Chapter 2 Literature Review

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
Sustainable construction, also known as green building or eco-friendly
construction, is an approach to building design, construction, and operation that
seeks to minimize environmental impact, conserve resources, and create healthy,
energy-efficient buildings and infrastructure [1-3]. It is driven by the recognition of
the significant environmental and social impacts of the construction industry,
including resource depletion, carbon emissions, and waste generation. Sustainable
construction aims to address these challenges by integrating sustainable practices
throughout the entire lifecycle of a building, from design and construction to
operation and demolition [4-7].

Innovative material utilization is one of the main tenets of sustainable

construction. Innovative materials provide sustainable substitutes for conventional
construction materials, frequently through increased durability, decreased lifespan
costs, and decreased energy use. The advancement of sustainable construction
methods, the reduction of environmental impact, and the improvement of building
performance all depend on these materials. Because they provide sustainable
substitutes for conventional materials like brick, steel, and concrete, innovative
materials are essential to sustainable building [8, 9]. These materials improve
building energy efficiency by lowering energy use and their negative effects on the
environment [10]. Reduced energy use for lighting, heating, and cooling can result
in lower operating costs and carbon emissions thanks to high thermal insulation
qualities and energy capture and storage [7]. Additionally, innovative materials can
make infrastructure and buildings more resilient and sustainable overall Materials
Chapter 2 Literature Review

that are produced locally, using recycled or renewable resources, help to preserve
the environment and cut down on waste. Buildings and infrastructure are more
resilient to the effects of climate change when they are made of materials that can
survive severe weather conditions or natural catastrophes [11]. All things
considered, a more robust and sustainable building sector depends on novel
materials.

In conclusion, developing sustainable building techniques and producing more

robust, energy-efficient, and ecologically friendly structures and infrastructure
depend heavily on novel materials. This chapter examines the most recent
developments in cutting-edge building materials for sustainable construction and
how they have the potential to completely transform the building industry.

2.1.1. Global Demand for Sustainable Building Materials

Due to the extensive use of traditional building materials and construction
methods, the construction industry faces serious problems with resource depletion,
carbon emissions, and waste generation [12-14]. For the construction industry to
become more environmentally friendly and sustainable, these issues must be
resolved as the need for new structures and infrastructure keeps rising.

A significant issue facing the construction sector is resource depletion, as the

usage and exploitation of raw materials like minerals, wood, and fossil fuels
contribute to biodiversity loss and environmental damage. Because they take a lot
of natural resources to create, traditional construction materials like asphalt, steel,
and concrete put more strain on ecosystems and habitats. In comparison to
conventional construction materials, innovative materials provide sustainable
options that minimize environmental effect and the need for resource extraction.
Cross-laminated timber and other engineered wood products [15-17], for instance,
are more environmentally friendly options for building projects because they
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consume less energy and emit fewer emissions than conventional building
materials. Additionally, recycled aggregates—which are created from recycled
asphalt and concrete—help the construction sector generate less waste and less
need for virgin resources.

The manufacturing and distribution of conventional building materials provide

major obstacles to the construction industry's efforts to reduce carbon emissions
[18]. Just the manufacture of concrete contributes 8% of the world's CO 2 emissions
[19]. Bio-based materials like hempcrete and bamboo are examples of innovative
materials that can help offset these emissions [20]. Carbon emissions are further
decreased by using recycled materials, such as steel and glass, which cut down on
energy-intensive production processes [6]. Given that construction and demolition
trash make up a sizable amount of all garbage produced globally, waste creation is
yet another serious issue facing the construction sector. Due to traditional methods,
a lot of garbage is frequently burned or dumped in landfills, which depletes
resources and pollutes the environment[12]. These problems may be lessened and a
more sustainable future for the building sector can be achieved with the use of
innovative materials and sustainable substitutes.

By encouraging the use of sustainable and recycled materials, innovative

materials can aid in lowering waste creation in the building sector [21]. For
instance, because prefabricated components may be made off-site and assembled
on-site, using prefabricated building techniques lowers the quantity of trash
produced during construction. Furthermore, using recycled materials helps close
the material cycle loop and lowers the need for virgin resources. Examples of these
materials are recycled steel and concrete [19].
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In conclusion, the construction sector faces major issues related to waste

creation, carbon emissions, and resource depletion. By providing sustainable
substitutes for conventional building materials, innovative materials lessen the
negative environmental effects of construction operations and foster a more
ecologically responsible and sustainable construction industry. The building sector
may contribute to environmental protection, resource conservation, and the
creation of a more sustainable future for all by adopting cutting-edge materials and
sustainable construction techniques [22].

2.1.2. Environmental Impact of Traditional Concrete Production

Concrete is a building material composed of aggregate, which is a strong,

chemically inert material usually composed of sand and gravel that are joined by
cement and water. Ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians, Babylonians,
Assyrians, and John Smeaton are its ancestors. John Smeaton used pebbles and
powered brick to construct the first modern concrete in 1756. The most common
cement used in the manufacture of concrete, Portland cement, was created in 1824
by Joseph Aspdin. The chemical composition of the minerals was altered by
Aspdin's burning technique, producing a cement that was more durable than just
crushed limestone [23].

