• Need Theories: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Hierarchy: Arrangement of needs by importance.

• Biological and Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs (air, shelter, water,
food, sleep, sex).
• Safety Needs: Stability, legal systems; affected by societal conditions.
• Love and Belongingness Needs: Social needs, focusing on friendship and
family.
• Esteem Needs: Achievements, skills, status, independence.
• Transcendence Needs: Helping others achieve self-actualization.

Maslow's Application:
• Tested by Saeednia (2011) using a basic needs satisfaction scale.
• Organizations fulfill basic needs, encouraging self-motivation for higher-
order needs.

McClelland's Theory of Achievement Motivation:

• Three needs: Achievement, Affiliation, Power.

• Need for Achievement (N-Ach): Drive to succeed, motivated by challenges.
• Need for Affiliation: Desire to be liked, work cooperatively.
• Need for Power: Motivated by influence, control, status.

McClelland's Application:

• N-Ach measured by the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

• Non-hierarchical approach, unlike Maslow.

Critiques on Maslow and McClelland:

• Testing Maslow's self-actualization notion is challenging.

• McClelland's projective tests subjective, low in reliability and validity.

Cognitive Theories: Locke and Latham's Goal-Setting

Theory
• Goal-setting as a key motivator.
• Specific goals enhance performance.
 • Principles: Clarity, Challenge, Complexity, Commitment, Feedback.
• SMART method: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Timescale.

Vroom's VIE (Expectancy) Theory:

• Workers are rational; motivation influenced by perceived costs and rewards.

• Equation: Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence.
• Conditions for motivation: Clear effort-performance relationship, favorable
performance rewards, needs satisfaction, strong desire.

Cognitive Theory Critiques:

• Focus on individual perception rather than objective situations.

• Ecological validity challenges in real-world organizational application.

Motivators at Work: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic: Internal factors like enjoyment and satisfaction.
• Extrinsic: External factors like money, bonuses, and promotions.

Reward Systems:
• Extrinsic: Pay, bonuses, profit sharing, performance-related pay.
• Non-monetary (Intrinsic): Praise, recognition, empowerment, sense of
belonging.

Research Findings on Monetary Rewards:

• Mixed evidence on productivity improvement.

• High inequalities linked to high turnover.

Non-Monetary Rewards:

• Praise, respect, and recognition as positive reinforcement.

• Empowerment through added responsibilities.
• Not everyone motivated solely by money; recognition varies.

Conclusion:

• Cognitive theories provide a holistic view.

• Recognition and intrinsic motivators crucial alongside monetary rewards.
• Organizational contexts shape motivation approaches
Employee Recognition and Motivation:
• Employee of the Month:
o Function: Offers recognition, acts as intrinsic motivator.
o Impact on Turnover: Non-monetary rewards reduce staff turnover.
o Positive Relationships: Building positive relationships between
managers and workers reduces turnover, increases satisfaction.
o Sense of Belonging: Intrinsic motivator that develops an employee's
sense of belonging.
o Statistics: Around 75% of UK organizations have non-monetary
recognition schemes.

Self-Determination Theory:

• Overview:
o Human behavior motivated by innate need for growth and
improvement.
o Intrinsic motivation emphasized in self-determination theory.
o Self-determined behaviors target feeling good, enjoying the task.
• Psychological Needs:
o Competence: Need to effectively deal with surroundings.
▪ Positive feedback enhances competence.
▪ Negative feedback or challenging tasks can undermine
competence.
o Relatedness: Need to belong to a group or be close to others.
▪ Enhanced when feeling wanted in a group.
▪ Conflict or exclusion reduces relatedness.
o Autonomy: The ability to feel independent and in control of choices
and future.
▪ Autonomy supported by giving freedom to monitor and
manage behavior.
▪ Being controlled or coerced reduces autonomy.

Issues and Debates:

• Application in Real World:
o Useful for managers to understand motivators for wrkers.
o Non-monetary rewards, such as praise and recognition, can be
effective.
o Individual differences and situational aspects impact motivators.

.
Research Methods:
• Behaviorist Approach:
o Focus on the effect of reinforcements on behavior.
o Challenges in studying observable motivation in the workplace.
• Self-Report Methods:
o Potential for bias, especially social desirability bias.
o Participants may prefer to indicate more intrinsic motivation to avoid
appearing greedy.
o Impact on the validity of research on motivation theories.

