Unit 1 Environmental Science and Ecosystem

Environment and its components

Environment- is derived from the French word Environner which means to

encircle or surround. Environment means our surroundings. All the biological
and non-biological things which surround an organism are included in
environment.

According to Environment (Protection) Act 1986, environment is “sum total of

water, air and land, inter-relationship among themselves and also with the
human beings, other living organism and property”.

Types of Environment

It is of two types

1. Natural Environment- The natural environmental system operates through

self regulating mechanism, called homeostatic environment mechanism, i.e.
any change in natural ecosystem brought about by natural process is counter
balanced by changes in other component of the environment.

2. Anthropogenic or Man-made Environment- man is the most powerful

environmental agent, spearheaded by modern technologies capable of
modifying the environment according to his needs to a great extent. Man
made environment includes: technology, transportation, industrial revolution,
dam- building.

Components of Environment

There are two components of environment

 Biotic component
 Abiotic component

1. Biotic component (living component)- the biotic component of environment

consists of flora and fauna, including human being as the important factor.
The biotic environment includes the living components of the biosphere. For
an organism, the biotic factors constitute all the other organisms with which it
comes into regular contact.
 If the relationship exists between organisms of the same species it is known
as intraspecific relationship or intraspecific association, while if it takes place
between organisms of different species, it is called interespecific relationship
or interspecific association.

2. Abiotic component (non-living component)- includes all non-living factors.

This includes water, air (atmosphere, altitude, pressure, wind, air currents and
humidity), soil, temperature, light, topography etc. Lithosphere, hydrosphere
and atmosphere come under abiotic component.
Climatic factors- which includes atmosphere, light, temperature, humidity
etc.
Edaphic factors- which comprises lithosphere or soil.
Topographic factors- which consist of altitude, direction of mountain chains,
plains, lakes, rivers, sea level and valleys etc.

Segments of Environment
There are four segments of atmosphere
1. Atmosphere
2. Lithosphere
3. Hydrosphere
4. Biosphere
Atmosphere

Lithosphere Biosphere

Hydrosphere
 All four segments are interconnected to each other. Above schematic diagram
shows the interrelationship between all the four segments of environment. The
circle represents the sphere and arrows the flow pathways of matter. Matter may
flow from one segment to another in both directions; the matter may also flow
within a given compartment from physical location to another without leaving
the sphere.

1. Atmosphere- the blanket of air that surrounds earth is known as the

atmosphere.
Or

The cover of air that envelops the earth is known as the atmosphere.

Atmosphere consists of many gases. The composition of earth’s atmosphere is

shown in following table

S. Gas Relative
No. percentage
1 Nitrogen 78.08
2 Oxygen 20.95
3 Argon 0.93
4 Carbon 0.03
Dioxide
5 Neon 0.0018
6 Helium 0.00052
7 Methane 0.00015
8 Krypton 0.0001
9 Hydrogen 0.00005
10 Nitrous oxide 0.00005
11 Xenon 0.000009
12 Ozone 0.000007
 Atmosphere also serves many functions. For example,
 It absorbs most of the sun’s harmful radiations and protects living things
from their harmful effects.
 Several cycles are also present in the atmosphere that relate to the
movement of matter between an organism and its environment. These
cycles of matter include the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen
cycle, the phosphorus cycle and others.

 There is no boundary between the atmosphere and the void of outer

space. However, 75 percent of the earth’s atmosphere lies within 10 miles
of the atmosphere and 99 percent lies below an altitude of 30 kms.

In the atmosphere, there are concentric layers of air and each layer has a
different density. These layers can be differentiated on the basis of temperature
and each layer has its own characteristics. The various layers of atmosphere are
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.

1. Troposphere-
 This atmospheric layer lies closest to the earth’s surface and it is the lowest
layer of atmosphere in which humans along with other organisms live.
 The depth of this layer varies from 8 to 16 kilometres. Greatest depth occurs at
the trophics where warm temperatures cause expansion of the lower
atmosphere. From the tropics to the Earth’s polar regions the troposphere
becomes gradually thinner. Average depth of the troposphere is approximately
11 kilometres.
 About 80% of the atmosphere’s total mass is contained within troposphere,
which is characterised by a steady decrease in temperature.
 It is a turbulent, dusty zone, containing much water vapour and clouds and thus
the region of strong air movements and cloud formation. Weather occurs in the
Earth’s troposphere.
 Maximum air temperature also occurs near the earth’s surface.
 With increasing height, air temperature drops uniformly with altitude at a rate of
approximately 6.5oC per kilometre. This phenomenon is commonly called the
Environmental Lapse Rate.
 Towards the upper levels of troposphere, the temperature decreases upto -56.5
o
C.
 At the upper edge of the troposphere is a narrow transition zone known as
Tropopause.

2. Stratosphere- above the troposphere is the stratosphere.

 This layer extends from an average altitude of 11 to 50 kilometres above the
earth’s surface.
 This stratosphere contains about 19.9% of the total mass found in the
atmosphere.
 In the first 9 kilometers of the stratosphere, temperature remains constant
with height. A zone with constant temperature in the atmosphere is called an
isothermal layer.
 From an altitude of 20 to 50 kms, temperature increases with an increase in
altitude. The higher temperature is found in this region because of a localized
concentration of ozone gas molecules. These molecules absorb ultraviolet
radiations creating heat energy that warms the stratosphere. This layer of
ozone is called ozone layer.
 Ozone is formed from oxygen by a photochemical reaction in which energy
from the sun decomposes the oxygen molecule into reactive atomic oxygen.
 This ozone layer protects organisms at the earth’s atmosphere from
ultraviolet radiation. Without the ozone layer life could not exist on the
earth’s surface.