As shown in Figure (2.1), Cement production involves a process of

grinding and mixing raw materials, such as limestone and silicon, with bauxite and
iron ore added for specific properties [24, 25]. These materials are finely ground
and mixed in a rotary cement kiln, the largest moving industrial equipment in the
world. The kiln, a long, sloping cylinder with zones that heat up to 1,480°C,
undergoes complex chemical and physical changes to react through hydration. The
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most common type of cement kiln is a dry process, while older kilns use the wet
process [25].

Figure (2.1): Cement kiln. Adapted from Babor et al. [23].

There are two essential processes in the production of Portland cement.

First, limestone is calcined at 900°C to produce lime and carbon dioxide [26]. The
second process involves calcium oxide and silicates bonding to generate
tetracalcium aluminium ferrite, tricalcium aluminate, and dicalcium and tricalcium
silicates [27]. These reactions take place when the materials are molten and at high
temperatures. The compounds cool and solidify as clinker, which is then finely
powdered and mixed with gypsum. After completion, the cement is either sent to
ready-mix concrete facilities or bagged [28].

Concrete is made by combining cement, water, fine (sand), coarse (gravel

or crushed stone), and trace amounts of other chemicals known as admixtures that
regulate qualities like plasticity and setting time [29]. Actually, the process of
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setting or hardening involves a chemical reaction known as hydration [30]. A slurry

or gel is created when water is added to cement, covering the aggregate surfaces
and filling in the spaces to create solid concrete [23]. Cement type, additives, and
the total ratios of cement, aggregate, and water all affect the characteristics of
concrete[24].

There are plenty of readily available raw components for making cement
[31]; Calcium in cement (calcined into lime) is most commonly found in
limestone, marl, and chalk . Typical silicon sources are shale, sand, and clay. Fly is
one example of a waste product that may be utilized as a source of silicon. Bauxite
and iron ore are two possible forms of iron and aluminum, however recovered
metals can also be utilized. Lastly, gypsum, a calcium and sulfur-based mineral,
makes up around 5% of cement by weight. According to the University of British
Columbia's (UBC) Environmental Research Group, one ton of finished cement
requires 1,455…1,597 kg of raw ingredients [32].

Concrete production relies on water, sand, gravel, and crushed stone, along
with cement [24], table (2.1.). The quality and distance of these raw materials
significantly impact transportation, energy use, water use for washing, and dust
generation. Some aggregates used in concrete production have been found to emit
radon gas, particularly when uranium mine tailings were used as concrete
aggregate [29]. Fly ash, a fine, glass-like powder from coal-fired electric power
generation (Figure 2.2), is an inexpensive replacement for Portland cement in
concrete, improving strength, segregation, and ease of pumping. It is also used in
brick, block, paving, and structural fills [33]. Fly ash concrete was first used in the
USA in 1929 for the Hoover Dam and is now used across the country [23]. It is a
pozzolan, consisting mostly of silica, alumina, and iron, that forms cement in the
presence of water. When mixed with lime and water, it forms a compound similar
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to Portland cement, reducing internal friction and increasing consistency and

mobility. Improved workability means less water is needed, resulting in less
segregation. Although fly ash cement is less dense than Portland cement, the
produced concrete is denser and results in a smoother surface with sharper detail
[34].

Table (2.1): Typical Concrete Mix. According to Babor et al. [23]

Component % by weight
Portland cement 12
Sand 34
Crushed stone 48
Water 6

Figure (2.2): A spherical shape of fly ash particles. Adapted from [35].
Fly ash, a byproduct of coal-fired power plants, is a valuable resource for
reducing energy use and solid waste. It can be used as a silica source in cement
production and as a substitute for cement in concrete mixtures. Fly ash, or
pozzolan, can replace 15-35% of cement in concrete mixes, with some applications
requiring up to 70%. It accounts for about 9% of the cement mix in concrete. Fly
ash reacts with free lime to form calcium silicate hydrate, which increases concrete
strength, improves sulfate resistance, decreases permeability, reduces water ratio,
and enhances pumpability and workability [36]. It is widely used in Europe for
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autoclaved cellular concrete (ACC) and is being developed in the United States by
North American Cellular Concrete [37].

Industrial waste products like blast furnace slag, cinders, and mill scale are
sometimes used as aggregate in concrete mixes. Even recycled concrete can be
crushed into reuseable aggregate. However, the irregular surface of this aggregate
is less effective than sand or crushed stone due to the need for more cement slurry.
Using crushed concrete as an aggregate may be counterproductive due to its
energy-intensive component [23].