Landry et al. (2019): Applying Self-Determination Theory

to Cash Rewards
Context:

• Organizations use monetary rewards for productivity and staff retention.

• Mixed research on the relationship between extrinsic motivation and
employee performance.

Main Theories and Explanations:

• Financial incentives impact motivation, but self-determination theory
emphasizes intrinsic motivation.
• Psychological needs (competence, relatedness, autonomy) should be
supported, not threatened, by rewards.

Aims:

• Investigate how the presentation of a reward (supporting or controlling

psychological needs) influences motivation and performance.

Hypotheses:

1. Autonomy-supportive rewards lead to better performance.

2. Supporting rewards increase intrinsic motivation; controlling rewards
increase extrinsic motivation.

Design:

• 123 French-speaking students in Study I (60% female, mean age 23).

• Randomly assigned to autonomy-threatening or autonomy-supported
conditions.
 • Independent variable: Reward presentation.
• Participants completed self-report measures (Basic Psychological Needs
Satisfaction Scale, Situational Motivation Scale).

Task:

• Anagram-solving to measure performance.

• Control measures included rating the value of the reward and an affect scale
to assess mood.

Results:

• Autonomy-supported rewards positively related to intrinsic motivation and

performance.
• Autonomy-supported rewards negatively related to extrinsic motivation.
• Autonomy-controlled rewards negatively related to intrinsic motivation and
performance, positively related to extrinsic motivation.

Conclusion:

• Rewards supporting psychological needs increase intrinsic motivation and

overall performance more than those undermining needs.

Evaluation:

• Study I had a sample from one university (replicated in Study 2 for diversity).
• Laboratory experiment with high control, ensuring validity.
• Lack of ecological validity due to artificial environment and anagram-solving
task.
• Findings applicable to real-life, emphasizing the use of intrinsic motivation
in the workplace.

Relevance to Debates:
• Supports the idea that external factors (reward presentation) influence
internal motivation.
• Integrates with self-determination theory, acknowledging the intertwining of
external and internal factors.

Leadership and Management

Activity:
 • Research and compare meanings of leadership and management.
• Create a chart highlighting similarities and differences.

Universalist Theories:

1. Great Man Theory:

o Leaders born with traits enabling them to rise to power.
2. Charismatic Leadership:
o Visionaries with charisma, inspiring and unconventional.
3. Transformational Leadership:
o Inspires followers for significant change, cares for followers.

Behaviourist Theories:

• Ohio State University:

o Initiating Structure: Task allocation, goal setting.
o Consideration: Genuine concern for workers' feelings.
• University of Michigan:
o Task-oriented behaviors: Focus on task completion.
o Relationship-oriented behaviors: Concern for workforce well-being.

Adaptive Challenges:
• Traditional leadership may not be suitable for larger, complex organizations.
• Adaptive leadership shifts responsibility to the workforce for tackling tough
issues and adapting.

Principles of Adaptive Leadership:

1. 'Get on the balcony':

o See the whole picture, observe the organization from above.
2. Identify the adaptive change:
o Determine the nature and extent of required change.
3. Regulate distress:
o Manage stress to motivate change without overwhelming.
4. Maintain disciplined attention:
o Confront difficult issues directly, be open to contrasting views.
5. Give the work back to the people:
o Recognize the workforce's special knowledge and let themk
o identify solutions.
6. Protect voices of leadership from below:
o Listen to all voices to learn of impending challenges.
Example of Adaptive Leadership:

• Henry Fonda's character in "12 Angry Men" as an adaptive leader

challenging biases in a murder trial.

Debates and Considerations:

• Nature vs. nurture debate in leadership development.

• Adaptive leadership and its application in uncertain situations.
• Consideration of individual differences in providing adaptive leadership.
• Practical application of leadership theories in organizations globally.

Leadership Styles and Levels

Key Terms:

• Democratic Leadership: Shares decision-making with group members.

• Autocratic Leadership: Leader controls decisions with minimal input from
group members.

Muczyk and Reimann (1987):

• Democratic leadership may not be universally effective.

• Leadership involves both participation and direction.
• Four leadership styles based on participation and amount of leader
direction.

