Subhajt kubt fosiie 1

UNIT 11 FLOWAND MINDFULNESS*

Structur

11.1 Lcarning Objectivcs

1.2 Introduction
11.3 Flow: The Optimal Experiencc
11.3.1 Conponcnts ofFlowExperience
114 Flow and Engagemcnt: Arc TheySarmc?
11.5 Flow:An Indigenous Perspective
11.6 Bencfits ofFlow
11.7 Assessment ofFlow
l1.8 Mindfulness
11.9 Meaning of Mindfulness
11.10 How does Mindfulness Work?
11.1 Benefits ofMindfulness
11.12 Mindfulness BasedInterventions
11.13 Assessnent ofMindfulness
11.14 Let Us Sum Up
11.15 Key Words
11.16 Answers to SelfAssessment Questions
11.17 Unit End Questions
11.18 References
11.19 Suggested Readings

11.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
Explain the meaning of flow and describe its different components;
Describe the benefits offlow and how to assess it;
Define mindfulness and describe its components;
Explain the mechanism of mindfulness;
Describe the assessment of mindfulness,; and
Discuss various mindfulness-based interventions and how they impact
the well-being of individuals.

11.2 INTRODUCTION
Rita loves dancing and has performed on stage in many functions in her college.
When she practices in her dance class in the evening, she becomes so engrossed
*Dr. Shalini Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Ramanujan College,
238 University ofDelhi, Delhi.
 college classes. She geis imnmerscd
whle
her
forgets all the tiedness afierHaveyou everfeltthat time has flied
that she oftime.
loses the track a game.
herdance and reading a favouritenovel orplaying
doinganything, e.g., his collegefriends. They dined
with
moviein the evening fathergot angry and
Rahul has gonefor alate by the time he returned home. His lale into the night
outand it wasquite so irresponsible and staying out so groOWn up
scolded him for being was about to retort back saying that he is ruin
Rahul also got angny and ofhimself. But then he thought that he is nol going to
now and can take care argument wilh
enjoyable experience he had by getting into an
his sleep and the
hisfather so late in the night.
hesc
yourselfin situations similar to the cases described above? T
Have you ever found positive psychology, namely Flow and
examples depict two important constructs in
on such aspects which make
Mindfulness. The field of positivepsychology focuses
lite more flourishing, meaningful and worth living. It aims at finding out what is
One 's
good in life and how we can enhance our life?

Theprocess of engagement in any activity and in life refers to the process of immersing
oneself andgetting absorbed in the work we do or task at hand. Engagement and
particularly the concept of flow', is important in making life worth living and promoting
aprofound sense ofwell-being for people who have flow experience. MindfulnesS
also contributes to living abalanced and enriching life by paying attention to the present
moment experiences.
In the present Unit, we willdiscuss about these positive psychology constructs of flow
and mindfulness.

11.3 FLOW: THE OPTIMAL EXPERIENCE

The concept of Flow'originated from the works ofMihály Csíkszentmihályi(1975,
1990),a Hungarian-American psychologist, and aProfessor at Claremont Graduate
University, California, who first recognized andcoined the term. He studied people
from creative field or artists where work is integrated with leisurelike dancers, painters,
athletes, etc. based on which he propounded the concept offlow.
The flow state was defined as the one where aperson is fully engaged or immersed in
the activity they are doing. Itis afeeling which is characterized by astate of concentration,
fulfillment, complete absorption, engagement and competency, and adisregard of the
sense oftine, ego, bodily needs during the activity. According to Csikszentmihályi
(2005), flow involves being fully present and engrossed in the activity and utilizing
one's skills to the fullest. The characteristic feature of flowis adeep involvement in the
moment-to -moment activity.

Inhis popular work, 'Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience,Csikszentmihályi

has proposed that when, in a state of flow, people feel the happiest. It is a kind of
involvement andfocusin one'swork that nothing else seems to matter (Csíkszentmihályi,
1990). In 1996 he added, flow is 'extremely enjoyed optimalexperience in which
totalconcentration and enjoyment with great interestfor the activityis experienced"
(Csikszentmibályi, 1996). This flowexperience can be felt during play, games, creative
pursuits, spiritualexperience, and other contexts, however, it is not limited to these.
Maslow's (1962, 1971)concept of 'peak experiencesand de Charms (1968) idca of
*origin'state share many commonalities with flow.
 Positive Cognitive States
and Processes Based on the interviews findings of artists, sportsmen ctc., Csíkszentmihalyi has
underlined certain elements of flowexperience.
11.3.1 Components of Flow Experience
Merging of action and awareness
One ofthe most defining features offlow experience is the merging of actionwith
Its awareness. Here the individual is very much aware of his/her actions, but do
not reflect on that awareness itself. For example in a chess game, the player has
undivided attention on the game on its every move but isnot perceptive of that
awareness.

To quote an example from the interviews of artists by Csíkszentmihályi,

ofyourselfas
"You are so involved in what youare doing, you arent thinking
separate
separate from the immediate activity... you dont see yourself as
from what you aredoing... "(Csíkszentmihályi, 2014).
activity carried out
For this kind ofmerging between action and awareness, the
about his/her
must be achievable i.e., the person doing it must be confident
for longer
ability to perform, However, this flow experience is not easy to sustain
periods oftime and is sometimes disrupted by momentary interruptions in theis
activity
form of outside perspective like 'AmI doing well'?The moment
perceived from outside, the awareness is split from the action, and the flow
experience is interrupted.
Centering of attention
The flow experience is achieved when one's attention is undivided and centered
on asingle stimulus field. This focusing of attention involves keeping out ofattention
the unnecessary, irelevant, ordistracting stimuli. It is also named as the 'narrowing
ofconsciousness. This concentration or narrowing ofattention is attained bya
number of factors during play or games like rules and structure of the game,
competition, material rewards, and sometimes, even physicaldanger. Although
flow is not limited to games only, it can be experienced in any kind of activities.
The determining element here is the pure involvement, and finding joy in that
involvement.

