UNIT 19

SUSTAINABLE URBANISATION
AND THE FUTURE OF THE
CITIES
Structure
19.1 Introduction 19.4 Towards the City of the
Expected Learning Outcomes Future
19.2 Defining sustainable 19.5 Summary
urbanisation 19.6 Terminal Questions
Challenges to Sustainable 19.7 Answers
Urbanisation 19.8 References and Suggested
19.3 Sustainable and Resilient Further Reading
City

19.1 INTRODUCTION
The world is urbanising rapidly in recent years as more than half of its
population is living in urban areas and this number is expected to reach 60%
by 2030. Over 90 percent of this urban increase will occur in the developing
countries, mostly in Asian and African cities/towns.

Increased pace of urbanisation has critical ramifications for the society,

economy and environment. Cities are the epicentre of greater economic
opportunities and productivity and offer easy access to resources. They have
thus become the vehicle for accelerating economic growth and regional
development. World’s large urban centres are the testing ground for vital
policy decisions regarding economic and infrastructure development, land-
use planning, civic amenities and housing. They are the prime investment
destination for both national and international players for the smart economic
growth of the country.

However, the liberalisation-, privatisation- and globalisation-led urban

transitions—as well as world economy's impressive growth since last couple
of decades—has brought forth unique challenges of equitable distribution of
such growth across diverse urban population. This calls into question the
equity, sustainability and inclusiveness of such urban centres. Cities in the

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urban global south countries are multi-municipal mega urban entities and
have experienced huge vertical and horizontal expansion coupled with
associated informality in recent decades (Table 1).

Table 19.1: Top 10 fastest growing cities in the Global South

Sl City/Country Avg. annual growth rate 2006 to 2020
No. (%)
1 Beihai (China) 10.58
2 Ghaziabad (India) 5.20
3 Sana’a (Yemen) 5.00
4 Surat (India) 4.99
5 Kabul (Afghanistan) 4.74
6 Bamako (Mali) 4.45
7 Logos (Nigeria) 4.44
8 Faridabad (India) 4.44
9 Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) 4.39
10 Chittagong (Bangladesh) 4.29
(Source: City Mayors Statistics (n.d.), The world’s fastest growing cities and urban areas from 2006
to 2020, http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/urban_growth1.html (accessed on May 9, 2024)).

Such colossal unplanned and haphazard urban growth coupled with the influx
of migrant population from surrounding smaller towns/cities and rural
hinterland exerts tremendous pressure on existing infrastructure bases and
public resources, deteriorating the overall quality of life with growing physical
and ecological footprints.

Aside this, the socio-spatial and financial gaps between the Haves and the
Have-Nots widened over time. In contemporary cities, the poor have limited
access to essential public and private goods and services (e.g. quality
education, formal employment, decent housing, civic amenities and services),
which produces an extremely unequal and segregated distribution of
opportunities amongst different population subgroups across the urban areas.
Most of the cities in developing countries are not an exception to these rules
of exclusionary urban growth and endemic spatial poverty, which creates and
maintains an intricate poverty trap that puts tremendous stress on population
health, their earning potentials, political participation and the overall well-
being. An enhanced understanding of these issues and their policy relevance
will be critical to curtail these adversities in such urban centres to ensure
sustainable and inclusive urbanisation, in line with the Agenda 2030 and
SDGs Goal-11 put forth by the UN.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the concept of sustainable urbanisation;
 Identify the challenges to sustainable urbanisation;
 Develop an understanding on sustainable and resilient city; and
 Understand the idea of future of the city.

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19.2 DEFINING THE SUSTAINABLE
URBANISATION
According to Saroha (2016), sustainable urbanisation refers to attaining social
equity and ecological balance along with economic growth. Sustainable
urbanisation is a way of planning cities that aims to improve the quality of life
in city, including aesthetics, social, economic, cultural, political, institutional,
and ecological components without leaving a burden on the future generation.

Urbanisation brings about a myriad of socio-spatial, economic, demographic,

and environmental changes in the urban landscapes. While there are
challenges to be tackled, there are also ample opportunities in cities to be
seized of making growth more sustainable. Cities provide a range of
livelihood opportunities, better infrastructures, and enhance economic and
social mobility; their impact is glaringly visible in every indicator of quality of
life. Urban agglomerations afford economies of scale in infrastructures,
services and manufacturing activities. Urbanisation can be recognised a
positive sign for overall development and cities are the engine of economic
growth as they accounted for 82% of global GDP in 2014.