Leadership Styles:

1. Directive Autocrat:
o Unilateral decisions, close supervision.
o Useful for quick decisions and supervising new or poor-performing
staff.
2. Permissive Autocrat:
o Leader makes decisions, allows staff autonomy.
o Suitable for simple tasks or highly skilled, self-sufficient staff.
3. Directive Democrat:
o Invites full participation, monitors closely.
o Suitable for complex decisions involving many experts.
4. Permissive Democrat:
o Ideal leader in literature, high participation.
o Good for highly skilled and trusted employees.
Directive Behavior:

• Non-directive (permissive) allows followers to decide.

• Directive specifies tasks and follows up on progress.

Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership (3P Model):

1. Public Leadership:
o Behaviors to influence groups.
2. Private Leadership:
o Behaviors influencing individuals within a team.
3. Personal Leadership:
o Leadership qualities shown by the individual.

Testing Leadership Models:

• Participative and directive leader behaviors tested in diverse organizational
settings.
• Relies on self-report measures, introducing potential biases.

Scouller's 3P Model Evaluation:

• Not easily testable, lacks common personality characteristics for quantitative
measurement.
• A theory of nurture, suggesting leadership presence develops individually.

Contributions:

• Muczyk and Reimann's distinction between decision-making and

implementation is valuable.
• Recognizes the importance of matching leadership styles to different
situations and groups.

Cuadrado et al. (2008) - Women's Access to Managerial

Positions
Context:

• Women under-represented in managerial roles despite qualifications.

• "Glass ceiling effect" - invisible barrier limiting progress for women in
hierarchies.
• NHS example: 37% of directors are women (Taylor & Hartley, 2021).
Explanations:

• Women using stereotypically male leadership styles may face career

barriers.
• Stereotypes: Women perceived as cooperative; male leadership behaviors
incongruent.
• Study explores evaluations of female and male leaders using different
styles.

Aims:

1. Investigate effect of gender and leadership styles on work evaluations.

2. Test impact of evaluator's gender on female/male leader evaluations.
3. Test hypotheses related to leadership styles and evaluations.

Design:

• Lab experiment with 136 psychology students.

• Independent variables: Leader's gender, evaluator's gender, leadership
style.
• Dependent variables: Adjective list, leadership capacity, leadership efficacy.

Procedure:
• Participants evaluate a supervisor (male/female) using stereotypical styles.
• Four versions with changes in leader's gender and leadership style.
• Questionnaires measured perceptions using Likert scales.

Results:

• Stereotypically feminine, democratic style favored in both female and male

leaders.
• Autocratic, stereotypically masculine style evaluated less favorably.
• No significant differences based on evaluator's gender.

Conclusion:

• Democratic, feminine leadership styles positively evaluated.

• Stereotypically masculine styles received less favorable evaluations.

Evaluation:
 • Sample limitations: Student volunteers of similar age may not represent
wider populations.
• Laboratory experiment with high reliability and validity.
• Lack of ecological validity due to self-report scales.
• Findings suggest organizations should value and consider feminine
leadership styles.

Implications:

• Organizations should recognize the value of feminine leadership styles.

• Training programs for managerial positions may benefit from emphasizing
democratic styles.
• Increasing access for women to leadership positions can be advantageous.

Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI):

• Developed by Kouzes and Posner (1987) to measure leadership behaviors.

• Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership: Model the Way, Inspire a Shared
Vision, Challenge the Process, Enable Others to Act, Encourage the Heart.
• Measurable, Learnable, Teachable: Leadership is a set of learnable
behaviors.
• Self-Report and Observer Ratings: Objectivity and comparability
enhanced by combining individual and observer ratings.
• Identifying Areas for Development: LPI results help identify areas for
personal development.
• Leadership qualities learned rather than innate, fostering diverse leadership
styles.

Followership: Kelley's Types of Followers:

1. Sheep: Passive, lack commitment, require constant supervision.

2. Yes-People: Committed, defend leader, unquestioning.
3. Survivors: Not trailblazers, cautious, won't support controversial ideas.
4. Alienated Followers: Negative, critical, but fairly passive.
5. Effective Followers: Positive, active, independent thinkers, succeed without
a leader.