Above the stratosphere is a narrow transition zone called stratopause.

3. Mesosphere-

 This layer ranges between altitudes of 50 to 80 kilometers.

 Atmosphere reaches its coldest temperature (-90 oC) at a height of
approximately 80 kms from earth surface.
 It is the layer where most of the meteors burn up.
 At the top of mesosphere is another transition zone called Mesopause.

 4. Thermosphere or Ionosphere

 This layer of atmosphere ranges from 80 kms to 500 kms above the earth
surface.
 Temperature increases with height in thermosphere and reaches upto 1200 oC.
 Ionosphere contains electrically charged particles called ions. It consists of
ionized gaseous components such as O2+,O+, NO+.
 These particles reflect radio waves back to the earth surface thus enable us to
have wireless communication.

5. Exosphere

 This is the uppermost layer. This region is also called the outer space.
 This layer is extended to an altitude of 1600 kms.
 It contains H+ and He++ and has very high temperatures due to solar
radiations.

100
Thermosphere
90

Mesopause
80

70 Mesosphere
Altitude
(Km)
60

Stratopause
50

40

30 Stratosphere

20

Tropopause
2. Lithosphere-
Lithosphere is composed of soil particles, and underlying rocks down to depth
of 50 kms. The soil layer is also termed as pedosphere.
Lithosphere contains cold hard solid land of earth’s crust (surface), the
semisolid land underneath the crust, and liquid land near the centre of the earth.
Pedosphere contains mixture of inorganic and organic solid matter, air, water
and microorganisms.
Outermost layer of lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen
and silicon.
Beneath this layer lies a very thin solid crust of oxygen and silicon.
Next is a thick, semisolid mantle consists of oxygen, silicon, iron and
magnesium.
Below this layer is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron.
At the centre of earth is a solid inner core of nickel and iron.

O2, Si, 8-40 kms

Crust

O2, Si, Fe, Mg

2900 kms
2500 kms

Inner core
Ni, Fe
Mantle

Layers of earth

Layers of soil

O Horizon - The top, organic layer of soil, made up mostly of leaf litter and
humus (decomposed organic matter).

A Horizon - The layer called topsoil; it is found below the O horizon and
above the E horizon. Seeds germinate and plant roots grow in this dark-
colored layer. It is made up of humus (decomposed organic matter) mixed
with mineral particles.

E Horizon - This eluviation (leaching) layer is light in color; this layer is

beneath the A Horizon and above the B Horizon. It is made up mostly of sand
 and silt, having lost most of its minerals and clay as water drips through the
soil (in the process of eluviation).

B Horizon - Also called the subsoil - this layer is beneath the E Horizon and
above the C Horizon. It contains clay and mineral deposits (like iron,
aluminum oxides, and calcium carbonate) that it receives from layers above it
when mineralized water drips from the soil above.

C Horizon - Also called regolith: the layer beneath the B Horizon and above
the R Horizon. It consists of slightly broken-up bedrock. Plant roots do not
penetrate into this layer; very little organic material is found in this layer.

R Horizon - The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is beneath all the
other layers.

3. Hydrosphere-
Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on or near the earth. It includes
oceans, lakes, rivers, and moisture in air. It ranges from 10-20 km in thickness.
Hydrosphere extends from earth’s surface downward several kilometers into
lithosphere and upward around 12 kms into the atmosphere.
The hydrosphere can be divided into 2 compartments. First A conveyer, a river
which collects the substance within the watershed and delivers them to second
hydrologic compartment, Oceans.
Hydrosphere covers approx. 71% area of earth. 97.5% of earth water is salty
and is placed Oceans.
96.5% as salty water
2.5% as fresh water
0.93% as saline ground water
0.07% as saline lakes.

Out of this 2.5% fresh water:

68.6% exists as snow in glaciers and ice caps.

30.1% as ground water. (0.75% of total earth water)
1.3% exists as surface water and other fresh water.
Now this 1.3% surface water can further be categorized as:
73.1% as ice and snow
20.1% as Lakes.
3.52 % as soil moisture.
2.53% as Swamp and marshes.
0.46% as Rivers
0.22% Biological water
0.22% as atmospheric water.

4. Biosphere-
 This term was first used by Eduard Suess.
 It is composed of all living organisms. Plants, animals and one celled
organisms are all part of the biosphere.
 The life is found from three meters below the ground to thirty meters above it
and in the top 200 meters of the oceans and seas.
 Living things form ecological communities based on the physical
surroundings of an area. These communities are referred to as biomes.
Examples of biomes are deserts, grasslands etc.
 It occupies the least volume of all the spheres but maximum flow of matter
takes place in this segment.
 The biosphere is responsible for the grand scale recycling of energy and
matter on earth.
 Ecosystems operate in this part of the earth.

Environmental Science

The systematic study of environment and our interaction with it is known as

environmental science.