Loss of ego
Loss ofego here denotes, atemporary loss of self-consciousness or one's identity,
and individuality. It is abriefforgetfulness of one'sselfand becoming one with the
activity. When aperson is involved in the activity completely, self-interests become
superfluous. The selfor ego here is seen from the intrapsychic perspective and not
physical body. The person does not lose touch with one'sphysical reality, on the
other hand, in some flow activities like yoga and certain sports, the individual
becomes considerably more aware of one's internal processes or changes.It's the
absence of awareness of self as a role or ego.
As described by one person in the creative field,
"You yourselfare in anecstatic state to such a point that youfeel as though
you almost dont exist. I've experienced this time and time again. My hand
240 seems devoid of myself, and I have nothing to do with what is happening !
 wonderment. And it just flows Flo and MAl
watching it in a state of aweand
justsit there
itself"(Csikszentmihályi,2014).
ou by
environment
Control of action and
feeling of sense of controlover one's actions and
Another element offlow is a mastery,as it is astate of not being
environment. It is not as much a feeling of
one's thinking
bothered about by the likelihood ofloss of control.Retrospectively, while skills
experience, feels that he had adequate
about the event, a person with flow leading
demands ofthe environment at that time,
and competencies for meeting the self-concept
to a sense of positive self-regard and a positive
An excerpt from Csíkszentmihályistudy explains this point,
"Ifeel in control. Sure. I've practiced and have a good feeling for the shots
Ican make...I dont feel in control ofthe other player-even ifhes bad andl
know where to beat him. It's me and not him that I'm working
on. "(Csíkszentmihályi, 2014).
Demands for action and clear feedback

The demands for action which results in flow experience have the characteristics
of being clear, consonant or coherent. In addition it involves explicit and clear
feedback to the person for his actions. The task is defined clearly and the person
is required to do things which are coherent or compatible with the goals. In other
words the goals and the means are aligned with cach other. In the words ofa
climber from Csíkszentmihályi's study, the phenomenon is described as,
"I think it's one of the fewsorts of activities in which you don 1feel you have
all sorts of different kinds of demands, often conflicting, upon
you..."(Csíkszentmihályi, 2014). OPL
Toput in other words, flow experience involve participating in orderty activities,
where there is no conflict between the goals, the action towards the goals, and
where the feedback of the action follows the action. Flow is enhanced in the
presence ofclear and timely feedback. Feedback is important as it lets know the
person howwell she is doing in the activity, and signals to either modify or continue
SIT
the ongoing course of action. It provides a direction and clarity to the person
about the course ofaction.
Autotelic in nature

One of the most defining characteristics offlow is autotelic, that is, it is

self
rewarding and the activity does not require any rewards external to itself. Most
or all offlow activities like play, dance, games, artistic
drawing etc. are inherently
rewarding to the person doing those activities. Although external
be there in most of the rewards can
above-mentioned and other flow activities yet the people
experiencing flow are primarily motivated by the experience and not the extermal
rewards attached. Amusic composer when asked by
composes answers, Csíkszentmihályi why he
"One doesnt do it for money. One does it for,
gives. I think the great composers, all the great perhaps, the satisfaction it
period. "(Csíkszentmihályi, 2014). artists, workfor themselves,
241
 5

Positive Cognitive States

and Processes Altered sense of time
We all have experienced at some point or other how time seemsto fly very last
when we are enjoying something., and it seems to standstill in periods ofboredom,
agony or stress. William James (I890) commented how boredom is heightened
when we become attentive to the process oftime passing. In the flow, attention
is focused on the moment to moment activity, the person is not at alloriented
towards the mental processes that signals the time duration. As a result the
person fully engaged in an activity feels that time has passed too quickly
(Conti, 2001).
This is expressed in one of the verbatim of a chess player interviewed by
Csíkszentmihályi,
ime passes a hundred times faster In this sense, it resembles the dream
state. Awhole story can unfold inseconds, it seems. "(Csíkszentmihályi, 2014).
The excerpts from the interviewees showed that all the components ofthe flow
experience are interconnected to each other. By limiting their attention to a limited
stimulus field and evading distractions, persons in the flow activity can feel a sense
ofcontrol over their environment. Being involved in an activity where goals are
clear and unambiguous, this intense concentration can lead to temporary detachment
from theiridentity, selfandsense of time.AIl these elements resultin a feeling of
intrinsic satisfaction which is rewarding in itself.
Itis important to note here that for the optimal or flowexperiencethe challenge or
opportunities for action needs to be consonant with perceived capabilities. When
the demands are experienced to be more than what one can handle, it can lead to
stressor anxiety. On the.other hand, iftheskills are perceived to begreater than
the demands ofthesituation, it canresultin boredom. Therefore, flow is experienced
when thereisamatch between the opportunities foraction(challenges) and the
perceived skills of the person.
There are ofherconceptualizätions offlowäs well by different researchers. Most of
themderiveffom Csíkszentmihályi modelofflow. Jackson and Eklud (2002) proposed
that the optimalexperience can be explained by nine dimensions: consciousness-action
fusion, complete concentration, lack of awareness, balance-skill challenge, time
distortion, feedback, target clarity, and autotelic experience.
Bakker (2005) came up with aslightly different approach, with three broad dimensions
offlow:Absorption, Enjoyment and Intrinsic Motivation.
Another group ofresearchers,Chen, Wigand and Nila (1999) suggests the proposition
that optimalexperience can be achieved by three initial dimensions which can lead to
the experience offlow:
Goal and challenge perception
Perception ofthe abilities adjusted for the action
Immediate feedback
Thus the flow experience consists ofa number of elementsas described above. Various
other factors such as clarity ofgoals, optimal challenges, high achievement motivation,
and importance ofactivity for the person also influence the extent to which the person
engages in an activity and finds it intrinsically rewarding.
242
 Flow and Mindtulnes
THEYSAME?
11.4 FLOW ANDENGAGEMENT: ARE
Flow is often used interchangeably with engagement.
Many find the two terms
differentiating the
overlapping, or an extension of each other. There is a verythin line
and the manner in which
two. Due to the commonalities between the two concepts,
literature about which
they are conceptualized, there are different perspectives in the
flow? There is
causes what, i.e., ifflow leads to engagement or engagement results in
no consistent empirical evidence in one direction.
Kahn (1990)contended engagement to be one ofthe elements of flow. Schaufeli,
Salanova, Gonzalez-Rokmáand Bakker (2002) suggested that flow is climax
experience ofengagement. They argued that engagement is apositive psychological
state of work that can be described by vigor, dedication and absorption. Engagement
can be a reflection of one's internal motivation at work, it can be referred to as a more
persistent cognitive-affective state, as compared toflow which can be a specific,
transient, peak experience. The most common difference cited between the two is
temporality.While flowisaslightlymore complex concept and includes various elements,
it signifies a particular, time bound, transient 'peak' experience, as compared to a
more consistent, and extensive psychological statesuch as engagement (Schaufeli et
al., 2002). The absorption dimension of engagement comes very close to flow.
Furthermore, engagement is generally referred in work context and indicates one's
identification with one's work(Schaufeli et al., 2009), while flow can be experienced
in any ofthe activities or unlikely situations.