On the contrary, urban areas suffer from persistent housing poverty,

environmental degradation, water scarcity, overcrowding, unsustainable
transport networks, among others. Large metropolitan cities leave huge
ecological footprints on their immediate hinterland by excessive consumption
of renewable and non-renewable resources like forest and agricultural land
and water bodies. Many of these urban challenges are caused by unplanned
and haphazard growth, poor urban management, weak financial base, lack of
coordination between various stakeholders in urban governance, among
others. Thus, sustainable urbanisation calls for a balance between the
development of a city and its environmental protection, with a view to equity in
housing, basic services, employment, social infrastructures, and
transportation systems.

19.2.1 The Challenges to Sustainable Urbanisation

Rapid pace of urbanisation poses a unique challenge to sustainable and
inclusive urban development across the board. For instance, modern cities
are home to huge concentration of urban poor and socio-economically
disadvantaged groups. Concern for urban poverty is on the rise and
according to the World Bank’s estimation majority of the world’s extreme poor
will live in cities by 2035.

Urbanisation has also profound impacts on the aesthetics, environment and

the wellbeing of city residents. Cities are major contributors to many of the
today’s environmental challenges like water and air pollution. Persistent air
pollution levels have been noticeable in India, China and Mexico City in
recent years. Municipal solid waste is a perennial problem for many cities.
Worldwide, 3 billion city dwellers produce 1.2 kg of waste everyday (i.e., 1.3
billion tonnes/per year). This, in turn, results serious urban problems such as-
greenhouse gas (GHG) from waste transportation, marine (plastics) pollution

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from coastal urban centers, scarcity of land for landfill sites and public health
issues like cholera outbreaks from unauthorised dumps and untreated waste.

Unplanned and haphazard urbanisation makes cities highly vulnerable

to climate change impacts and disaster risks. This is especially true for
those cities which are located in highly exposed coastal areas and
ecologically sensitive zones (riverbanks), and are prone to sea level rise,
cyclonic hazards, storm water surge, flash floods, and landslides, among
others. Urbanisation also grabs open space such as forests, farmland,
wetlands, and parks and hampers local water balance as excessive ground
water extraction depletes water tables. These degradations crucially impinge
the ability of natural ecosystems to filter air and water and provide other
ecosystem services. Climatic hazards and disaster risks in urban areas
disproportionately affect the poor and marginalised settled in compact
settlements and slums, on ecologically sensitive zones (like riverbanks or
steep slope areas) where land is relatively cheap or settled illegally. They are
highly vulnerable to frequent floods, storms, and landslide. Besides this,
people residing there tend to hold illegal/informal settlement tag, thereby
receiving no or inadequate risk-reducing infrastructures as recommended by
the IPCC and other social security support from government. Globally, one in
seven people live in derelict and overcrowded urban spaces.

The global energy systems will require serving 9 billion people by 2040,
with 2/3rd in them in cities. In many global south cities, urban poor who have
access to some electricity experience multitude of problems. For instance,
they face irregular power supply, frequent blackouts and quality issues linked
with grid electricity such as low or fluctuating voltage. Aside this, affordability
remains a vital constraint, especially because of high connection fees and
tariffs, thereby leading to pervasive dependence on unsustainable energy
sources like fossil fuel, kerosene, among others. This results in indoor air
pollution and greater health and safety risks. Illegal connections are also
prevalent in many urban centres in developing countries. As countries move
on the high in economic ladder, energy demand also increases manifold such
as- for heating, cooling and refrigeration. For instance, in Mumbai (India) only
air-conditioning accounted for 40% of total electricity consumption.

Socio-spatially cities become increasingly divided and segregated.

Cities witness increased violence and unrest due to high and extreme
inequality. A strong correlation is found between urbanisation and rising crime
in Latin America mainly due to inadequate institutional capacities to include
marginalised groups. Conflict-ridden countries like Iraq, Sudan, Yemen,
Lebanon and Somalia have abundance of slum population ranging from 50%
- 90% of total urban population.

Inter-city inequality is also widening. The growing concentration of wealth

in a handful of global cities is raising the cost of living (Table 2), forcing urban
poor households to migrate to furthest suburbs or relocate permanently.

