B.A.

PART-I MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

SEMESTER-I CALCULUS-I

SECTION-A & B

LESSON NO.
SECTION-A
Department of Distance Education

1.1 : SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION

Punjabi University, Patiala

1.2 : SINGULAR POINTS

1.3 : ASYMPTOTES
(All Copyrights are Reserved)

1.4 : CURVE TRACING AND CURVATURE

SECTION-B

2.1 : LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND PARTIAL

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF
TWO VARIABLES-I

2.2 : LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND PARTIAL

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF
TWO VARIABLES-II

2.3 : SOME BASIC THEOREMS ON

DIFFERENTIABILITY OF f (x, y)

2.4 : SOME BASIC FUNCTIONS CONCERNING

DIFFERENTIABILITY OF f (x, y)

Note : Students can download the syllabus from

department's website www.pbidde.org
B.A. PART - I MATHEMATICS : PAPER–I
(SEMESTER-I) CALCULUS

LESSON NO. 1.1 Author : Dr. Chanchal

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION

Structure :
I. Objectives
II. Introduction
III. Successive Differentiation of Some Standard Functions
IV. Some Important Examples
V. Leibnitz's Theorem
V.(a) Some Important Examples
VI. Self Check Exercise
VII. Suggested Readings

I. Objectives
The prime goal of this unit is to enlighten the basic concepts of successive
differentiation, multiple points and asymptotes, concavity and convexity etc. During
the study in this particular lesson, our main objectives are
* To obtain nth order derivatives of some standard functions by the method
of mathematical induction.
* To discuss Leibnitz's theorem for finding the nth order derivatives of the
product of two functions.
II. Introduction
We are already familiar with the concept that derivative of a function of x is also a
function of x. Thus the derivative of a function may have its derivative without any
loss of genrality.
If y = f(x),

dy f(x  x)  f(x)

 lim  f '(x)
dx x  0 x

is called the first differential coefficient or first derivative of f(x). If the process of
differentiation be continued in succession, we obtain second, third and higher order
derivatives, as follows :
1
B.A. PART - I 2 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

d2 y d  dy  f '(x  x)  f '(x)

    lim  f "(x),
dx 2
dx  dx  x  0 x

d3 y d  d2 y  f "(x  x)  f "(x)

    lim  f " '(x)
dx 3
dx  dx 2  x 0 x

and so on. These are also denoted by

dy d2 y 2 dn y
y1   Dy, y 2   DD2y y yn 
,...,  Dn y
dx dx 2 dx n

III. Successive Differentiation of Some Standard Functions

Art 1.1 : Prove the following results :
(i) If y = (ax + b)m, then yn = m (m–1) (m–2).... (m–n +1) (ax + b)m–n an.
Proof : Here y = (ax + b)m
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get,
y1 = m (ax + b)m–1. a = m (ax + b)m–1. a1
 result is true for n = 1
Assume that the result is true for n = k, where k is positive integer.
 yk = m (m–1) (m–2) ... (m – k + 1) (ax + b)m–k. ak
Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x, we get,
yk + 1 = m (m–1) (m–2) ... (m –k + 1) (m–k) (ax +b)m–k–1. a . ak
or yk + 1 = m (m–1) (m–2) ... (m – k + 1) (m – k) (ax + b)m + (k + 1). ak + 1
 result is true for n = k + 1.
 if the result is true for any positive integer k, then it is also true for the next
higher integer k + 1.
But the result is true for n = 1 also.
 By method of induction, the result is true for all positive integers n.
Cor. I. If m is a positive integer > n, then

m(m  1) (m  2).....(m  n  1) m  n
yn  (ax  b)m n . a n
mn

m
or yn  (ax  b)m  n . a n
mn

If m = n, then yn = n (n – 1) (n – 2) .... 2.1 (ax + b)0 . an

or yn  n . an
B.A. PART - I 3 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

yn + 1 = yn + 2 = ... = 0
 yn = 0 n > m.

1 (1)n n . a n b
(ii) If y  , then y n  ,x .
ax  b (ax  b)n 1 a

1
Proof : Here y   (ax  b)1
ax  b

(1)1 . 1 . a1
 y1  (1) (ax  b)2 . a 
(ax  b)2

 the result is true for n = 1.

Assume that the result is true for n = k, where k is a positive integer.

(1)k . k . a k
 yk   (1)k k a k (ax  b) k 1
(ax  b)k 1

Differentiating again w.r.t. x, we get,

y k 1  (1)k k a k (k  1) (ax  b) k 2 . a

(1)k 1 k  1 . a k 1
 (1)k 1 k  1 a k 1 (ax  b)(k  2) 
(ax  b)k  2

 result is true for n = k + 1.

 if the result is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1.
But the result is true for n = 1.
 By method of induction, the result is true for all positive integers n.

(1)n 1 n  1 . a n b
(iii) If y = log (ax + b), then y n  ,x  .
(ax  b)n a

Proof : Here y = log (ax + b)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x,

1 (1)11 . 1  1 . a1
y1  .a 
ax  b (ax  b)1

 the result is true for n = 1.

Assume that the result is true for n = k, where k is a positive integer.

(1)k 1. k  1 . a k
 yk   (1)k 1 k  1 . a k . (ax  b) k
(ax  b)k
B.A. PART - I 4 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x, we get,

y k 1  (1)k 1 k  1 a k (k) (ax  b) k 1 . a

(1)k k . a k 1
 (1)k k a k 1 (ax  b)(k 1) 
(ax  b)k 1

 result is true for n = k + 1

 if the result is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1
But the result is true for n = 1.
 By the method of induction, the result is true for all positive integers n.

b
Note : Same result will hold even if y = log |ax + b| where x > – .
a

(iv) If y = amx, a > 0, then yn = amx. (log a)n . mn.

Proof : Here y = amx
Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x,
y1 = amx, log a . m = amx. (log a)1 . m1
 the result is true for n = 1.
Assume that the result is true for n = k, where k is a positive integer.
 yk = amx . (log a)k . mk
Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x,
yk + 1 = [amx . (log a) . (m)] . (log a)k . m k = amx . (log a)k + 1 . m k + 1
 result is true for n = k + 1.
 if the result is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1.
But the result is true for n = 1.
 By the method of induction, the result is true for all positive integers n.
Cor. 1. Put m = 1
 yn = ax . (log a)n
 y = ax  yn = ax . (log a)n
Cor. 2. Put a = e
 yn = emx . (log e) n. mn = emx . mn
 y = emx yn = emx . mn
Cor. 3. Put a = e, m = 1
 yn = ex . (log e)n . (1)n = ex
 y = ex yn = ex.

 n 
(v) If y = sin (ax + b), then y n = an sin  ax  b    x R .
 2 
B.A. PART - I 5 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Proof : Here y = sin (ax + b)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x,

 
y1 = cos (ax + b) . a = a1 sin ax  b  1 . 
 2

 the result is true for n = 1.

Assume that the result is true for n = k, where k is a positive integer.

 
 y k  a k sin ax  b  k 
 2 

Differentiating again w.r.t.x,

     
y k 1  a k cos ax  b  k  . a  a k 1 sin  ax  b  k   
 2   2  2

 
 a k 1 sin ax  b  (k  1) 
 2 

 result is true for n = k + 1.

 if the result is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1.
But the result is true for n = 1.
 By the method of induction, the result is true for all positive integers n.

 
(vi) If y = cos (ax + b), then y n = an cos  ax  b  n   x  R .
 2 

Proof : The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.


 1 b 
If y = eax sin (bx + c), then y n  (a  b )2 e sin  bx  c  n tan
2 2 ax
(vii) 
 a

Proof : Here y = eax sin (bx + c)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x,

d d ax
y1  eax . [sin (bx  c)]  sin (bx  c) . (e )
dx dx

= eax . cos (bx + c) . b + sin (bx + c) . eax . a

 y1 = eax [a sin (bx + c) + b cos (bx + c)]
Put a = r cos and b = r sin where r > 0.
Squaring and adding (2) and (3), we get,

a 2  b2  r 2  r  a 2  b2
B.A. PART - I 6 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

b b
Dividing (3) by (2), tan    a  tan1
a a
 from (1), y1 = eax [r cos sin (bx + c) + r sin cos (bx + c)]
= eax . r [sin (bx + c) cos + cos (bx + c) . sin ]
= r eax sin (bx + c + )
1
 b
 y1  (a 2  b2 )2 . eax sin  bx  c  1 . tan1 
 a

 the result is true for n = 1.

Assume that the result is true for n = k, where k is a positive integer
k
 b
 y k  (a 2  b2 )2 . eax sin  bx  c  k tan 1 
 a 

or yk = r k eax sin (bx + c + k)

Differentiating again w.r.t. x, we get,
yk + 1 = rk . [eax . cos (bx + c + k) . b + sin (bx + c + k) . aeax]
= rk . eax [a sin (bx + c + k) + b cos (bx + c + k)]
= rk . eax [r cos sin (bx + c + k) + r sin cos (bx + c + k)]
= rk + 1 . eax sin [(bx + c + k) + ] = rk + 1 . eax sin [bx + c + (k + 1) ]
k 1
 b
 y k 1  (a 2  b2 ) 2
. eax sin  bx  c  (k  1) tan1 
 a 

 the result is true for n = k + 1

 if the result is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1.
But the result is true for n = 1.
 By the method of induction, the result is true for all positive integers.
(viii) If y = eax cos (bx + c), then
n
 b
y n  (a 2  b2 )2 . eax cos  bx  c  n tan1 
 a 

Proof : The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.

IV. Some Important Examples
E x a m p l e 1 : If y = cosh (log x) + sinh (log x), prove that yn = 0 for n > 1.
Sol. y = cosh (log x) + sinh (log x)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x, we get
B.A. PART - I 7 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

1 1
y1  sinh (log x) .  cosh(log x) .
x x
 xy1 = sinh (log x) + cosh (log x)
or xy1 = y
Again differentiating w.r.t.x, we get
xy2 + y1 = y1 or xy2 = 0
 y2 = 0
 yn = 0 for x > 1.

d 2 p a 2 b2
Example 2 : If p2 = a2 cos2 + b2 sin2 , prove that p  
d 2 p3

Sol. Here p2 = a2 cos2 + b2 sin2

 1  cos 2   1  cos 2 
 p2  a 2  b
2
 
 2   2 

 2p2 = a2 (1 + cos 2) + b2 (1 – cos 2)

 2p2 – (a2 + b2) = (a2 – b2) cos 2 ... (1)
Differentiating w.r.t. , we get,

dp
4p  2 (a 2  b2 ) sin 2
d

dp
or 2p  (a 2  b2 ) sin 2 ... (2)
d

Squaring (1), (2) and adding, we get,

2
 dp 
4p4  (a 2  b2 )2  4p2 (a 2  b2 )  4p2    (a  b )
2 2 2

 d 

2
 dp 
or 4p4  4p2 (a 2  b2 )  4p2    (a  b )  (a  b )  0
2 2 2 2 2 2

 d  

2
 dp 
or 4p4  4p2 (a 2  b2 )  4p2    4a b  0
2 2

 d 

Dividing both sides by 4p2, we get,

2
 dp  a 2 b2
p2  (a 2  b2 )     2 0
 d  p
B.A. PART - I 8 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

dp
Dividing by 2 , we get,
d

d 2 p a 2 b2
p 
d2 p3

Example 3 : Find the nth derivative of ax  b .

1
Sol. Let y  ax  b  (ax  b)2

1 1
1 1 1 
(-1)1.1
 y1  (ax  b)2 . a  (ax  b) 2 a 2
2
2 2 22
3 1
1  1  (1)2 1.3 3
 y2     (ax  b) a = y 3 
2 2
(ax  b)2 a 3
2  2 2

5
1  1  3 
 y3        . (ax  b) a
2 3

2  23   2 

1
(1)2 1.3 3
 y3  (ax  b)2 a 3
2
2
................................................

1
n
(1)n1 1.3.5... (2n  1) (ax  b)2 a n
 yn 
2n

(1)n11.3.5... (2n  1) b
 yn  2n 1
. a n where x  
a
2n (ax  b) 2

2x  1
Example 4 : Find yn if y  .
(x  2) (x  1)3

2x  1
Sol. y
(x  2) (x  1)3

2x  1 A B C D
Put    
(x  2) (x  1)3
x  2 x  1 (x  1)2
(x  1)3
B.A. PART - I 9 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Multiplying both sides by (x–2) (x–1) 3, we get

2x + 1  A (x –1)3 + B (x–2) (x–1)2 + C (x – 2) (x–1) + D (x–2) ... (1)
Putting x – 2 = 0 i.e. x = 2 in (1), we get
5 = A A = 5
Putting x –1 = 0 i.e. x = 1 in (1), we get
3 = –D D = –3
(1) can be writing as
2x + 1=A (x3 – 3x2 + 3x –1) + B (x3 – 4x2 + 5x – 2) + C (x2 – 3x + 2) + D (x – 2)
... (2)
Equating coefficients in (2) of
x3) A + B = 0 5 + B = 0 B = –5
x2) –3A – 4B + C = 0 –15 + 20 + C = 0 C = -5

2x  1 5 5 5 3
    
(x  2) (x  1)2 x  2 x  1 (x  1)2 (x  1)3

5 5 5 3
 y   
x  2 x  1 (x  1)2 (x  1)3

(1)n n (1)n n (1)n n  1 (1)n n  2

 yn  5  5  5  3
(x  2)n 1 (x  1)n 1 (x  2)n  2 (x  1)n  3
1
5 5 5(n  1) 3(n  2) (n  1)
 y n  (1)n n   
(x  2)n 1 (x  1)n 1 (x  1)n 2 (x  1)n 3

Example 5 : Find the nth derivative of y = e3x sin2 2x.

1  cos 4x 1 3x 1 3x
Sol. y  e3x sin2 2x  e3x  e  e cos 4x
2 2 2

n
1 3x n 1 4
 yn  e . 3  (9  16)2 e3x cos 4x  n tan1
2 2 3

1 3x n 4
 yn  e 3  5n cos 4x  n tan1 .
2 3

V. Leibnitz's Theorem
Statement : If u and v are functions of x possessing nth order derivatives, then
(uv)n = nC0 un v + nC1 un–1 v 1 + nC2 un–2 v 2 + ... + nCr un–r v r +... + nCn uv n
where ur denotes the rth order derivative of u and nCr denotes the number of
combinations out of n different things taken r at a time.
B.A. PART - I 10 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Proof : We have
(uv)1 = u1v + uv 1 = 1C0 u1v + 1C1 uv 1
 theorem is true for n = 1.
Assume that the theorem is true for n = m, where m is a positive integer.
 (uv)m = mC0 um v + mC1 um–1 v 1 + mC2um–2 v 2 + ...
+ mCr–1 um–r+1 v r–1 + mCr um–r v r + ... + m
Cm uv m
Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x, we get,
(uv)m + 1 = mC0 um +1 v + mC0 um v 1
+ mC1 um v 1 + mC1 um–1 v 2
+ ... ... ... ... ...
+ mCr–1 um–r+2 v r–1 + mCr–1 um–r+1 v r
+ mCr um–r+1 v r + mCr um–r v r+1
+ ... ... ... ... ...
+ mCm u1 v m + mCm uv m+1
 (uv)m + 1 = mC0 um + 1 v + (mC0 + mC1) um v 1+ (mC1 + mC2) um–1 v 2
+...+ (mCr–1 + mCr) um–r+1 v r + ... + mCm uv m+1
m
But C 0 = 1 = m + 1C 0
m
C 0 + mC 1 = m + 1 C 1
m
C 1 + mC 2 = m + 1 C 2
... ... ... ... ...
m
Cr–1 + mCr = m + 1Cr
m
Cm = 1 = m + 1Cm + 1
 we have
(uv)m + 1 m + 1C0 um + 1 v + m + 1C1um v 1 + m + 1C2 um–1 v 2 + ...
+ m + 1Cr um–r+1 v r + ... + m + 1Cm + 1 uv m + 1
 theorem is true for n = m + 1.
 if the theorem is true for n = m, then it is also true for n = m + 1
But the theorem is true for n = 1.
 By the method of induction, theorem is true for all positive integers n.
V.(a) Some Important Examples

dn  log x  (1) n
n
 1 1 1
Example 6 : Prove that  x   log x  1  2  3  ...  n 
dx n   x n 1  

Given that x > 0.

log x 1
Sol. Here y   log x .
x x
B.A. PART - I 11 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

1
Let V = log x U
x

1
V1   x 1 U1 = (–1) x–2
x
V2 = (–1) x–2 U2 = (–1) (–2) x–3

(1)3 3
V3 = (–1) (–2) x–3 U3 
x4
and so on and so on

(1)n 1 n  1 (1)n n
Vn  Un 
xn x n 1

By Leibnitz's rule

dn y dn d n  log x 
 (U . V)   
dx n dx n dx n  x 

(1)n n (1)n 1 n  1 1
 n C0 . log x  n
C .
x n 1
1
xn x

(1)n 2 n  2 (1) 1 (1)n1 n  1

 n C2 .  ....  n
C .
x n 1
n
x2 x xn

(1)n n  1 1 1
 log x  1  2  3  ...  n  .
x n 1  

Example 7 : If y = (sin–1 x)2, find yn (0).