11.5 FLOW:ANINDIGENOUSPERSPECTIVE
The conceptof flowhas parallels in the Hindu philosophyofKarna Yoga, underlined
in the Hindu's sacred text Bhagavad Gita. Both Flowand Bhagävad Gita propound
enjoying the journey or processofwork itself, ratherthan beingfocused about the end
goal, in order to experience inner satisfaction and peace.In the BhagavadGita, Lord
Krishna instructs his disciple Arjunato follow this principle: SITY
Invest your energies in doing your duty in the best
possible manner, but do not concern yourself with the
results. Let the motive of action be the action, and not
the hope of reward.

Shree Krishna explains -by getting rid ofthe attachment to the results of thework, one
can attain excellence in the work we do. This excellence in work is Yoga. Shri Krishna
clarifies that working without personal interests, does not dampen the spirit ofwork or
quality of work;contrary to this, we become more skillful in comparison to when we
work with an eye towards personal rewards. 243
 Positive Cognitive States Flow can be experienced in any kind of work. Toquote the Gita the one devoted to
and Proccsses
his duty (work, action) attains perfection" [18.45].
Csikszentmihalyi's conceptualization of filowand how to achieve the highest form of
fulfillment- enjoying the moment-to moment activitywithout aiming at the end goal, is
Krishna -the
very similar to the path ofpeace and self-realization prescribed by Lord
elimination of desirefor rewards and detachment from fruits of actions.

11.6 BENEFITS OF FLOW

it has
Although flow can be a very personally and internally rewarding experience,
often discussed
broader positive consequences. The two directconsequences of flow
in turn can lead to
in literature are enjoyment and pleasurable absorption. These two
a number of benefits for the person and in the work context.
The pleasurable
associated with
absorption experienced in the leisure and sports activities has been
enhanced interest in task
many crucial outcomes in the work arena like
(Csikzsentmihalyi, Rathunde,& Whalen,1993), positive mood (Eisenberger et al.,
2005), in-role and extra role work behaviors (Demerouti, 2006), organizational
spontaneity (Eisenberger et al., 2005), and overall physical as well as psychological
well-being (Steele, 2006).
Anumber ofstudies have highlighted the positive effects offlow in creative fields like
journalism. Flow was found to influence enjoyment at work and sense of professional
efficacyin journalists (Burke &Mattheisen, 2004). Studies are abound in the positive
effects offlow in sports and creative activities. However, there is dearth of studies of
flow in the other workicontext likeacademics. Flowcan havemany relevant outcomes
in the workplace suchas improved performance and organizational citizenship
behaviour. Additionally it can be pYomoted by various job characteristics like
leadership, freedom,autonomy, open communicationchannels etc. at work; thereby
makingflowan empirically modifiable variable, which canbe enhanced by changing
specific jobcharacteristics. Thereforepleasurable absorption and enjoyment resulting
from flow, can lead to'positive work outcomes in diverse fields and have the potential
to reduce stress at work and promote well-being. Although studies in the domain are
limited, it has been found that flow can be concluded by work characteristics in the
academic context and brings about better physical and psychological well-being in
students (Steele, 2006). Findings from flow experience can be utilized in aiding
institutional practices to enhance students involvement in studies and academic work
in general.
Exercises to triggera Flow Experience:
When facedwith a challenging situation, try taking not a standard
route instead a different approach, stretching your imagination.
Think outside of the box and look at the problems from an
unconventional angle.
Try taking part in activities that you never took part in,
explored
or never thought to be a possibility for you like playing a new
244
sport, exploring a new place etc.
 Flow and Mindfulne
yourselfin new experiences andemvironments
Practice immersing
your
your personal mission statement - identify
Chalk goals and ask yourself
competencies and write your personal
"What do I want to achieve?"

11.7 ASSESSMENT OF FLOW

The construct of flowevolved during the study undertaken by Csikszentmihalyi (1975).
Csikszentmihalyi utilized the technique of qualitative interviewing to investigate the
cxperiencesofpeople involved in creative activities. The flow experience can be assessed
by using avariety of methods, which can be qualitative, quantítative or both. Interviews
are the most popular means to attain qualitative measures of flow.Another method is
Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM) (Csikszentmihalyi &Graef, 1980;
Csikszentmihalyi &Kubey, 1981).
The survey method is the most common method to measure flow quantitatively. Two
psychological tests:The Flow State Scale I (FSSID) (Jackson &Eklund, 2002) and
the Work related Flow scale (WOLF), (Bakker, 2005) are used.to measure Flow.
The FSS I derives from the Csikszentmihalyi (1988) nine dimensional model of flow
and consists of36 items (four items for each ofthe nine dimensions offlow).The scale
has high intermal consistency reliability (Jackson & Eklund, 2002). The other test,
WOLF is more applicable to and is based upon work context. It draws from Bakkar
(2005) theoretical proposition of flow experience, which isdefined by absorption,
work enjoyment and intrinsic work motivation.
Flow is thus an intermally rewarding experience, when individuals are completely
immersed in any activity, to the extent offorgetting their identity, self,sense of time, and
everything else in their background but the activity itself. People canexperience this at
the time ofwriting anovel, dancing, participating in sports,playingamusical instrument,
and all other kinds ofactivities where a person feels involved and skillful.There are
many dimensions to it, however the defining characteristics of flow include deep
involvement at the moment, challenge and skill balance, and autotelic in nature. This
functioning at one's fullest capacity is rewarding in itselfand gives afeeling ofbliss and
the need to relive the experience again and again.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Who has contributed to the concept of Flow'?
2. Name a few characteristics offlow experience.
3. The concept of flow has parallels in which Hindu philosophy?
4. Name the psychological tests used to measure flow.

