h e ig h t o f H i re m a in s h ig h , m e a n in g level o f th e b o ile r is low.

Optical Sensor
T he o p tical sen so r d etects the p re se n c e and stre n g th o f lig h t an d co n v e rts it in to e lec tric signal.
M a n y o f th e o p tical sen so rs u se p h o to e le ctric effects o f th e se m ic o n d u c to r to g e n e rate an e lec tric
sig n al. T ypically, flam e d etec to rs u sed in sh ip s are o p tica l sen so rs, th e y are also k n o w n as “ F lam e
E y e ” (F ig .5 -2 3 ). F lam e ey e is in sta lle d n e a r the n o z z le o f th e b o ile r burner. It m o n ito rs th e b o ile r
flam e. W h en the b u rn e r flam e is tu rn e d O N , th e flam e lig h t p a sse s th ro u g h th e se n so r an d is c o n ­
v e rte d into an elec tric signal. H o w e v er, w h en th e b u rn e r tu rn s O F F fo r so m e reaso n , th e flam e lig h t
d isap p ears. B ec a u se o f th is, e lec tro n ic sig n al c an n o t be o u tp u t fro m the sensor. In m o st o f th e cases,
tw o flam e ey es in clu d in g o ne fo r re se rv e are in stalled in one b u rn e r o f th e m ain b o ile r o f L N G c a r­
rier. B esid es th is, th ese sen so rs are also u sed in fire d etec to rs.

Nozzle

Flame
ш ик

Flame eye Fig.5-23

 Tachometer (Revolution Counter)
R o ta tio n sp e e d s o f the m a in e n g in e a n d p ro p e lle r sh a ft a re alw a y s m o n ito re d in th e c o n tro l ro o m .
T h e c o n v e n tio n a l ta c h o m e te r o n ly m e a s u re s th e ro ta tio n sp e e d s o f th e e n g in e an d th e p ro p e lle r
sh aft. T h e se d ay s, h ow ever, e le c tro n ic a lly co n tro lle d e n g in e s w ith o u t C A M a re b e in g in s ta lle d in
sh ip s w h ich d iffe r fro m th e co n v e n tio n a l e n g in e s in th a t th e tim in g o f th e fu el in je c tio n is d e te r­
m in e d b y u sin g th e cam . T h e se e n g in e s n o t o n ly re q u ire in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e n u m b e r o f ro ta tio n s,
b u t also re q u ire d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t ro ta tio n an g le. T h e re fo re n o w th e ta c h o m e te r is n o t sim ­
ply u se d as a m e a s u rin g d e v ice fo r k n o w in g th e ro ta tio n sp e e d , b u t it h as b e c o m e a v e ry im p o rta n t
m e a s u rin g d e v ic e fo r e n g in e co n tro l. To p re v e n t m e c h a n ic a l b re a k d o w n s, th e re is a m e c h a n ism in
a lm o st all ta c h o m e te rs w h ere m e a s u re m e n t is ta k e n w ith o u t a n y c o n ta c t w ith th e ro ta tin g p a rt, an d
to m a te ria liz e th is c o n c e p t p ro x im ity se n so rs a re u se d (F ig .5 -2 4 ). P ro x im ity se n so r d e te c ts w h e th e r
th e re is an y m etal n e a rb y o r a n y m e ta l h a s p a ss e d n e a rb y th e sen so r. P ro x im ity se n s o r is in s ta lle d
n e a r th e su rfa c e o f th e p ro p e lle r sh a ft o f th e m a in e n g in e . A tu r n in g g e a r is in sta lle d o n th e su rfa c e
o f th e p ro p e lle r shaft. W h e n th e m a in e n g in e s ta rts o p e ra tin g a n d th e p ro p e lle r sh a ft sta rts ro ta tin g ,
th e to o th o f the g e a r g o es n e a r o r aw ay fro m th e p ro x im ity sen so r. T h e p ro x im ity se n s o r e m its e lec ­
tric sig n a l w h e n th is g e a r a p p ro a c h e s it a n d sto p s e m ittin g e le c tric sig n a l w h e n th e it g o e s aw ay fro m
it. T h e ro ta tio n sp eed o f th e p ro p e lle r sh a ft is d e te rm in e d b y m e a s u rin g th e cy cle o f th is e le c tric sig­
nal e m itte d b y the p ro x im ity sen so r. W h e n th e p ro p e lle r sh a ft ro ta te s, th e g re a se w h ic h is ap p lie d on
tu r n in g g e a r is th ro w n an d stic k s to th e p ro x im ity se n ­
sor. M e ta llic p o w d e r o fte n g ets m ix e d w ith th is
g re a s e , so p ro x im ity se n so r m ay n o t w o rk p ro p e rly u n ­
less it is clea n ed . To avoid th is p ro b le m , it is b e tte r to
w ip e o u t th is g re a se stu c k o n th e p ro x im ity se n so r
w h en the ship is in harbor.

