Quarks

Darin Acosta

Beginning of Nuclear Substructure

Elements of the same group have nearly the same chemical property Chemical periodicity depends on the atomic number Z All elements composed of just electrons, neutrons, and protons Any other fundamental particles?

The Particle Zoo

Discovered in cosmic rays:

1 MeV = energy electron gains when accelerated across 1 million volts. Discovered in particle accelerators by 1960:
Kaon, rho, omega, (Mesons, like pion) Lambda, Sigma, Xi, (Baryons, like proton)

Mesons and Baryons feel the strong nuclear force Leptons (electron, muon) do not

Strangeness
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Some particles are observed to decay rapidly, others are not Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima invoke new quantum number called strangeness, which is conserved in electromagnetic and strong nuclear interactions, but is violated by the weak nuclear interaction. Kaon, Lambda, Sigma have strangeness = 1 Pion, Proton, Neutron have strangeness = 0

The Eightfold Way

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Developed by Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Neeman in 1961 Plot hypercharge Y (baryon number + strangeness) versus isospin Observe patterns in multiplets Omega predicted and observed 1964

Charge

Isospin

Periodic table for elementary particles!

Quarks
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Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig propose in 1964 that mesons and baryons are not elementary, but are composed of smaller constituents: Quarks James Joyce, Finnegans Wake: Three quarks for Muster Mark. u, d, and s quarks (up, down, strange) These quarks have spin 1/2, and have fractional electric charge (2/3, -1/3) Proton: u u d Neutron: u d d Pion: ud, uu - dd, du Kaon: us, ds, sd, su Not clear if this is a mathematical convenience, or reality

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Rutherford Scattering

Experiments by Geiger & Marsden in 1909

Rutherford Model of the Atom

Conclusion: the atom contains a positive nucleus < 10 fm in size (1 fm = 10-15 m)

How we see particles

The smaller the wavelength, the smaller the features observed. Recall that the deBoglie wavelength of a particle is = h / p

So we need high energies to probe quarks

Particle Accelerators

Size of Nuclei
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Robert Hofstadter performs experiment at Stanford using new linear accelerator for electrons in 1950s E = 100 -- 500 MeV = 2.5 fm The proton is not a point! (Deviation of elastic scattering rate from Rutherford Scattering) Proton and nuclei have extended charge distributions Nobel prize in 1961

proton

Deep Inelastic Scattering

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Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) constructs 2 mile long accelerator in 1966 E = 20 GeV Experiment by SLAC and MIT (Friedman, Kendall, Taylor -- Nobel in 1990) cracks the proton (inelastic scattering) in 1967 Surprise when scattering rate follows Rutherford formula for scattering between point particles! Richard Feynman dubs proton consituents partons Quarks are real! e p

Quarks within the Proton

Scattering rate is independent of resolving power of incoming electron

Total scattering rate consistent with spin 1/2 quarks

But momentum fraction carried by a quark is not 1/3

Proton is a Complicated Object

Total momentum fraction carried by quarks is only 50% ! Rest is carried by gluons, the carriers of the strong nuclear force Total spin carried by valence quarks (uud) is also not 100%

November Revolution
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New quark discovered in 1974: charm Sam Ting leads discovery of a resonance in proton-nucleon collisions at Brookhaven National Laboratory: calls it the J particle Burt Richter leads discovery of a resonance at an e+e- collider at SLAC: calls it the Psi particle Mass of J/ is 3.1 GeV Richter, Ting share 1976 Nobel prize Example of charmonium
Bound state of c c Like positronium (e+e-) but for strong force In other words, like H atom

Higher mass excited states exist also, like

The Bottom Quark

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In 1977 Leon Lederman leads discovery of a higher mass resonance at Fermilab Mass of (Upsilon) is 9.5 GeV Example of bottomonium: b b Again excited state resonances exist Now studied in great detail in e+ecollider experiments:
CLEO: studies B mesons (b quark + u,d,s,c)

Soon there will be a round of many new experiments doing B physics

Discovery of the top quark

The top quark was discovered in 1995 with a mass of 175 GeV, as much as an atom of gold!

CDF and D

Particle Physics Detectors

History of the Discovery of Quarks

SLAC, 1968
Discovery of quarks in electron-proton scattering

SLAC and Brookhaven, 1974

Fermilab, 1977
Discovery of the bottom quark in proton collisions

Fermilab, 1995
Discovery of the top quark in protonantiproton annihiliation

The Standard Model of Particle Physics

Jets
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Despite all this evidence, no one has actually seen a single bare quark! Instead, we observe clusters of known particles (Jets) which travel in the direction of the scattered quark These jets behave as if they originated from a spin 1/2 quark Cannot calculate this effect exactly in theory because series expansion does not converge!

quark

Wheres the Glue?

Only indirect evidence for gluons But many calculations are confirmed by experimental measurements Gluons couple to the 3 color charges of quarks (red, green, blue) Scattering rates in e+e- colliders show this factor of 3:

Do Quarks have Substructure?

Next generation of Deep Inelastic Scattering experiments in Hamburg, Germany HERA: Worlds only electron-proton Collider:

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Spatial resolution is 10-18 m Extends reach by several orders of magnitude over fixed-target experiments

European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN)

CERN Particle Accelerators