11.8 MINDFULNESS
What most ofthe respondents in CsiksSzentmihály qualitative interview study experienced
in the state of flowwas afeeling of connectedness (mind,body and action), bliss and
peace resulting from intense focus and concentration in the act being performed. One 245
Positive Cognitive States
and Processes
wishes to be in this state again and
ndfuness.orThis brings us to anothagain.
miawareness What is actually causing this
erelated topic bliss in action is
being in the moment. ofmindfulness, defined by heightened
Mindfulness, an attribute of
psychological well-being of conscio usness,p lays an important role in
individuals is worrying
people. One of the major stresors of improving the
life for
feelings like guilt, regret,about future or getting stuck in the past leading tomostnegative
of the
state of mind requires oneresentment, grievance,
to focus one'
dreaming, worries, excessive planning cause s attentionanxiety, bitterness etc. Ahealthy
in the present.
conscious awareness,thus develop However,day
individuals to act mechanically
mindless. behavioral patterns which are unhealthy without
and
Adisconnect between
mind, and heart is avery
being in the world for so manybody common and accepted way of
ofus. People of all age groups
particularly those who have to balance and manage multiple can be prone to this and
relationships at agiven time. However, this can have seriousroles, responsibilities and
effects on individuals'
physical and mental health, particularly their
emotional well-being.
Anumber of
underscored thepsychological, philosophical and spiritual schools of thought have
relevance of development of consciousness for the presence and
improvement of well-being.An aspect of consciousness that has been much discussed
and studied with respect to well-being is
as the state of being attentive to and Mindfulness. In simpleterms itis construed
one to train its mind to stop being aware of what is goingon in the present. It helps
bothered aboutwhat has happened in the past or can
happen in future andrèspond effectivelyto
tothe events outside, but paying what is happening in the moment-not only
close attention to one's inner states like thoughts,
sensations, feelings and emotions. This can promote
regulatory behavior and positive mental health. well-being by facilitating self
11.9 MEANING OF
MINDFULNESS
Theterm mindfulness is atranslation of the
in Buddhist traditions, though word Sati inPali language, and has its roots
its origin dates back at least as far as the third millennium
B.C.E. as part of the Brahmanic
traditions in the Indian
emerged the Buddhism (Cousins, 1996, cited in Lomaset al,subcontinent, from where
is generally used to indicate both: a 2017 p. 1331, MindfulnesSs
() state or quality ofmind; and () a form of
meditation that helps one to bring up and nurture this particular
al., 2017). state/quality (Lomas et.
With respect to its first meaning,
Kabat-Zinn (2003) defines mindfulness as the
consciousness that comes through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment,
and nonjudgmentally to the flow
ofexperience moment by moment" (Lomas et. al.,
2017,p. 133). The main attributes ofmindfulness
and 'acceptance' of one's experiences; involve a'pre-conceptual awareness'
flexible
unbiased openness toexperience; and an orientation control of attention; adetached or
Ryan, &Creswell,2007a; Howell, 2008, p. 773). to be 'here-and-now (Brown,
NyanaponikaThera (1972) called mindfulness "the clear and
single-minded
of what actually happens to us and in us at the successive moments of awareness
(Brown and Ryan, 2003,p. 822). Hanh (1976) defined perception
246 mindfulness
consciousness alive to the present reality" (Brown and Ryan, as keeping one's
2003).However, 'paying
 10

attention'here indicates concentrating on what one is doing, at the same time being Flow and Mindrul
aware of one'saffective state, thoughts, and memories that arise in that moment, and
alsoobserving when the mind digress so that it can be refocused (Baer &Krietemeyer,
2006).
central aspect of mindfulness that has been described is open or receptive
A
and focus (Deikman, 1982; Martin, 1997, in Brown and Ryan, 2003, p. awareness
822). Prof.
Ronald D. Siegel ofHarvard Medical School concur the notion
ofnon-judgment, and
acceptance to the concept of mindfulness. He defines it 'as awareness of
experience with acceptance' (Siegel, 2014). According to him, there arepresent three
components of mindfulness: awareness, present experience and
acceptance.
Mindfulness requires training to devote our focus to what is occuring at the
with open-minded inquisitiveness and approval moment,
p.4).Shapiro, Carlson, Astin and Freedman (Kabat-Zinn 1996, in Weare, 2014,
(2006) specified three components of
mindfulness: intention (i.e., motivation for paying
the cognitive mechanisms through which said attention in this way); attention (i.e.,
the emotional qualities with which one attention is enacted); and attitude (i.e.,
imbues one's attentive focus, like compassion)
(Lomaset. al., 2017, p. 133).
Mindfulness is alsoconsidered as atrait, which indicates that people differ in terms of
levelofmindfulness, some being more mindful than others. Higher levels of
is linked with good number
ofpositive aftereffects, like better mental health,mindfulness
enhanced
satisfaction in relationships, and much better
Trait mindfulness is strongly linked with higher coping with pain (Brown et. al., 2007).
Brown, Kasser, Ryan, Linley, &Orzech, subjective well-being (Baer et. al., 2008;
and Malouff, 2011, p. 1116). 2009;Falkenstrom, 2010, cited in Schutte
Another way mindfulnessis defined is asameditational practice.
"Acollection of self-regulation practices that
focus on
awareness so as to bring mental phenomena under one's training
Meditation refers to:
attention and
self-control, fostering
PLES
general mental well-being and development ofspecific abilities
and concentration" (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006, p.
p. 199).
As a meditational practice, mindfulness
like calm, clarity,
228,in Davis and Hayes, 2011,