Cement and concrete production are highly energy-intensive industrial

processes, consuming about 1,758 kWh for every ton of cement[38]. The industry's
heavy reliance on coal contributes to high emissions of CO 2, nitrous oxide, and
sulphur [39]. Most of the energy consumed is used for operating rotary cement
kilns, which are more energy-efficient than older wet-process kilns [40]. Modern
dry-process kilns use waste heat from exhaust gases to heat ingredients, using up to
50% less energy than wet-process kilns [41]. Some dry-process kilns use separate
combustion vessels for the baking process before ingredients enter the rotary kiln
[41]. High temperatures in cement kilns can also be used to burn hazardous waste
as fuel, such as used motor oil, spent solvents, printing inks, paint residues,
cleaning fluids, and scrap tires [42]. These waste fuels can be burned safely due to
complete combustion with low pollution emissions. Thermal destruction in cement
kilns is the safest method of disposal for some chemicals. Cement kilns can burn
over a million tires a year, with higher fuel content than coal and iron from steel
belts as an ingredient [31]. Concrete production, on the other hand, has
significantly lower energy consumption due to the use of less energy-intensive
components like sand, crushed stone, and water [30].
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Carbon dioxide emissions during cement production are primarily sourced

from the combustion of fossil fuels used in the rotary kiln, which produces around
3/4 t of CO2 per ton of cement [43]. These emissions can be emitted as byproducts
from fossil fuel use, combustion, land-use conversion, and cement production [44].
To reduce CO2 emissions, the most significant way is to improve energy efficiency
in the cement kiln operation [45]. Recent decades have seen significant reductions
in energy use, with lower CO2 fuels such as natural gas and agricultural waste
being used [46]. Another strategy to address CO2 emissions from calcining
limestone is to use waste lime from other industries in the kiln [47]. Substituting
fly ash for some cement in concrete can also significantly reduce emissions [48].

Beside Co2, Cement and concrete production generate significant air-

pollutant emissions, with dust being the most visible. The majority of these
emissions come from the handling of raw materials, grinding cement clinker, and
packaging of finished cement [49]. The best way to address the dust generated in
cement manufacturing is to collect it and recycle it using mechanical collectors,
electric precipitators, and fabric filters [50]. However, recycling the dust is
challenging, and some is used for agricultural soil treatments and the rest is often
landfilled on site. Dust emissions can also be generated in concrete production and
transport, from sand and aggregate mining, material transfer, storage, mixer
loading, and concrete delivery [51]. Controlling dust emissions can be achieved
through water sprays, enclosures, hoods, curtains, and covered chutes [52]. Other
air pollution emissions from cement and concrete production include sulfur dioxide
(SO2) [53] and nitrous oxides (NOx) [54]. SO2 emissions result from the sulfur
content of both raw materials and fuel. Strategies to reduce sulfur emissions
include using low-sulfur raw materials, burning low-sulfur coal, and collecting
sulfur emissions [55]. Strategies to reduce nitrogen emissions include altering the
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burner design, modifying kiln and pre-calciner operation, using alternate fuels, and
adding ammonia or urea to the process [56].

Another environmental issue with cement and concrete production is water

pollution. At the batch plant, wash water from equipment cleaning is often
discharged into setting ponds where the solids can settle out. Some returned
concrete also gets put into settling ponds to wash off and recover the aggregate
[23].

While the cement and concrete industries can help to reduce some of our
solid waste problems (burning hazardous waste as cement kiln fuel) for example,
Dan Babor, Diana Plian and Loredana Judele [23] using fly ash in concrete
mixtures), one cannot overlook the fact that concrete is the most visible component
of construction and demolition waste Of the concrete that is recycled, most is used
as a highway substrate or as a clean fill around buildings. Concrete waste is also
created in new constructions. When it is possible to use pre-cast concrete
components instead of poured concrete, doing so many offer advantages in terms
of waste generation [57]. Material quantities can be estimated more precisely and
excess material can be utilized. By carefully controlling conditions during
manufacture of precast concrete products, higher strengths can be achieved using
less material [58].

Finally, Wet concrete is generally safe, but its production has evolved with
the addition of chemicals to control setting time, plasticity, pumpability, water
content, freeze-thaw resistance, strength, and color [59]. Workability agents or
superplasticizers include chemicals like sulfonated melamine-formaldehyde and
sulphonated napthalene formaldehyde condensates [60]. Air-entraining admixtures,
which incorporate air into concrete to improve workability, can also be added.
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Some concretes also contain fungicides, germicides, and insecticides [61]. These
chemicals can release small amounts of formaldehydes into the indoor air.
Concrete floors and walls can cause moisture problems, mold, and mildew growth,
which can cause significant health problems in certain individuals. Moisture
sources include moisture wicking through concrete from the surrounding soil and
moisture from the house condensing on the cold surface of concrete [34]. To
eliminate moisture, provide good drainage around a foundation, waterproof the
outside of foundation walls before backfilling, install a layer of crushed stone
beneath the slab, and install a polyethylene moisture barrier under the slab.
Insulating concrete surfaces can reduce condensation and ensure a safe working
environment [59].

Briefly, Concrete and cement are essential materials used in building

construction nowadays. Concrete has several environmental benefits, such as
chemical inertia, durability, endurance, and heat storage capacity. Concrete
frequently performs better than other materials like steel and wood. However, the
manufacture of cement uses a lot of energy; it is one of the most energy-intensive
materials used in the building sector and contributes significantly to atmospheric
CO2. We should attempt to use less concrete in buildings, switch to fly ash-
containing concrete, and utilize that concrete carefully in order to lessen the impact
on the environment.