Turning gear

Proximity sensor

Turning gear
Г Electric signal
 Torque Meter
It is n e ^ s s a r y to m e a s u re to rq u e in o rd e r to c a lc u la te th e sh ip ’s sh a ft h o rse p o w e r. T h e o u tp u t o f
th e m a in e n g in e is tra n s m itte d th ro u g h th e c o u n te rsh a ft, an d w h e n th is ta k e s p lac e , th e c o u n te r­
sh a ft is d is to rte d slightly. T orqu e c a n b e d e te rm in e d b y m e a s u rin g th e d e g re e o f d is to rtio n e x h ib ­
ite d by th e c o u n te rsh a ft. M e th o d s o f c a lc u la tin g d isto rtio n v a ry fro m m a n u fa c tu re r to m a n u fa c ­
tu re r. F or ex am p le, th e re is a m e th o d th a t em p lo y s se n so rs c o n ta in in g a sp e c ia l alloy. U n d e r th is
m e th o d , sh a ft-d isto rtin g fo rce is tra n s m itte d to th e sen so r, w h ic h re s p o n d s b y e ith e r c o m p re ssin g
o r stre tc h in g ; th e slig h t c h a n g e in th e s e n s o r’s le n g th is d e te c te d e le c tro m a g n e tic a lly a n d to rq u e is
th e n c a lc u la te d . T h is m e th o d is o fte n a d o p te d fo r sh ip b o a rd to rq u e m e te rs (F ig .5 -2 5 ). A n o th e r
m e th o d o f d is to rtio n d ete c tio n u se s a tu r n in g g e a r a n d a p ro x im ity se n s o r as e x p la in e d in 5.7. E m ­
p lo y in g tw o sets o f p a ire d tu rn in g g e a rs and p ro x im ity se n so rs, th is m e th o d u se s d is c re p a n c ie s in
th e re sp e c tiv e se n s o rs’ o u tp u t sig n a ls as th e b asis for ca lc u la tin g th e v alu e o f to rq u e (F ig .5 -2 6 ).
T h is m e th o d o f to rq u e m e a s u re m e n t is c o m m o n ly u se d fo r o n -sh o re m a c h in e ry a n d eq u ip m e n t.

Torque-related data

Electric signal---' Signal

converter
Proximity sensor

Main engine Propeller

Gear
Fig.5-26
Bearing
0 3 Flow Meter
T h e fu el c o n su m p tio n rate o f th e m a in e n g in e o r th e e n g in e g e n e ra to r a n d th e b o ile r o f th e sh ip is
th e p rim e c o n c e rn fo r the e n g in e e r. T h e o p e ra tio n a l c o st o f sh ip s can be re d u c e d i f th e fu e l c o n ­
su m p tio n is d e c re a se d . M o reo v er, th e e m issio n o f c a rb o n d io x id e , th e m a in c a u se o f th e g lo b al
w a rm in g an d n itro g e n d io x id e, th e m a in c a u se o f acid ra in p h e n o m e n o n , c a n also b e c o n tro lle d . F or
th is, it is re q u isite to k n o w th e q u a n tity o f fu el su p p lie d to th e m a in e n g in e , th e e n g in e g e n e ra to r o r
th e bo iler. T h e re a re v a rio u s ty p e s o f flo w m e te rs a c c o rd in g to
ty p e o f flu id , te m p e ra tu re , flo w ra te o f th e flu id , an d m e a s u re ­
m e n t accu racy .
M ain ly , p o sitiv e d is p la c e m e n t flo w m e te r is u se d to m e a s u re th e
flo w o f fu el oil. It is also c a lle d th e c o g w h e e l ty p e flo w m eter.
P o sitiv e d is p la c e m e n t flo w m e te r is n o t a ffe c te d b y p re s su re ,
te m p e ra tu re , d en sity , v is c o sity o f th e flu id an d o ffe rs h ig h m e a ­
su re m e n t accu racy .
F ig . 5 -2 7 sh o w s th e im ag e o f an o v al g e a r flo w m e te r as o n e o f
th e d is p la c e m e n t flo w m eters. A p a ir o f o v al sh ap e d g e a rs (oval
g ears) a re ro ta te d b y p la c in g th em in th e flo w o f th e fu el oil, th e
fu el flo w s b e tw e e n c o g w h e e l an d case. T h e q u a n tity o f th e fu e l flo w is d e te rm in e d b y m e a s u rin g
th e n u m b e r o f ro ta tio n s o f th e g e a r as th e q u a n tity o f th e fu el th a t flo w s fo r o n e ro ta tio n o f th e g e a r
is k n o w n . M o reo v er, to m o n ito r th e q u a n tity o f th e fu el oil at c o n tro l ro o m , th e n u m b e r o f g e a r ro ta ­
tio n s can b e c o n v e rte d in to e le c tric sig n al. F o r in s ta n c e , i f 10 lite rs o f fu el oil is re q u ire d to g e n e ra te
th e e le c tric sig n al, th e q u a n tity o f th e flo w c a n b e d e te rm in e d by m e a s u rin g th e e le c tric sig n al.
In o v al flo w m eter, as th e q u a n tity o f th e flo w is m e a s u re d b y c o u n tin g th e ro ta tio n s o f ov al c o g ­
w h eel, th e ro ta tio n s o f c o g w h e e l m ay g et o b stru c te d i f slu d g e g ets m ix e d in th e fu el oil. T h e re fo re
re g u la r m a in te n a n c e is n ecessa ry .