Qualities of Effective Followers:

1. Self-Management: Ability to think critically and work independently.

2. Commitment: Dedication to the group or organizational goal.
 3. Competence: Possession of necessary skills for task completion.
4. Courage: Upholding beliefs and ethical standards even in challenging
situations.

Research Methods and Issues/Debates

Research Methods:

• Theoretical Models: Muczyk and Reimann, Kelley focused on theoretical

models rather than empirical research.
• Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI): Reliability and validity concerns, but
easy administration and quantifiable data.

Issues and Debates:

• Individual-Situational Debate: Recognizes the importance of the
relationship between leaders and followers or situations.
• Cultural Bias in Testing: Challenge of constructing fair, unbiased tests due
to cultural differences between test-makers and diverse populations.

Additional Considerations
• Real-Life Applicability: Findings suggest organizations should value
feminine leadership styles, breaking gender stereotypes.
• Leadership Development: Emphasizes the learnability and teachability of
leadership behaviors.
• Followership Importance: Kelley's work highlights the reciprocal role of
followers and the impact on group success.
• Role Play Activity: Engaging in role play helps understand and identify
different follower types.

Group Behavior in Organizations

Group Development and Decision-Making:

• Tuckman's Stages of Group Development:

1. Forming: Team acquaints and establishes ground rules.
2. Storming: Members communicate feelings as individuals, resisting
control.
3. Norming: People feel part of the team, accept other viewpoints.
4. Performing: Team works in an open and trusting atmosphere.
 5. Adjourning: Team conducts an assessment and plans for transitioning
roles.

Belbin's Theory of Team Roles:

• Action-Oriented Roles:
o Shapers: Challenge the team to improve.
o Implementers: Turn ideas into practical actions.
o Completer-Finishers: Ensure thorough and timely completion.
• People-Oriented Roles:
o Coordinators: Guide the team to objectives.
o Team Workers: Provide support and ensure effective collaboration.
o Resource Investigators: Explore opportunities and negotiate
resources.
• Thought-Oriented Roles:
o Plants: Creative individuals with new ideas.
o Monitor-Evaluators: Analyze and evaluate ideas.
o Specialists: Possess specialized knowledge necessary for tasks.

Group Decision-Making:
• Groupthink: Occurs when the desire for harmony or conformity leads to
dysfunctional decision-making.
• Symptoms of Groupthink: Illusions of invulnerability, unanimity, direct
pressure to conform, etc.
• Consequences of Groupthink: Faulty decision-making, ignoring warning
signs, and stereotyping.

Reducing Groupthink:
• Leader's Role: Allow expression of diverse ideas, avoid forceful initial
views.
• Encourage Critical Thinking: Assign someone to present opposing views.
• Smaller Independent Teams: Break members into smaller groups to foster
diverse opinions.

Cognitive Limitations and Errors:

• Three Types of Bias Affecting Group Decision-Making (Forsyth):
1. Sins of Commission: Misuse of information (belief perseverance, sunk
cost bias).
2. Sins of Omission: Overlooking key information (base rate bias,
fundamental attribution error).
 3. Sins of Imprecision: Relying too heavily on biases and heuristics
(availability heuristic, conjunctive bias, representativeness heuristic).

Issues and Debates:

• Tuckman's Model: Applicable to understanding group development
stages, acknowledges cyclical formation.
• Belbin's Team Roles: Recognizes diverse roles, emphasizes the importance
of diversity in teams.
• Janis's Groupthink: Links to the individual-situational debate, focusing on
environmental factors.
• Forsyth's Cognitive Biases: Acknowledges cognitive limitations affecting
group decision-making.

Conclusion:
Understanding group behavior, development, and decision-making is crucial for
effective organizational functioning. Tuckman, Belbin, Janis, and Forsyth offer
valuable insights into the dynamics and challenges associated with group
processes. Leaders can leverage this knowledge to foster collaboration, creativity,
and informed decision-making within teams.

Social Approach and Influences on Performance:

• Assumptions:
1. Behavior Influence: By actual, implied, or imagined presence of
others.
2. Social Context Influence: All behavior, cognitions, and emotions
influenced by social contexts and environments.

Social Facilitation:
• Definition: Improved performance in the presence of others.
• Types: Co-action effects (same task), audience effect (observers).
• Task Influence: Performance affected by task familiarity; social inhibition in
new or difficult tasks.