2.1.3. The Role of Recycled in Green Construction

The construction industry, a major emitter of greenhouse gases and a
significant energy resource user, is embracing sustainable operational models to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Cao, Cai, and Liu [62] emphasize the need for a
shift from linear economic models to a circular economy framework, focusing on
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the strategic integration of recycled building materials to improve environmental

sustainability. This change is seen as a response to environmental issues and a
reassessment of the sector's material use and waste creation processes. Okogwu et
al. [63] highlight the numerous benefits of using sustainable materials, including
environmental, social, and economic aspects. These include reducing waste,
conserving resources, and reducing carbon footprints. This strategy also reduces
the energy required for manufacturing and processing virgin building materials.
The use of recycled materials is crucial in developing environmentally responsible
building methods, demonstrating dedication to environmental stewardship and
promoting a more environmentally friendly and energy-efficient construction
industry. Incorporating recycled materials catalyzes the adoption of
environmentally friendly building processes, putting the construction sector at the
forefront of sustainable development and setting a baseline for future practices.

Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic method for assessing the

environmental impact of construction materials throughout their entire lifecycle. It
helps in achieving decarbonization goals by identifying the most effective energy
efficiency strategies [64]. The technique allows for comparing the ecological
footprints of newly manufactured materials with those that have been repurposed
or recycled, suggesting a significant potential for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. Research by Wang et al. [65] and Baratta et al. [66] emphasizes the
importance of the construction industry in mitigating the effects of global climate
change. They show that the sector can significantly reduce carbon emissions using
eco-friendly material methods. Yang Mingyu et al. [67] emphasize the need to shift
towards developing more environmentally sustainable methods. Somantri and
Surendro [68] argue that Computer Science Design (CSA) is essential for
addressing climate change challenges. CSA aims to promote a decrease in
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greenhouse gas emissions in various areas, such as energy production,

transportation, industry, product use, waste management, and land use. This
perspective emphasizes the need to use modern computational architectures to
accelerate environmental sustainability and reduce the effects of climate change.

Energy efficiency is a critical aspect of the building industry, and the choice
of materials plays a significant role in achieving this goal [69]. Environmental
projects are becoming increasingly important for territorial development
worldwide, and the adoption of green technologies is not fast enough to ensure a
transition to a more developed state of environmental sustainability [70]. The goal
is to accelerate the transition towards improved environmental sustainability by
efficiently using and managing energy and resources. Reused or recycled materials
require significantly reduced energy inputs for processing and installation
compared to newly manufactured materials [71]. Material Flow Analysis (MFA) is
an essential analytical method that provides detailed insights into the movement
and utilization of materials within the construction industry. Valorizing diverse
waste streams in the construction sector is a sustainable practice essential for
conserving natural resources and minimizing waste generation [72].

The environment’s influence on building materials needs a more precise

description to improve construction sustainability evaluations. A thorough
methodology with exact environmental factor evaluations is necessary. This should
cover greenhouse gas emissions, energy usage, and material durability in different
environments. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Material Flow Analysis (MFA)
can help explain how environmental factors affect building materials throughout
their lifespan [69]. Detailed analysis identifies critical environmental elements
affecting material performance, enabling tailored initiatives for sustainable and
resilient construction methods.
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Neves et al. [73] argue that the principles of the circular economy are
transforming the design and construction of modular buildings, advocating for
structures that can be easily disassembled and prioritized reuse of materials. This
paradigm helps conserve resources and allows architectural structures to be easily
modified to meet changing functional needs, reducing unnecessary waste. This
method represents a strategic shift from conventional design philosophies,
promoting a perspective on lifespan, flexibility, and resource efficiency. Khan,
Mehran, and Ciaran [74] and Samani and Pouya [75] investigated integrating
environmentally sensitive design strategies within the construction industry,
highlighting the significant influence of forthcoming technologies and innovative
methodologies on this sector. They stressed the construction sector's ability to set
an example of environmental stewardship and its potential to reduce its
environmental impact significantly. Akyol Özcan, K. [76] argues that policymakers
can pinpoint areas where resource consumption can be improved and waste
creation reduced by examining the environmental consequences of human
activities. This analysis seeks to provide stakeholders with factual evidence to
develop solid, evidence-based policies emphasizing the need to shift toward
sustainable behaviors, contributing to the global sustainability agenda. The
combined knowledge gained from this study highlights the significance of
reconsidering architectural processes from a sustainability perspective, promoting a
holistic strategy beyond energy efficiency, covering a more comprehensive range
of environmental factors such as resource preservation and waste reduction.

The construction sector is focusing on sustainability through Key

Performance Indicators (KPIs) to evaluate the impact of reused materials on
greenhouse gas emissions, energy conservation, and environmental performance
[77]. These indicators integrate economic, environmental, and social dimensions,
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ensuring they accurately reflect the benefits of material reuse. Regulatory

frameworks and technological advancements are crucial for advancing sustainable
construction methodologies, with a legislative and technological framework
supporting recycled materials [78, 79]. A holistic approach is needed to progress
sustainability in the construction industry, focusing on the synergy between policy,
technology, and performance indicators [80].