Environmental science is multidisciplinary in nature. It deals with all aspects

of life that is related to us in any way. It is not a single subject but it has the
characteristics of various disciplines of life science (botany, zoology,
biochemistry, microbiology, biotechnology and genetics). It also interacts with
basic science (physics, chemistry, mathematics) and some aspects of life such as
economics, management, religion, laws and social issues.

Environmental science incorporates information and ideas from multiple

disciplines. By combining aspects of the natural sciences, social sciences, and
the humanities, the field of environmental science can cover more concepts and
also examine problems and topics from many different points of view.
Management Basic Science Scienceeeenceence
Life Science
Environmental Science

Social issues Economics

Environmental science

Laws Religion

Environmental education is the education through environment, about the

environment and for the environment. Environmental education has long been
defined to include three critical components: awareness, leading to
understanding, which in turn creates the potential and capacity for appropriate
actions. Environmental education includes:
 Developing personal awareness of the environment and one’s connections to
it.
 Developing an understanding of environmental concepts and knowledge of
ecological, scientific, social, political, and economic systems.
 The capacity to act responsibly upon what a person feels and knows, in order
to implement the best solutions to environmental problems.

Objectives of Environmental Education

The world’s first Inter-governmental Conference on Environmental Education
organised by UNESCO was held in Tbilisi, Georgia (USSR) in 1977. Most
environmental educators have since universally adopted these objectives.
 Awareness and sensitivity about the environment and environmental
challenges.
 Knowledge and understanding about the environment and environmental
challenges.
 Attitude concern for the environment and help to maintain environmental
quality.
 Skills to mitigate the environmental problems.
 Participation for exercising existing knowledge and environmental related
programs.

Importance of Environmental Education

 Environmental education helps in economy and welfare of human society.

 It helps us in solving different issues like pollution measures, over
exploitation of natural resources, food problems and sustainable
development.
 Environmental education helps us in finding ways to maintain ecological
balance.
 As industrialization is increasing and new technologies are growing, to
conserve and protect the environment we need eco friendly products and
methods, it can be achieved only through proper knowledge of environment.
 Environmental education trains us to conserve our fast depleting natural
resources.
 It helps to understand different food chains and the ecological balance in
nature.
 It helps in encouraging environmental protection, inculcating attitude and
values and understanding of inter-dependence of nature and man.

Scope of Environmental Education

 Natural Resources- their conservation and management

 Ecology( restoration of ecosystems)
 Biodiversity and its conservation
 Environmental pollution and control methods
 Natural disasters management
 Social issues in relation to development and environment
 Human population and environment
 Environmental engineer, environmentalist, environmental ambassador
 Green jobs
Ecology and Ecosystem

Ecology- deals with the study of relationship between organisms and the
environment is known as ecology.

Ecosystem- The term ecosystem was proposed by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

It includes a group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another

in an area and their surroundings, in which they interact with each other and
exchange energy and matter.

Or

Ecosystem is a dynamic entity composed of a biological community and its

associated abiotic environment.

The part of the earth where these ecosystems operate is called the Biosphere.

Structure of an ecosystem

Ecosystem

Abiotic Component Biotic Component

Climatic Edaphic Producers Consumers Decomposers

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

The functional unit of the ecosystem consists of two distinct structural

components or factors namely biotic and abiotic components.

Abiotic components or non-living environmental factors are

Climatic factors- it is the weather characteristic of a given place which depends
on various factors like temperature, light, humidity, wind, velocity and
atmospheric gases etc.
Edaphic factors- it includes chemical and physical characteristics of the soil.

The biotic component of an ecosystem consists of all living components of the

environment such as plants, animals, human beings and microbes. All living
organisms of our environment can be further categorized depending on their
self- food producing capability. They can be categorized as autotrophic
component or producers and heterotrophic component or consumers.

Autotroph Herbivore Carnivore Top Carnivore Decomposers

Producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary

consumer

Autotrophic component or Producer- includes all those organisms like

green plants, bacteria and algae which contain chlorophyll and are
capable of converting solar energy into chemical energy and storing
foodstuff in the presence of CO2 and H2O.
6CO2+ 6H2O C6H12O6+6O2

Heterotrophic component or consumer- organisms which cannot convert

solar energy into food and depend on autotrophs to obtain their energy for
survival, are called consumers or heterotrophs. Heterotrophs utilize,
rearrange and decompose the complex material produced by autotrophs.
Depending upon their feeding habits, the heterotrophs are classified as
follows:
Primary consumers- organisms or animals, which feed on green plants to obtain
energy for survival are called primary consumers or herbivores. Example cows,
goat.

Secondary consumers- animals which feed on herbivores are known as

secondary consumers. Example frog, lizards.
Tertiary consumers- are those that eat the flesh of secondary consumers.
Example tiger, lion, vultures. Since they are not killed and eaten by other
animals they are known as top carnivores.

Decomposers or saprophytes- Plants and animals supply organic matter to the

soil system though shed tissues and death. Consumer organisms that feed on
this organic matter are known as decomposers. Decomposers play the vital role
of releasing essential materials from the dead organic matter or the plant,
thereby maintaining a continuous cycle of materials.

Food chain –is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community to
obtain nutrients and energy. or

The sequence of feeding relationships in an ecosystem is called food chain.

or

The sequential inter-linking of organisms involving the transfer of food energy

from the producers through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being
eaten is referred to as the food chain.

A food chain is always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight line.

Each organism in an ecosystem is assigned a feed level or trophic level.