Sol. y = (sin–1 x)2
Differentiating w.r.t. x,

1
y1  2 (sin 1 x) .
1  x2

Squaring and cross-multiplying

(1 – x2) y12 = 4 (sin –1 x)2 (1 – x2) y12 = 4y
 (1 – x2) y12 – 4y = 0
Differentiating w.r.t.x, again we get,
(1 – x2) 2y1 y2 – 2x y 12 – 4y1 = 0
B.A. PART - I 12 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Dividing by 2y1, we get

(1 – x2) y 2 – xy1 – 2 = 0 ... (3)
Differentiating n times (3) by Leibnitz's rule,

n n(n  1) n
1. y n  2 (1  x )  y n 1 (2x)  y n (2)  1 . y n 1 x  y n .1  0  0
2

1 2.1 1

(1 – x2) yn + 2 – (2n + 1) xy n + 1 – n2yn = 0 ... (4)

Putting x = 0 in (1), (2), (3) and (4) we get,
y (0) = 0 ... (5)
y1 (0) = 0 ... (6)
y2 (0) = 2 ... (7)
yn + 2 = n 2 yn (0) ... (8)
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ... in (8), we get,

y3 (0) = 12 y1 (0) = 0 ... (9)  of (6)

y4 (0) = 22 y2 (0) = 2.22 ... (10)  of (7)
y 5 (0)  32 y 3 (0)  0 ... (11)  of (8)
y6 (0) = 42y4 (0) = 2 . 22 . 42  of (10)
and so on.

2.22.42...(n  2)2 when n is even and n  2

 In general y n (0)  
 0 when n is odd

VI. Self Check Exercise

1. If y = eax sinh bx prove that y2 – 2ay 1 + (a2 – b2) y = 0.
2. If y = log (1 + cos x), prove that y1y2 + y3 = 0.

d2 y dy
3. If x = sin , y = sin m, prove that (1 – x2) 2
x  m2 y  0 .
dx dx

4. Find the nth derivative of

xa
(i) x log  , x  a  0 (ii) ex cos x cos 2x
xa

(iii) sin x sin 2x (iv) 2x . ex

n
5. If y = xn log x, prove that y n 1  .
x
6. If y = sin (m sin–1x), prove that
B.A. PART - I 13 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

(1 – x2) y n + 2 – (2n + 1) xyn + 1 – (n2 – m2) y n = 0

7. If y = (x2 – 1)n, prove that (x2 – 1) y n + 2 + 2xy n +1 – n (n + 1) yn = 0.
8. If x = tan (log y), prove that
(1 + x2) yn +2 + {2 (n + 1) x – 1} yn + 1 + n (n + 1) y n = 0.
VII. Suggested Readings
1. Ahsan Akhtar & Sabita Ahsan : Differential Calculus
2. UP Singh, RJ Srivastava & : Differential Calculus
NH Siddiqui
3. Gorakh Prasad : Differential Calculus
4. Malik and Arora : Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney : Calculus and
(Ninth Edition) Analytic Geometry
B.A. PART - I MATHEMATICS:PAPER–I
SEMESTER -I CALCULUS

LESSON NO. 1.2 Author : Dr. Chanchal

SINGULAR POINTS

Structure :
I. Objectives
II. Introduction
III. Working Method for Concavity, Convexity and Points of Inflexion
IV. Some Important Examples
V. Double Points and their Classification
V.(a) Classification of Double Points
V.(b) Working Method for Finding the Nature of Origin which is a Double
Point
V.(c) Working Method for Finding the Position and Nature of Double
Points of the Curve f(x, y) = 0
VI. Some Important Examples
VII. Self Check Exercise
VIII. Suggested Readings

I. Objectives
The prime goal of this lesson is to gain knowledge about the singular points of the
curve y = f(x). During the study in this lesson, our main objectives are
* To discuss about the types of singular points viz., points of inflexion
and multiple points particularly double points, alongwith their
classification and respective nature.
* To study about the concavity and convexity of the curve y = f(x).
II. Introduction
Singular Point : A point on the curve at which the curve behaves in an
extraordinary manner is called a singular point.
There are two types of singular points :
(i) Points of inflexion
(ii) Multiple points
Firstly, we study points of inflexion for which we must be familiar with the concepts
of concavity and convexity of a curve, as discussed below :
14
B.A. PART - I 15 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Consider the curve y = f(x) in [a, b]. Let it be continuous and possessing tangents at
every point in (a, b).
Draw a tangent at any point P (c, f(c)) on the curve. Let us assume that this tangent
is not parallel to Y-axis so that f'(c) is some finite number.
Now there are three mutually exclusive possibilities to consider :

Y Y
Y

P P
P

X X X
O O (ii) O
(i) (iii)

(i) A portion of the curve on both side of P, however small it may be, lies
above the tangent at P (i.e. towards the +ve direction of Y-axis). In this
case we see that the curve is concave upwards or convex downwards
at P. Such curves "hold water" [See fig. (i)].
As x-increases, f'(x) is either of the same sign and increasing or changes
sign from –ve to +ve. In either case, the slope f'(x) is increasing and
f"(x)>0. Such graphs are bending upwards or bulging downwards and
the portion lies below chord.
(ii) A portion of the curve on both sides of P, however small it may be, lies
below the tangent at P (i.e., towards the negative direction of Y-axis).
In this case, we say that the curve is concave downwards or convex
upwards at P [see fig. (ii)].
As x increases, f'(x) is either of the same sign and decreasing or changes
sign from +ve to –ve. In either case, the slope f'(x) is decreasing and
hence f"(x) < 0.
The graph in this case is bending downward or bulging upwards.
(iii) The two portions of the curve on the two sides of P lie on different
sides of the tangent at P i.e., the curve crosses the tangent at P. In
this case we say that P is a point of inflexion on the curve [see fig. (iii)].
So, at a point of inflexion, the curve changes from concave upwards to concave
downwards or vice-versa.
So at a point of inflexion f"(x) = 0.
Concavity or Convexity of a Curve : A curve is said to be concave downwards
(or convex upwards) on the interval (a, b) if all the points of the curve lie below any
B.A. PART - I 16 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

tangent to it on that interval. It is said to be concave upwards (or convex downwards)

on the interval (a, b) if all the points of the curve lie above any tangent to it on that
interval.
Note : A curve convex upwards is called a convex curve and a curve convex
downwards is called a concave curve.
Point of Inflexion : A point that separates the convex part of the curve from the
concave part of the curve is called a point of inflexion.
Now, we define a multiple point.
Multiple Point : A point on the curve through which more than one branches of
the curve pass is called a multiple point.
III. Working Method for Concavity, Convexity and Points of Inflexion

d2 y
1. Evaluate
dx 2

d2 y
2. Find the interval (a, b) for which  0.
dx 2
Then (a, b) is the interval of being convex downwards.

d2 y
3. Find the interval (a, b) for which 0.
dx 2

Then (a, b) is the interval of being convex upwards.

2
4. Find the values of x which satisfy d y  0, and also the values of x
dx 2

d2 y
(if any) where does not exist.
dx 2
Such values x = a, b, c, ... (say) are the possible points of inflexion.
5. x = a will be a point of inflexion

d2 y
if (i) either changes sign at x = a
dx 2

d3 y
or (ii) exists and is non-zero at x = a.
dx 3

d2 y
Note 1.  0 is not a sufficient condition for graph of f to have a point of inflexion.
dx 2
B.A. PART - I 17 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Note 2. If at a point, x = c, f(n) (c)  0 when n is even, then x = c is not a point of

inflexion.
Note 3. If at a point, x = c, f(n) (c) = 0 for some even n and f(n+1) (c)  0, then the curve
has a point of inflexion at x = c.
IV. Some Important Examples
Example 1 : Find the intervals in which the curve y = (cos x + sin x) ex is concave
upwards or downwards in (0, 2 ). Find also the points of inflexion.
Sol. Here y = (cos x + sin x) ex

dy
  (cos x + sin x) ex + (–sin x + cos x) ex = 2ex cos x
dx

d2 y
 2 (ex cos x – ex sin x) = 2 ex (cos x – sin x)
dx 2

d2 y
Now  0 when 2ex (cos x – sin x) > 0
dx 2

i.e., cos x – sin x > 0  2e x  0 

 1 1  1 1
 2 cos x  sin x   0  cos x  sin x  0
 2 2  2 2

    
sin cos x  cos sin x  0  sin   x   0
4 4 4 

  
 sin  x    0  x   (, 0)  (, 2) and x  (0, 2)
 4 4

 3    5  9 
 x  ,  ,  and x  (0, 2)
 4 4  4 4 

    5 
 x   0,    , 2 
 4  4 

    5 
 given curve is concave upwards in  0,    , 2 
 4   4 
B.A. PART - I 18 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

d2 y
Again  0 when 2ex (cos x – sin x) < 0
dx 2

    5 
i.e., when sin  x    0  x   , 
 4  4 4 

 given curve is concave downwards in   , 5  .

4 4 

Points of Inflexion

d3 y  d d x 
3
 2 e x . (cos x  sin x)  (cos x  sin x) (e )
dx  dx dx 

= 2ex [–sin x – cos x + cos x – sin x] = –4ex sin x

d2 y
Also 0 2ex (cos x – sin x) = 0
dx 2
 cos x – sin x = 0 sin x = cos x tan x = 1

 5  5
 tan x  tan , tan x ,
4 4 4 4


 d3 y 
When x  , 3
 4 e 4 sin  0 =o
4 dx 4

5
5 d3 y 5
When x  , 3
 4 e 4 sin
4 dx 4


Now when x 
4

  
    1 1  4
y   cos  sin  e 4    e  2 e
4

 4 4   2 2

5
and when x 
4

5 5 5
 5 5  4  1 1  4
y   cos  sin  e    e  2e
4

 4 4   2 2
B.A. PART - I 19 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

 5
   5 
 given curve has points of inflexion at  , 2 e 4  and   
, 2 e 4 .
4   4
   

Example 2 : Find the values of x for which y = x4 – 6x3 + 12x2 + 5x + 7 is concave

upwards or downwards. Also determine the points of inflexion.
Sol. Here y = x4 – 6x3 + 12x2 + 5x + 7

dy
  4x 3  18x 2  24x  5
dx

 d2 y
 12x 2  36x  24
dx 2

d2 y
Now  0 iff 12x2 – 36x + 24 > 0
dx 2
iff x2 – 3x + 2 > 0
i.e., iff x2 – 3x > –2

9 9
i.e., iff x  3x   2 
2

4 4

2
 3 1
i.e., iff  x     2
 2 4

2 2
3 1
i.e., iff x   
2 2

3 1
i.e., iff x  
2 2

3 1 3 1
i.e., iff x   or x   
2 2 2 2

i.e. iff x > 2 or x < 1

 curve is concave upwards in (–, 1) (2, )

d2 y
Similarly 0
dx 2
B.A. PART - I 20 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

3 1
iff x 
2 2

1 3 1
i.e., iff  x 
2 2 2

if 1<x<2
 curve is concave downwards in (1, 2)

d2 y
 0 when x2 – 3x + 2 = 0
dx 2

i.e., when x = 1 or x = 2

d3 y
 24x  36  0 when x = 1, or x = 2
dx 3
 x = 1, y = 19 i.e., (1, 19)
x = 2, y = 23 i.e., (2, 23)
are the points of inflexion.
V. Double Points and their Classification
As we have already defined a multiple point, on the basis of which we can define a
double point as
Double Point : A point on the curve through which two branches of the curve
pass is called a double point.
V.(a) Classification of Double Points
There are three kinds of double points.
(i) Node : A node is a point on the curve through which pass two real
branches of the curve and two tangents at which are real and distinct.
Thus P is a node.

X
O
B.A. PART - I 21 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

(ii) Cusp : A double point on the curve through which two real branches
of the curve pass and the tangents at which are real and coincident is
called a cusp. Thus P is a cusp.

X
O

(iii) Conjugate Point or Isolated Point : A conjugate point on a

curve is a point in the neighbourhood of which there are no other real
points of the curve.

X
O

The two tangents at a conjugate point are in general imaginary but sometimes they
may be real.
V.(b) Working Method for Finding the Nature of Origin which is a
Double Point
Find the tangents at the origin by equating to zero the lowest degree terms in x and
y of the equation of the curve. If the origin is a double point, then we shall get two
tangents which may by real or imaginary.
B.A. PART - I 22 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

(i) If two tangents are imaginary, then origin is a conjugate point.

(ii) If two tangents real and coincident, then origin is a cusp or a conjugate
point.
(iii) If the two tangents are real and distinct, then origin is a node or a
conjugate point.
To be sure, examine the nature of curve in the nbd. of origin. If the curve has real
branches through the origin, then it is a node, otherwise a conjugate point.
To be sure, we test the nature of curve in the nbd. of the origin as above.
Note. Test for nature of curve at origin.
If the tangents at origin are y2 = 0, solve the equation of the curve for y, neglecting
all terms of y containing powers above two. If the values of y, for small values of x
are found to be real, the branches of the curve through the origin are real, otherwise
imaginary.
If the tangents at origin are x2 = 0, solve the equation for x and proceed as above.
V.(c) Working Method for Finding the Position and Nature of Double
Points of the Curve f(x, y) = 0

Step I. Find f , f ,  f2 ,  f ,  f2
2 2 2

x y x x y y

Step II. Solve the equations f  0 and f  0 to get possible double points.
x y

Reject those points which do not satisfy the equation f (x, y) = 0 of the curve.
Remaining are the double points

2
 2 
Step III. At each double point, calculate D    f    f2  f2
2 2

 x y  x y

(a) If D is positive, double point is a node or conjugate point

(b) If D = 0, double point is a cusp or conjugate point.
In these cases (a) and (b), find the nature by shifting the origin to the double points
and then testing the nature of tangents and existence of the curve in the nbd. of
new origin.
(c) If D is negative, double point is a conjugate point.
VI. Some Important Examples
Example 3 : Prove that the curve y2 = (x–a)2 (x–b) has at x = 0, a node if a > b, a
cusp if a=b and a conjugate point if a < b.
B.A. PART - I 23 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Sol. The equation of curve is y2 = (x–a)2 (x–b) ... (1)

When x = a, from (1), y = 0
 point under discussion is (a, 0)
Shifting origin to (a, 0) by transformation x = X + a, y = Y + 0 = Y
(1) becomes Y2 = X2 (X + a – b) ... (2)
Equating to zero, the lowest degree terms, the tangents at the new origin are given
by

Y2 = X 2 (a – b) or Y X ab ... (3)

Case I. When a > b

From (3), two tangents at new origin are real and different
 new origin (a, 0) is a node or a conjugate point

From (2), Y   X Xab

For small non-zero value of X, Y is real as a – b > 0
 new origin (a, 0) is a node
Case II. When a = b
From (3), tangents are Y = 0, Y = 0
 two tangents are real and coincident
 origin is a cusp or a conjugate point

From (2), Y2 = X 3 or YX X

For small positive values of X, Y is real
 new origin (a, 0) is a cusp.
Case III. When a < b
From (2), two tangents at new origin are imaginary
 (a, 0) is a conjugate point.
Example 4 : Determine the position and nature of the double point on the curve
x3 – y2 – 7x2 + 4y + 15x – 13 = 0.
Sol. The equation of curve is
f (x, y) = x3 – y2 – 7x2 + 4y + 15x – 13 = 0 ... (1)

f f
  3x 2  14x  15,  2y  4
x y

f f
For the double points  0,  0, f(x, y)  0
x y
B.A. PART - I 24 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

f
Now 0 3x2 – 14x + 15 = 0
x

5
 (x – 3) (3x – 5) = 0 x = 3,
3

f
and 0 – 2y + 4 = 0 y = 2
y

 the possible double points are (3, 2),  5 , 2 

3 

But  , 2  does not satisfy (1)