2.1.4. The Role of Nano Technology in Green Construction

Nanotechnology has gained popularity in the industrial sector and research,
with the market value of nanotechnology products expected to reach $3000 billion
in 2020. The unique properties of nanoparticles have led to a variety of products
and applications. In the construction sector, nanotechnology has made significant
progress in recent decades [81]. Nanomaterials can enhance the durability and
mechanical properties of traditional building materials, such as concrete. Novel
properties introduced by nanomaterials could provide additional performance, such
as adjustable conductivity or air-purifying properties, making them a valuable
addition to traditional building materials [82]. The total value of nanotechnology
products is expected to grow to $3000 billion in 2020 [83].

Nanoparticles have always been present in the environment. Additionally,

humans have also been working with nanoparticles (e.g., natural waxes, clays,
paints) since ancient times, possibly even before [84]. The big difference is that
now we have a better understanding of the physical and chemical phenomena of
nanotechnologies. As a consequence of this new knowledge, materials with new
properties can be formulated and produced, allowing researchers to take advantage
of the special properties that occur in the nanoscale. Ideas and concepts about
nanotechnology were first discussed in 1959 by Richard Feynman in his talk
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“There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” in which he described the possibility of

material synthesis via direct manipulation of atoms [85, 86]. However, it was not
until 1974 that the term nanotechnology was first used by Norio Taniguchi [86].
Stimulated by Feynman’s ideas, Drexler et al. [87] used the term nanotechnology
in his book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology , proposing
the idea of a nanoscale self-assembler particle, which could build a copy of itself
and of other items with atomic control.

Nanomaterials have varying properties depending on their size, with bulk

materials having constant physical properties regardless of their size. As particles
are reduced below the micro-range, quantum mechanical effects and other physical
effects, such as high specific surface area, affect their properties [88].
Nanotechnology has been used in this discipline due to the majority of biological
processes occurring at the nanoscale, leading to many applications in biology and
medicine. Particle size significantly influences the behavior and properties of
materials at sizes below 100 nm, such as melting point, fluorescence, chemical
reactivity, and electrical conductivity [89]. Examples include the red or purple
color of gold due to electron confinement in smaller sizes, and the lowering of a
melting point with the reduction of particle size. Specific surface area increases
exponentially with particle size reduction, making nanomaterials more reactive
than bulk materials [90]. Examples include the solubility change of silica with
particle size, insoluble particles becoming soluble, and materials like aluminum
becoming combustible when particle size is reduced [88]. However, nanomaterials
can also have negative effects on human health, animal health, and the
environment. For example, nanofibers can lead to pulmonary illnesses, TiO 2
nanoparticles can cause pathological lesions in hairless mice, and SiO 2
nanoparticles increase carcinogenic risk in humans and animals [91]. In
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conclusion, understanding nanomaterials' properties and their interaction with the

environment is crucial for maximizing their benefits while avoiding harmful
effects.

Construction materials, including metals like steel and aluminum, minerals

like natural stone and concrete, and organic materials like plastic and bitumen, are
crucial to the global economy. Concrete is the most used manmade building
material due to its affordability, ease of casting, mechanical strength, and durability
[92]. Portland cement (PC) is the world's most used binder for construction
materials, with its good mechanical properties, low cost, and availability of raw
materials. However, PC production contributes to significant environmental
problems, as it contributes to 5-8% of global CO 2 emissions [93]. To reduce this
negative impact, there is increasing interest in alternative systems such as replacing
cement with other supplementary cementitious materials and developing new
binders like alkali-activated materials (AAMs) [92]. These materials may be
beneficial in terms of sustainability by using industrial by-products as a partial
precursor material instead of a primary raw mineral binder like PC [94]. The end-
products could show better properties compared to PC concrete, such as lower
hydration heat, lower thermal conductivity, and enhanced durability [94]. Applying
recycled or waste materials as aggregates in concrete can also bring further
environmental benefits, such as sustainability by reducing the utilization of natural
sources. Successful examples of such development include recycled concrete
aggregates, granulated blast furnace slags, municipal solid waste incineration
bottom ashes, and fly ashes [95].

Nanotechnology has extensively been applied in construction materials

with novel functionalities and improved characteristics. The application of
nanomaterials can be found in many materials, including cement, concrete,
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coating, paint, glass, etc. In concrete, nano/microsilica has been widely