© Viscometer (Viscosity Meter)

T h e F.O. h e a te r is in sta lle d to low er th e v is c o sity o f th e fu el oil su pp lied to th e m a in e n g in e fro m fuel
oil se rv ic e ta n k (F ig .5 -2 8 ). In th e F.O. H eater, th e fu el oil is h e a te d b y u sin g steam . W h e n th e am o u n t
o f steam su p p lied to th e F.O. h e a te r is larg e, th e fu el oil is h e a te d an d its v isc o sity b e c o m e s less. O n
th e c o n trary , w h e n th e am o u n t o f ste a m su p p lied is low, sin ce th e fu el oil te m p e ra tu re d o es n o t rise,
th e v isc o sity o f the fu el oil in cre a se s. T h erefo re, th e v isc o sity o f th e fuel oil can b e a d ju ste d by c h a n g ­
in g th e a m o u n t o f steam . H en c e it is n e c e ss a ry to m e a su re th e v isco sity o f th e fu e l oil at th e F.O.
h e a te r outlet.
T h e v isc o m e te r calcu lates th e v isc o sity d a ta b y le a d in g p a rt o f th e fu el o il into sm a ll tu b e s an d
m e a s u rin g th e d iffe re n tia l p re ssu re b efo re an d a fte r it. To m e a su re th e d iffe re n tia l p re s su re in the
se n so r p a rt, the se n so r an d the c o n tro lle r a re c o n n e c te d b y tw o c o n n e c tin g p ip es o r ele c tric signal
lines. W h e n th e v isco sity o f th e fu el oil is m e a su re d a n d i f th e m e a s u re d v alu e is fo u n d to b e less
th a n th e sp e c ifie d value, it is
Valve opening instruction
ad v isa b le to w id en th e o p e n in g
o f th e m o to r valve o f the steam
sy stem . M oreover, w hen the
m e a su re m e n t v alu e is h ig h e r Steam
th an the sp ecifie d value, the
o p e n in g o f the m o to r valve in Main
Fuel o il—► engine
th e ste a m sy stem is reduced.
F.O. heater Viscometer
Fig.5-28

Transducer
T ra n sd u c e r is re q u ire d for e le c tro n ic ally re c o rd in g th e c o rre c t d a ta fro m se n so rs an d se n d in g it to
th e c o n tro l ro o m as in fo rm a tio n (F ig .5 -2 9 ). T h o u g h at th e firs t g la n c e it looks like a te rm in a l b lo ck ,
it play s a n im p o rta n t role in co n n e c tin g b o th sen so r a n d d a ta lo g g er o r sen so r a n d ele c tric co n tro l
d ev ice (F ig .5 -3 0 ). For in sta n c e , a th e rm o co u p le is re q u ire d to a m p lify the voltage, sin ce a slig h t
v o ltag e is g en erated b etw een th e se n so r te rm in a ls. M oreover, in re sista n c e th e rm o m e te r, th e v o lt­
age is m e a su re d by p ro v id in g a c o n sta n t cu rren t.
F u rth e r, th e m e a su re d d a ta sho u ld b e c o n v e rted in a d v a n ce in to ele c tric sig n a l fo rm a t re q u ire d b y
ele c tro n ic d ev ice to tra n sm it th is d a ta to d a ta lo g g e r o r co n tro l room . W h e n it is to b e c o n v e rte d into
v o ltag e signal, th ere are th re e levels: 0~5V , 1~5V, a n d 0-10V . W h e n it is to b e c o n v e rted in to c u rre n t
sig n al, it is co n v e rte d in to 4 m A ~ 2 0 m A . A lso , th e tra n sd u c e r in su late s th e in p u t sig n al an d o u tp u t
sig n al electrically. T h e tra n sd u c e r is c o n ta in e d in m e a su re m e n t e q u ip m en t lik e th e p o rta b le te m ­
p e ra tu re sensor. H ow ever, th e se tra n sd u c e rs a re in sta lle d in d ep en d e n tly on th e p an el b o a rd s in m o st
o f th e te m p e ra tu re sen so rs an d v o ltag e sen so rs u sed in ships. T h o u g h tra n sd u c e rs are n o t re m a rk ­
able d ev ice s, th ey are as im p o rta n t as sen so rs. It is re c o m m e n d e d to rem o v e d u st, an d ch e ck re g u ­
larly w h e th e r the tra n sd u c e r an d te m p e ra tu re in sid e th e p an e l is a b n o rm a lly h eated.