5
3 

 (3, 2) is the only double point

Nature of the point (3, 2) : Shifting the origin to the point (3, 2) by
transformations x = X + 3, y = Y + 2
(1) becomes (X + 3)3 – (Y + 2)2 – 7 (X + 3)2 + 4 (Y + 2) + 15 (X + 3) – 13 = 0
or X3 + 9X 2 + 27 X + 27 – Y2 – 4Y – 4 – 7X2 – 42 X – 63 + 4Y
+8 + 15 X + 45 – 13 = 0.
3 2 2
or X +2X – Y =0 ... (2)
Equating to zero, the lowest degree terms, the tangents at the new origin are given
by

2X2 – Y2 = 0 or Y   2 X

which are real and distinct

 new origin is either a node or a conjugate point

From (2), Y   X X2

which gives real values of Y for small values of X, positive or negative
 real branches of the curve exist in the nbd. of the new origin (3, 2)
 (3, 2) is a node.
Alter. The equation of the curve is
f (x, y) = x3 – y2 – 7x2 + 4y + 15x – 13 = 0

f f
  3x 2  1x  15,  2y  4
x y

f f
For the double points  0,  0, f(x, y)  0
x y
B.A. PART - I 25 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

f
Now  0  3x2 – 14x + 15 = 0
y

5
 (x – 3) (3x – 5) = 0 x = 3,
3

f
and  0   2y  4  0  y  2
y

5 
 the possible double points are (3, 2),  , 2 
3 

5 
But  , 2  does not satisfy (1)
3 

 (3, 2) is the only double point

Nature of the point (3, 2) :

2f 2f 2f

 6x  14,   2, 0
x 2 y 2 x y

At (3, 2)

2f 2 f 2f
 18  14  4,   2, 0
x 2 y 2 x y

2
 2f  2f  2f
    2 . 2  (0)  (4) (2)  8  0
2

 x y  x y

 (3, 2) is node.
VII. Self Check Exercise
1. Examine the curve y = x4 – 2x3 + 1 for concavity upwards, concavity downwards
and points of inflexion.
2. Show that the points of inflexion of the curve y2 = (x – a)2 (x – b) lies on the
line 3x + a = 4b.
3. If y = ax3 + bx2 has a point of inflexion (–1, 2), find a and b.
4. Show that the curve y2 = 2 x sin 2x has a node at the origin.
5. Examine the curve x3 + 2x2 + 2xy – y 2 + 5x – 2y = 0 for a double point and
show that it is a cusp.
B.A. PART - I 26 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

6. Prove that the only singular point on the curve (y – b)2 = (x – a) 3 is a cusp and
find its co-ordinates.
VIII. Suggested Readings
1. Ahsan Akhtar & Sabita Ahsan : Differential Calculus
2. UP Singh, RJ Srivastava & : Differential Calculus
NH Siddiqui
3. Gorakh Prasad : Differential Calculus
4. Malik and Arora : Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney Calculus and
(Ninth Edition) Analytic Geometry
B.A. PART - I MATHEMATICS PAPER–I
SEMESTER-I CALCULUS

LESSON NO. 1.3 Author : Dr. Chanchal

ASYMPTOTES

Structure :
I. Objectives
II. Introduction
III. Rules for Finding Asymptotes
III.(a) Rectangular Asymptotes
III.(b) Oblique Asymptotes
III.(c) Asymptote of the General Rational Algebraic Curve
IV. Some other Methods for Finding Oblique Asymptotes
V. Intersection of a Curve and its Asymptotes
VI. Self Check Exercise
VII. Suggested Readings

I. Objectives
During the study in this particular lesson, our main objectives are
* To study the rules for finding rectangular asymptotes (horizontal and
vertical asymptotes).
* To discuss the methods for finding the oblique asymptotes to the curve.
II. Introduction
We are familiar with the plane curves like parabola and hyperbola. Such types of
curves, if drawn completely, will extend to infinity. Suppose that a tangent is drawn
at any point of a curve which extend to infinity. Further suppose that the point of
contact of the tangent moves along the curve in such a manner that its distance
from origin tends to infinity. We may then find a definite straight line (a straight line
at a finite distance from the origin) to which the tangent approaches. Such a straight
line is called an asymptote of the curve. In other words a straight line is said to be
an asymptote of a curve, if the perpendicular distance of any point P on a branch of
the curve from this straight line tends to zero as the point P tends to infinity along
the curve. We now give a formal definition of the asympotote.

27
B.A. PART - I 28 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Definition : A straight line at a finite distance from the origin to which a tangent
to a curve tends as the distance from the origin of the point of contact tends to
infinity, is called an asymptote of the curve.
III. Rules for Finding Asymptotes
III.(a) Rectangular Asymptotes
If an asymptote to a curve is either parallel to x–axis or parallel to y–axis, then it is
called a rectrangular asymptote. An asymptote parallel to x–axis is usually called
horizontal asymptote and an asymptote parallel to y–axis is called a vertical
asymptote. We discuss below the rules to find these asymptotes :
1. Rule to find asymptotes parallel to x-axis.
Equate to zero the real linear factors in the coefficient of highest power of x in the
equation of the given curve.
It should be noted properly that if the coefficient of highest power of x in the equation
of the given curve is a constant or has no real linear factor, then the curve has no
asymptote parallel to x-axis.
2. Rule to find asymptotes parallel to y-axis.
Equate to zero the real linear factors in the coefficient of highest power of y in the
equation of the given curve.
It should be noted properly that if the coefficient of highest power of y in the equation
of the given curve is a constant or has no real linear factor then the curve has no
asymptote parallel to y-axis.
Example 1 : Find the asymptotes parallel to the axes of the curve x2y2 + y2 = 1.
Sol. The equation of the given curve is x2y2 + y2 = 1 ... (1)
The coefficient of highest power of x in (1) is y 2
 y2 = 0 i.e., y = 0 is the only asymptote parallel to the x-axis
The coefficient of highest power of y in (1) is x2 + 1. Now x2 + 1 has no real linear
factor.
 given curve has no asymptote parallel to y-axis.
III.(b) Oblique Asymptotes
An asymptote, which is neither parallel to x-axis nor parallel to y-axis is called an
oblique asymptote. Such type of asymptotes can be determined under the following
rule :
Rule to find oblique asymptotes
y
(i) Find Lt in the equation of the curve and denote it by m.
x  x

(ii) Find xLt


(y – mx) in the equation of the curve and denote it by c.
B.A. PART - I 29 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Then y = mx + c is an asymptote of the curve f (x, y) = 0.

III.(c) Asymptote of the General Rational Algebraic Curve
Let the equation of the curve be

y y y y y

x n n    x n 1n 1    x n 1n 2    ....  x1   0    0
 
x  
x  
x  
x x

y y
where n   represents a polynomial in of degree n.
 
x x
Then, its asymptote can be obtained as
Rule to find oblique asymptotes of a rational algebraic curve :
Step I. Find n(m), n–1 (m) by putting x = 1 and y = m in the nth degree terms and in
the (n–1)th degree terms respectively of the given curve f(x, y) = 0.
Step II. Find all the real roots of n(m) = 0.
Step III. If m1 is a non-repeated root of n(m) = 0, then the corresponding value of
c is given by c'n (m1) + n–1 (m ) = 0, provided 'n (m1) 0.
1
If 'n (m1) = 0, then there is no asymptote to the curve corresponding to the value m1
of m.
Step IV. If m1 is a repeated root occurring twice, then the corresponding values of
c are given bym1 m1 m1

c2
 "n (m)  c1  'n 1 (m)  n  2 (m)  0, provided  "n (m1 )  0 .
2

In this case there are two parallel asymptotes to the curve.

Similarly we can proceed when m1 is repeated three or more times.
Note : A rational algebraic curve of degree n cannot have more than n asymptotes.
Example 2 : Find all the asymptotes of the curve
x3 + 2x2y – xy2 – 2y3 + 4y 2 + 2xy + y –1 = 0.
Sol. Given equation is
x3 + 2x2y – xy2 – 2y3 + 4y 2 + 2xy + y – 1 = 0 ... (1)
(1) is an equation of degree 3 in x and y
Since coefficient of x3 is 1, which is constant
So there is no asymptotes parallel to x-axis
Similarly coefficient of y3 is –2, which is constant
 there is no asymptote parallel to y-axis.
For oblique asymptotes, put y = mx + c in (1), we get,
x3 + 2x2 (mx + c) – x (mx + c)2 – 2 (mx + c)3 + 4 (mx + c)2
B.A. PART - I 30 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

+ 2x (mx + c) + (mx + c) –1 = 0.
or x (1 + 2m – m – 2m ) + x (2 c – 2 mc –6m c + 4m2 + 2m)
3 2 3 2 2

+x (–c2 – 6mc2 + 8mc + 2c+m) + (–2 c3 + 4c2 + c – 1)=0.

Equating the coefficient of x3 and x2 to zero, we get,
1 + 2m – m2 – 2m3 = 0 ... (2)
2 c – 2m c – 6m2c + 4m2 + 2m = 0 ... (3)
From (2), 1 (1 + 2m) – m 2 (1 + 2m) = 0
 (1 – m2) (1 + 2m) = 0
 (1 – m) (1 + m) (1 + 2m) = 0

1
 m = 1, – 1, –
2

When m = 1, from (3), we have

2c – 2c – 6c + 4 + 2 = 0
 6c = 6 or c = 1.
Corresponding asymptote is y = x + 1
When m = –1, from (3), we have,
2c + 2c – 6c + 4 – 2 = 0
2c = 2 or c = 1
 corresponding asymptote is y = –x + 1

1
When m  , from (3), we have,
2

3
2c  c  c 1 1  0 or c=0
2

1
Corresponding asymptote is y   x.
2

Example 3 : Find the asymptotes of the curve

x3 – x2y – xy2 + y3 + 2x2 – 4y2 + 2xy + x + y + 1 = 0.
Sol. The equation of given curve is
x3 – x2y – xy2 + y3 + 2x2 – 4y2 + 2xy + x + y + 1 = 0.
The coefficient of highest power of x in (1) is 1, which is constant.
 there is no asymptote parallel to x-axis.
The coefficient of highest power of y in (1) is 1, which is constant
 there is no asymptote parallel to y-axis
For oblique asymptotes, we have
3 (m) = 1 – m – m2 + m3  '3(m) = –1 –2 m + 3m2
B.A. PART - I 31 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

2 (m) = 2 – 4 m2 + 2m  " 3 (m) = –2 + 6m

1 (m) = 1+m  '2 (m) = –8 m + 2
0 (m) = 1
3 (m) = 0 gives
1 – m – m2 + m3 = 0
 1 (1 – m) – m 2 (1 – m) = 0
 (1 – m) (1 – m2) = 0
-
 (1 – m) (1 – m) (1 + m) = 0
-
 m = 1, 1, – 1

2 (m)  (1)
When m = –1, c     '2
3 (m)
'
3 (1)

242
 c 1
1  2  3

Corresponding asymptote is y = –1 x +1 i.e., x + y = 1

When m = 1, 1, the values of c are given by

c2
3 (m)  c2 (m)  1 (m)  0
2

c2
 (2  6)  c (8  2)  (1  1)  0
2

 2c2 – 6c + 2 = 0
 c2 – 3c + 1 = 0

3 94 3 5
 c 
2 2

and corresponding asymptotes are given by

3 5 3 5
y 1 x  , y  1x 
2 2

Hence the required asymptotes are

3 5 3 5
x  y  1, x  y   0, x  y   0.
2 2

IV. Some Other Methods for Finding Oblique Asymptotes

Here, we discuss some special methods of finding asymptotes of f(x, y) = 0 when the
equation f (x, y) = 0 is of some special types.
B.A. PART - I 32 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Method I. If the equation of the curve is of the form

(ax + by + c) f n–1 (x, y) + gn–1 (x, y) = 0
then the asymptote parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is given by

g n 1 (x, y)
ax  by  c  Lt  0, provided the limit exists
x  fn 1 (x, y)
y a

x b

Method II. If the equation of the curve is of the form

(ax + by)2 f n–2 (x, y) + g n–2 (x, y) = 0
then the two asymptote parallel to ax + by = 0 are given by

g n  2 (x, y)
 ax  by 
2
 Lt  0, provided the limit exists
x  fn  2 (x, y)
y a

x b

Method III. If the equation of the curve is of the form

(ax + by)2 f n–2 (x, y) + (ax + by) gn–2 (x, y) + h n–2 (x, y) = 0
then the two asymptotes parallel to ax + by = 0 are given by

g n  2 (x, y) hn 2 (x, y)
 ax  by    ax  by  Lt
2
 Lt 0
x  
fn  2 (x, y) y a fn  2 (x, y)
x
y a
 
x b x b

provided the limit exists

Note. Working Method
(i) Factorize the highest degree terms
(ii) Retain one linear factor and divide by the product of other factors.
(iii) Take limits when x  , y   in the direction of the retained factor.
Note. If limits does not exist, then there is no asymptote parallel to ax + by + c = 0.
Method IV. Asymptotes by Inspection
If the equation of the curve can be written as
Fn (x, y) + Fn – 2 (x, y) = 0.
wh ere F n (x, y) is a ra tional int egral fun ct ion i n x and y of degree n and
Fn – 2 (x, y) of degree (n – 2) at the most then every linear factor ax + by + c of Fn (x, y)
equated to zero determines the asymptote of the curve, provided no two asymptotes
so obtained are either parallel or coincident.
Example 4 : Find all the asymptotes of the following curve :
x3 + x2y – xy2 – y3 + 2xy + 2y2 – 3x + y = 0
Sol. The given equation is x3 + x2y – xy 2 – y3 + 2xy + 2y 2 – 3x + y = 0
or x2 (x + y) – y2 (x + y) + 2xy + 2y2 – 3x + y = 0
B.A. PART - I 33 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

or (x + y) (x2 – y2) + 2xy + 2y2 – 3x + y = 0

or (x – y) (x + y)2 +2xy + 2y2 – 3x+ y = 0
The equation (1) can be written as

2xy  2y 2  3x  y
xy 0
(x  y)2

 asymptote (if it exists) parallel to x – y = 0 is given by

2xy  2y 2  3x  y
x  y  Lt 0
x 
yx
(x  y)2

2x 2  2x 2  3x  x
or x  y  Lt 0
x  (x  x)2

4x 2  2x
or x  y  Lt 0
x  4x 2

2
4
x  y  Lt x  0 or x  y  4  0  0
or x  4 4

 x – y + 1 = 0 is one asymptote.
The equation (1) can be written as

2y 3x  y
(x  y)2  (x  y) .  0
xy xy

 asymptotes (if they exist) parallel to x + y = 0 are given by

2y 3x  y
(x  y)2  (x  y) . Lt  Lt 0
x 
y  x
x  y y  x x  y
x 

2x 3x  x
or (x  y)2  (x  y) . Lt  Lt 0
x  x  x x  x  x

or (x + y)2 – (x + y) – 2 = 0 or (x + y – 2) (x + y + 1) = 0
 x + y – 2 = 0, x + y + 1 = 0 are the other two asymptotes.
V. Intersection of a Curve and its Asymptotes
Art 3.1 : Prove that an asymptote of a rational algebraic curve of the nth degree
cuts the curve in atmost (n – 2) points.
B.A. PART - I 34 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