Factors in Social Facilitation:

1. Cognitive Factors: Conflict between audience and task attention motivates
increased performance.
2. Affective Factors: Presence leads to evaluation apprehension, improving
performance.
 3. Physiological Factors: Arousal and drive theory influence task
performance.

Social Loafing and Social Impact Theory:

• Social Loafing:
o Definition: Reduced effort in the presence of others when behavior
is not closely watched.
o Ringelmann's Observation: Groups may underperform compared
to individual capacity.
• Social Impact Theory:
o Definition: Individuals as sources/targets of social influence; three
rules (Strength, Immediacy, Numbers).
o Diffusion of Social Influence: Reduced supervision leads to
decreased pressure, causing social loafing.

Example - Milgram's Study:

• Observation: Being watched by two people not twice as stressful as being
watched by one.
• Pressure Dynamics: Refusal by one learner faces more pressure than
refusal by the entire class.

Conclusion:
Understanding group dynamics, groupthink, social facilitation, social loafing, and
social impact theory is crucial for effective team management. Integrating various
theories provides a comprehensive approach to addressing issues in psychology
and enhancing group performance.

Role of Culture in Group Performance:

• Cultural Contexts:
o Individualistic Culture:
▪ Personal goals emphasized over group goals.
▪ Social loafing may occur, especially if contributions go
unrecognized.
o Collectivistic Culture:
▪ Group goals prioritized over individual needs.
▪ Less likely to exhibit social loafing in in-groups; more
competitive with out-groups.
• Example Study - Earley (1993):
 o Aim: Investigate culture, group membership, and efficacy's influence
on social loafing.
o Conditions: In-group, out-group, and individual conditions.
o Results: Collectivists less likely to social loaf in in-group;
individualists performed worse.
o Conclusion: Collectivists view individual work as a valuable
contribution to group goals.

Performance Monitoring:
• Definition: Surveillance methods to observe employee behaviors.
• Methods: Software, email monitoring, telephone or video recording.
• Tomczak et al. (2018):
o Findings: Nearly 80% of US organizations use electronic
performance monitoring (EPNI).
o Concerns: Associated with lower worker satisfaction, commitment,
and fairness perception.
o Recommendations: Open, transparent, restricted to work-related
contexts, used for training, not punishment.

Research Methods in Cross-Cultural Study (Earley, 1993):

• Experimental Task: Realistic inbox sorting task, increasing study validity.
• Sample: 60 Chinese, 45 Israeli, and 60 American managers.
• Conditions: In-group, out-group, and individual conditions.
• Measures: Work performance (correctly completed inbox items), self-report
scales for collectivism, self-efficacy, group efficacy, and anticipated
outcome.
• Results: Collectivists less likely to social loaf in in-group; individualists
performed worse.

Performance Monitoring Concerns (Tomczak et al., 2018):

• Usage Statistics: Nearly 80% of US organizations use electronic
performance monitoring.
• Negative Effects: Associated with lower worker satisfaction, commitment,
and fairness perception.
• Recommendations: Open, transparent, restricted to work-related contexts,
used for training, not punishment.

Context:

• Sustained Attention (vigilance):

 o Crucial in work tasks like driving, medical testing, and security
screening.
o Vigilance drops over time, posing risks.

Main Theories and Explanations:

• Social Facilitation:
o Worker's performance improves with routine tasks.
o Performance worsens with complex or unfamiliar tasks.
• Extension to Electronic Monitoring:
o Camera/device as a social presence.
o Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) enhances short-term tasks;
study extends to longer-duration sustained attention.

Aim:

• Investigate EPM effects on sustained attention.

• Test if video-based monitoring is effective.

Design:

• 106 student participants in the USA.

• Conditions: Electronic presence and control group.
• Sustained attention task: Press space bar for critical signals over 24 minutes.

Results:

• Vigilance decreased over 24 minutes.

• EPM condition had more correct detections (mean = 0.69) than control
(mean = 0.60).
• EPM had fewer false alarms, faster median response times (767 ms vs. 802
ms).

Conclusions:
• Electronic monitoring, like social presence, facilitates vigilance task
performance.
• Using dual electronic presence enhances performance more than a singular
form.