meditation, specifies a diversified realm of

RSITY
activities relating to mind, with acommon purpose of teaching the
attention and awareness (Lomas, Ivtzan, &Fu, 2015), with the aim self-regulation of
control ofmental processes, leading to enhanced sense of wellbeingofimproving one's
2006, in Lomas et al 2017, p.134). Its foundation lies on (Walsh &Shapiro,
but as a psychological concept is separate from spiritual
conventional mindful meditation
beliefs and Buddhist practices
(Kabat-Zinn 1982,cited in Khan and Zadeh, 2014, p.70). Mindfulness meditation is
often used reciprocaly with Vipassana, a form
from Theravada Buddhisn (Gunaratana, 2002; Young, ofmeditational practice that derives
word for insight and clear awareness and carried out in a1997).Vipassana alsoa Pali
is
manner to
mindfulness (Gunaratana, 2002 in Davis and Hayes, 2011, p. 199).gradually enhance
Mindfulness meditation came to be popular in the western world owing to the
efforts
ofKabat-Zinn (1982), who utilized it for anovelmindfulness-based stress reduction"
(MBSR) programme. There are number of interventions based on
meditation that we will discuss later on in this unit. mindfulness
247
 Positive Cognitive States
and Processes Dimensions of Mindfulness
Based on the above discussion on the meaning of mindfulness, Shapiroet al. (2002)
outlined the following qualities of mindfulness, which a person can experience during
the 'moments of mindfulness".
Non-judgmental: Witnessing the passing thoughts and the present moment
without evaluating or putting them in any categories.
Non-striving: Not trying to achieve any specific goals, not getting attached to
desirable outcomes.

Acceptance:Being open and accepting of thingsas they are in the present. It

does not indicate passive resignation or unwillingly accepting, but recognizing
one'sexperiences with awareness and openness.
pace.
Patience: Having a composed mind to let things unfold at their own
present moment.
Being patient with ourselves, people around, situations and
whatever is happening
Trust: Having trust in one's body, one's feelings and that
in life it is supposeditobe like that
Recognizing
Opermess: Receiving everythingas itis happening for the firsttime.
possibilities by being fully in the present moment.
experience
Letting Go: Not getting attached to any thought, feeling or
Gentleness: Quality of being soft, tender and considerate.
compassion without
Generosity: Being and giving in the present with love and
getting attached to gains in return.
situation
Empahy: Trying to understand other person feelings, perspective and
in the present
Gratitude: The quality of appreciatingand feeling grateful for the present
Loving-Kndness: The feeling offorgiveness, compassion and unconditional
love

11.10 HOW DOES MINDFULNESSWORK?

(a) Biological changes in brain and body
(e.g,,Frewen et
Studies ofthe biological basis ofhigher levels oftrait mindfulnessactivation
brain during
al., 2010) propose that mindfulness is linked to differential
advancements
emotional processing (Schutte and Malouff, 2011,p. 1116). Recent
structure and its functions
in the field ofneuroscience have revealed that the brain
remains plastic and moldable
are not permanent from childhood, rather brain
throughout life.A large number of studies using brainimaging/MR*techniques and
Randomized Control trials (RCT) methodologyto inquire theimpact ofeffect mindfulness
profound altering on the
are propounding that mindfulness training have a
brain's structure and functioning to enhance the quality of cognitions and feelings. thereby
Mindfulness meditation apparently reshapes the neural connections,
with thinking
enhancing the complexity anddensity of connectionsin centers linkedwellas emotion
248
abilities (attention, focus, awareness of self,introspection etc.) as
 rationality.At the same time they Flow and Mindtulne
areas responsible for kindness, compassion and associated with negative
tend to decrease the activity and growth in brain arcas
Lutz, 2008;
emotions like anxiety, hostility, worry and impulsivity (Davidson and
Hölzelet al, 201la and b, in Weare, 2014, p. 5).
Rescarch based on RCT have shown that subjects in a mindfulness meditation
group had asignificantly higher number ofimmunoglobulin (antibodies) in the blood
in reaction to an influenza vaccine as compared to people in the wait-list control
group (Davidson et al, 2003; Davidson and Lutz, 2008).A study using pre-post
analysis found that twenty five minutes mindfulness meditation for five days by
adults improved their immune-reactivity and led to decrease in stress hormone
cortisol (Hölzel et al, 201la, in Weare 2014).
(b) Personal-psychological changes
Those who practice mindfulness meditation report that over aperiod of
practice and training of mind they learn to focus their attention and sustained
in the present and accept their experience open consciousness
mindedly as it is, rather than
judging and typing it (as positive, negative, right-wrong etc.), by
their attention on the felt physical sensations ofthe
breath
concentrating
and the body to hold the
wandering mind. Thoughts are perceived ina detached
that come and go. This re-perception helps one manneras mentalevents
to have control and reduce the
habitual, mindless automatic mental activity including
rumination, worrying and leads to less reactivity and depressingandthoughts,
ability to examine thoughts and emotions more impulsiveness, abetter
than denyor blame others. objectively,to own them rather
Conclusively, it can be remarkedthat
practice helps one to gradually come over and modify meditational
behavioral patterns leading to negative habitual mentalsets and
psychic states like'stress, depression,
frustration, and promote positivemental states like compassion, calm,
receptivity (Weare, 2014). happiness,
11.11 BENEFITS OF
Research has shown anumber ofbenefits and
MINDFULNESS
facets of people's life. positive effiects ofmindfulness in different
(a) Mindfulness and Well-being
Keyes (2005) regarded well-being as
well-being, involving the combinationconstituting ofthree
of positive emotions domains: emotional
psychological well-being, involving contentment with one'sand life satisfaction;
believing inhaving alarger purpose in life and achievements and
well-being, developing as an
&Buro, 2010,including the quality ofone's
p. 419). proclivity toward others.person; and social
(Howell, Digdan
Researchers have contended that mindfulness not only has a
being, but itis also an indirect
predictor of wellbeing through itsdirect effect on well
self-regulated functioning (Brown &Ryan, 2003;
2007b; Shapiro&
impact on enhanced
Brown, Ryan,
Schwartz, 1999, 2000 in Howell, Digdan & &Creswell,
420).Shapiro (2006) propounded that
et al.
beneficial impact upon Buro, 2010, p.
regarded to be leading towellbeing reperceiving/decentring
(in Lomaset al, 2017,
increased levels of p.134).
can have a
Mindfulness is
wel-being; particularly, mindfulness
249
 13