• Amplifying • DC voltage signal

• Supplying Current • DC current signal
H r .5-2«» • Insulation Fig.5-30
 г* A/D Conversion, D/A Conversion
In tran sd u cer, d ata co n v e rte d in to v o lt­
ag e o r c u rren t is in the a n a lo g form at.
T h is data m u s t be c o n v e rte d in to dig ital \
fo rm a t to re co rd , co n tro l o r d isp la y on
th e co m p u ter. H ere an alo g -d ig ita l c o n ­
v e rters (h e re a fte r ab b re v ia te d as A /D
c o n v erters) are used. F ig .5 -3 1 sh o w s the
sc h e m atic d ia g ra m o f th e A /D converter.
0
T h e a n alo g sig n al is sh o w n in Q , an d its
re su lt d raw n w ith fix ed tim e p u lse w id th
is sh o w n in © . T h is is k n o w n as sam ­
p lin g , an d th e sp eed at w h ich sa m p lin g is
d o n e, is k n o w n as sam p lin g frequency.
N e x t, th e h e ig h t o f th e sa m p le d d a ta su b ­
stitu ted b y n u m erical v alu es is sh o w n in
0
О
T h is is k n o w n as q u an tizatio n . T h is n u ­
m e rical v alu e, ex p ressed in b in a ry n u m ­
b ers, is sh o w n in ф In th is w a y d iffe r­
e n t te m p e ra tu re an d v o lta g e d a ta are
7 5 4 4 6 8 13 19 2 5 2 9 31 3 0 3 0 2 7 23
co n v erted into d ig ital fo rm a t an d th e n
u sed in m e a su rin g d ev ice s and c o m p u t­
ers.
О
O O O O O O O - ^ —‘-
---
---
O O O O O ^ —‘ O ^ — “
O
—‘ О О О —‘ § 0 ^ 0 0 —*—‘ —* 2 —.
—. - ^ O O O O — ‘
O O — >

Fig.5-31

F u rth e rm o re , th e in fo rm atio n is re ­
co rd ed in d ig ital d ata fo rm a t in th e c o m ­
b in a tio n s o f 1 and 0 in C D (F ig .5 -3 2 )
a n d D V D as w ell. In m u sical C D , w h en
the sound is p lay ed back, the d ig ital d ata
is converted into analog and is o u tp u t to
th e speaker. T herefore, the C D p la y er is a
d ig ital/analog co n v erter (D /A co n v erter).
 Annex

1 Tester
2 Insulating-Resistance Tester (Megger)
3 Clamp Meter
4 How to Denote and Read Sequence Control equipment
5 Control Appliance Numbers
1. Tester
V o lta g e , c u r r e n t, a n d r e s is ta n c e v a lu e o f e le c tr ic e q u ip m e n t c a n b e m e a s u r e d b y u s in g a
te s te r. I f a te s te r is u s e d a p p ro p r ia te ly , d a m a g e to th e e le c tr ic e q u ip m e n t c a n b e d e te c te d
q u ic k ly a n d it c a n b e r e p a ir e d . A p p r o p r ia te u s a g e o f th e te s te r a n d u s a g e e x a m p le s a re in t r o ­
d u c e d h e re . T h e r e a re 2 ty p e s o f te s te r s , n a m e ly th e A n a lo g ty p e a n d D ig ita l ty p e .

Recommended usage of Analog Tester

Tester show n in F ig .l is a com m only used A nalog tester. W hen the

test lead touches the electric equipm ent w hose voltage is to be
m easured, the indicating needle m oves according to the value o f
voltage and the resistance in the electric equipm ent. M easuring items
can be selected from the DC Voltage (D C V ), the DC C urrent (DCA),
AC Voltage (ACV), and the R esistance value (П) by the the rotary
switch.

Voltage M easurem ent

A tester is used for locating defects and m easuring voltage in electric equip­
m ent. M ethod o f voltage m easurem ent by an analog tester is described here.