Proof : Let y = m1x + c1 ... (1) be an asymptote of the curve

y y y

x n n    x n 1 n 1    x n2 n  2    ...  0 ... (2)
x x x

We are to find the points of intersection of (1)and (2),

From (1), y  m1  c1
x x

y
Substituting the value of in (1), we get,
x

 c   c   c 
x n n  m1  1   x n 1 n 1  m1  1   x n  2 n 2  m1  1   ...  0
 x  x  x

Using Taylor's Theorem, we get

x n n (m1 )  x n 1 c1n (m1 )  n 1 (m1 )

c 2 
 x n 2  1 n (m1 )  c1 n 1 (m1 )  n 2 (m1 )  ...  0 ... (3)
 2 

Since n (m1) = 0 and c1'n (m1) + n–1 (m1) = 0, (3) becomes

c 2 
x n2  1 n (m1 )  c1n 1 (m1 )  n 2 (m1 )  ...  0
 2 

which is an equation of degree (n – 2) and correspondingly (1) and (2) intersect

in (n – 2) points.
 asymptote (1) cuts the curve (2) in at the most (n – 2) points.
Hence the result.
Cor. 1. Prove that all asymptotes of a curve of nth degree cut the curve in atmost
n(n–2) points.
Proof. We know that a curve of nth degree has atmost has atmost n asymptotes
and each asymptote cuts the curve in atmost (n – 2) points.
 all the asymptotes of a curve of nth degree cut the curve in atmost n (n – 2)
points.
Cor. 2. If the equation of the curve of nth degree is of the form Fn + Fn–2 = 0 and
curve has no parallel asymptotes, then the points of intersection of the curve and
its asymptote lie on the curve Fn–2 = 0.
Proof. The equation of curve is Fn + Fn–2 = 0
B.A. PART - I 35 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

The equation of asymptote is Fn = 0

 the points of intersection of the asymptote and the curve satisfy the equations
Fn + Fn–2 = 0 and Fn = 0 and therefore they will satisfy
(Fn + Fn–2) – Fn = 0 i.e., Fn–2 = 0.
Hence the result.
Example 5 : Find the equation of the cubic which has the same asymptotes as
the curve x3 – 6x2y + 11xy2 – 6y3 + 4x + 5y + 7 = 0 and which passes through the
points (0, 0), (–2, 0) and (0, –2).
Sol. The equation of given curve is x3 – 6x2y + 11xy 2 – 6y3 + 4x + 5y + 7 = 0
... (1)
It is of the form F3 + F1 = 0
 asymptotes are given by F3 = 0
or x3 – 6x2y + 11xy2 – 6y3 = 0 or (x–y) (x–2y) (x–3y) = 0
 asymptotes of (1) are x – y = 0, x – 2y = 0, x – 3 y = 0
The equation of the cubic curve which has the same asymptotes is of the
type
(x – y) (x – 2y) (x – 3y) + ax + by + c = 0 - -- - -
12
Now (2) passes through (0, 0), c=0
(2) passes through (–2, 0),  –8 – 2a = 0 a = –4
(2) passes through (0, –2),  48 – 2b = 0 b = 24
Substituting values of a, b, c in (2), we get,
(x – y) (x – 2y) (x – 3y) – 4x + 24y = 0
or x3 – 6x2y + 11xy 2 – 6y3 – 4x + 24y = 0.
VI. Self Check Exercise
1. Find all the asymptotes of the following curves :
(i) y3 – 3x2y + xy 2 – 3x3 + 2y 2 + 2xy + 4x + 5y + 6 = 0
(ii) ay2 = x2 (a – x)
(iii) y3 + 4xy 2 + 4x2y + 5y2 + 15xy + 10x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
2. Show that the parabola y2 = 4ax has no asyptotes.
3. Find the asymptots of the curve
(x+ y) (x + 2y) (x + 3y) + 3x2 + 12xy + 11y2 + x + y + 2 = 0
4. Find asymptotes of the curve x2y – xy2 + xy + y2 + x – y = 0.
5. Find the asymptotes of the curve x2y + xy2 + 2x2 – 2xy – y 2 – 6x – 2y + 2 = 0
and show that they cut the curve in almost three points which lie on the
straight line 2x – 3y – 4 = 0.
6. Find the equation of the cubic curve which has the same asymptotes as the
B.A. PART - I 36 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

curve x3 – 6x2y + 11 xy 2 – 6y3 + x + y + 1 = 0 and which passes through the

points (0, 0), (2, 0) and (0, 2).
VII. Suggested Readings
1. Ahsan Akhtar & Sabita Ahsan : Differential Calculus
2. UP Singh, RJ Srivastava & : Differential Calculus
NH Siddiqui
3. Gorakh Prasad : Differential Calculus
4. Malik and Arora : Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney Calculus and
(Ninth Edition) Analytic Geometry
B.A. PART - I MATHEMATICS PAPER–I
SEMESTER-I CALCULUS

LESSON NO. 1.4 Author : Dr. Chanchal

CURVE TRACING AND CURVATURE

Structure :
I. Objectives
II. Introduction
III. Rules for Tracing Cartesian Curves
IV. Rules for Tracing Parametric Curves
V. Rules for Tracing Polar Curves
VI. Curvature
VI.(a) Radius of Curvature
VI.(b) Centre of Curvature
VI.(c) Some Important Results of Curvature
VII. Self Check Exercise
VIII. Suggested Readings

I. Objectives
In this lesson we will deal with the graphs of the curves of given equations in Cartesian
or polar systems of coordinates. The main purpose of this chapter is to point out
those rules which are used in tracing the graph of a curve. After describing the
main rules of curve tracing and afterwards we will use them in tracing the graph of
aforesaid curves.
II. Introduction
The graph of a given function is helpful in giving a visual presentation of the
behaviour of the function involving the study of symmetries of asymptotes, the
intervals of rising up or falling down and of the cavity upwards and downwards etc.
Curve tracing means that the equations of curves which we trace and are generally
solvable for y, x or r. The case may come that some equations are not solvable for y or
x, then we solve them for r by transforming from Cartesian to polar system.
III. Rules for Tracing Cartesian Curves
For tracing the curve of the equation f(x, y) = 0, the following important points should
be considered :
I. Symmetry : Curve given by f(x, y) = 0 is symmetric about
(i) x-axis if it is unchanged on changing y to –y i.e., if f(x, –y) = f(x, y)
(ii) y-axis if it is unchanged on changing x to –x i.e., if f (–x, y) = f (x, y)
(iii) the origin if it is unchanged on changing x to –x and y to –y
37
B.A. PART - I 38 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

i.e., if f (–x, –y) = f (x, y)

(iv) the line y = x if it is unchanged on changing x to y and y to x
i.e., if f (x, y) = f(y, x)
(v) the line y = –x if it is unchanged on changing x to –y and y to –x
i.e., if f (–y, –x) = f(x, y).
II. Domain and Range : Find the domain and range.
III. Origin : Check whether origin lies on the curve. If curve passes through
origin, then find the tangents at the origin and also determine whether origin is
node, cusp or an solated point.
IV. Asymptotes : Find all the asymptotes of the curve and the position of the
curve relative to its asymptotes.
V. Points of Intersection : Find the points of intersection of the curve with co-
ordinate axes and obtain the equations of the tangents at these points. If any of
these is a double point, then find the nature of the double point.
Also find some other points on the curve by giving suitable values to x.
VI. Maxima and Minima : Find the points where the function has maximum
value or minimum value. Also find the maximum and minimum value at each point.
VII. Points of Inflextion : (a) Find the intervals of
(i) increase and decrease of the curve
(ii) concavity and convexity of the curve.
(b) Also find the points of inflexion, if any.
VIII. Discontinuities : Find the points at which function is discontinuous. Also
discuss the behaviour of the function near these points.
The method of tracing curves in cartesian co-ordinates can be made more clear
with the help of following suitable examples :
Example 1 : Trace the cure x = (y –1) (y – 2) (y – 3).
Sol. The equation of the curve is x = (y – 1) (y – 2) (y – 3) ... (1)
(i) Symmetry : The curve is neither symmetrical about axes nor about origin.
Also the curve is neither symmetrical about y = x nor about y = –x.
(ii) Origin : The curve does not pass through the origin.
(iii) Point of intersection with axis : The curve meets x-axis where y = 0
 putting y = 0 in (1), we get, x = –6
 curve meets x-axis in (–6, 0)
The curve meet y-axis where x = 0
 putting x = 0 in (1), we get, (y–1) (y–2) (y–3) = 0
 y = 1, 2, 3.
 curve meets y-axis in (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3).
(iv) Asymptotes : The curve has no asymptotes.
(v) Tangents : Now x = y3 – 6y2 + 11y – 6
B.A. PART - I 39 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

dx
  3y 2  12y  11
dy

dx
  0 gives 3y 2  12y  11  0
dy

12  144  132 2  2 3 6  1.732

 y    2.6 (nearly), 1.4 (nearly)
6 6 3
When y = 2.6, x = –0.384 (nearly)
When y = 1.4, x = 0.384 (nearly)
 tangents to the curve at (–3.84, 2.6) and (3.84, 1.4) are parallel to the y-
axis.
(vi) Additional Points Now y < 0 x < 0
 no portion of the curve lies in the fourth quadrant.
0<y<1  x<0
1<y<2  x>0
2<y<3  x<0
3<y  x>0
x  y 
A rough sketch of the curve is given in the figure.

3
(0, 3)
(–.384, 2.6)
(0, 2)
2 (.384, 1.4)
1
(0, 1)
X
O
(–6, 0)

Example 2 : Trace the curve x3 + y3 = 3 a x y, a  0.

Sol. The equation of the curve is x3 + y3 = 3 a x y, a  0
(i) Symmetry : The given equation (1) does not change when x is changed to y
and y is changed to x.
curve is symmetrical about the line y = x.
B.A. PART - I 40 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

(ii) Origin : The curve passes through the origin.

The tangents at origin are given by xy = 0
i.e., x = 0, y = 0. These tangents are different.
 origin is a node.
(iii) Asymptotes : (1) can be written as
(x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) – 3axy = 0
Asymptote (if any) parallel to x + y = 0 is given by

3axy
x  y  Lt 0
x  x  xy  y 2
2

3ax 2 3ax 2
or x  y  Lt  0 or x  y  Lt 0
x  x x x
2 2 2 x  3x 2

or x+y+a=0
This is the only asymptote of the curve.
(iv) Points of intersection with axes
Putting x = 0 in (1), we get y = 0
Putting y = 0 in (1), we get x = 0
 curve meets axes in (0, 0) only.
Putting y = x in (1), we get,
x3 + x3 = 3ax2 or x2 (2x – 3 a) = 0

3a 3a
 x  0,  y  0,
2 2

 3a 3a 
 line y = x meets the curve in (0, 0) and  , 
 2 2 
(v) Region
From (1), it is clear that x and y both cannot be negative as in that case L.H.S. of (1)
is negative whereas R.H.S. of (1) is positive.
 no portion of the curve lies in the 3rd quadrant.
A rough sketch of the curve is shown in the figure.
Y
x
=
y

 3a 3a 
 , 
 2 2 

x
+
y
+
a
=
0
B.A. PART - I 41 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

IV. Rules for Tracing Parametric Curves

Case I. Eliminate the parameter if possible and get the corresponding cartesian
equation of the curve which can be traced as done earlier.
Case II. If the parameter cannot be easily eliminated from the given equations,
then we proceed like this :
(i) Symmetry
(i) If x = f(t) is an even function of t and y =  (t) an odd function of t, then
the curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
(ii) If x = f(t) is an odd function of t and y = (t) an even function of t, then
curve is symmetrical about y-axis.
(iii) If x = f (t) and y = (t) are both odd functions of t, then the curve is
symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
(ii) Origin : If by putting x = 0, we get a real value of t, which makes y equals zero,
then the curve passes through the origin.
(iii) Axes Intersection : Find the points of intersection of the curve and coordinate
axes.
(iv) Limitations : If possible, find the greatest and least values of x and y which
give us lines parallel to axes between which the curve lies or does not lie.

dy dy
(v) Points : Find the points where  0,  .
dx dx
(vi) Region :
(i) Find the regions in which curve does not lie.

dx dy
(ii) Consider the signs of and .
dt dt

dx dy dy
(iii) Consider the values of x, y, , , .
dt dt dx
(vii) Asymptotes : Find the asymptotes, if any.
Example 3 : Trace the curve x = a (+ sin); y = a (1 + cos ), – .
Sol. The equations of the curve are x = a (+ sin ), y = a (1 + cos )
Here the parameter  cannot be easily eliminated.
(i) Symmetry : The curve is symmetrical about the axis of y for (+ sin) is an
odd function of and (1 + cos ) is an even function of .
(ii) Origin : The curve does not pass through the origin.
(iii) Intercepts : It meet the x-axis when
y=0 i.e., 1 + cos = 0
or cos = –1 i.e., = , –
 the points of intersection with the x-axis are A (a , 0), A' (–a , 0).
Again it meets the y-axis when x = 0.
B.A. PART - I 42 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

i.e. + sin = 0 or sin = – or = 0

 it meets the axis of y at B (0, 2 a).
(iv) Asymptotes : There are no asymptotes.

(v) Points : We have dx  a (1  cos ); dy  a sin 

d d

 
2sin cos
dy a sin  2 2   tan 
  
dx a(1  cos )  2
2cos 2
2

dy
  0 when   0
dx
i.e., at (0, 2 a), the tangent is parallel to the axis of x.

dy
Also   when = , –
dx
 at (a , 0) and (–a , 0), the tangent is perpendicular to the axis of x.

dx
(v) Region : For all values of , is  ve
d
 x always increases with .

dx
Also is  ve for – .
d
Hence y increases when  increases from – to 0and y decreases when  increases
from 0 to .
Hence approximately, the shape of the curve is as shown in the diagram.

B
A' A
X
O
B.A. PART - I 43 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

V. Rules for Tracing Polar Curves

We shall keep in mind the following points for tracing the graphs of the equation f(r,
) = 0.
1. Symmetry :
(i) Symmetry about the initial line or x-axis : If the equation of the curve
remains unchanged when  is changed to –, the curve is symmetrical
about the initial line.

(ii) Symmetry about the line    or y-axis : If the equation of the curve
2
remains unchanged when  is changed to – or when is changed to


–and r to –r, the curve is symmetrical about the line   .
2


(iii) Symmetry about the line   or y = x : If the equation of the curve
4


remains unchanged when  is changed to  , the curve is said to be
2


symmetrical about the line   .
4

3
(iv) Symmetrical about the line   or y = –x; if the equation of the curve
4

3
remains unchanged when  is changed to  , the curve is said to be
2

3
symmetrical about the line   .
4
(v) Symmetry about the pole : If the equation of the curve remains
unchanged when r is changed to –r, the curve is said to be symmetrical
about the pole.
II. Pole
(i) Find whether the curve passes through the pole or not. It can be done
by putting r = 0 in the equation and then finding some real value of . If
it is not possible to find a real value of for which r = 0, then the curve
does not pass through the pole.
(ii) Find the tangents at the pole. Putting r = 0, the real values of give the
tangents at the pole.
(iii) Find the points where the curve meets the initial line and the line


 .
2
B.A. PART - I 44 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

III. Value of 
d 
Find from the result tan   r . Then find the points where   0 or .
dr 2
IV. Asymptotes
If r   as   1 (any fixed number), then there is an asymptote. Find it by the
method given below :

1
(i) Write down the given equation as  f(), say.
r
(ii) Equate f() to zero and solve for . Let the roots be 1, 2,.......
(iii) Find f'() and calculate it at = 1, 2,.........

1 1
(iv) Asymptotes are r sin (  1 )  , r sin (  2 )  ,...
f () f (2 )

V. Special Points
Find some points on the curve for convenient values of .
VI. Region
Solve the given equation for r or . Find the region in which the curve does not lie.
This can be done in the following manner.
(i) No part of the curve lies between  =  and  =  if for <  < , r is
imaginary.
(ii) If the greatest numerical value of r be a, the curve lies entirely within
the circle r = a. If the least numerical value of r be b, the curve lies
outside the circle r = b.
Example 4 : Trace the curve r = a (1 + cos ), a > 0.
Sol. The equation of the curve is r = a (1 + cos ) ... (1)
1. Symmetry : The equation of the curve remains unchanged when  is
changed to –.
 curve is symmetrical about the initial line.
II. Pole : Putting r = 0 in (1), we get
a (1 + cos ) = 0 or cos = –1
 = 
 pole lies on the curve and tangent at the pole is = .