sitive Cognitive States

is believed to be directly enhancing well-being by making any
richer and fuller. Mindfulnesscan indirectly promote well-beingbyexperience more
d Proccsses

boostinghealthy
self-regulation, including aheightened focused attention to, openness and approval
of one'spersonal needs or values and an enhanced ability to act in accordanceto
them (Brown &Ryan, 2003; Brown et al., 2007a, in Howell et al, 2008, p. 773).
(b) Mindfulness and Physical Health
Rescarch studies indicate that mindfulness meditation results in number ofhealth
benefits like enhanced immune functioning (Davidson et al., 2003; see Grossman,
Niemann, Schmidt, &Walach, 2004, in Davis and Hayes, 2011, p.
201).Randomised control trial methodology (RCTs, involving comparison oftwo
groups, one who receives the intervention and the other does not, with randomly
distributed participants) indicate that mindfulness leads to adecreasein varied
physiological problems including chronic pain, fatigue, heart disease, type-2
diabetes, cancer etc. both in adults and youth (Baer 2003; Mental Health
Foundation, 2010 in Weare, 2014, p.6). Mindfulness is associated with better
heart functioning through areduced degree of cigarette smoking. greater physical
movement, and ahealthier body mass index (Loucks, Britton, Howe, Eaton,
&Buka,2015). Furthemore, mindfulness is also positivelyrelatedwith improved
blood pressure (Tomfobr, Pung, Mills, &Edwards, 2015), successful weight loss
for obese adults and improved cating behaviours (Rogers, Ferrai, Mosely, Lang,
& Brennan, 2017[citedin Ackerman, 2017].
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) has been carried out for patients
with avast variety of chronic clinical ailments, as well as among groups of
comparatively healthy individuals who have made efforts in the direction of
developingtheir capacities for coping with stressors of day-to-day life. Initial reports
have indicated significant improvement for individuals suferingfrom chronic pain,
fibromyalgia, cancer, anxiety disordersanddepression(Arcari, 1997, Astin, 1997,
Baime, 1996 in Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, &Walach, 2004, p. 36).
(c) Mindfulness and Cognitive Functioning
Tobe able to function andperforn to thefullest capability, one requires optimum
cognitive functioning like attention, memory, thinking, reasoning, decision making,
language etc. When weengage in multitasking, it becomes dificult to carry out
focused attention when it is required. Focused attention is not only important for
better performance but also for one's sense of psychological well-being. Low
level offocused attention can also result in experiencing greater anxiety as our
thoughts get us to worry about the future (Cabrera, 2016).The practice of
mindfulness meditation can help people to pay focused attention to the present
moment and enhance their sense of well-beingby reducing stress levels.
Corcoran et.al.(2010) propound that mindfulness meditation develops
metacognitive awareness, reduces rumination by way of disconnection
frompersisting cognitive activities, and promotes attentional abilities through
improvement in working memory; these cognitive benefits, consecutively add to
effective emotion regulation strategies (in Davis and Hayes, 2011, p. 200).
Mindfulness-based interventions diminish those mechanisms that produce and cause
cognitive distortions (Ong, Shapiro, &¿Manber, 2008;Yook et al., 2008 in Howell
et al, 2010p. 419).
250 Thus it is helpful to healthy sleep-related functioning.
 14

Flow and Mindfulne

(d) Mindfulness, Emotional Well-Being and Psychological Health
Mindfulness can help individuals to attain and maintain apositive state of mind, an
acceptance of one's self and being comfortable with it. Mindfulness as a trait
perspective assumes some people to be more mindful than others; thus people
can be trained to be more mindful. Studies have shown dispositional mindfulness
(the extent to which aperson is mindful) to be associated positively with self
esteem, and self-acceptance (Thompson and Walz, 2008 in Weare, 2014, p. 14).
Research has also shown that when mindfulness is improved with the help of
interventions like meditation training, it results in subsequent increase in well-being
(Falkenstrom, 2010; Fredrickson, Cohn, Cofey, Pek, &Finkel, 2008; Zautra et
al., 2008 in Shutte and Malouf,2011,p. 1116). Other research studies point out
that higher levels of mindfulnessare linked with more adaptive emotional functioning,
termed as emotional intelligence (Baer, Smith, &Allen,2004; Brown &Ryan,
2003 in Shutte and Malouf, 2011).
Weinstein, Brown, and Ryan (2009) proposed that the more mindful individuals
gave more positive stress appraisals and displayed alower use of
resulting in higher subjective well-being (SWB). Studies haveavoidance coping,
also showed that
mindfulness has the capacityto lower negative emotional outcomes resulting from
neuroticism (Barnhofer etal., 2011; Feltmanet al.,2009). Neuroticism is believed
to lead to mood spillover effects because ofits
association with rumination (Nolen
Hoeksema, Wisco, &Lyubomirsky, 2008). Considering mindfulness intervention
programs can reduceruminative thinking(Deyo, Wilson, Ong, &Koopman, 2009),
it seems possible that mindfulness will lower the
effects of neuroticism on well
being. (Wenzel et al, 2015, p.69).
An experimental study by Manaset.al. (2011)
examined the effectiveness of
mindfulness training to lower the levels of stress and sick leave taken by
secondary teachers, wherein 16 were there in the experimental group and 31 15
were keptin the control group. Findings indicated significant decrease in
levels ofteacher and the duration of sick leave, in addition to stress
decrease in feelings
ofpresure and feelings ofbeing demotivated and beter coping in the experimental
group as compared to the control group (Weare, 2014, p. 12).
(e) Mindfulness and Social Well-being