Step 1 ► Set the rotary sw itch to A CV in case o f m easuring the AC voltage

and set it to D CV for m easuring the D C voltage. If the voltage
range (high or low) to be m easured is not know n in advance, set
the rotary sw itch to the highest value o f the m easurem ent range
(Fig.2).

Step 2 ► M ake zero level adjustm ents before the m easurem ent. Check if
the indicating needle points to OV when the red and black test
leads touch each other. If the needle does not point to OV, adjust
the needle by rotating the adjustm ent screw s w ith a driver (F ig.3). Fig.3

S tep 3 ► Touch the test lead to the term inal o f the electric equipm ent to be
m easured. Touch the red test lead to the “Plus side” and black test
lead to the “M inus side” w hile m easuring the DCV. If the indicat­
ing needle moves to the left side o f OV, it m eans that “p lus” and
“m inus” o f the test lead have touched the opposite sides (Fig.4).
W hen the indicating needle m oves only a little, it m eans that the
Fl*4
m easurem ent range is too large to be m easured (Fig.5).
In this case, sw itch the m easurem ent range to sm all and m easure #52255
I A i
again. Conversely, w hen the indicating needle m oves com pletely
to the right, it m eans that m easurem ent range is too small.
In that case, sw itch the m easurem ent range to large and then
m easure again.
C urrent M easurem ent
It is often the case that a w eak signal from the sensor is input in a transducer
and is converted into an electric signal o f 4m A ~20m A . C urrent is m easured
by using a tester to verify the operations o f this sensor and the transducer.
However, a heavy current like the one that flow s through a m otor cannot be
tested by using a tester. A clam p m eter should be used to m easure the heavy
current (Annex 3).

Step 1 ► Set the rotary sw itch to DCA. Set the m easurem ent range to less
Ibensor ana
than 30m A w hen output current o f the sensor is to be m easured, .transducer I
and set the m easurem ent range to m axim um when range o f the
flow ing current is not clear (Fig.6).

S tep 2 ► M ake zero level adjustm ents before startin g the m easurem ents,
.Controller /'
and check w hether the indicating needle points to 0m A or not. D'atalloggerj

S t e p 3 ^ Rem ove term inals from the circuit and the electric equipm ent
w hose current is to be m easured, and touch the test lead in such a
w ay as the tester is serially connected to the term inal (Fig.7). It is
necessary to take care since the tester w ill be dam aged in a
fraction o f a second if the test lead is touched parallel to the circuit
(Fig.8).

R esistance M easurem ent

A resistance therm om eter (R efer to 5.2) is frequently used in the m easurem ent to control tem perature and
output alarm . In the resistance therm om eter, the resistance value changes w ith changes in the m easured
tem perature. The resistance value is m easured by using a tester to check w hether this resistance therm om ­
eter is norm al or disconnected. M ethod o f m easuring the resistance value w ith the analog tester is described
below.

Step 1 ► Set the ro tary sw itch to (fi). Set the m easurem ent range to m in i­
mum when the resistance value to be measured is not clear (Fig.9).

Step 2 ► M ake zero level adjustm ents before starting the m easurem ents.
Have the red and black test leads touch each other and check
w hether the indicator needle points to 0Г2 or not (F ig.10), and if it
does not point to 0Г2, adjust the needle to Ofi by rotating it w ith a
screw driver. C orrect m easurem ent o f the resistance value is not
possible if this step is om itted.

Step 3 ► Have the test lead touch the term inal o f a device to be m easured.
W hen the indicating needle moves only a little, sw itch the
m easuring range to large as it is too sm all, and then m easure
again. Conversely, w hen indicating needle m oves sharply i.e.
com pletely to the right, sw itch the m easuring range to sm all to get
the more accurate m easurem ent. ^ '!!• ^в
 Usage of Digital Tester

S im ilar to the analog tester, voltage, current and resistance o f electric

equipm ent can also be m easured by the digital tester. D epending upon
type o f equipm ent, the digital tester can m easure frequency o f ACV,
tem perature by connecting to therm ocouple, and electrostatic capaci­
tance o f a capacitor. Therefore, it can also be called a D igital M ulti
M eter. T hough the m easuring item s can be selected by rotary sw itch,
there is no need to set the range since in m any cases range setting is
done autom atically. In the digital tester show n in F ig .lI , m easurem ent
o f voltage and the resistance is A uto-ranged but the range setting o f
current is “M anual”. M oreover, the contact point o f the test lead is
different w hile m easuring the cu rren t only.
Basically, the sam e precautions should be taken when using a digital
tester and an analog tester. For exam ple, practice o f m aking zero level
adjustm ents before starting the m easurem ents should be follow ed with
both types o f testers.