investigated and applied (See; García-Taengua et al [96]; Lazaro et al. [97];
Quercia Bianchi [98]; Quercia et al. [99]; Sonebi et al. [100]). Improved
performances such as mechanical properties, durability and elasticity are reported,
and reduction of energy consumption has been claimed due to the reduced cement
dosage and due to the improved insulation when applied as façade materials. In
recent years, great attention has been paid to air quality, including both indoors and
outdoors. Application of nanotechnology for this purpose, for example,
photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) technique, has been addressed by numerous
studies. This is reflected in the many published articles in the last decade. A
semiconductor (e.g., TiO2) can be applied in the matrix of construction materials
like concrete or on the surface of the construction materials in a format of coating.
Air pollutants, including both organic (eg, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) like
toluene) and inorganic (e.g., NOx and SOx), can be removed by photocatalysis.
Furthermore, microorganisms and particles can also be degraded by PCO [83]. In
addition, the photo-induced superhydrophilic property of TiO 2 brings an extra
dimension of this technology, namely, a self-cleaning property. A successful
example is a TiO2 surface-modified glass window, which possesses an antifogging
property because of the light- mediated surface hydroxylation. Another example of
nanomaterials in construction materials is carbon-based nanomaterials [11].
Carbon nanotubes as a proxy for polymeric chemical admixtures can remarkably
improve certain properties such as durability by gluing concrete ingredients.
Nanosensors are also implemented in construction structure for various purposes,
among which one important application is health monitoring (can be remotely
controlled and real-time monitored) [51]. Another example is the synthesis and
application of nanosilica in construction materials. Nanosilica particles can modify
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light absorption/reflection, fire resistance, durability, and mechanical properties of

the implanted materials. It can be primarily concluded that many improvements
have been achieved due to application of nanotechnology [100]. Nevertheless, it
can also be observed that compared to the advancement of nanotechnology and
nanomaterials in other fields, the construction sector has been relatively slow in
catching up with the revolution of nanotechnology. Reasons for this may include:
(1) the lack of fundamental understanding of the chemical and physical
mechanisms and structure of nanomaterials at the nanorange, without which any
attempted modifications at this length scale will only be empirically based; (2) lack
of insight on what modifications nanomaterials will bring to construction materials,
especially very complex materials like concrete [101]. Hence, a promising but still
long way is in front of us to dig into the advancement of nanotechnology in
construction materials.

Nanoparticles have always been present in the environment, and humans

have been exposed to them in various forms such as blood, milk, and volcanic ash.
While these particles can be beneficial for human health, they can also pose health
risks due to their small size, which allows them to penetrate the structure of cells
and disrupt normal function [102]. Technological advancements have increased the
concentration of nanoparticles and expanded the diversity of nanoparticles present
in the environment. Today, there are many products containing nanomaterials, such
as sunscreen with nano TiO2, green tires with nano SiO2, and concrete with silica
fume [103]. However, there is no clear and harmonized legislation in Europe or the
United States about the use of nanoparticles [102]. The exposure of living
organisms to nanoparticles can lead to diseases or malfunctions, such as oxidative
stress, tissue inflammation, pulmonary diseases, cytotoxicity, DNA damage,
carcinogenic effects, neurological diseases, and heart diseases [82]. The presence
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of nanoparticles in the environment has led to the development of new products

that contain nanomaterials, but there is no clear and harmonized legislation in
Europe or the United States regarding their use [104]. In conclusion, nanoparticles
have always been present in the environment and have been exposed to humans in
various ways. However, there is still a need for clear and harmonized legislation to
protect human health and the environment from the harmful effects of
nanoparticles.

2.2. Overview of Nano-Alumina in Construction

Previous researches have shown that adding specific metal oxide
nanoparticles, such as SiO2, TiO2, ZrO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4, to concrete at
normal temperatures enhances its performance [105-111]. Wang et al. [112]
reported that the hydration rate of nanocomposites increases at low temperatures,
bypassing the induction stage and moving directly to the acceleration stage. This
change improves the microstructure of cement stone, compensating for the reduced
strength of cement materials in cold settings. In this section we will focus on the
properties and production techniques of nano-alumina from waste sources and the
benefits and challenges of using recycled nano-alumina.

2.2.1. Properties and production of Nano-Alumina

Alumina ceramics, out of all ceramic materials, have a wide range of
applications in contemporary industry because of its adaptable mechanical,
electrical, and optical characteristics [113]. Ceramic materials based on aluminum
oxide provide several advantages, including hardness, chemical inactivity, high
melting point, non-volatility, and resistance to corrosion and abrasion.
These intriguing characteristics have piqued the interest of researchers in the
production and application of nano-sized alumina or alumina-based
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nanocomposites [114]. Electronics, metallurgy, composites, wear protection,

refractories, catalysis, automobile pollution control, and hydrogenation are among
the fields in which nano alumina finds use [115].

Aluminum-oxide (Al2O3) has a complex structure in which oxygen anions

are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) or hexagonal close-packed (hcp) array.
γ, η (cubic), θ (monoclinic), δ (tetragonal or orthorhombic) structures are based on
fcc lattices and α (trigonal), κ (orthorhombic), χ (hexagonal) are hcp structures.
Figures (2-3) show some different forms of alumina. Nanoscale γ-alumina and α-
alumina are thermally stable at higher temperature, but are difficult to produce
because heat can easily promote grain growth of powder and make it inconvenient
to produce nanoparticle [116].

Figure (2.3): Some structural forms of alumina. Adapted from [117].