Types of food chain

1. Grazing food chain- it starts from green plants and goes from
herbivores to carnivores and so on. Example
Grass Insects Frog Snake Eagle

2. Detritus food chain- the dead organic matter of plant and animal is
called detritus. Many animals such as protozoas, nematodes, insects
etc., eat detritus hence they are called deterivores. The chain proceeds
to Detritus, Deterivores, Carnivores and Top Carnivores.
Detritus Deterivores Carnivores Top
Carnivores
 3. Parasitic food chain- they also start from green plants and then
herbivores then proceeds to parasites and finally hyperparasites. They
process from larger to smaller organisms.
Green Plants Herbivores Parasites Hyperparasites

Food Web- is a network of food chains which become interconnected at various

trophic levels so as to form a number of feeding connections amongst different
organisms of a biotic community. These are never straight.

Significance of food chain:

1. Food chain maintains energy flow and nutrient cycling.

2. Food chain maintains ecological balance by regulating population size
3. Food chains biologically magnify toxicity of harmful chemicals.

Energy and nutrient flow in an ecosystem

Both energy and nutrients are passed along a food chain. While energy is
eventually lost to heat, nutrients are constantly being recycled. Energy flow is
unidirectional whereas nutrient flow is cyclic.

Sunlight is converted into energy as glucose by a process called photosynthesis

and stored in plants. As first level consumers eat plants this stored energy is
transferred through carbon-carbon bonds which release energy when they are
broken. During respiration the bonds are broken and carbon combines with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The energy that is released is used by the
organism or is lost as heat. Ultimately all energy in a food chain returns to the
system as heat. On an average about 10% of net energy production at one
trophic level is passed on to the next level. Processes that reduce the energy
transferred between trophic levels include respiration, growth, and reproduction,
defection and non-predatory death.

plant --> eaten by animal --> carbohydrates digested into glucose --> respiration
--> energy for cell processes

Some of the carbohydrates digested into glucose will be converted into other
substances, such as fats.

The other component that travels through a food chain is inorganic nutrients,
which do not contain carbon-carbon bonding. These include phosphorous,
cellular membranes, nitrogen and iron. The movement of these substances
comes from an inorganic nutrient pool, usually the soil or water surrounding
plants or algae. They are absorbed by the plants and passed from organism to
organism as they are consumed. When the organism
dies the nutrients are recycled as they are decomposed
and become available for plants as the cycle continues.
Ecological Pyramid- Charles Elton in 1927 gave the idea of ecological
pyramids. An ecological pyramid may be defined as graphical representation of
trophic structure and function of an ecosystem i.e. these are the graphical
representation of the numbers or biomass or status of accumulated energy at
different trophic levels in a food chain in an ecosystem. Ecological pyramids
begin with producers at the bottom (such as plants) and proceed through the
various trophic levels (such as herbivores, carnivores then next level carnivores
and so on). They can be upright or inverted.

These are of three types-

1. Pyramid of number- is a graphical representation showing the arrangement of

number of individuals per unit area at different trophic level of a food chain
in an ecosystem. It can be upright or inverted. An aquatic ecosystem is an
example of upright pyramid where the number of organisms becomes fewer
and fewer higher up in the pyramid. An inverted pyramid of number is one
where the number of organisms depending on the lower levels grows closer
toward the apex. A parasitic food chain is an example.

Upright pyramid of number Lion

Example- grassland ecosystem
Fox

Rabbit

Grass

Inverted pyramid of number

Example- Tree ecosystem Hyperparasites

Parasites
Parasites
Birds
Birds
Tree
Tree

2. Pyramid of biomass- is a graphical representation of biomass (total

amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem at any time) present
per unit area in different trophic levels. It can be upright or inverted. An
upright pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is larger
 than the combined weight of consumers. An example is a forest
ecosystem. An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight of
producers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers. An example
is an aquatic ecosystem.

Upright pyramid of biomass Lion

Example- Forest ecosystem
Fox

Deer

Trees, herbs, shrubs

Big fish

Small fishes

Inverted pyramid of biomass Zooplanktons

Example- Pond ecosystem
Phytoplanktons

3. Pyramid of energy- is a graphical representation of amount of energy per

unit area at different trophic levels of a food chain. This pyramid is
always upright as there is gradual decrease in energy at successive trophic
levels.

Pyramid of energy Lion

Example- Forest ecosystem
Fox

Deer

Trees, herbs, shrubs

Biogeochemical cycle- the circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon,

oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water etc. through the biological
and physical world are known as biogeochemical cycles. In effect, the element
is recycled, although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs)
where the element is accumulated or held for a long period of time.

Or

It is a pathway by which a chemical element or molecule moves through both

biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere)
compartments of earth. A cycle is a series of change which comes back to the
starting point and which can be repeated.

The term “biogeochemical” tell us that biological, geological and chemical

factors are all involved.

1. Carbon Cycle

Carbon is an element. It is part of oceans, air, rocks, soil and all living things.
Carbon doesn’t stay in one place.

 Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants.

In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to oxygen in a gas called carbon
dioxide (CO2). With the help of the Sun, through the process of
photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is pulled from the air to make plant food
from carbon.
 Carbon moves from plants to animals.
Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to
the animals that eat them. Animals that eat other animals get the carbon
from their food too.
 Carbon moves from plants and animals to the ground.
When plants and animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves decay
bringing the carbon into the ground. Some become buried miles
underground and will become fossil fuels in millions and millions of
years.
2. Nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its
various chemical forms. This transformation can be carried out through both
biological and physical processes.