In the digital tester, voltage received at the test lead is converted into a
digital signal (R e fe r to 5.12) and m easurem ent result is displayed in
num eric value at the display panel. If OL is displayed w hile m easuring
the resistance value, it indicates that there is infinite resistance to be
m easured (Fig. 12). In other w ords, it m eans either the cable o f the
w irin g or electric bulb is disconnected or sw itch is OFF. M oreover,
w hen OL is displayed w hile m easuring the voltage, it indicates that
high voltage exceeding the norm al m easurable voltage is being
m easured.
 Measurement-related concrete examples

Let us think about the m ethod o f locating defects by using a tester w ith the help o f sequence circuit o f 3.1,
F ig.3-2 and Fig.3-3.

B reakdow n/Sym ptom s ►

Power indication w hite lam p (source) docs not illum inate even if MCCB is sw itched ON.

Inference 1 ► Breakdown o f Transform er o f the Sequence C ircuit

T here is a possibility o f a transform er w ire getting dam aged if over-current is passed through a transform er
(R efer to 1 . 1). Voltage at the secondary side o f the transform er is m easured by using a tester. Set the rotary
sw itch to the highest voltage range w hen the voltage inside the sequence circuit is unknow n. Use the test
lead to touch the secondary side o f the o f the transform er term inal w hen the MCCB (R efer to 3.4) is in ON
state. If the m easurem ent value is norm al, it indicates that the transform er is not defective.

Inference 2 ► Possibility o f Blow ing of Fuse in Sequence C ircuit

I f the transform er is not defective, possibility o f a blown fuse can be consid­
ered. Though it can be determ ined w hether the fuse is blow n or not from the
glass tube fuse, the voltage is m easured from the output side o f the fuse
w hen it cannot be determ ined from the appearance o f the fuse (Fig.13).
Even w hen a single fuse is blow n, voltage at the output side o f the fuse
becom es zero. In case o f possibility o f blow ing o f fuse, m ake sure to switch
OFF the MCCB first and rem ove the fuse. R esistance value o f the fuse is
m easured by using a tester and if this value is infinite (Analog: the needle is Fig.13

stationary, Digital: displayed as OL), fuse should be replaced (Fig.14).

Inference 3 ► D isconnected W ires

N ext, let us consider the possibility o f disconnection o f cables connecting
the w hite lam p w ith the term inal board. M easure the voltage betw een the
term inals o f the w hite lam p w hen the MCCB is ON (Fig.15). I f the Fig.14
m easured voltage is norm al, it indicates that the cables are not discon­
nected. If the m easured voltage is not norm al, the cables m ay be discon­
nected. Here, sw itch OFF the M CCB w ithout fail, rem ove the cabling and
then m easure the resistance at both the term inals o f the cables. If the
resistance value is nearly zero, it indicates that the cables are not discon­
nected. Conversely, if the resistance tu rn s out to be infin ite (Analog: the
needle is stationary, Digital: displays as OL) the cables should be replaced.
Fig.15

Inference 4 ► Breakdown o f the Lamp

M easure the voltage betw een the term inals o f the lam p w hen the M CCB is
ON and if the lam p is not turned ON in spite o f the voltage being norm al, it
indicates that the lam p is dam aged.
4. How to Denote and Read
Sequence Control Equipment
Character symbols according to Switch type

Symbol Name Description

Change-Over This control switch carries out change-overs to 2 or more

COS Switch circuits.

This detection switch operates at a fixed position during

LS Limit Switch
the idle process of device.

This detection switch operates at a predetermined level

FS Float Switch of the fluid according to the float set on the surface of
fluid.

Character symbols for relays

Symbol Name Description

Thermal Relay This is a relay whose main element is of heat operating

THR
mechanism.

This relay is designed to operate with predetermined time

TLR Time-Lag Relay delay and is designed to minimize errors.

This contactor frequently opens and closes the load

Electromagnetic circuit according to the operations of an electromagnet.
MC Contactor
Character symbols according to type of Circuit-breakers and other

Symbol Name Description

This is an air circuit-breaker in which open-close and

Molded Case
MCCB Circuit-Breaker pulling mechanisms are integrated in the container of an
insulated material.

Air This breaker is capable of safely putting out arc that is

ACB
Circuit-Breaker generated in the air between contacts.

Vacuum This breaker is based on the diffusion effect of arc in

VCB vacuum.
Circuit-Breaker

This device isolates the circuit when the fuse element

F Fuse melts due to flowing of an overcurrent or short-circuit cur­
rent in particular.

Character symbols of other types of devices

Symbol Name Description

This device consists of an element as a main part

RE Rectifier through which the electric current flows in one direction
only.

m Buzzer
This acoustic device vibrates the audio signal generating
disphram with the help of an electromagnet.