Ahealthy relationship with one's family, society and community is integral to

experience a sense of well-being. Studies have also revealed mindfulness to be
effective in relationship building, and predictive of ahigher sense
and interpersonal proximity (Brown and Kasser, 2005; Brown and ofrelatedness
Ryan,
Weare, 2014, p. 14). Many scholars in the field are tryingto find the link 2003 in
between
mindfuneSs and interpersonal behavior and are examining concepts like mindful
relating" (Wachs& Cordova, 2007), "mindful responding in couples (Block
Lerner, Adair, Plumb, Rhatigan, &Orsillo, 2007), and
relationship enhancement" (MBRE) (Carson, Carson, Gil, "mindfulness-based
&Baucom, 2006) [in
Davis and Hayes, 2011, p. 201].
There is research evidence to support that trait mindfulness
predicts a number of
interpersonal issues and behaviors such as ability to manage relationship stress
constructively, competence in identifying and expressing emotions to partner,
relationship satisfaction, frequency ofrelationship conflict, level ofnegativity, and
empathy (Barnes, Brown, Krusemark, Campbell, &Rogge, 2007; Wachs &
251
 15

Positive Cognitive States

nd ProceSses Cordova, 2007). Bames etal. (2007) report that
individuals with better dispositional
mindfulness expressed low level of emotional stress
conflict and reported low level of anger and when faced with relationship
Studies also show that mindfulness is anxiety during conflict discussion.
conversely related to
and positively linked to the tendency to be »distress
aware in one's actions in socialcontagion
(Dekeyser, Raes, Leijssen, Leyson,&Dewulf, 2008 in Davis and situations
p. 201). Hayes, 20 11,
The above mentioned benefits relating to physical,
psychological and social well
being is achieved and maintained by anumber of mindfulness
some of which are discussed below. based interventions,

11.12 MINDFULNESS-BASED INTERVENTIONS

Mindfulness meditation has been popularized in the West by Kabat-Zinn who has
conceptualized and developed amindfulness-based stress reduction program at the
University of Massachusetts Medical Centre in 1979. In 1995, he came up with "The
Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and Society'. The beneficial effects
ofmindfulness-based interventions (MBls) in the area ofphysical and mental health
are supported by aplethora of researchand have been discussed above. Some ofthe
most popular mindfülness-based interventions are outlined below:
(a) Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
MBSR was the first mindfulness-based program for relieving stress and advancing
physical-mental hiealth and well-being ofindividuals. It involves an &-week course
structured inagroup fornat in order for participantsto Jearn and benefit from their
collective experience.It is designedto be both education-based and experience
based, combiningconventionalBuddhistmindfulness meditationtechniques (where
participants learr to center their focus on the breathing and moving it towards a
heightened awareness of other objects of attention like sensations, feelings,
thoughts), simple yogic and musclestretching exercises, practices like the body
scan', whereby participants ooncentrateon ther bodily parts with mindful awareness
and jourmal tasks to help them integrate mindfulness into daily practice (Kabat
Zinn, 2003).
The program was conceptualized with the purpose ofdetermining the possibility
ofmindfulness and relaxation exercises to benefit people with chronic health issues
like BP problems, anxiety disorders and chronic pain. The intent is to promote
overall well-being by helping individuals to focus their attention on their thoughts,
feelings and intemal states in the present(Mental Health Foundation of NewZealand,
2011).
During the meditation, participants try to do (a) body scanning, which includes
nonjudgmental awareness of sensationsand feelings in different bodily parts; (b)
meditation while sitting, where par-ticipants concentrate on their breath, at the
same time having anonjudgmental awareness of anythoughts that crop up; and
(c) Hatha yoga involving stretching exercises for strength-ening and easing the
musculo-skeletal system. (Cabrera-Caban et al, 2016).
MBSR can be better discerned through the four processes suggested by Hölzel
252 and col-leagues (2011): (a) attention regulation, (b) body awareness, (c) emotion
 Flow and Mindfulne
et al,2016,
change in self-perspective(cited in Cabrera-Caban way of
regulation, and (d) first learn attention
regulation by the
Generally, participants attention to a given
p. 122). are cognizant of andpay
focused meditation, wherein they time, with practice, participants are
or object. Over a period of
thought, feeling, longer durationand are better equipped to
filter out
able to focus attention for a body awareness, entails focusing
distractions of themind. Another technique, their
breathing to help individuals to align
attentionon sensory experiences and world. This isexpected to result in better
thoughts and feelings with the outside
emotional intelligence (Keng et al.,
clarity (Marianetti &Passmore, 2009) and modification of
regulation, refers to the
2011). The third process, enotion thinking assisting
emotional responses from impulsive reactivity to reflective non-judgmental manner.
participants in recognizing their experiences in an accepting, transformation from a
a
Atthe last, change in perceptionofthe self refers to
feeling of static-rigid self-perception to amore dynamic self-image. The beliet
here is when people feel less static about self. they become more liberated and
experience a more positive self-image (Flaxman &Bond, 2010, cited in Cabrera
Caban et al, 2016, p. 123).
(b) Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)
MBCT has its roots in the collective-based, eight-week programme MBSR, but
was developed by Zindel Segal, Mark Williams and John Teasdale (2002) to be
used by individuals who were suffering fromor hadexperienced multipleincidence
of depression in their lives. It combines characteristics of cognitive therapy with
mindfulness practices. MBCTis different from cognitive therapy as it involves
non-judgmental acceptance of one's thoughts and emotions, insteadofmaking an
attempt to assess or modify the content ofthoughts. This idea of perceiving the
mind as a place of being' rather than 'doing redúces rumination and helps
depression-prone individuals to prevent relapse. In their book Mindfulness Based
Cognitive Therapy, Segal, Teasdale and Williams (2002) proposed that;
The ultimate aim ofthe MBCTprogram is to help individuals makearadical shift
contribute
in their relationship to the thoughts, feelings and bodilysensations that
skillful
to depressive relapse'. It also ainms to »help participants choose the most
meet'.
response toany unpleasant thoughts, feelings or situations they
(c) Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT)
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) was given by Marsha Linehan, as acognitive
Disorder
behavioural and mindfuness-based therapy for Borderline Personality
in successfully
(BPD). It was the first psychotherapy propounded to be effective the
dialect is between
treating BPD in controlled clinical trials. The essential
things as they
contradictory forces of changeand acceptance, i.e., accepting themindfulness
improvement. In DBT is
are, at the same time working towards their
These involve observing,
learnt as a skillset with the help ofsystematic exercises.
experience in a non
comprehending and engaging in one's present moment
in how to make use
judgmental, singular focus and effective way, DBT trains one one's thoughts
awareness of
ofthe wise mind'-the latent ability tohave clear
support and is regarded as
and feelings. DBT currently has a substantial research success
evident from the documented
one ofthe most effective therapy for BPD as 253
rates.
 (d) Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is apsychological
based on observations and experience, which intervention,
aims to improve 'psychological
flexibility in individuals by combining acceptance and
commitment and behaviour change strategies. It mindfulness strategies, with
is regarded by American
Psychological Association as an empirically validated intervention for treating
depression. Psychological flexibility' here means complete engagement with the
present moment having full consciousness and, based on what the situation entails,
modifying orpersisting with the behavior aligning with the person's preferred values.
The therapy draws heavily from cognitive-behavioral framework but diverge in its
dominantapplication ofmindfuhess cxercises to help individuals in ataining flexibility.
The effectiveness ofMB0s is undeniable based on the outcomes ofmcta-analytic
studies. However, there are anumber of methodologicalrigor issues that interferes
in the global acceptance ofMB0s as established psychotherapeutic interventions.
The validity of MBIstudies gets limited by factors such as wide variations in MBI
program design; lack ofadequate control for probable confounding factors; paucity
of long-term follow-up data assessing the maintenance effects of MBIs; over
dependence on selfreport measures etc. Questions have also been raised about
the trustworthiness and competence of MBIfacilitators. Despite these criticisms
mindfulness has witnessed atremendous increase in popularity over the years and
has carved a powerful niche in mainstrearm psychotherapy (Shonin, Gordon,
Griffiths, 2013).
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. The term mindfulness is atränslation ofwhich word in Pali language?
2. According to Siegel(2014), what are the three components of
mindfulness?