The properties of nano alumina particles largely depend on particle size,

morphology, and surface and phase homogeneity. These factors can be controlled
by selecting a proper synthetic route. Traditional methods for creating nano Al 2O3
powder might be either chemical or physical [118, 119]. Chemical techniques
Chapter 2 Literature Review

include hydrothermal, vapour phase reaction, co-precipitation, combustion, sol-gel

processes, and kaolin leaching; physical techniques include mechanical milling,
laser ablation, and flame spray [120-122]. In the following, a discussion of the
commonly used techniques to produce nano-alumina with the corresponding
properties;

1- Sol gel Method

The sol-gel method is a colloidal process in which oxide network is for-
med through polycondensation reaction from molecular precursors. This
method provides pure, homogeneous powder at low processing temperature
with good reproducibility [123]. The main disadvantages of the process are the
moisture sensitivity of alkoxides, costly storage requirements and the need for a
proper handling system [124]. The hydrolysis and condensation rate of the sol-
gel process are controlled by various factors that help to determine the
properties of the final material. Among these influences are: organic and
inorganic additive precursors, starting materials, sol- vents, stirring time, pH,
water content and added surfactants [125]. A generalized flowchart of the sol-
gel method is shown in Figure 2.4.
Chapter 2 Literature Review

Figure (2.4): Flowchart of the sol-gel method. Adapted from [125].

Sol-gel methods may be used to create nano alumina using a range of
precursors. An organic precursor is aluminium isopropoxide, whereas popular
inorganic precursors include aluminium nitrate and aluminium chloride. In
order to create α-Al2O3, Rogojan et al. [126] used aluminium triisopropylate as
an organic precursor and aluminium chloride as an inorganic. They found that
powdered alumina synthesized at 1000 °C had superior qualities than powders
made at other temperatures with greater particle sizes. In some biological
applications, it might be used as a biomaterial due to its nanometer-sized
dimensions. Additionally, al powder is utilized as a starting ingredient to affect
the sol-gel process's processing phases. Shojaie-Bahaabad et al. [127] studied
the synthesis of nano α-Al2O3 powder using low-cost chemicals like
AlCl3•6H2O and Al powder. Sol-gel processing involves adding solvents like
ethanol, diethylene glycol, and monoethyl ether, as well as stabilizers like acetic
Chapter 2 Literature Review

acid. Karim et al. [128] examined the effect of different organic solvents on
porous, amorphous γ-alumina formation, which can be used for
chromatography and biomedical applications. Additives like urea and citric acid
can control the homogeneity of the sol, affecting the crystallization kinetics of
the ceramic material. Li et al. [129] prepared ultrafine α-Al2O3 powders with
aluminium nitrate and citric acid, focusing on in situ generation of water-
soluble metal complexes. Nano-sized Al 2O3 can be obtained by controlling
particle size and shape to reduce agglomeration. Surfactants like sodium
dodecyl sulfate, sodium bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate, and hexadecyl are
commonly used to delay crystal growth.

2- Combustion Synthesis
The combustion method (Figure 2.5) is a rapid process that produces
high-purity nanosized materials with less energy-intensive steps. It involves
using a specific form of reactant such as solid, liquid, and gas during
combustion synthesis. Gas phase combustion shows low efficiency due to the
high cost of its final product [130]. Solid state combustion is generally either
self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) or volume combustion
synthesis (VCS) [131]. In SHS, the reaction is highly exothermic, and greater
heat should be generated than dissipated. In VCS, heating is done in a
controlled manner and the reaction is less exothermic. Preheating is a necessary
condition for fuel activation [132]. A combustion synthesis solution that
combines multiple combustion approaches is preferred. This process mainly
involves a self-sustaining reaction between different oxidizers and fuels. In a
Chapter 2 Literature Review

controlled stoichiometric procedure, metal nitrate serves as an oxidizer and

urea, glycine, and citric acid as fuel, yielding a highly uniform and complex
oxide ceramic powder. Different types of combustion methods are used in
combination to produce nano alumina from different compositions of oxidizer
and fuel. Researchers have synthesized alumina with glycine as fuel and
aluminium nitrate as an oxidizer using different fuel-to-oxidant ratios.
Thermodynamic modelling showed that both the amount of gas and the
adiabatic flame temperature increase when the fuel-to-oxidant ratio is increased.
A pure phase of α-Al2O3 with foamy agglomeration was observed at 1100 °C
[132]. Sharma et al. [133] used aluminium nitrate as an oxidizer and glycine as
fuel to synthesise alumina powder. They varied the ratio of fuel to oxidizer and
concluded that gas production and temperature changes during the combustion
reaction can be explained through thermodynamic concepts. Baburao et al.
obtained nanocrystalline γ-alumina powders by optimizing mixed glycine and
urea fuel. The pH of the solution plays a vital role in phase separation during
evaporation of solvents. The morphology, sinter activity, and thermal behavior
of the obtained alumina depend mainly on the initial citrate-to-nitrate ratio
[134].
Chapter 2 Literature Review