    
The curve cuts the initial line = 0 at (2 a, 0) and the lines    at  a,  ,  a,   .
2  2   2 
III. Value of 
dr
 a sin 
d
B.A. PART - I 45 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I


2 cos 2
d 1 2
 tan   r  a (1  cos )  
dr a sin   
2sin cos
2 2

    
 tan   cot  tan   tan       
2  2 2  2 2


  when   0, r  2 a
2
 at (2a, 0), the tangent is perpendicular to initial line.
IV. Asymptotes : Since r does not tend to infinity for any finite value of .
 curve has got no asymptote
V. Special Points : We have

  

tangent
2  a, 2 
 

(2a, 0) X

 
 a,  
 2

 
: 0 
4 2

 1 
r: 2a a 1   a 0
 2

VI. Region : Since r = a (1 + cos )

 max. value of r = 2a
 curve lies entirely within the circle r = 2a
When increases from 0 to , r remains positive and decreases from 2a to 0.
When increases from to 2, r remains positive and increases from 0 to 2a.
The shape of the curve is as shown in the figure.
B.A. PART - I 46 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

VI. Curvature
VI.(a) Radius of Curvature
Let P and Q be any two neighbouring points on a curve AB such that are AP = s and
arc AQ = s + s so that arc PQ = s. Let the tangents to the curve at P and Q make
angles and + with x-axis so that RST = . Then

B
Q

A P

X
O T R

(i) , measured in radians, is called the total curvature or total bending of
the arc PQ,


(ii) the ratio is called the average curvature of the arc PQ,
s


(iii) Lt , if it exists, is called the curvature of the curve at P and is
s 0 s
denoted by k
(iv) The reciprocal of curvature at any point P is called the radius of
curvature and is denoted by Greek letter 

1 ds .
 
d  d
ds

VI.(b) Centre of Curvature

The centre of curvature of a curve at a point P is the point C which lies on the
positive direction of the normal at P and which is at a distance  from it.
B.A. PART - I 47 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

The circle with centre C and radius CP = is called circle of curvature of the curve
at P.
Any chord of the circle of curvature at P passing through P is called chord of
curvature through P.
VI.(c) Some Important Results of Curvature
Result I : The curvature of a circle is constant and is equal to the reciprocal of the
radius.
Result II : The radius of curvature at any point of the curve y = f(x) is given by
3
(1  y12 )2 dy d2 y
 where y1  and y 2 
y2 dx dx 2

Result III : Rule to find the radius of curvature at the origin.

x2
(a) P u t y = px + q + . . . . . . . . . . i n eq u a t i o n o f cur v e , w h e r e
2

 dy   d2 y 
p   f '(0) and q   2   f "(0)
 dx (0, 0)  dx (0, 0)

(b) Equate the coefficients of like powers of x on both sides and find p, q.

(1  p2 )3 /2
(c) (at the origin) =
q

Result IV : The radius of curvature at any point of the curve x = f(t), y = g(t) is
given by
B.A. PART - I 48 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

3
 f '(t)2   g '(t)2  2
  
f '(t) g "(t)  g '(t) f "(t)

Result V : The radius of curvature at any point p(r, ) of the curve r = f() is given
by
3


r 2
 r12  2
where r1 
dr d2r
and r2  2
r 2  2r12  rr2 d d

Result VI : The co-ordinates of the centre of curvature for any point P(x, y) of the

curve y = f(x), are given by  x, y  where x  x 


y1 1  y12 , y  y  1 y 2
1
.
y2 y2

x  x   y  y   2 .
2 2
Further, the equation of circle of curvature at P(x, y) is
Now, we clerify the above result with the help of following suitable examples:
Example 5 : Find the radius of curvature of the parabola y2 = 4 ax at the point (x,
y).
Sol. The equation of the parabola is y2 = 4ax ... (1)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t x, we get,

dy dy 2a
2y  4 a or  ... (2)
dx dx y

d2 y 2a dy 2a 2a 4a 2
        ... (3)
dx 2 y 2 dx y2 y y3

3
  dy 2  2
1    
  dx  
Now,  
d2 y
dx 2

3
 4a 2  2
1  2 
y 

4a 2 [  of (2) and (3)]
y3
B.A. PART - I 49 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

3 3
(y 2  4a 2 )2 (4ax  4a 2 )2
 2
 [  of (1)]
4a 4a 2

3
2
 (x  a)2 .
a
Example 6 : Find the radii of curvature at the origin of the curve
y2 – 3xy + 2x2 – x3 + y 4 = 0
Sol. The equation of curve is y 2 –3xy + 2x2 – x3 + y4 = 0 ... (1)
Clearly (0, 0) lies on (1).
Equating to zero the lowest degree terms, we get,
y2 – 3xy + 2x2 = 0
or (y–x) (y–2x) = 0 y = x, y = 2x
Here, neight x-axis nor y-axis is the tangent at origin

x2
 putting y = px + q  ......... in (1), we get,
2

2 4
 x2   x2   x2 
 px  q     3x  px  q     2x 2  x 3   px  q    0
 2   2   2 

 q 
 (p2  3p  2) x 2   pq  3  1 x 3  .........  0 ... (2)
 2 
Equating coefficients of x2 in (2), we get,
p2 – 3p + 2 = 0 or (p – 1) (p – 2) = 0 p = 1, 2
Equating coefficients of x3 in (2), we get,

q
pq  3 1  0
2

q
When p  1, q  3  1  0  q  2
2

q
When p  2, q  3 1  0  q  2
2
When p = 1, q = –2
3 3
(1  p2 )2 (1  1)2
 (at origin)    2 (in magnitude)
q 2

When p = 2, q = 2
B.A. PART - I 50 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

3 3
(1  p2 )2 (1  4)2 5 5
 (at origin)    .
q 2 2

Example 7 : Find the circle of curvature at the point  ,  of the curve

a a
4 4

x y a.

Sol. The equation of curve is x y a

Differentating both sides of (1) w.r.t.x.

1 1 dy dy y
 0  
2 x 2 y dx dx x

1
dy 1
2
x.  y.
d y 2 y dx 2 x

dx 2 x

1  x y y 
    
x  2 y x 2 x 

1 y 1 x y 1  a

2x
1
x

2x x

2x
   of (1)
 x

a
 3
2x 2

a a a 4
P  ,  , y1  1, y 2  3

At 
4 4 a 2
a
2
4

1  y 
3
2 2
1 (1  1)2 a a
   2 2 
y2 4 4 2
a

Let  x, y  be the centre of curvature

B.A. PART - I 51 MATHEMATICS PAPER–I

xx
1  y12  2

a (1) (1  1) a a 3a
   

y2 4 4 4 2 4
a

yy
1  y12  2

a (1  1) 3a
 
y2 4 4 4
a

 3a 3a 
 centre of curvature is  , 
 4 4 

equation of circle of curvature at P  ,  is

a a

4 4

2 2 2
 3a   3a   a 
x   y    
 4   4   2

2 2
 3a   3a  a2
or x    y    .
 4   4  2

VII. Self Check Exercise

x2  1
1. Trace the curve y 
x 1
2. Trace the curve x = a(+ sin), y = a (1–cos)
3. Trace the curve r = a (1+sin)

2a
4. Find the radius of curvature for the parabola  1  cos  .
r
VIII. Suggested Readings
1. Ahsan Akhtar & Sabita Ahsan : Differential Calculus
2. UP Singh, RJ Srivastava & : Differential Calculus
NH Siddiqui
3. Gorakh Prasad : Differential Calculus
4. Malik and Arora : Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney Calculus and
(Ninth Edition) Analytic Geometry
B.A. PART-I MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I
SEMESTER–I ADVANCED CALCULUS-I
LESSON NO. 2.1 Author: Dr. Chanchal

LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF

FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES-I
Structure:
Objectives
I. Introduction
II. Limit of a Function of Two Variables
III. Simultaneous and Iterated (or Repeated) Limits
IV. Continuity of Functions of Two Variables
V. Self Check Exercise

Objectives
The prime goal of this lesson is to enlighten the basic concepts of real valued
functions of two variables f ( x, y ) . During the study in this particular lesson, our
main objectives are
 To discuss the limit of function f ( x, y ) and how this limit can be classified.
 To discuss the continuity of function f ( x, y ) .
I. Introduction
From our previous study, we are already familiar with the concepts of limit,
continuity and differentiability of the real valued functions f (x ) . In this unit, we
have introduced the concept of real valued functions of two real variables. In this
lesson, we start with the study of limit and continuity of the function f ( x, y ) as already
highlighted under the objectives of this lesson. Before starting the main part of this
lesson, we define some basic concepts below :
 2 : Mathematically,  2      ( x, y ) : x  , y   and geometrically,  2
represents two dimensional plane.
Here  represents the set of real numbers.
Square Neighborhood of a Point : A square neighborhood of a point (a, b) in
 2 is the set of points ( x, y ) that lie inside an open square region with centre at
(a, b) and sides parallel to the co-ordinate axes such that
x  a   and y  b   for some   0 .
B.A. PART-II 2 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

In other words, it may be represented as ( x, y ) : x  a   , y  b   .  

Circular Neighborhood of a Point : A circular neighborhood of a point (a, b)
in  is the set of points ( x, y ) that lie inside a circle with centre at (a, b) such
2

that
x  a 2   y  b 2   2 for some   0.

It may also be represented as ( x, y ) :  x  a    y  b   
2 2 2
.
Functions of Two Variables : A real valued function of two variables x and y
is a rule which associates a unique real number f ( x, y ) to every possible ordered
pair ( x, y ) of real numbers.
Note : Usually, we write z  f ( x, y ) where x and y are independent variables and
z is the dependent variable.
II. Limit of a Function of Two Variables
A function f ( x, y ) is said to tend to a limit l as the point ( x, y ) tends to a point
(a, b) if for any pre-assigned positive number  0 , however small, we can find a
number  such that
f ( x, y )  l 
for all points ( x, y ) other than (a, b) for which a    x  a   , b    y  b   i.e.
x  a   and y  b   .
The above definition of limit is based on square neighborhood of a point. It may also
be defined as :
A function f ( x, y ) is said to tend to a limit l as the point ( x, y ) tends to a point
(a, b) if for any pre-assigned positive number  0 , however small, we can find a
number  such that
f ( x, y )  l 
for all points ( x, y ) other than (a, b) for which
( x , y )  ( a, b )   .
This definition is based on circular neighborhood of a point.
Note : 1. If the limit lt f ( x, y ) exists finitely, then it is unique.
( x , y )  ( a ,b )

2. If lt f ( x, y ) exists, then the limit is independent of the path along

( x , y )  ( a ,b )

which we approach the point (a, b) .

B.A. PART-II 3 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Example 1 : By using definition, prove that lt x 2  y 2  0.

x 0
 
y 0

Sol. Here, f :  2   is defined by f ( x, y )  x 2  y 2

Let  0 and take  
 ( x, y )  (0,0)   i.e. x2  y2  
 f ( x, y )  0  x 2  y 2  x 2  y 2   2 
 for  0 , there exists   0 such that ( x, y )  (0,0)    f ( x, y )  0 
so, lt f ( x, y )  0 .
( x , y )( 0, 0 )

Hence, the result is proved.

Example 2 : Let f :  2   be defined as : f ( x, y )  1 if x is rational and
f ( x, y )  0 if x is irrational. Show that lt f ( x, y ) does not exist.
( x , y )( x0 , y0 )

Sol. If possible, suppose that lt f ( x, y )  l

( x , y )( x0 , y0 )

So, there exist reals  1  0,  2  0 such that

0  x  x0   1 ,0  y  y0   2 , where ( x, y )  ( x0 , y0 )
1
 f ( x, y )  l  (say)
2
Let x1 be any irrational number and x2 be any rational number in ( x0   1 , x0   1 )
and let y be any real number different from y 0 in ( y 0   2 , y 0   2 ) .
1 1
 f ( x1 , y )  l 
and f ( x 2 , y )  l  (1)
2 2
Since x1 is irrational and x2 is rational,
f ( x1 , y )  0 and f ( x2 , y )  1 (2)
1 1
From (1) and (2),  l  and 1  l 
2 2
1 1
Or l  and 1  l  (3)
2 2
Further, 1  (1  l )  l  1  l  l
1 1
  =1 [using (3)]
2 2
1  1 , which is absurd and our supposition is wrong.
B.A. PART-II 4 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Hence, lt f ( x, y ) does not exist.

( x , y )( x0 , y0 )

III. Simultaneous and Iterated (or Repeated) Limits

If f ( x, y ) is a function of two variables x and y and then (a, b) is the limiting point
of a set of values on two dimensional space, then we have
Simultaneous Limit :
I. lt f ( x, y ) or lt f ( x, y )
xa ( x , y )  ( a ,b )
y b

Iterated or Repeated Limits :

II. lt  lt f ( x, y ) or lt lt f ( x, y )

x a y b  x  a y b

III. 
y b x a

lt lt f ( x, y ) or lt lt f ( x, y )
y b x  a

Note: 1. The two iterated limits may exist but may not be equal.
2. The two iterated limits may exist and may be equal but the simultaneous
limit may not exist.
3. If simultaneous limit exists and two iterated limits also exist, then they
must be equal.
4. Criterion for Non-Existence of Simultaneous Limit :
If we find two functions y   (x) and y   (x) such that
lt  ( x)  lt  ( x)  b
x a x a

and lt f ( x,  ( x ))  lt f ( x, ( x )) ,
x a x b

then, lt f ( x, y ) does not exist.

xa
y b

x2  y2
Example 3 : If a function f be defined by f ( x, y )  , ( x, y )  (0,0) , then
x2  y2

show that the two iterated limits lt  lt f ( x, y ) 


x 0 y 0 

y  0 x 0

and lt lt f ( x, y ) exist but the

simultaneous limit lt f ( x, y ) does not exist.

( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 )

 x2  y2   x2 
Sol. lt  lt f ( x, y )  lt  lt 2  lt   1
x 0 
 y 0  x0  y 0 x  y 2  x0 x 2 


and lt lt f ( x, y )  lt  lt
y  0 x 0 y 0 x 0
 

x2  y2 
  lt
  y2 

x 2  y 2  x0 y 2 
  1
B.A. PART-II 5 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Therefore, two iterated limits lt  lt f ( x, y )  and lt

  x 0 y 0
 lt
y  0 x 0

f ( x, y ) exist.

Let ( x, y )  (0,0) along the line y  mx , then

x2  y2 x2  m2 x2 1 m2 1 m2
lt f ( x, y )  lt  lt 2  lt  ,
( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 ) ( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 ) x 2  y 2 x 0 x  m 2 x 2 x 0 1  m 2 1 m2
which is not unique as it takes different values for different values of m .
 simultaneous limit lt f ( x, y ) does not exist.
( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 )

IV. Continuity of Functions of Two Variables

A function f ( x, y ) is said to be continuous at ( x0 , y 0 ) if for every  0 , there exists
  0 such that
x  x0   , y  y 0  
 f ( x, y )  f ( x0 , y0 ) 
Or f ( x, y ) is said to be continuous at ( x0 , y 0 ) if the simultaneous limit
lt f ( x, y ) exists and is equal to the functional value f ( x0 , y0 ) at ( x0 , y0 ) .
( x , y )( x0 , y0 )

Example 4 : Discuss the continuity of f ( x, y ) at (0,0) where

 2 xy 2

f ( x, y )   x 3  y 3 , ( x, y )  (0,0)
0, ( x, y )  (0,0)
Sol. Here,
 2 xy 2

f ( x, y )   x 3  y 3 , ( x, y )  (0,0)
0, ( x, y )  (0,0)
Let ( x, y )  (0,0) along the line y  mx , then
2 xy 2 2m 2 x 3 2m 2 2m 2
lt f ( x, y )  lt  lt 3  lt 
( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 ) ( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 ) x 3  y 3 x 0 x  m 3 x 3 x 0 1  m 3 1  m3
which is not unique as it takes different values for different values of m .
 simultaneous limit lt f ( x, y ) does not exist.
( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 )

Hence, the function f ( x, y ) is not continuous at (0,0).

1
Example 5 : Examine the function f ( x, y )  xy sin  , x  0, y  0 and
 x
f (0,0)  0 for continuity at the origin.
B.A. PART-II 6 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Sol. For the given f ( x, y ) , D f   2

Let   0 be arbitrary, then x  0   , y  0   , where ( x, y )  (0,0).
1 1  1 
 f ( x, y )  0  xy sin  xy sin  x y  sin x  1
x x  
   
 f ( x, y )  0  
 lt f ( x, y )  0  f (0,0)
( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 )

Hence, f is continuous at (0,0).