Evaluation:
• Lack of ecological validity (artificial environment).
• Sample limitation (university students).
 • Reliable methodology with standardized procedures.
• High applicability to real-life critical tasks.

Applicability:
• EPM extends beyond clerical work to critical tasks, enhancing focus and
reducing errors.
• Applied in on-board driver monitoring systems.

Group Conflict and Conflict Handling:

Types of Conflict:

• Intra-Individual Conflict: Internal struggle in decision-making due to

conflicting thoughts or values.
• Inter-Individual Conflict: Conflict between two or more
• individuals within a group.
• Intra-Group Conflict: Conflict among multiple individuals within the same
group.
• Inter-Group Conflict: Conflict between two groups within the same
organization.

Conflict Causes:
• Organisational Factors: Conflicts over status, salary, goal achievement,
resource scarcity.
• Interpersonal Factors: Personality clashes, ineffective collaboration,
leadership conflicts.

Conflict Handling (Thomas-Kilmann Modes):

1. Competition: Persistence until a winner/loser is determined.
2. Accommodation: Sacrifice by one to reduce conflict.
3. Compromise: Mutual compromise to resolve conflict.
4. Collaboration: Working together to overcome conflict.
5. Avoidance: Suppressing or withdrawing from the conflict.

Conflict Handling Evaluation:

• Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI):
o Assesses individual conflict behavior using 30 statements.
o Identifies preferred conflict-handling styles.
• Effectiveness: Dependent on the specific situation and individual's ability
to use the mode effectively.
Workplace Bullying:

Definition:
• Bullying: Hostile and aggressive behavior, physical or non-physical,
directed at colleagues or subordinates.
• Types: Work-related, physical violence, personal attacks, verbal threats,
social isolation.

Factors Contributing to Bullying:

• Individual Factors: Personality traits of victim and bully.
• Psycho-Social Factors: Situational aspects like deficiencies in work design,
leadership behavior, social exposure, low morale.

Bullying Phases (Einarsen):

1. Aggressive Behaviour
2. Bullying
3. Stigmatization
4. Severe Trauma

Types of Workplace Bullying:

• Predatory Bullying: Victim accidentally in a situation where a predator

demonstrates power.
• Institutional Harassment: Culture of bullying ingrained throughout the
organization.
• Group Representative Bullying: Targeted due to group representation.
• Stress-Induced Bullying: Occurs when individuals are highly stressed or
frustrated.

Conclusion and Recommendations:

• Need for Understanding: Differentiate types of bullying, move away from a
one-size-fits-all approach.
• Power Dynamics: Managers/supervisors perceived as bullies; power
dynamics play a crucial role.
• Causes: Competition for status, envy, uncertainty about aggressor's
abilities.

Victim Impact:
• Sensitive and Angry: Victims tend to be more sensitive, suspicious, angry.
 • Low Self-Esteem: Lower self-esteem and higher anxiety in social settings.

Evaluation:
• Power Dynamics: Managers and supervisors often perceived as bullies.
• Need for Differentiation: Different types of bullying need specific
understanding.
• Longitudinal Research: Required to establish personality differences as a
result of bullying.

Physical Work Conditions and Hawthorne Studies:

Hawthorne Studies (1924-1927):

• Location: Conducted at Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois, USA.

• Collaborators: Managed by Hawthorne Works, MIT, and Harvard University.
• Focus: Investigated effects of lighting changes, work structure changes
(working hours, break times) on productivity.
• Workforce: Employed around 29,000 people at the time.

Hawthorne Effect:
• Definition: Behavior changes due to awareness of being observed.
• Term Origin: Coined by Henry Landsberger in 1958.
• Key Concept: Workers' behavior changed due to investigation, not just
manipulated variables.

Example Study (Original Hawthorne Studies - Mayo, 1933):

• Critique (Kompier, 2006):

o Methodological Lapses: Lack of controls, methodological flaws.
o Variable Impact: Lighting's effect on productivity questioned.
o Social Factors: Wage incentive system's impact contradicted initial
conclusions.

Kompier's Critique:
• Scientific Rigor: Critical of studies for lacking scientific rigor.
• Control Groups: Absence of control groups and methodological controls.
• Urban Legend Status: Describes the Hawthorne effect as achieving 'urban
legend' status.
 • Social Factors vs. Pay: Challenges the conclusion favoring social factors
over pay.