Important processes in the nitrogen cycle

include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.

 Nitrogen is inert and cannot be directly utilized by most of the living

organisms. The conversion of nitrogen (N2) from the atmosphere into a form
readily available to plants and hence to animals is an important step in the
nitrogen cycle, which distributes the supply of this essential nutrient.
 The elemental nitrogen is converted into usable forms by the process of
nitrogen fixation and added to the soil.
 Nitrogen fixation is possible by the activity of lightening and nitrogen fixing
bacteria.
 Plants obtain their nitrogen supply from the soil and convert them into
essential biomolecules. Animals obtain their nitrogen requirements from
plants.
 After the death of plants and animals nitrogen compounds again reach to the
soil.
 The nitrogenous organic compounds in the soil undergo microbial
decomposition by the process of ammonification and nitrification.
 The compounds are again absorbed by the plant root or get converted into
free nitrogen through denitrification process.
 The conversion of ammonia to nitrites is performed by nitrosomonas bacteria.
While other bacterial species, such as nitrobacter are responsible for the
oxidation of nitrites into nitrates.
 Nitrates are reduced back to nitrogen gas by the process of denitrification.
This process is performed by bacterial species such as pseudomonas.

Water cycle
 Water from the transpiring plants, oceans, rivers and lakes evaporates into
the atmosphere.
 These water vapours cool and condense to form clouds and water.
 Water precipitates back as rain and snow to the earth.
Oxygen cycle
 The oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps move oxygen through the three
main regions of the Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, and the
Lithosphere.
 The Atmosphere is the region of gases that lies above the Earth’s surface
and it is one of the largest reservoirs of free oxygen on earth.
 The Biosphere is the sum of all the Earth’s ecosystems. This also has
some free oxygen produced from photosynthesis and other life processes.
 In the biosphere the main cycles are respiration and photosynthesis.
Respiration is when animals and humans breathe consuming oxygen to be
used in metabolic process and exhaling carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is
the reverse of this process and is mainly done by plants and plankton.
 Photolysis takes place in atmosphere through which oxygen is formed in
the atmosphere.
Sunlight
2H2O 4H+ O2
Sunlight

2N2O 4N+ O2

 The largest reservoir of oxygen is the lithosphere. Most of this oxygen is

not on its own or free moving but part of chemical compounds such as
silicates and oxides.
Most of the time the process is automatic all it takes is a pure form of an
element coming in contact with oxygen such as what happens when iron
rusts. A portion of oxygen is freed by chemical weathering. When a
oxygen bearing mineral is exposed to the elements a chemical reaction
occurs that wears it down and in the process produces free oxygen.
Ecological Succession

The systematic and orderly development of series of biotic communities one

after the other in the same area till permanent and most stable community, the
climax community can be obtained.

The first community to invade any area is called as pioneer community which
show very little diversity. As the number of organisms grows they use water and
nutrients from the substratum, have a strong influence on the environment and
in turn are modified by the environment. Such modifications make the existing
community unable to adopt in changed conditions and are replaced by several
transition communities called as seral communities. These seral communities
ultimately reaches to most stable community called as climax which shows
diversity and persists till other natural calamity occurs.

Causes of Ecological Succession

1. Biotic factor- overgrazing of animals, humans destroying natural resources

2. Climatic factor- wind, snowfall, hail, drought, flood
3. Physiographic factor- erosion in hills, filling up of lakes or streams with
silt, forest fires, landslide etc

Types of Ecological succession

Primary succession – takes place in barren unhabitat area which has not been
occupied by any earlier living community. For example area exposed by
retreating glacier, lava deposit, newly formed pond, flood plains. Its
development takes a very long time.

Primary Succession
Secondary succession- takes place in the previously occupied area but
somehow this area got disturbed. For example forest fire, deforestation,
overgrazing. This process of succession is comparatively easier as some form of
life may exist which makes the process of succession comparatively smooth.
or
It occurs when an area that has previously had an ecological community is so
disturbed or changed that the original community was destroyed, and a new
community moves in. This is more common than primary succession and is
often the result of natural disasters such as fires, floods, and winds, as well as
human interference.

Succession can be on the basis of moisture content in environment. They can be

1. Hydrosere- succession starts in regions where water is in plenty like
pond, lake, streams, swamp.
2. Xerosere- succession starts in a dry area with little moisture.
3. Lithosere- succession starts on bare rock.
4. Prammosere- succession starts on sand.
5. Halosere- succession starts in saline water or soil.

Process of succession-
The whole process of primary succession is actually completed through a number
of sequential steps, which follow one another. These steps in sequence are as
follows

1. Nudation- this is the development of a bare area without any form of life.
The area may develop because of several causes such as landslide, erosion,
deposition etc.
 2. Invasion- this is the successful establishment of one or more species in a
bare area through dispersal or migration followed by species establishment.
The species actually reaches this new site from any other area.

3. Competition and coaction- after invasion of a large number of individuals

of the species at the limited place, there develops competition (inter as well
as intraspecific) mainly for space and nutrition. Individuals of a species
affect each others life in various ways and this is called coaction. The
species unable to compete with other species would be discarded.