Example 6 : Let f :  2   be a continuous function. Define g :  2   as
g ( x, y )  f ( x, y ), x  0, y  0 and g ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  1, x  0, y  0 . Show that the
function g is not continuous at the origin.
Sol. Being a continuous function, f is continuous at the origin (0,0).
 lt f ( x, y ) and f (0,0) both exist and lt f ( x, y )  f (0,0)
( x , y )( 0, 0 ) ( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 )

Now g (0,0)  f (0,0)  1 (1)

Also, lt g ( x, y )  lt f ( x, y )  f (0,0) (2)
( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 ) ( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 )

From (1) and (2), lt g ( x, y )  g (0,0) .

( x , y )( 0, 0 )

So, g is not continuous at the origin.

V. Self Check Exercise
1. By using definition, prove that
(i) lt 3 xy  5 x  4   7
x 1
(ii)  
lt 3 x  y 2  10
x 3
y2 y  1

2. Let f :    be defined as f ( x, y )  1 if x is irrational and f ( x, y )  0 if

2

x is rational. Show that for any point ( x0 , y0 ) , lt f ( x, y ) does not

( x , y )( x0 , y0 )

exist.
x2 y2
3. Show that for the function f defined by f ( x, y )  , the two
x 2 y 2  x  y 
2

repeated limits exist and are equal but the simultaneous limit does not exist.
B.A. PART-II 7 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

4. Evaluate the following limits (if they exist):

x4 xy 2
(i) lt (ii) lt
( x , y )( 0, 0 ) x 4  y 4  x ( x , y ) ( 0 , 0 ) x 3  2 y  3 x

x3  y 3
5. Examine the function f ( x, y )  , x  0, y  0 and f (0,0)  0 for
x2  y2
continuity at (0,0).
6. Show that f ( x, y )  x  y  1 is continuous at (1,-2).
2

Suggested Readings
1. RK Jain, SRK Lyenger Advanced Engineering Mathematics
2. JR Sharma Advanced Calculus
3. Malik and Arora Mathematical Analysis
4. Shanti Narayan Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney Calculus and Analytical Geometry
B.A. PART-II 8 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

B.A. PART-I MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

SEMESTER–I ADVANCED CALCULUS-I
LESSON NO. 2.2 Author: Dr. Chanchal

LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF

FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES-II

Objectives
I. Partial Derivative
I.(a) First Order Partial Derivatives
I.(b) Second Order Partial Derivatives
II. Change of Independent Variables
III. Interchange of Order of Differentiation
III.(a) Sufficient Condition for the Interchange of Order of
Differentiation
IV. Self Check Exercise
Objectives
 To learn about the first order and second order partial derivatives.
 To study the conditions for the interchange of order of differentiation.

I. Partial Derivative
Let z  f ( x, y ) be a function of two independent variables x and y . Then, the
partial derivative of z with respect to x is the ordinary derivative of z when y is
regarded as a constant. Similarly, the the partial derivative of z with respect to y
is the ordinary derivative of z when x is regarded as a constant.
For example : If z  3 x 3 y 2  5 x 2 y 3
then, partial derivative of z w.r.t. x is equal to
 
3 y 2 3 x 2  5 y 3 2 x   9 y 2 x 2  10 y 3 x
Similarly, partial derivative of z w.r.t. y is equal to
 
3 x 3 2 y   5 x 2 3 y 2  6 x 3 y  15 x 2 y 2
B.A. PART-II 9 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

I.(a) First Order Partial Derivatives

Let z  f ( x, y ) be a real valued function of two independent variables with an open
f ( x  x, y )  f ( x, y )
domain D f   , then lt
2
if it exists, is called the partial
x 0 x
z f
derivative of z w.r.t. x . It is denoted by or or f x or f x ( x, y ) or D1 f .
x x
f f ( x  x, y )  f ( x, y )
 fx   lt
x x  0 x
Also, the partial derivative of f w.r.t. x at any point ( a, b)  D f is denoted by

 z   f 
  or   or f x (a, b) .
 x  ( a ,b )  x  ( a ,b )
f ( a  h, b )  f ( a , b )
Thus, f x ( a, b)  lt
h 0 h
f ( x, y  y )  f ( x, y )
On similar lines, lt , if it exists, is called the partial derivative
y 0 y
z f
of f w.r.t. y . It is denoted by or or f y or f y ( x, y ) or D2 f .
y y
f f ( x, y  y )  f ( x, y )
Thus, f y   lt
y y 0 y
 z 
The partial derivative of f w.r.t. y at any point ( a, b)  D f is denoted by  
 y  ( a ,b )
 f 
or   or f y ( a, b) and it may be expressed as

  ( a ,b )
y
f ( a, b  k )  f ( a , b)
f y (a, b)  lt
k 0 k
I.(b) Second Order Partial Derivatives
f f
If z  f ( x, y ) and the first order partial derivatives and exist, then they are
x y
f f
themselves functions of x and y . The partial derivatives of and , if they
x y
exist, are called second order partial derivatives of f ( x, y ) . It is denoted as
B.A. PART-II 10 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

  f   2 f 2z
   2 or f x or f xx or
2
I.
x  x  x x 2
  f   2 f 2z
II.    or f xy or
y  x  yx yx
  f   2 f 2z
III.    or f yx or
x  y  xy xy
  f   2 f 2 z
   2 or f y or f yy or
2
IV.
y  y  y y 2
These second order partial derivatives may be further expressed as
2 f f ( x  x, y )  f x ( x, y )
 lt x
x 2 x 0 x
 f
2
f ( x, y  y )  f x ( x, y )
 lt x
yx y  0 y
2 f f y ( x  x, y )  f y ( x, y )
 lt
xy x0 x
2 f f y ( x, y  y )  f y ( x, y )
 lt
y 2 y 0 y
  xy 
sin  , ( x, y )  (0,0)
Example 1 : If f ( x, y )    x 2  y 2  ,
 
0, ( x, y )  (0,0)
then evaluate f x (0,0) and f y (0,0) .
Sol. For the given function f ( x, y ) , we have
f (0  h,0)  f (0,0) sin 0  0 00
f x (0,0)  lt  lt  lt 0
h 0 h h  0 h h  0 h
f (0,0  k )  f (0,0) sin 0  0 00
and f y (0,0)  lt  lt  lt 0
k 0 k k 0 k k 0 k

 
Example 2 : Let f ( x, y )  log xy  2 y 2  2 x . Find f x (2,3) and f y (2,3) .

Sol. Here f ( x, y )  log xy  2 y 2  2 x 
So, f x 

x
 
log xy  2 y 2  2 x   1
xy  2 y  2 x
2
  y  2 
y2
xy  2 y 2  2 x
B.A. PART-II 11 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

3 2 1 1
 f x (2,3)   
(2)(3)  (2)(3)  2(2) 6  18  4 20
2

Also, f y 

y
  
log xy  2 y 2  2 x 
1
xy  2 y  2 x
2
 x  4 y  
x  4y
xy  2 y 2  2 x
2  12 14 7
 f y (2,3)   
6  18  4 20 10
II. Change of Independent Variables
Consider the two relations : x  r cos , y  r sin  connecting the four variables
x, y, r and  . Here, each variable can be expressed in terms of two of the remaining
three variables.
For example : x can be expressed in terms of (i) r , (ii)  , y (iii) r, y
x
Now, if we have to find , then it is meaningful in (i) and (iii) while it has no
r
meaning in (ii).
x x
Note : in (i) keeping  constant is not equal to in (iii) keeping y constant.
r r
x
So, it is necessary to distinguish between the two values of which can be done
r
 x   x 
by denoting them as   and   respectively.
 r   r  y
 x 
Thus,   = partial derivative of x where r and  are independent variables and
 r 
 x 
  = partial derivative of x where r and y are the independent variables.
 r  y
Example 3 : If x  r cos , y  r sin  , the prove that
 2 2 2 1
 2 log r    2 log r    2 cos 2
xy x y r
Sol. Given: x  r cos , y  r sin 
y
on dividing y by x , we get tan  
x
y
which gives   tan 1
x
B.A. PART-II 12 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

 1 1 x
  .  2
y  y x x  y
2 2

1  
x
 2 ( x 2  y 2 ).1  x.2 x y2  x2 r 2 sin 2   r 2 cos 2  cos 2   sin 2 
     which
xy 
x2  y2
2

x2  y2
2
 r2
2
  r2
 2
1
gives   2 cos 2 ....(1)
xy r
Now, squaring and adding x and y , we have r  x  y
2 2 2


 log r 2  log x 2  y 2  
 2 log r  log x 2  y 2 
 log r  logx y 
1 2 2

2

 log r   1 . 2 1 2 .2 x  2 x 2
x 2 x y x y
2
 2 log r  

x 2  y 2 .1  x.2 x


y2  x2 1
  2 cos 2 ....(2)
x x y
2 2 2
 x y
2
 2 2

r 

Now, log r   1 . 2 1 2 .2 y  2 y 2
y 2 x y x y


2
log r  
 
x 2  y 2 .1  y.2 y

x2  y2 1
 2 cos 2 ....(3)
y 2

x2  y2
2
x2  y2 
2
r 
From (1), (2) and (3), we get
 2 2 2 1
 2 log r    2 log r    2 cos 2 .
xy x y r
III. Interchange of Order of Differentiation
For some functions, f xy and f yx both exist and equal i.e. we can change the order
of differentiation. But this result is not always true. For all classes of functions, we
cannot interchange the order of differentiation
i.e. f xy ( a, b)  f yx ( a, b) (In general)
f x ( a , b  k )  f x ( a, b )
Here, f xy ( a, b)  lt
k 0 k
f ( a  h, b  k )  f ( a , b  k )
where f x ( a, b  k )  lt and
h 0 h
B.A. PART-II 13 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

f ( a  h, b )  f ( a , b )
f x (a, b)  lt
h 0 h
 on substituting, we get
f ( a  h, b  k )  f ( a , b  k )  f ( a  h, b )  f ( a , b )  ( h, k )
f xy (a, b)  lt lt  lt lt
k 0 h0 hk k 0 h0 hk
where  ( h, k )  f ( a  h, b  k )  f ( a, b  k )  f ( a  h, b)  f ( a, b)
 ( h, k )
Similarly, f yx ( a, b)  lt lt
h 0 k 0 hk
Thus, f xy ( a, b) and f yx ( a, b) appear as repeated limits of the same function and we
know that these limits may or may not be equal. Therefore, the equality of the two
derivatives may not be taken surely.
III.(a) Sufficient Condition for the Interchange of Order of Differentiation
The below stated theorems give the sufficient condition for the equality of f xy and
f yx
A. Statement of Schwarz's Theorem : If (a, b) is a point of the domain
D f   2 of a function f such that
i. f x , f y , f xy all exist in a certain neighborhood of (a, b) ,
ii. f xy is continuous at (a, b) ,
then f yx ( a, b) exists and f yx ( a, b)  f xy ( a, b).
B. Statement of Young's Theorem : If (a, b) is a point of the domain
D f   2 of a function f such that
i. f x , f y both exist in a certain neighborhood of (a, b) ,
ii. f x , f y are differentiable at (a, b) ,
then f yx ( a, b)  f xy ( a, b).
We will prove these theorems in the next lesson of this unit.
 x2  y2 
Example 4 : Let f ( x, y )  xy 2  , where ( x, y )  (0,0) and f (0,0)  0 . Show
2 
x y 
that f xy (0,0)  f yx (0,0).
f x (0,0  k )  f x (0,0)
Sol. We have f xy (0,0)  lt ...(1)
k 0 k
B.A. PART-II 14 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

 h2  k 2 
hk  2 0
f (0  h, k )  f (0, k )  h  k 2   0k2 
Now, f x (0, k )  lt  lt  k  
2 
h 0 h h 0 h 0k 
 f x (0, k )   k ...(2)
f (0  h,0)  f (0,0) 00
Also, f x (0,0)  lt  lt
h 0 h h 0 h

 f x (0,0)  0 ...(3)
k 0
From (1), (2) and (3), we get f xy (0,0)  lt  1 ...(4)
k 0 k
Similarly,
f y (0  h,0)  f y (0,0) h0
f yx (0,0)  lt = lt 1, ...(5)
h 0 h h 0 h
 h2  k 2 
hk  2 0
2 
f ( h ,0  k )  f ( h ,0 )  h  k   h2  0 
where f y ( h,0)  lt  lt  h 2   h ,
k 0 k k 0 k h 0
f (0,0  k )  f (0,0) 00
and f y (0,0)  lt  lt 0
k 0 k k 0 k

It is clear from (4) and (5) that f xy (0,0)  f yx (0,0).

IV. Self Check Exercise
1. Find the first order partial derivatives for z 
x

(i) log x  y
2 2
 
(ii) sin x  y
2 2
 1
(iii) sin  
 y
2. Let f ( x, y )  x 4  y 4  1 . Evaluate f x (1,2) and f y (1,2) .
3. For the following f ( x, y ) , find the second order partial derivatives
 y
(ii) x sin  x  y 
2 x y
(i) sin   (iii) e
 x
2 f 2 f  x2  y2 
4. Verify that  where f  log  .
yx xy  xy 
5. If x  r cos , y  r sin  , prove that
2 2 2
 r   r   2r  2r   2r 
(i)       1 (ii)   
 x   y  x 2 y 2  xy 
B.A. PART-II 15 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

x y
6. Let f ( x, y )  xy  , where ( x, y )  (0,0) and f (0,0)  0 . Show that
x y
f xy (0,0)  f yx (0,0).

1  y 1  x 
For the function, f ( x, y )  x tan    y tan  , xy  0 and f ( x, y )  0 if
2 2
7.
x  y
xy  0 , show that f xy (0,0)  f yx (0,0).
Suggested Readings
1. RK Jain, SRK Lyenger Advanced Engineering Mathematics
2. JR Sharma Advanced Calculus
3. Malik and Arora Mathematical Analysis
4. Shanti Narayan Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney Calculus and Analytical Geometry
B.A. PART-I MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I
SEMESTER–I ADVANCED CALCULUS-I
LESSON NO. 2.3 Author: Dr. Chanchal

SOME BASIC THEOREMS ON DIFFERENTIABILITY OF f ( x, y )

Structure:
Objectives
I. Introduction
II. Some Important Results
III. Some Important Theorems
IV. Homogeneous Function
V. Implicit Function
V.(a) Statement of Implicit Function Theorem
V.(b) Statement of Inverse Function Theorem
VI. Composite Functions and their Differentiation
VII. Taylor's Theorem for Functions of Two Variables
VIII. Summary
IX. Self Check Exercise
Suggested Readings

Objectives
The prime goal of this lesson is to understand the concept of differentiability of real
valued functions of two or more variables and to study some basic theorems
concerning these such as
 Schwarz's theorem and Young's theorem that illustrates the sufficient
conditions for the interchange of order of differentiation and already stated
in the previous lesson.
 y
Euler's theorem of homogeneous functions of the form z  x f 
n
  and
x
Taylor's theorem for function of two variables.
I. Introduction
As we have already discussed about the first order and second order partial
derivatives of the function f ( x, y ) in the previous lesson. So at this level, we have
the enough knowledge to discuss about the differentiability or derivability of the

16
B.A. PART-II 17 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

function f ( x, y ) and to understand various important results and theorems which

are concerned with the partial derivatives and differentiability of f ( x, y ) . Before
starting the main part of this lesson, it is required to define the differentiability
of f ( x, y ) .
Def : Differentiability of f ( x, y ) : A function f ( x, y ) with domain D f   2 is
known as differentiable at a point ( x0 , y 0 )  D f , if in a neighborhood of ( x0 , y 0 ) , it

can be represented as f ( x0  h, y 0  k )  f ( x0 , y 0 )  Ah  Bk  1 h  2 k
Here, A, B are independent of variables h, k and 1 ,2 tend to zero as h, k tend to
zero independently.
II. Some Important Results
A. If a function f ( x, y ) is differentiable at a point ( x0 , y 0 )  D f  
2
, then
prove that it is continuous at that point (the proof is left for the reader).
B. If a function f ( x, y ) is differentiable at a point ( x0 , y0 ) , then prove that
f x  x0 , y0  and f y  x0 , y0  both exist (the proof is left for the reader).
C. Sufficient Condition for Differentiability : If f x  x, y  and f y  x, y  are

defined in a neighborhood of ( x0 , y0 ) and are continuous at ( x0 , y0 ) , then f

is differentiable at ( x0 , y0 ) (the proof is left for the reader).