This valve having a combination of electromagnet and

Solenoid Valve
sv valve mechanism, opens and closes the fluid passage
according to the operations of the electromagnet.

Motor-Operated This valve opens and closes according to the electric

MV Valve machinery.
5. Control Appliance Numbers
Standard
Number Name of Appliance

1 Main controller or Switch

2 Start-up or Closed circuit time-lag relay

3 Operation switch

4 Main control circuit controller or Relay

5 Stop switch or Relay

f ' '* ' '
6 Start circuit breaker, Contactor, Switch or Relay

7 Adjustment switch

8 Electric control switch

9 Field current switch, Contactor or Relay

10 Sequence switch or Program controller

11 Test switch or Relay

12 Variator or Relay

13 Synchronus speed switch or Relay

14 Deceleration switch or Relay

15 Speed regulating device

16 Display line monitoring relay

17 Display line relay

18 Acceleration or deceleration contactor or Relay

19 Start-up operation change-over contactor or Relay

20 Auxiliary valve

mm Main valve

Electrical leakage circuit breaker, Contactor or Relay

23 Temperature regulator or Relay

Tap change-over instrument

Synchronous detector
Standard
Number Name of Appliance
26 Static temperature switch or Relay

27 Undercurrent ACV relay

28 Alarm device

29 Fire extinguisher

30 Device status or break-down display unit

31 Field conversion circuit breaker, Contactor or Relay

32 Direct and reverse current relay

33 Position detector switch or Appliance

34 Electric sequence controller

35 Brush operation device or Slip ring short-circuit device

36 Polar relay electric field

ШЖ Undercurrent relay

Bearing temperature switch or Relay

39 Mechanical defect monitoring device or Detector switch

Field current relay or Boundary electrode fault relay

Field circuit breaker, Contactor or Switch

42 Operation relay, Contactor ot Switch

43 Control circuit changeover contactor, Switch or Relay

44 Remote relay device

45 DC over voltage relay

46 Reversed phase or phase unbalance current relay

47 Faulty phase or reversed phase voltage relay

48 Congestion detection relay

49 Rotor temperature relay or Overload relay

50 Short-circuit selector relay or Grounding selector relay

Standard
Number Name of Appliances

51 AC overcurrent relay or Grounding overcurrent relay

52 AC circuit-breaker or Contactor

53 Excitation relay

54 High-speed circuit-breaker

55 Automatic power factor regulator or Power factor relay

56 Sliding detector or Step-out relay

57 Automatic current regulator or Current relay

58 (Standby number)

59 AC overcurrent relay

60 Automatic voltage balanced regulator or Voltage balanced relay

61 Automatic voltage balanced regulatory float or Voltage balanced relay

62 Stop or Close time-lag relay

Pressure relay or Switch

ШЖ Grounding overcurrent measuring instrument

65 Speed-control mechanism

66 Intermittent relay

ШШ AC power sensing relay or Grounding sensing relay

Combination detector

69 Flow relay or Switch

70 Rheostat

71 Rectifier element breakdown detecting mechanism

72 DC circuit-breaker or Contactor

73 Contactor or C ircuit breaker for short-circuit

74 Regulating valve

75 Damping device
Standard
Number Name of Appliance
76 DC overcurrent relay

77 Load regulating mechanism

78 Transmission protection phase-comparison relay

79 AC re-closing circuit relay

80 DC undercurrent relay

81 Speed regulation activating mechanism

82 DC re-closing circuit relay

83 Alternative contactor, Switch or Relay

84 Voltage relay

85 Signal relay

86 Lock-out relay

87 Differential relay

88 Auxiliary contactor, Relay or Switch

89 Isolating switch or Load switch

90 Automatic voltage regulator or Automatic voltage regulator relay

91 Automatic power regulator or Power relay

92 Door or Damper

93 (Standby number)

94 Removable free contactor or Relay

95 Automatic frequency regulator or Frequency relay

96 Stationary internal failure detector

97 Runner

98 Coupling device

99 Automatic recorder
M e s s a g e fr o m IM M A J C h a irm a n

O n th e h a p p y o c c a s io n o f th e p u b lic a tio n o f th e te x tb o o k “ F u n d a m e n ta ls o f

M a r itim e E le c tro n ic A p p a r a tu s ” , I w o u ld lik e to e x p re s s o u r a p p re c ia tio n to

th e J a p a n M a r in e E n g in e e r s ’ A s s o c ia tio n f o r th e p ro v is io n o f v a rio u s d a ta .