Monitoring and Reducing Physical Work Condition Issues:

Importance:

• Employee Output Influence: Lighting's impact on productivity and social

factors studied.
• Variable Consideration: Kompier highlights other variables affecting
results.
• Relevance: Implications for designing effective workplaces.

Suggestions for Improvement:

• Scientific Rigor: Emphasizes the need for rigorous scientific methods.

• Holistic Approach: Considers diverse variables impacting employee
performance.
• Objective Evaluation: Advocates objective evaluation over subjective,
relational explanations.

Conclusion:
• Balanced Perspective: Acknowledges the role of social factors but
emphasizes the need for balanced consideration.
• Clarity in Findings: Calls for clarity in interpreting study outcomes.
• Caution in Application: Warns against applying Hawthorne effect
explanations without thorough consideration.
• Open-Plan Office Intervention Study (Oldham and Brass, 1979):
o Conducted in a large USA newspaper office with 140 full-time
employees.
o Transitioned from a conventional 'multi-cellular' office to an open-
plan design (Figure 9.16).
o Reasons for the change included addressing practical problems and
creating a positive working environment.
o Sample Size: 76 participants engaged in all three stages of the
study; five members of the pressroom formed the control group.
• Results of Open-Plan Office Intervention:
o Sharp decrease in internal motivation and satisfaction after the move.
o Control group (working in the pressroom) showed no such changes.
 o Interview data indicated challenges such as feeling exposed
('fishbowl' effect), difficulty concentrating, and hindrance in social
interactions.
• Research Methods Critique:
o Experimental nature with high ecological validity but low control.
o Considered a natural experiment as researchers leveraged a naturally
occurring change.
o Challenges included a small control group (five individuals) and
limited data collection focused on worker motivation and satisfaction.
o Sample Size Rationale: Though limited, the sample size was
deemed sufficient for meaningful insights based on the study's
specific focus.
• Implications for Organisations and Organisational Psychologists:
o Recognition that situational factors, including changes in the
workplace environment, significantly impact individuals.
o Application of findings to real-life situations to enhance working
environments.
o Acknowledgment that social factors, while important, are not the sole
determinants of employee productivity; pay and conditions also play
crucial roles.
• Conclusion on Intervention Study Results:
o Caution against using the Hawthorne effect to explain intervention
study outcomes, emphasizing potential confusion rather than clarity.
o Importance of considering various factors influencing employee
performance.
o Highlighting the individual-situational debate, stressing the need for
a balanced understanding of the impact of working conditions.
• Continued Relevance:
o Both Hawthorne studies and the open-plan office study underscore
the lasting relevance of the individual-situational debate in
organizational psychology.
o Recognition that findings from these studies have practical
applications, emphasizing the pursuit of effective and harmonious
working environments.
• tudies, including Oldham and Brass's research on open-plan designs,
emphasize the significant impact of the work environment on individuals.
• Vital for organizations and organizational psychologists to apply study
conclusions to real-life settings for effective and harmonious working
environments.
Temporal Conditions of Work Environments:
• Temporal conditions refer to time-related aspects of work.
• Shift work involves varied working hours, often in 24-hour service industries,
leading to rotating shifts and on-call work.
• Two main approaches to shift organization: rapid rotation theory (frequent
changes) and slow rotation theory (infrequent changes).

Flexible Working:

• Departure from traditional working hours (e.g., 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., five days a
week).
• Aimed at achieving work-life balance, but within organizational constraints.

Health Implications of Shift Work:

1. Cardiovascular Disease:
o Linked to physical factors (chemicals, noise, vibrations) and
psychosocial factors (stress, work schedules).
o Shift work associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular issues.
2. Cancer:
o Some studies suggest an elevated risk of breast cancer in women
working night shifts.
o Other factors like exposure to carcinogens in certain professions
need consideration.
3. Diabetes and Metabolic Disturbances:
o Shift work associated with higher concentrations of substances like
potassium, uric acid, glucose, and cholesterol.
o Increased chances of developing diabetes reported.
4. Pregnancy:
o Shift work linked to low birth weight, premature birth, and increased
risk of miscarriage.
o Pregnant women advised to avoid shift work.
5. Exacerbation of Existing Disorders:
o Normal biological processes following circadian rhythm may be
disrupted.
o Shift work can interfere with medication effectiveness and exacerbate
existing conditions.