Example 1 : Show that f ( x, y )  sin x  cos y is differentiable at every point of  2 .

Sol. Here, f ( x, y )  sin x  cos y
 f x  cos x, f y   sin y
 f  x  h, y  k   f ( x, y )  hf x ( x, y )  kf y ( x, y )
 sin( x  h)  cos( y  k )  sin x  cos y  h cos x  k sin y
 sin( x  h)  sin x   cos( y  k )  cos y 
 h  cos x   k   sin y 
 h   k 
h 1  k 2
sinh( x  h)  sin x cos( y  k )  cos y
where 1   cos x and 2   sin y
h k
B.A. PART-II 18 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

  h h 
 2 cos x   sin 
 sin( x  h)  sin x   2 2
Now, lt 1  lt   cos x   lt   cos x 
h , k 0 h 0  h  h 0  h 
 
 
  h 
h 
  sin 
 lt cos x   2   cos x   cos x  cos x  0

h0
  2  h  
 
  2  
  k k 
  2 sin  y   sin 
 cos( y  k )  cos y   2 2
Also, lt 2  lt   sin y   lt   sin y 
h , k 0 k 0  k  k 0  k 
 
 
  k 
   sin 
k
  lt sin  y   2   sin y    sin y  sin y  0

k 0
  2  k  
 
  2  

So, both 1 ,2 tend to zero as h, k tend to zero independently. Hence, f is

differentiable at every point of ( x, y )   .
2

III. Some Important Theorems

Schwarz's Theorem
Statement : If (a, b) is a point of the domain D f   2 of a function f such that
i. f x , f y , f xy all exist in a certain neighborhood of (a, b) ,
ii. f xy is continuous at (a, b) ,
then f yx ( a, b) exists and f yx ( a, b)  f xy ( a, b).
Proof : From the given conditions, it is clear that there exists a certain nhd. of
(a, b) at every point of ( x, y ) of which f x , f y , f xy .
Let (a  h, b  k ) be any point of the nbd.
Consider  ( x )  f ( x , b  k )  f ( x, b ) (1)
 (a  h)   (a )  f (a  h, b  k )  f (a  h, b)  f (a, b  k )  f (a, b)  2 f (say)
By Lagrange’s mean value theorem
B.A. PART-II 19 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

 (a  h)   (a )  h (a  h),0    1 (2)

From (1),  ( x)  f x ( x, b  k )  f x ( x, b)
 (a  h)  f x (a  h, b  k )  f x (a  h, b)
So, from (2), we have  (a  h)   (a)  h f x (a  h, b  k )  f x (a  h, b) (3)
Again by Lagrange’s mean value theorem, we get
f x (a  h, b  k )  f x (a  h, b)  kf yx (a  h, b   k ),0     1
Now, from (3), we get
 (a  h)   (a )  hkf yx (a  h, b   k )  hk  f yx (a, h)   1 , where  1  0 as h, k  0.

 2 f  hk f yx (a, b)   1 
2 f
  f yx (a, b)   1 (4)
hk
2 f
Similarly,  f xy (a, b)   2 (5)
hk
where  2  0 as h, k  0.
From (4) and (5), we get, f yx ( a, b)   1  f xy ( a, b)   2

Taking limits as h, k  0 , we get, f yx ( a, b)  0  f xy ( a, b)  0

 f yx (a, b)  f xy (a, b)
Young's Theorem
Statement : If (a, b) is a point of the domain D f   2 of a function f such that
i. f x , f y both exist in a certain neighborhood of (a, b) ,
ii. f x , f y are differentiable at (a, b) ,
then f yx ( a, b)  f xy ( a, b).

Proof : Since f x , f y are differentiable, so f xx , f xy , f yx , f yy exist at (a, b) .

Let ( a  h, b  h) be any point of the nbd.
Consider  ( x )  f ( x , b  h )  f ( x, b ) (1)
 (a  h)   (a )  f (a  h, b  h)  f (a  h, b)  f (a, b  h)  f (a, b)  2 f (say)
By Lagrange’s mean value theorem
 (a  h)   (a )  h (a  h),0    1 (2)
From (1),  ( x)  f x ( x, b  h)  f x ( x, b)
B.A. PART-II 20 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

 (a  h)  f x (a  h, b  h)  f x (a  h, b)

So, from (2), we have  (a  h)   (a)  h f x (a  h, b  h)  f x (a  h, b) (3)
Since f x , f y are differentiable,

f x (a  h, b  h)  f x (a, b)  hf xx  hf yx  h  , (4)

where    0 as h  0.
Similarly, f x ( a  h, b)  f x ( a, b)  hf xx  h  , (5)
where    0 as h  0.
Subtracting (5) from (4), we get
f x (a  h, b  h)  f x (a  h, b)  hf yx  h    
So, from (3), we get,  (a  h)   (a )  hhf yx  h    
 2 f  h 2 f yx  h 2 1 where  1        0 as h  0.
2 f
  f yx   1 (6)
h2
Let  ( y )  f ( a  h, y )  f ( a, y )
2 f
Proceeding as above, we get,  f xy   2 (7)
h2
Where  2  0 as h  0.
From (6) and (7), we get, f yx ( a, b)   1  f xy ( a, b)   2

Taking limits as h  0 , we get, f yx ( a, b)  0  f xy ( a, b)  0

 f yx (a, b)  f xy (a, b)
Theorem on Total Differentials
Statement : If z  f ( x, y ) possesses continuous partial derivatives of the first
order, the total differential of z is given by
z z
dz  dx  dy
x y
Proof : The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
IV. Homogeneous Function
n  y
If any function z can be expressed in the form x f   , then it is said to be
x
homogeneous function of x and y . Here n represents the degree of the function.
B.A. PART-II 21 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

3 y3 
x 
 x 3 
1 
x3  y3   x2 f  y 
For example : If z     
x y  y x
x 1  
 x
then, z is homogeneous function of degree 2.
Euler's Theorem of Homogeneous Functions
Statement : If z is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n , then
z z
x  y  nz ; x, y  the domain of the function.
x y
Proof : Since z is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n .
 y
 z  xn f   ...(1)
x
Partial differentiating w.r.t x , we get
z  y  y   y 
 nx n1 f    x n f   2 
x x  x  x 
z  y  y
  nx n1 f    yx n2 f  
x  x x
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by x , we get
z  y  y
x  nx n f    yx n1 f  
x x  x
z  y
x  nz  yx n1 f   ...(2)
x x
Now, partial differentiating (1) w.r.t. y , we have
z  y  1   y
 x n f     x n1 f  
y  x  x   x
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by y , we get
z  y
y  yx n1 f   ...(3)
y x
Now, adding (2) and (3), we obtain the required result as
z z
x  y  nz
x y
B.A. PART-II 22 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Corollary : If z is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n , then prove

that
2 z 2 z z
i. x 2 y  (n  1)
x xy x
2z 2z z
ii. x  y 2  (n  1)
yx y y
2z 2z 2z
iii. x2  2 xy  y  n(n  1) z
x 2 xy y 2
Proof : It is given that z is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n , so by
Euler's theorem
z z
x  y  nz ...(1)
x y
i. Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. x , we get
 2 z z 2z z
x  . 1  y n
x 2
x xy x
2 z 2 z z
x  y  (n  1) ...(2)
x 2
xy x
ii. Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. y , we get
2z  2 z z z
x  y 2  .1  n
yx y y y
2z 2z z
x  y 2  (n  1) ...(3)
yx y y
iii. Multiplying (2) by x and (3) by y and adding, we get
2 z 2z 2z  z z 
x  2 xy  y  (n  1) x  y   n(n  1) z.
x 2
xy y 2
 x y 
1 1
x y
3 3
Example 2 : Verify Euler's theorem for the function z  1 1
.
x y
4 4
B.A. PART-II 23 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

 1
 1
  y 3 
1 1 x 1     3

x y  x  1
12 
3 3
  y
Sol. Here, z  1  x f 
1 
1 1
x
x4  y4 4  y 4 
x 1    
 x 
 
1
 z is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree .
12
z z 1
So, we have to verify that x y  z
x y 12
1 1
x y
3 3
Now, z  1 1
x y
4 4

Taking log on both sides

1 1
x y3  133 1
  14 1

log z  log 1 1
 3
 log x  y   log x  y 4 
 ...(1)
x4  y4    
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. x
2 3
1 3 1 4
x x
1 z
 31  4
z x 1 1 1
x y
3 3
x 4
 y 4

1 1
1 3 1 4
x x
1 z 3
 x.   14 ...(2)
z x 1 1 1

x y3 3
x4  y 4

Now, differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. y , we have

2 3
1 3 1 4
y y
1 z
 31  4
z y 1 1 1
x y
3 3
x  y4
4

1 1
1 3 1 4
y y
1 z
 y.  13 1  14 1 ...(3)
z y
x3  y3 x4  y 4
B.A. PART-II 24 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Adding (2) and (3), we get

1 1 1 1
1  z z  1 x  y 1x y
3 3
1 1 1 4 4

 x y     
z  x y  3 31 1 1
4 4 1
3 4 12
x  y3 x  y4
z z 1
x  y  z and hence the result is verified.
x y 12
V. Implicit Function
Let f ( x, y ) be a function of two variables and y   (x ) be a function of x such that
f ( x,  ( x)) vanishes identically, then y   (x) is an implicit function defined by the
functional equation f ( x, y )  0.
Art. : Assuming that f ( x, y )  0 satisfies the conditions under which y is defined
as a derivable function of x , show that
dy  f x
i.  , fy  0
dx fy

d 2 y f x  f y   2 f xy f x f y  f y  f x 2
2 2 2

ii.  , fy  0
dx 2  f y 3
provided f xy  f yx .
Proof : The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
V.(a) Statement of Implicit Function Theorem
Let f ( x, y ) be a function of two variables x and y and (a, b) be a point in its
domain of definition such that (i) f (a, b)  0, (ii) f x , f y both exist and are
continuous in a certain neighborhood of (a, b) , (iii) f y ( a, b)  0 , then there exists a
rectangle ( a  h, a  h; b  k , b  k ) about (a, b) such that for every x in interval
[a  h, a  h] , f ( x, y )  0 determines one and only one value y   (x) , lying in the
interval [b  k , b  k ] , with the following properties:
(1) b   (a ) ,
(2) f ( x,  ( x ))  0 for every x in interval [ a  h, a  h] and
(3)  (x) is derivable, and both  (x) and  (x) are continuous in [a  h, a  h] .
V.(b) Statement of Inverse Function Theorem
Let A be an open subset of  , f is a continuously differentiable mapping of
n
A
into  , f (a ) is invertible for some a  A and b  f (a ) . Then
n
B.A. PART-II 25 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

(1) There exists open sets G and H in  such that a  G , b  H . f is one-one on G

n

and f (G )  H .
(2) If g is the inverse of f defined in H by g ( f ( x))  x, ( x  G ), then g is
continuously differentiable mapping in H.
VI. Composite Functions and their Differentiation
Composite Function : If z is a function of x, y and x, y are themselves
functions of t , then z is said to be composite function of t . Similarly, if z is a
function of x, y and x, y are themselves functions of u, v , then z is said to be
composite function of u, v .
Differentiation of Composite Function : If a function z  f ( x, y ) has
continuous partial derivatives w.r.t. x and y and x, y have derivatives w.r.t. t ,
then
dz z dx z dy
 
dt x dt y dt
z z
Example 3 : If z  x 3  xy  y 3 and x  r cos , y  r sin  , then find and .
r 
z z x z y
Sol.    (3 x 2  y )(cos )  ( x  3 y 2 )(sin  )
r x r y r
  
 3r cos   r sin  cos   r cos  3r sin   sin 
2 2

 3r 2 cos 3   r sin  cos   r sin  cos  3r 2 sin 3 
 
 3r 2 cos 3   sin 3   2r sin  cos
z z x z y
Now,    (3 x 2  y )( r sin  )  ( x  3 y 2 )(r cos )
 x  y 
   
 3r 2 cos 2   r sin   r sin     r cos  3r 2 sin 2  r cos 
 3r cos  sin   r sin   r cos   3r sin  cos
3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2


 3r 3 cos sin  cos  sin    r 2 sin 2   cos 2  
VII. Taylor's Theorem for Functions of Two Variables
Statement : If f ( x, y ) and all its partial derivatives upto order n be continuous
in all neighborhoods of the point ( x, y ), then

 f f  1  2  2 f 2 f 2  f
2

f ( x  h, y  k )  f ( x, y )   h  k    h  2 hk  k 
 x y  2  x 2 xy y 2 
B.A. PART-II 26 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

1  3 3 f 3 f 
2  f
3
3  f
3
  h  3h 2
k  3hk   ........
 k
3  x 3 x 2 y xy 2
 y 3
Proof : Applying Taylor’s theorem to f ( x  h, y  k ) , where y  k is regarded as
constant, we have,
 h2  2 h3  3
f ( x  h, y  k )  f ( x, y  k )  h f ( x, y  k )  f ( x, y  k )  f ( x, y  k )  .... (1)
x 2 x 2 3 x 3
Again, applying Taylor’s theorem to f ( x, y  k ) , where x is regarded as constant,

 k 2 2 k 3 3
f ( x, y  k )  f ( x, y)  k f ( x, y)  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y)  .... (2)
y 2 y 2 3 y 3
From (1) and (2), we get
  k 2 2 k 3 3 
f ( x  h, y  k )   f ( x, y)  k f ( x, y)  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y)  ....
 y 2 y 2
3 y 3

   k 2 2 
 h  f ( x, y)  k f ( x, y)  f ( x, y)  ....
x  y 2 y 2

h2  2    h3  3

2 x 2  f ( x, y )  k
y
f ( x, y )  ...  3 x 3  f ( x, y)  ...  .. ….
 
  k 2 2 k 3 3   f  2 f hk 2  3 f 
  f ( x, y)  k f ( x, y)  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  ....   h  hk   ...
 y 2 y 2
3 y 3
  x xy 2 xy 2


 h2  2 f h2 k 3 f   h3  3 f 
   ...   ......
 2 x 2 x y   3 x
2 2 3

 f f   h 2  2 f 2 f k 2 2 f 
 f ( x, y )   h  k     hk  
 x y   2 x 2 xy 2 y 2 
 h3 3 f h2k 3 f hk2 3 f k 3 3 f 

      .....
3 
  3  x 3
 2 x 2
y  2 xy 2
 3  y 
 f f  1  2  2 f 2 f 2  f
2

So, f ( x  h, y  k )  f ( x, y )   h  k    h  2hk k 
 x y  2  x 2 xy y 2 
1  3 3 f 3 f 2  f
3
3  f
3

 h  3h k 2  3hk
2
k   ........
3  x 3 x y xy 2 y 3 
B.A. PART-II 27 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Corollary 1 : Put a  0, b  0, h  x, k  y , in the above Taylor’s theorem, we obtain

the Maclaurin’s theorem as
2
    1    
f ( x, y )  f (0,0)   x  y  f (0,0)   x  y  f (0,0)  ...... 
 x y  2  x y 
n 1 n
1     1    
 x  y  f (0,0)   x  y  f (tx, ty ),0  t  1
n  1  x y  n  x y 
Corollary 2 : Put a  h  x, b  k  y , we obtain the Taylor’s expansion of f ( x, y ) in
powers of x  a and y  b as
2
    1    
f ( x, y )  f (a, b)   ( x  a )  ( y  b)  f (a, b)   ( x  a )  ( y  b)  f (a, b)  ...... 
 x y  2  x y 

n 1 n
1     1    
 ( x  a )  ( y  b)  f ( a , b)   ( x  a )  ( y  b)  f (a  t ( x  a ), b  t ( y  b)),
n  1  x y  n  x y 

Where 0  t  1 .
VIII. Summary
In this lesson, while discussing about the differentiability of the function f ( x, y ),
we have studied about several functions such as homogeneous function, implicit
function and composite function and their important results. During the study, it is
also learned about the differentiation of composite functions or about the chain rule.
Further, through this lesson, we are now familiar with the generalization of the
Taylor's theorem on function of two variables.
IX. Self Check Exercise
1. Show that f ( x, y )  x  y is continuous at (0,0) but not differentiable at
(0,0).
1
2. Discuss the differentiability of the function f ( x, y )   xy 3 at (0,0).