4. Reaction- The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the
substratum and in turn they have a strong influence on the environment,
which is modified to a large extent. The existing community is replaced by
another community. The sequence of communities that replaces one
another in the given area is called a sere. The pioneers are likely to have
low- nutrient requirements, more dynamic and able to take minerals in
comparatively more complex forms.

5. Stabilization- After complete or partial disturbance vegetation grows back

towards a mature stage “Climax stage” which is in equilibrium with the
environment and is not replaced.

Importance of Succession

1. It provides information, which helps to have a controlled growth of one

or more species in a forest by preventing the invasion of other species in
the area.
2. Pastures can be maintained by not allowing biotic succession to proceed
through grazing or fire.
3. It also helps in reforestation and forest management programmes.

Types of ecosystem
Natural Ecosystem
1. Marine ecosystem- all the saline water reservoirs on earth such as the
seas, oceans, and estuaries with their characteristic biome form the
marine ecosystem.
2. Freshwater ecosystem- ponds streams, rivers and lakes along with their
flora and fauna form the freshwater ecosystem.
 3. Terrestrial ecosystem- it includes desert ecosystem, grassland
ecosystem, tree ecosystem, crop fields, forest ecosystem and so on.

Man- engineered Ecosystem-

Agriculture and aquaculture systems are man-engineered ecosystems. These

ecosystems have all the essential components such as producers, consumers,
decomposers and abiotic materials. This is a monoculture system as a single
crop is grown.

Natural ecosystems are polycultural systems and therefore they are more stable
compared to man-made ecosystems which are fragile and highly productive and
generate lots of pollutants.

1. Forest Ecosystem

Forests occupy roughly 40% of the total land. In India about l/10th of the
total area is under forests. The different types of forest ecosystems can be
broken down into categories based on the types of trees and other flora that
grow within them.

1. Tropical evergreen forest: Tropical forests that are characterized by high

annual rainfall rates and dense vegetation, including tall trees at differing
heights for sheltering different types of animals.
2. Tropical deciduous forest: Characterized by a broad variety of shrubs,
dense bushes, and different types of trees.
3. Temperate evergreen forest: Characterized by few trees but many
mosses and ferns to make up for the lack of trees.
4. Temperate deciduous forest: Located in places with high annual rainfall;
trees are characterized by their yearly cycles of leaf-shedding during the
winter months.
5. Taiga: These forests are situated below the arctic regions and are
characterized by the presence of evergreen conifers and are home to
migratory birds and insects for half the year.

Forests occupy 31% of the total land. In India about l/10th of the total area is
under forests. The chief components of a forest ecosystem are as follows—
1. Abiotic components:
 In addition to minerals present in the soil, the forest floor is rich in dead and
decaying organic matter.
2. Biotic components: it consists of
Primary producers:
The dominant producers of the forest ecosystem are the higher forms of the
plant kingdom, most specifically seed bearing plants. In forest ecosystem, the
producers form three major functions. First, they provide the initial source of
food. Second, large plant structures provide habitats for other organisms. Third,
they are prime agents in soil formation and in modifying the abiotic
environment.
The forest ecosystem is directly dependent upon the kinds and number of plants
present. The plants are mainly trees, some shrubs and ground vegetation. The
evergreen tropical forests have broad leaved trees with irregular leaf fall. The
temperate deciduous forests are dominated by pines with needle-like leaves. At
the lower level of such forests are found only shade tolerant plants such as ferns
and shrubs. The other forms of tropical evergreen forests are the vines and the
epiphytes.

Primary consumers:
These are the herbivores that include the foliage arthropods such as ants, flies,
beetles, leaf-hoppers, bugs and spiders, etc. and the larger animals grazing on
shoots and fruits such as elephants, nilgai, deer, moles, squirrels, shrews, flying
foxes, fruit bats and mongooses, etc.
Secondary consumers:
These are the carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards and foxes feeding on
herbivores. The top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc, prey upon both herbivores
and carnivores of the secondary consumer level.
Decomposers:
The decomposers of the forest ecosystem, as in other ecosystem, are the bacteria
and fungi. These organisms obtain energy to carry on the life functions by
breaking down the organic compounds of dead organic matter and organic
wastes. In doing so, they prevent the accumulation of organic matter and also
release the essential minerals for reuse. Decomposers are mostly found in soil
and bacteria are represented by the numerous heterotrophic.

2. The Desert Ecosystem:

The deserts occupy about 17% of the land and occur in the regions with an
average rainfall of less than 23 cm. Due to extreme of temperature, the species
composition of desert ecosystem is less varied and typical. There are two types
of deserts: temperate, or cold, and subtropical, or hot, which gives deserts
more than one type of ecosystem. There are similarities as both get less than 10
inches of rain a year, and the air is generally dry in both types of biomes. The
lack of water in either type of desert makes them harsh for people or creatures
living there.
The differences in the two types of deserts are as numerous as the similarities.
The temperate deserts, like Antarctica, are cold. The temperatures in these areas
can become cold enough to kill a person. Animals that live in these deserts have
physically adapted through the years to be able to survive the cold by having
extra layers of fat, or needing less energy and food to survive. The animals that
live in the subtropical deserts have the opposite adaptations. Those animals have
adapted to handle higher heats and strong sun.