T h e s u b je c t o f th e te x tb o o k is g ro u n d b r e a k in g in th a t its p u b lic a tio n w ill

s u re ly a s s is t th o s e fo r e ig n s e a fa re rs s tu d y in g w ith a v ie w to f u r th e r im p ro v in g

th e ir m a r itim e sk ills.

S ix y e a rs a g o , IM M A J b e g a n a p ro je c t to c o m p ile a n d p u b lis h a se rie s o f

te x tb o o k s to a s s is t fo r e ig n n o n -d o m ic ile d s e a fa re rs in th e ir s tu d ie s , a n d in

o r d e r to m a in ta in a n d d is s e m in a te th e w o rld - c la s s sk ills o f J a p a n e s e m a r itim e

te c h n ic ia n s a c q u ire d th ro u g h th e ir lo n g - te rm e x p e rie n c e . T h e la te s t p u b lic a ­

tio n “F u n d a m e n ta ls o f M a r itim e E le c tro n ic A p p a r a tu s ” is th e six th v o lu m e in

th is s e t o f te x tb o o k s . F o re ig n n o n -d o m ic ile d s e a fa re rs w o rk h a n d -in -h a n d

w ith J a p a n e s e m a r itim e te c h n ic ia n s to m a k e a v a lu a b le c o n tr ib u tio n to th e

sa fe n a v ig a tio n o f th e J a p a n e s e fle e t. I h o p e th e s e fo r e ig n s e a f a re rs w ill fin d

th is la te s t v o lu m e in f o rm a tiv e a n d u s e f u l in im p ro v in g th e ir sk ills to e n s u re

th a t th e J a p a n e s e fle e t c o n tin u e s to s a il safely .

I w o u ld lik e to e x p re s s o u r s in c e re a p p re c ia tio n f o r y o u r a s s is ta n c e in th e

c o m p ila tio n a n d p u b lic a tio n o f th is la te s t te x tb o o k .

Y o u rs sin c e re ly ,
N obuo K ayahara
C hairm an
International M ariners M anagem ent
A sso ciatio n o f Japan
FOREW ORD

T h e p a s t s e v e ra l d e c a d e s h a v e w itn e s s e d re m a rk a b le d e v e lo p m e n ts in s c ie n c e

a n d te c h n o lo g y , p a rtic u la rly in fie ld s re la te d to in f o rm a tio n te c h n o lo g y (IT ).

A g a in s t s u c h a b a c k g ro u n d , th e in tro d u c tio n o f a d v a n c e d te c h n o lo g ie s is

re q u ire d to e n s u r e sa fe sh ip o p e ra tio n a n d to c o n s e r v e th e n a tu r a l e n v ir o n ­

m e n t.

S in c e m o s t a u to m a te d m a rin e e q u ip m e n t a n d IT a p p a ra tu s e s a re c o m p o s e d

o f e le c tr o n ic d e v ic e s , u s e r s a re r e q u ir e d to m a s te r th e f u n d a m e n ta ls o f

e le c tro n ic s in o rd e r to e ffe c tiv e ly o p e ra te a n d m a in ta in m o d e m m a r in e e q u ip ­

m e n t.

A c q u irin g a b a s ic k n o w le d g e o f e le c tro n ic s - w h ic h in v o lv e s e le c tro n ic

c irc u its c o n tr o lle d b y v a rio u s c o m b in a tio n s o f s e m ic o n d u c to r d e v ic e s - is n o t

e asy , a n d is d if fic u lt to c o m e b y r e ly in g o n b o o k s a lo n e.

In lig h t o f th is s itu a tio n , th e J a p a n M a r in e E n g in e e r s ’ A s s o c ia tio n h a s

p ro d u c e d “ F u n d a m e n ta ls o f M a r itim e E le c tro n ic A p p a ra tu s ,” an e d u c a tio n a l

m a te ria l c o m p r is in g a b o o k a n d D V D . I n te n d e d f o r u se m a in ly b y s tu d e n ts a t

m a r itim e e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n s a n d n e w ly e m p lo y e d e n g in e e rs b e in g tra in e d

b y th e ir re s p e c tiv e s h ip p in g c o m p a n ie s , th e b o o k is d e s ig n e d to b e v is u a lly

a ttra c tiv e , e a s y to u s e a n d e a s y to u n d e rs ta n d .

W e s in c e re ly h o p e th a t r e p e a te d re v ie w o f th is b o o k a n d a c c o m p a n y in g

D V D w ill p ro v id e u s e rs w ith a fu n d a m e n ta l k n o w le d g e o f e le c tro n ic s a n d

th e re b y c o n tr ib u te to s a fe sh ip o p e ra tio n a n d p re v e n tio n o f m a r in e a c c id e n ts

th ro u g h p r o p e r o p e ra tio n a n d m a in te n a n c e o f m a rin e e q u ip m e n t.