Figure (2.5): Flowchart of the combustion method. Adapted from Sun et al.
[113].
3- Precipitation Method
Precipitation synthesis (Figure 2.6) reactions are crucial for the
formation of nano alumina precipitates, which are pure and insoluble [135].
Precursors are primarily inorganic metal salts such as chlorides, nitrates, and
sulphates. Precipitation is a simple and low-cost method, and the choice of a
proper precursor is the main decision parameter [136]. Various researchers have
used aluminium chloride as a precursor and concentrated NH 3•H2O as a
precipitant to synthesize alumina in ethanol medium, resulting in agglomerate-
free γ-Al2O3. A wide range of precipitating agents can be used in precipitation
reactions, including aluminium nitrate, ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium
carbonate, sodium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate [137-139]. The
performance of γ-Al2O3 catalysts is comparable to that of commercially
available catapal-B alumina samples, which is made of 72 mass-% alumina
containing very fine boehmite powder [140]. The effective catalytic activity of
γ-Al2O3 is due to its high surface area, surface acidity, and crystallinity [141]. A
Chapter 2 Literature Review

long chain, inexpensive, and non-ionic surfactant helps an inorganic precursor

condense into a self-assembling structure [140]. Ru-organic and inorganic
precursors are suitable for hydrothermal synthesis, with starting materials being
of accurate composition, homogeneous, pure, and fine nature. Alpha alumina
was synthesised using Al (C2O4)x(OH)y complexes by J.S. Lee et al. [141] who
found that the addition of oxalic acid changed the morphology and crystallinity
of α-Al2O3 at different calcination temperatures. Seeding promotes nucleation
sites and the formation of nano alumina phase, with seeds controlling the size,
composition, and crystallization rate. Suchanek et al. used both alkaline and
acidic media to synthesize α-Al2O3 powder without stirring, finding α-Al2O3
phase directly formed at a low temperature around 400°C. Han et al. studied the
effect of alumina sol in transforming γ-Al2O3 to α-Al2O3 through surface
modification, adding nano-sized α-Al2O3 seeds to enhance agglomeration of γ-
Al2O3 [141].
4- Hydrothermal Synthesis
Hydrothermal synthesis (Figure 2.6) is a low-temperature method that
crystallizes anhydrous materials from aqueous solutions at elevated
temperatures and pressures [83]. The initial pH, temperature, and pressure of
the medium affect the process kinetics and properties of the resulting products.
Synthesis is mainly done in autoclaves, which can resist high temperatures and
pressures for long processing times. The main advantage of this method is its
one-step synthesis without high calcination temperature, refined chemical and
phase purity, narrow crystalline size distribution, and low aggregation level
[91]. Theoretical and experimental preparation of alumina has been studied by
Almyasheva et al. [142] who found α-AlOOH (diaspore) as a stable form of
aluminium oxyhydroxide with a non-equilibrium phase across temperatures
Chapter 2 Literature Review

from 120 to 380 °C and pressures from 1 to 70 MPa. Alumina can be prepared
using different aluminium precursors, both organic and inorganic, and starting
materials should be accurate, homogeneous, pure, and fine in nature [143].
Alpha alumina was synthesised using Al (C 2O4)x(OH)y complexes by J.S. Lee
et al. [144] who found that the addition of oxalic acid changed the morphology
and crystallinity of α-Al2O3 at different calcination temperatures. Seeding
promotes nucleation sites and the formation of nano alumina phase, with seeds
controlling the size, composition, and crystallization rate [145]. Han et al. [146]
studied the effect of alumina sol on transforming γ-Al 2O3 to α-Al2O3 through
surface modification, adding nano-sized α-Al2O3 seeds to enhance
agglomeration of γ-Al2O3. The hydrothermal method gives nano-size alumina
particles with very low agglomeration and high purity, but its main
disadvantage is its complexity.

Figure (2.6): Flowchart of the hydrothermal method. Adapted from Suchanek

et al. [145]
5- Alumina from Kaolin by Leaching Method

Kaolin, a naturally occurring mineral, contains 20-26% alumina [147].

Alumina can be extracted using acid leaching, which involves disaggregating
Chapter 2 Literature Review

kaolin particles to remove impurities and partially dissolve Al 3+ ions from the
octahedral sheets of kaolinite [148]. Nano alumina can be prepared from kaolin
(Figure 2.7) using hydrochloric acid as leachant, which offers advantages such as
ease of iron removal, filtration of solute suspension, and acid recovery [149].
However, the corrosive, expensive, and volatile nature of the process can be a
problem. Wahab et al. [150] investigated the extraction of alumina by leaching
with hydrochloric acid from white kaolinite clay, finding that 93% of original
alumina could be recovered with a purity of 99.98% by optimizing the calcination
temperature of raw kaolin. Yang et al. [151] proposed a mechanism for
transformation of raw kaolin to γ-Al2O3, while Pan et al. [152] prepared large
mesoporous γ-Al2O3 by leaching coal series kaolin. Sulphuric acid has been used to
prepare nano alumina by leaching kaolin, as it is less expensive than HCl and can
be directly applied. Hosseini et al. [153] made γ-Al2O3 by extracting alumina from
kaolin using H2SO4 followed by precipitation in ethanol, proving a simple and
cheap method for production of alumina. Salahudeen et al. [154] used kankara
kaolin to synthesize gamma aluminum in three steps, first leaching aluminium ion
using sulphuric acid, then precipitating aluminium hydroxide from aluminium
sulfur and calcining at different temperatures. The extracted alumina content
increased with a rise in calcination temperature.
Chapter 2 Literature Review

Figure (2.7): Flowchart of the leaching method. Adapted from

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