The plants and animals in both deserts have to adapt to survive on less water
than those that live in other biomes. Many of the animals that live in the
subtropical deserts have also adapted to become nocturnal so that they can avoid
the higher heats of the day. This also means that these nocturnal animals have to
adapt to the cooler night time temperatures of the desert.
The various components of a desert ecosystem are—
Producers:
The shrubs, bushes, grasses and some trees are the main producers in deserts.
The shrubs have extensive and much branched root system with the stems and
leaves variously modified. Some succulent cacti are also found in deserts. These
store water in their stem to be used during the time of water scarcity. Some
lower plants such as lichens, xerophytic mosses and blue green algae are also
found there.

Consumers:
Only a few animals are found in deserts. The most common animals are those
reptiles and insects which are able to live under xeric conditions. Mammals are
represented by a few species of nocturnal rodents. Some birds are present. The
camel, called the ship of desert, feeds on tender shoots of the plants and
conserves large quantities of water in its stomach. The larger animals including
carnivores are scarce. The desert animals have various morphological and
physiological adaptations which enable them to live in such extreme
environment.

Decomposers:
Due to poor vegetation and less amount of dead organic matter decomposers are
few. They are thermophilic fungi and bacteria.

3. Grassland Ecosystem
Grasslands (also called Greenswards) are areas where the vegetation is
dominated by grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. Grassland
consists of large rolling fields of grasses, flowers and herbs. Grasslands
ecosystems emerge due to low levels of sporadic precipitation that is only
substantial enough to support smaller plants. Grass survives in these arid
conditions because of its deep and highly elaborate root system that enables it to
access moisture hidden deep in the soil. There are two main types of grasslands
-- tropical and temperate -- with several subcategories within each type.
Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s surface. They occur in regions too
dry for forests and too moist for deserts.
The annual rainfall ranges between 25- 75 cm, usually seasonal. The principal
grasslands includes Prairies (Canada, USA), Pampas (South America), Steppes
(Europe and Asia), and Veldts (Africa).
Grassland biomes are ecosystems in which the predominant vegetation type
consists of various grasses rather than trees or large shrubs. Grasslands may be
divided into several types, including savannas, temperate grasslands, tallgrass
prairies, steppes, alpine tundra and flooded grasslands, among others. The type
of grassland that occurs in a particular region is based on the latitude, terrain,
local climate, precipitation and wildfire regime. The faunal communities
supported by these different types of grasslands vary on the basis of
characteristics of the grasslands themselves, as well as by geographic location.
The highest abundance and greatest diversity of large mammals are found in
these ecosystems. The dominant animal species include wild horses, asses and
antelope of Eurasia, herds of Bison of America; and the antelope and other large
herbivores of Africa.

Biotic Components:
1. Producer Organisms:
In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs and shrubs also
contribute to primary production of biomass. Some of the most common species
of grasses are: Brachiaria sp., Cynodon sp., Desmodium sp., Digitaria sp.
2. Consumers:
In grassland, consumers are of three main types:
(a) Primary Consumers:
The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on grasses. These are
grazing animals such as Cows, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats, Deer, and Rabbits etc.
Besides them, numerous species of insects, termites, etc. are also present.
(b) Secondary Consumers:
These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers (Herbivores). These
include;-Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, Birds, Foxes, Jackals etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers:
These include hawks etc. which feed on secondary consumers.
3. Decomposers:
These include wide variety of saprotrophic microorganism like: Bacteria; Fungi;
Actinomycetes.
A-biotic Components:
These include basic inorganic and organic compounds present in the soil and
aerial environment. The essential elements like C, H, N, O, P, S etc. are
supplied by water, nitrogen, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates present in soil and
atmosphere.
4. Aquatic Ecosystem
a. Pond Ecoystem
Ponds are small bodies of freshwater with shallow and still water, marsh,
and aquatic plants.They can be further divided into four zones: vegetation zone,
open water, bottom mud and surface film. The size and depth of ponds often
varies greatly with the time of year; many ponds are produced by spring
flooding from rivers. Food webs are based both on free-floating algae and upon
aquatic plants. There is usually a diverse array of aquatic life, with a few
examples including algae, snails, fish, beetles, water bugs, frogs, turtles, otters
and muskrats. Top predators may include large fish, herons, or alligators. Since
fish are a major predator upon amphibian larvae, ponds that dry up each year,
thereby killing resident fish provide important refugia for amphibian
breeding. Ponds that dry up completely each year are often known as vernal
pools. Some ponds are produced by animal activity, including alligator holes
and beaver ponds, and these add important diversity to landscapes.

A pond ecosystem refers to fresh water ecosystem where there are communities
of organism dependent on each other with the prevailing water environment for
their nutrients and survival. Usually ponds are shallow water bodies with a
depth of 12-15 feet in which the sun rays can penetrate to the bottom permitting
the growth of plants there.The functional components of a Pond ecosystem are-

Abiotic Components
The abiotic substances of Pond ecosystem are formed as a result of the mixture
of some organic and inorganic materials.The basic components are
water,oxygen,carbon dioxide ,salts of calcium and nitrogen etc.Only a small
amount of these elements are present in soluble state in pond water,but a large
amount is held in reserve solid form in the bottom sediments as well as within
the organisms.Various organisms get their nourishment from these abiotic
substances.The rate of release of reserve nutrients ,the solar input and the cycle
of temperature ,day length and other climatic conditions regulate the function of
the Pond ecosystem.
Biotic Components
The biotic components of Pond ecosystem consists of –

Producers:-The producres are of two types-larger rooted and floating

vegetations together termed macrophytes and phytoplanktons- which are
microscopic floating algae.Phytoplanktons are available upto the depth of water
where light penetrates. The phytoplanktons are filamentous alga like Ulothrix,
Oedogonium, Spirogyra, Anabena,Oscillatoria and minute floating plants like
Microcystis, Gloeotrichina volvox etc.The macrophytes include marginal
emergent plants like Typha , Acerus, Ipomea ,submerged plants like Hydrilla,
Utricularia, Trapa, Nymphrea etc ; surface floating plants like Pistea ,Lemna,
Wolffia, Eichhornia, Salvinia etc.