3. What is Vipasana?
4. Name certain dimensions of mindfulness.
5. Who developed the mindfulness-based stress reduction program?
6. What is Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)?

11.13 ASSESSMENT OFMINDFULNESS

Having understood the effectiveness of mindfulness based programs on physical and
psychological health ofparticipants, it may be helpful to gain awareness about various
assessment tools and psychological tests that have been constructed to evaluate
mindfulness. This is important for those interested to work in this area, and also to gain
an insight about one's own mindfulness. Some of thequestionnaires that measure
mindfulness as abroad, trait-like inclination for being mindful in day-to-day life are:
Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (Buchheld, Grossman, &Walach, 2001); Kentucky
Inventory ofMindfulnes Skills (KIMS: Baer et al, 2004); MindfulAttention Awareness
Scale (MAAS: Brown &Ryan, 2003); Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (Baer
etal., 2006); Cognitive AffectiveMindfulness Scale-Revised (Feldman, Hayes, Kumar,
Greeson, &Laurenceau, 2007); Toronto Mindfulness Scale-Trait Version (DavisLau,
 Flow and Mind fuines
al., 2008); and
Mindfulness Scale (Cardaciotto et Keng, Smoski
Philadelphia al.,2008, in
&Cairns, 2009); Mindfulness Questionnaire (Chadwicket
Southampton
and Robins, 2011, p. 3). uni-factor
conceptualize and assess mindfulness as a kyan,
questionnaires example, the MAAS (Brown
&&
Few of these unitary factor. For andawareness to
construct, i.e., based on a structure of open/receptiveattention
one-dimensional of daily life
2003) uses a
overall inclination to be aware ofand observantmulti-factor/
assess mindfulness as the questionnaires which assess mindfulness as a
situations. There are other 'KIMS' (Baer et al., 2004) entails
sub
multi-dimensional construct. For example, the framework:
comprises offour mindfulness competencies underlined in DBT's
scales that feelings and
aware of one'smoment-to-moment experiences, detailing one's
being awarenes, non-judgmental receptivity of one's
experiences in words, participation with
ofmindfulness, state measures ofmindfulness
are
experiences. Besides trait measures
The psychological tests for this purpose
also given to assess transient mindful states. 2006) and Brown and Ryan's (2003)
include the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (Lau et al.,
2011, p. 3).
state versionofthe MAAS (in Keng, Smoski and Robins,
in each and every
Mindfulness is not limited to meditation exercises, it can be practiced
action ofours in daily living including day to day activities like speech, listening, walking,
applications ofmindfulness are
eating, exercise etc. Some ofthe common practical
given in the boxes below.

Mindful Eating
eating
Is an increased awareness of what, how, why and when one is
Involves cating slowly and focusing on food while cating, avoid distraction.
activities like watching Television or seeing mobile etc.

being aware and able to distinguish between physical and psychological

OPL
hunger cues and triggers for eating
Paying attention to the taste,colour, smell, flavors ofthe food beingeaten
Is beneficial when trying to make changes in one's diet, or lose excess
weight, avoid binge cating

Mindful Stretching Exercises

Involves stretching body muscles, strengthening exercises and simple yoga
poses done at slow pace with increased awareness of one's breath at
each moment

Help reduce stress and calms one's mind

Helpful in connecting with one's body

Mindful Breathing and Meditation

Involves deep breathing and heightened awareness of one's bodily
sensations at the here-and-now
Choose any comfortable space to sit