xy 2
3. Discuss the differentiability at (0,0) of f ( x, y )  when f ( x, y )  (0,0)
x2  y2
and f (0,0)  0.
4. Verify Euler's theorem
B.A. PART-II 28 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

1 1
x4  y4 y
(i) z  (ii) z  x log
n
1 1
x
x y5 5

1  x2  y2  u u
5. If u  sin   , then show that x  y  tan u.
 x y  x y
u
6. If u  x  y , x  2r  3s  4 , y   r  8s  5 , then find
2 2
.
r
v u
7. z is a function of x and y . Prove that if x  e  e and y  e  e v , then
u

z z z z
 x y .
u v x y
x2 y2 d 2 y  b4
8. If   1 , prove that  .
a2 b2 dx 2 a 2 y 3
9. State Taylor's theorem for functions of two variables. Use it to expand
xy 2  3 x  2 in powers of x  2 and y  1 .
10. Expand x  x y  y
4 2 2 4
about the point (1,1) upto the terms of the second
degree.
11. Obtain Taylor's expansion for f ( x, y )  e
xy
at (1,1) upto the third term.
Suggested Readings

1. RK Jain, SRK Lyenger Advanced Engineering Mathematics

2. JR Sharma Advanced Calculus
3. Malik and Arora Mathematical Analysis
4. Shanti Narayan Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney Calculus and Analytical Geometry
B.A. PART-II MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I
SEMESTER–III ADVANCED CALCULUS
LESSON NO. 2.4 Author: Dr. Chanchal

SOME BASIC FUNCTIONS CONCERNING PARTIAL

DERIVATIVES
Structure:
Objectives
I. Introduction
II. Working Method for Maxima and Minima of a Function f ( x, y )
III. Lagrange's Method of Undetermined Multipliers
IV. Jacobian of n -Functions
V. Some Important Articles Concerning Jacobian
VI. Self Check Exercise
Suggested Readings

Objectives
During the study in this particular lesson, our main purpose is to study the rules
and methods such as Lagrange's method, under which the maximum and
minimum of the function f ( x, y ) can be obtained. Further, an important function
known as Jacobian and its important properties are also elaborated under the same.
I. Introduction
Before introducing the main part of this lesson, we firstly define the extreme values
of the function f ( x, y ) , below:
A. Maximum Value : A function f ( x, y ) is said to have a maximum value at
x  a, y  b if f (a, b)  f (a  h, b  k ) for small values of h and k , positive or
negative.
B. Minimum Value : A function f ( x, y ) is said to have a maximum value at
x  a, y  b if f (a, b)  f (a  h, b  k ) for small values of h and k , positive or
negative.
C. Extreme Value : A maximum or minimum value of a function is called an
extreme value.
B.A. PART-II 30 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

II. Working Method for Maxima and Minima of a Function f ( x, y )

Let f ( x, y ) be the given function
f f
Step I : Find and .
x y
f f
Step II : Solve 0 and  0 simultaneously for x and y . Let
x y
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y 2 )........ be the points.
2 f 2 f 2 f
Step III : Calculate the values of A  , B  , C  for each point.
x 2 xy y 2
Step IV : (i) If for a point ( x1 , y1 ) , AC  B  0 and A  0 , then f ( x, y ) has a
2

maxima for this pair and maximum value is f ( x1 , y1 ) .

(ii) If for a point ( x1 , y1 ) , AC  B  0 and A  0 , then f ( x, y ) has a minima for this
2

pair and minimum value is f ( x1 , y1 ) .

(iii) If for a point ( x1 , y1 ) , AC  B  0 , then there is neither maximum nor
2

minimum of f ( x, y ) and f ( x, y ) is said to have a saddle point at ( x1 , y1 ) .

(iv) If AC  B  0 for some point (a, b) , then we have the following cases:
2

(a) if f ( a, b)  f ( a  h, b  k )  0 for small values of h and k , positive or negative,

then f has maxima at (a, b) .
(b) if f (a, b)  f (a  h, b  k )  0 for small values of h and k , positive or
negative, then f has minima at (a, b) .
(c) if f ( a, b)  f ( a  h, b  k ) does not keep the same sign for small values of h
and k , then there is neither maxima nor minima.
Example 1 : Find all the maxima and minima of the function
f ( x, y )  x  y  63( x  y )  12 xy.
3 3

f f
Sol. Step I.  3 x 2  12 y  63 and  3 y 2  12 x  63
x y
f f
Step II. Let us solve  0 and 0
x y
i.e., 3 x  12 y  63  0 and 3 y  12 x  63  0
2 2

or x  4 y  21  0
2
(1)
B.A. PART-II 31 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

and y  4 x  21  0
2
(2)
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get
x 2  y 2  4 y  4 x  0  ( x  y )( x  y )  4( x  y )  0  ( x  y )( x  y  4)  0
 either x  y  0 which gives x  y , or x  y  4  0 which gives x  4  y
For x  y , (1) becomes
x 2  4 x  21  0  ( x  7)( x  3)  0  x  3,7
As y  x , so y  3,7
For x  4  y , (1) becomes
(4  y ) 2  4 y  21  0
or y  8 y  16  4 y  21  0
2

or y  4 y  5  0  ( y  5)( y  1)  0  y  5,1
2

Further, from x  4  y , x  1,5 .

so, the four critical points are (3,3), (-7,-7), (-1,5) and (5,-1).
2 f 2 f 2 f
Step III. A   6 x, B   12, C  2  6 y
x 2 xy y
 AC  B 2  36 xy  144.
Step IV. At (3,3), AC  B  36(3)(3)  144  180  0 and A  6(3)  18  0
2

 f ( x, y ) is minimum at (3,3) and the minimum value is given by

f (3,3)  27  27  63(3  3)  12(3)(3)  216
At (-7,-7), AC  B  36( 7)(7)  144  1764  144  1620  0 and A  6( 7)  42  0
2

 f ( x, y ) is maximum at (-7,-7) and the maximum value is given by

f (7,7)  343  343  882  588  784
At (-1,5), AC  B  36( 1)(5)  144  180  144  324  0
2

 f ( x, y ) has neither maximum nor minimum at (-1,5) and therefore, (-1,5) is a

saddle point.
At (5,-1), AC  B  36(5)(1)  144  180  144  324  0
2

 f ( x, y ) has neither maximum nor minimum at (5,-1) and therefore, (5,-1) is a

saddle point.
Example 2 : Find the extreme value (if any) of f ( x, y )  2 x 4  3 x 2 y  y 2 .
B.A. PART-II 32 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

f f
Sol. Step I.  8 x 3  6 xy and  3 x 2  2 y
x y
f f
Step II. Let us solve  0 and 0
x y
or 8 x 3  6 xy  0 (1)
and  3 x  2 y  0
2
(2)
3y
From (1), 2 x ( 4 x  3 y )  0  x  0, x 
2 2

4
For x  0 , from (2), 0  2 y  0  y  0 .
So, the point is (0,0).
3y 9y
For x  , from (2), 3   2y  0  y  0
2

4 16
 (0,0) is the only critical point.
2 f 2 f 2 f
Step III. A        2
2
24 x 6 y , B 6 x , C
x 2 xy y 2
 AC  B 2  (24 x 2  6 y )(2)  (6 x) 2 .
Step IV. At (0,1), AC  B  (0  0)(2)  0  0.
2

So, at (0,0) further investigation is required.

Consider
2
1  3k 
f (a, b)  f (a  h, b  k )  f (0,0)  f (h, k )  0  (2h  3h k  k )  k 2  2 h 2  
4 2 2

8  4 
which does not keep the same sign for small values of h and k , so there is neither
maximum nor minimum at (0,0).
III. Lagrange's Method of Undetermined Multipliers
Let f ( x, y , z ) be a function of x, y, z which is to be examined for maximum or
minimum values and let the variables be connected by the relation
 ( x, y , z )  0 (1)
Since f ( x, y , z ) is to have maximum or minimum value,
f f f
  0,  0 and 0
x y z
f f f
 dx  dy  dz  0 (2)
x y z
B.A. PART-II 33 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Differentiating (1), we get

  
dx  dy  dz  0
x y z
(3)
Now, adding  times of (3) into (2), we get
 f    f    f  
   dx     dy     dz  0
 x x   y y   z z 
In order to satisfy this equation identically, coefficients of dx, dy , dz should be zero
separately
f 
i.e.,  0 (4)
x x
f 
and  0 (5)
y y
f 
and  0 (6)
z z
Equations (1), (4), (5) and (6) will give the values of x, y , z ,  for which the function
f ( x, y, z ) has maximum and minimum values.
Example 3 : Find the maximum and minimum value of the function x 2  y 2
subject to the condition 3 x  4 xy  6 y  140.
2 2

Sol. Let f ( x, y )  x  y
2 2

The constraint is
3 x 2  4 xy  6 y 2  140
(1)
2 2
 2 2

Let F ( x, y )  x  y   3 x  4 xy  6 y  140 where  is Lagrange’s multiplier.
For extreme points,
F
 2 x   (6 x  4 y )  0
x
F
and  2 y   (4 x  12 y )  0
y
or (1  3 ) x  2y  0 (2)
and 2x  (1  6 ) y  0 (3)
Since x, y are both non-zero,
B.A. PART-II 34 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

1  3 2
 0
2 1  6
 (1  3 )(1  6 )  42  0
 142  9  1  0
 9  81  56  9  5 1 1
     ,
28 28 2 7
1
Taking   
2
From (2), x  2 y
And from (1), 12 y  8 y  6 y  140  0  y  14
2 2 2 2

 x 2  4 y 2  56
Which gives x  y  56  14  70
2 2

1
Taking 
7
From (2), y  2 x
And from (1), 3 x  8 x  24 x  140  0  x  4
2 2 2 2

 y 2  4 x 2  16
Which gives x  y  16  4  20
2 2

Hence, the maximum value of x  y is 70 and the minimum value is 20.

2 2

IV. Jacobian of n -Function

If f1 , f 2 ,............, f n be n functions of n variables x1 , x2 ,..........., x n possessing partial
derivatives of the first order at every point of the domain of definition of the function,
then the determinant
f 1 f1 f1
......
x1 x 2 x n
f 2 f 2 f 2
......
x1 x 2 x n
..... ..... ...... .....
f n f n f n
......
x1 x 2 x n
B.A. PART-II 35 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Is called the Jacobian of f1 , f 2 ,............, f n w.r.t. x1 , x2 ,..........., x n . It is denoted by

 f1 , f 2 ,........., f n 
or J  f1 , f 2 ,............, f n  .
 x1 , x2 ,........., xn 

 f , g 
if f  x  x sin y and g  x y  x  y.
2 2 2
Example 4 : Find
  x, y 
Sol. Here, f  x  x sin y and g  x y  x  y.
2 2 2

f f
  2 x  sin y ,   x cos y
x y
g g
And  2 xy 2  1 ,  2x 2 y 1
x y
f f
 f , g  x y 2 x  sin y  x cos y
Now,  
 x, y  g g 2 xy 2  1 2 x 2 y  1
x y
 (2 x  sin y )(2 x 2 y  1)  (2 xy 2  1)( x cos y )
V. Some Important Articles Concerning Jacobian
Art. 1 : Jacobian of Composite Functions
Statement : If f :  n   n and g :  n   n differentiable functions, then
J I ( x)  J g  f ( x) J f ( x) , where I  gof .
Art. 2 : Let D be an open subset of  and f : D   be differentiable at every
n n

1
point of D . Suppose that f is invertible on D and let f be differentiable at
every point of the range of f , then
1
J f 1  f ( x)   x  D.
J f ( x)
Art. 3 : Jacobian of Implicit Functions
Statement : If u1 , u 2 ,............, u n are functions of x1 , x2 ,..........., x n defined implicitly
by n equations
F1 u1 , u 2 ,........u n , x1 , x2 ,..........., xn   0 ,
F2 u1 , u 2 ,........u n , x1 , x2 ,..........., xn   0 ,
......................................................
B.A. PART-II 36 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

Fn u1 , u 2 ,........u n , x1 , x2 ,..........., xn   0 ,

 F1 , F2 ,.........., Fn 
 u1 , u 2 ,........., u n    x1 , x2 ,.........., xn 
then,  (1) n
 x1 , x2 ,........., xn   F1 , F2 ,.........., Fn 
 u1 , u 2 ,.........., u n 
Art. 4 : Functional Dependence (Necessary and Sufficient Condition for a
Jacobian to Vanish)
Statement : Let u1 , u 2 ,............, u n be n functions of n independent variables
x1 , x2 ,..........., xn . In order that there may exist between these functions a relation
F u1 , u 2 ,........, u n   0 , it is necessary and sufficient that the Jacobian
 u1 , u 2 ,........., u n 
should vanish identically.
 x1 , x2 ,........., xn 
Note : The proof of above articles is easy and left as an exercise for the reader.
Example 5 : Prove that J f 1  , n    for any  , n  belonging to the range of f ,

 1 y
where f ( x, y )   x  y , tan
2 2
.
 x
 1 y
Sol. Here f ( x, y )   x  y , tan   ( f1 , f 2 )
2 2

 x
y
Where f1 ( x, y )  x 2  y 2 and f 2 ( x, y )  tan 1
x
f1 2x x
  
x 2 x 2  y 2 x  y2
2

f 2 2y y
 
x 2 x 2  y 2 x  y2
2

g1 1  y y
 . 2   2
x  y  x  x  y
2 2

1  
x
g 2 1 1 x
 .   2
x  y  x x  y
2 2

1  
x
B.A. PART-II 37 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

f1 f1 x y
  f1 , f 2  x y
 x y x  y2
2 2 2
Now, J f ( x, y )  
  x, y  f 2 f 2 y x
x y x  y2
2
x  y2
2

x2 y2 1
  
x  x 
3 3
2
y 2 2 2
y 2 2 x  y2
2


1

  ,   f ( x, y)    x2  y2 
1
Now, J f 1  , n   
J f ( x, y )
Example 6 : Show that the functions u  x  2 y  z , v  x 2  2 xy  xz, w  3 x  2 y  z
are not independent of one another. Also find the relation between them.
Sol. For the given functions, we have
u u u
x y z 1 2 1
 (u , v, w) v v v
  2x  2 y  z 2x  x
 ( x, y, z ) x y z
w w w 3 2 1
x y z
1 2 1
 2x  2 y  z 2x x , by R3  R1
4 0 0
 4( 2 x  2 x )  0
 u, v and w are not independent of one another.
Further,
w 2  u 2  (3 x  2 y  z ) 2  ( x  2 y  z ) 2  (3 x  2 y  z  x  2 y  z )(3 x  2 y  z  x  2 y  z )

 4 x(2 x  4 y  2 z )  8 x( x  2 y  z )  8( x 2  2 xy  zx)  8v
So, w  u  8v is the required relation between u, v and w .
2 2
B.A. PART-II 38 MATHEMATICS : PAPER-I

VI. Self Check Exercise

1. Find all the critical points of the function f ( x, y )  x  xy and examine for
2

maxima, minima or neither.

2. Find the minimum value of f ( x, y , z )  x  y  z subject to the condition
2 2 2

yz  zx  xy  3a 2 .
3. Find the point on the plane 2 x  3 y  z  5 which is nearest to the origin in
3.
 x, y, z 
4. If x  r cos , y  r sin  , z  z , then evaluate .
r ,  , z 
5. Prove that J f  x, y   e
x y

sin  x  y  where f ( x, y )  e x sin y, e y cos x . 
6. Evaluate J f 1  , n  , where f ( x, y )   x  y, x  y .

 (u , v) 1 y 2  x 2
7. If u  v  x  y , u  v  x  y , then show that
3 3 2 2 3 3
 . .
 ( x, y ) 2 uv(u  v)
8. Show that the functions u  x  y  z , v  x  y  z , w  x  y  z  2 yz are
2 2 2

not independent of one another. Also find the relation between them.
Suggested Readings

1. RK Jain, SRK Lyenger Advanced Engineering Mathematics

2. JR Sharma Advanced Calculus
3. Malik and Arora Mathematical Analysis
4. Shanti Narayan Mathematical Analysis
5. Thomas and Finney Calculus and Analytical Geometry