Consumers:-Consumers of Pond ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for

their nutrition on other organisms.Zooplanktons form primary
consumers ,include Brachionus ,Asplanchna ,Lechane ,(all rotofers) Colops,
Dilepteus,Cyclops ,Stenocypris (crustacean) ,who feed on phytoplankton.Nectic
animals like insects,beetles,fishes form secondary consumers as they feed on
zooplanktons.Benthic animals like snakes ,big fishes live on nectic animals and
are termed tertiary consumers.

Decomposers:- Most of the decomposers of Pond ecosystem are saprophytes

but some parasites are also found .Bacteria,fungi like Aspergillus Cladosporium
Rhizopus,Alternaria,Fusarium,Saprolegnia etc are decomposers.Generally the
decomposers either live in the soil layer beneath water or in the mud.They act
on dead and decayed organic matter of plants and animals and supply raw
materials to the producers.

Energy Flow in Pond Ecosystem

Phytoplanktons are the producers of pond ecosystem along with other floating
plants.The energy produced by the autotrophs are passed through "eat and
being eaten chain".In pond the larvae of insects consume autotrophs as
food.So according to law of energy flow the larvae assimilate energy from
autotrophs .So larvae are primary consumers.These primary consumers are
taken as food by prawns ,small carnivorous fishes etc and so they collect energy
from larvae.They are ,therefore secondary consumers.Large fishes consume
secondary consumers,and are tertiary consumers.
b. Ocean Ecosystem

Oceans cover approximately 70 per cent of the earth's surface. Major oceans of
the world are Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic.
1. An ocean is a huge pool of salty water that extends over almost an infinite
large area.
2. Ecosystem of an ocean is very stable and naturally well balanced.
3. They have high concentration of salts. It is about 3.5 per cent.
4. There is abundance of minerals such Na, CI, Ca, S, Mg etc.
5. Salinity is less near the north & south poles.
6. Salinity is more in deeper regions of the ocean.
7. This type of ecosystem plays an important role in regulating many
biogeochemical cycles.
8. Oceans are the major sinks of C02 and play an important role in
biogeochemical cycle.
9. The oceans have two major life zones.

 Coastal Zone:
It is relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to high nutrients and
ample sunlight this is the zone of high primary productivity.

 Open Sea:
It is the deeper part of the ocean, away from the continental shelf. It is vertically
divided into three regions:
(i) Euphatic Zone, which receives abundant light and shows high photosynthetic
activity
(ii) Bathyal zone receives dim light and is usually geologically active.
(iii) Abyssal zone is the dark zone 2000 to 5000 meter deep. It has no sunlight.
It is the largest ecological unit but it is an incomplete ecosystem. Various
components of the ocean ecosystem are as follows:

Abiotic Components
It is more stable in chemical composition due to being saline and moreover
other physio- chemical factors such as dissolved oxygen content, light and
temperature are also different. Marine water contains NaCl, Ca, Mg and K salts.
Water is strongly buffered.

Biotic Components

(i) Producers:
These are autotrophs. They are mainly phytoplanktons such as diatoms and
some microscopic algae, seaweeds etc.

(ii) Consumers:
These all are heterotrophic macro-consumers. They depend for their nutrition on
the primary producers. These are:
(a) Primary consumers:
They are herbivores and feed directly on producers, e.g., molluscs, crustaceans
etc.

(b) Secondary consumers:

These are carnivorous fishes as Shad, Herring etc.

(c) Tertiary consumers:

They feed on other carnivores of the secondary consumers level. These are the
top carnivores in the food chain, e.g., Cod, Haddock, and Halibut etc.

(iii) Decomposers:
The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of producers and
Macroconsumers are chiefly bacteria and some fungi.

5. The Cropland Ecosystem:

This is manmade ecosystem. Man has been doing his best in modifying the
croplands to get maximum benefit out of them. A cropland ecosystem may be
illustrated by crops like wheat, maize, rice, sugarcane etc. It has following
components.
Producers:
A crop along with the weeds growing in the field are the producers of a
cropland ecosystem. In the cropland ecosystem of maize, weeds like Cynodon
dactylon, Euphorbia hirta, Alysicarpus, Launea nudicairlis are very common.
Consumers:
Herbivores are the primary consumers of the cropland ecosystem. These include
rats, rabbits, birds, man and insects. The second order and the third order
consumers are represented by frogs, snakes, birds such as hawk etc.

Decomposers and transformers:

Bacteria and fungi like Bacillus, Aspergillus, Clostridium, Agaricus, Mucor.,
Aspergillus and Fusarium are common decomposers and transformers of
cropland ecosystem of maize.