Gold et al. (1992) Study on Shift Work, Sleep, and Accidents:

Study Design:
 • Gold et al. conducted a survey in 1986 on 878 registered nurses in
Massachusetts.
• The study utilized a self-administered questionnaire distributed between
June and September 1986.

Objective:
• Investigate the relationship between different shift patterns, sleep quality,
and the occurrence of accidents, errors, and near-miss incidents.

Participants:

• The sample consisted of registered nurses, with a mean age of 33.9 years.
• Participants were asked whether they worked variable shifts or maintained a
consistent shift pattern.

Shift Work Groups:

1. Day/Evening Workers: Group working regular day and evening shifts.

2. Night Workers: Group exclusively working night shifts.
3. Rotators: Group changing shift patterns frequently.

Data Collection:
• Nurses were asked to provide information about their work shifts during the
current week, the past two weeks, and the following week.
• Sleep and wake times for all shifts and days were recorded.

Variables Examined:
1. Sleep Quality: Investigated through the concept of "anchor sleep" – having
four or more hours of sleep during the same clock hours every night.
2. Sleep Disruption: Assessing disruptions to anchor sleep patterns.
3. Medication Use: Examining the use of medications, alcohol, and sleeping
aids to improve sleep quality.

Results:

• Day/evening nurses reported better sleep quality with 92% regularly

obtaining anchor sleep.
• Night nurses and rotators reported fewer hours of sleep, disruption in
anchor sleep, and 81 times and 2.8 times more likely, respectively, to report
poor sleep quality compared to day/evening nurses.
 • Night nurses and rotators were twice as likely to use medications to aid
sleep.
• Incidences of nodding off during the night shift were more common in
rotators (35%) and night nurses (32%) compared to day/evening workers
(7%).

Implications:

• The study revealed a strong association between shift work, sleep

disturbances, and the likelihood of accidents or near-miss incidents.
• Findings emphasized the importance of considering sleep quality and
patterns in the design of work schedules to enhance health and safety for
both nurses and patients.

Limitations:

• Quasi-experimental design limits the ability to establish a clear causal

relationship.
• The study's focus on nurses in a specific region may limit generalizability to
other populations.
• Self-reported data may introduce response bias, and retrospective recall
may affect accuracy.

Shift Work, Circadian Rhythms, and Health:

Effects of Sleep Deprivation and Circadian Disruption:

• Demonstrates impact on cognitive errors due to sleep deprivation and

disruption of circadian rhythms.
• Applying circadian principles to work schedules may enhance health and
safety for workers and patients.

Research Methods and Correlation:

• Correlational relationship between working shifts and increased chances of

gastrointestinal disorders.
• Constant shift changes may disrupt the natural circadian rhythm.

Real-World Applications:

• Research helps individuals make informed decisions about work practices.

 • Employers can establish procedures to minimize health and safety risks
associated with shift work.

Accidents at Work and Human Error Theories:

Traditional Person-Centered Explanation:

• Human error theory attributes accidents to individual failings and suggests

interventions targeting those making the most errors.
• Criticized as a blame-oriented approach, causing fear among employees.

Operator-Machine Systems Theory:

• Proposes errors stem from systems in which humans play a part,

emphasizing complex interactions between operators and machines.
• Shifts focus from blaming individuals to addressing systemic issues in
design and safety procedures.

Three Mile Island Incident:

• Systems error example with potential catastrophic consequences.

• Blaming the operator insufficient; identified significant failings in system
design and safety procedures.

Human Error Types:

• Omission errors: Failure to do something that should have been done.

• Other error types: Error of sequence (wrong order), error of timing
(performed too early or late).

Human Factors and Accident Prevention:

• Development of 'human factors' experts to ensure machine controls reflect

understanding of human cognition.
• Focus on clear displays, preventing prolonged vigilance, and establishing
emergency procedures.

Conclusion:
• Consideration of shift work effects, human errors, and preventive measures
contributes to the ongoing debate on nature versus nurture in the context
of work-related accidents.