Table 19.2: Top 10 most expensive cities in the World

Sl City/Country Cost of living index compared to New York
No. (%)
1 Singapore (Singapore) 16
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2 Hong Kong (China) 14
3 Zurich (Switzerland) 14
4 Geneva (Switzerland) 8
5 Paris (France) 7
6 London (UK) 1
7 New York (US) 0
8 Los Angeles (US) -1
9 Seoul (South Korea) -1
10 Copenhagen (Denmark) -1
(Source: Source: WSJ (2016), The Most Expensive Cities in the World to Live (accessed on
May 9, 2024), https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-REB-35244)

Concomitantly, demand for services in these cities attracts huge chunk of

labor migration. Migrant workers from poor socioeconomic status and lower
skillset (especially women domestic workers) often face overt forms of
exclusion, discrimination and exploitation.

Urban unemployment and underemployment are now a growing

concern in many global south cities, especially for youth, women and
marginalised groups. One key aspect of urban economies that seldom
receives attention is the informal economy, though it contributes to 50% -
80% in urban GDP and creates livelihoods for millions of urban poor and
marginalised groups.

Inadequate public space for city dwellers creates less opportunities to

interact and participate in decision-making related to public space or landuse
which expose cities to the higher risk of internal conflict (such as: riots, civil
unrest, gang violence etc.) and social exclusion based on migration or
socioeconomic status of population. It also gives rise to other problems like
reduced physical and mental health, and lower adaptive capacity to cope with
emergent climatic and ecological shocks. By 2030, around 2/5th of the
global population will require adequate housing, environmental
amenities and public infrastructures, such as water and sanitation. This
puts colossal pressure on land and housing in many cities where supply is
inadequate and policy responses to create demand are not very impressive.
Urban poor, migrants, internally displaced people (IDPs), female-headed
households are worst affected as they do not possess adequate housing,
tenure security and land ownership, thereby leading to emergence of slums
and squatters in cities. Urban local bodies (ULBs) act as a key agent in
ensuring effective urban planning and governance, service delivery and
creation of employment opportunities (e.g., unmet demand for jobs among
young people is around 14 million per year). Nonetheless, urbanisation is
peaking without adequate resource base and governance capacity. In
fact in many developing countries, rapidly growing cities are struggling to
provide basic infrastructures, amenities and services, and governance
supports required by ever increasing urban residents as they deal with
competing priorities and demands. While decentralised urban governance
has been adopted in many countries like India (through the 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act’ 1992), fiscal decentralisation at the ULB level is still a distant
reality. ULB administrations often point to the inadequate municipal finance as
one of the key constraints for sustainable urban development. In many
cases, poor financial health of ULBs forces city authority to opt for

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unsustainable short-term solutions. For example, monetisations of urban land
(through land value capture policy) for commercial development as means to
upgrade or financing municipal infrastructures are quite common in India
(Ahmedabad) and China. Many ULBs, especially in the global south
countries, continue to lack municipal finance and autonomy to generate
additional revenue base. Access to affordable financing options and improved
governance capacity is still required at all level of governments.

Informal and unacknowledged urbanisation is not just a challenge for cities.

The unprecedented demographic shift to cities also has profound socio-
economic and governance implications for both peri-urban and rural
areas. The surrounding country sides and peri-urban areas provide essential
goods and services to cities such as raw materials, resources and labor. In
many global south countries, working-age rural males migrate (highly
gendered migration) to cities in search of jobs, leaving behind women to
manage the burden of care (e.g., children, elderly, and household chores).
Decelerating rural population also poses unique challenge for agriculture and
for continuing to maintain social service provision for smaller, scattered and
elderly population.

Last but not the least, the modes of urbanisation and the kind of cities that
emerge in the global south will significantly impact the outcomes of many
development challenges of our time. Success of sustainable urbanisation
agenda (as enshrined in Agenda 2030 and SDG-11) will be very much
contingent upon the degree to which the aforementioned urban challenges
are realised, identified and overcome.

SAQ 1
a. Explain sustainable urbanisation in detail.
b. What are the challenges to sustainable urbanisation?

19.3 SUSTAINABLE AND RESILIENT CITY

Sustainable and resilient city is thought to be socioeconomically productive
and equal, environmentally protected; safe and capable to cope with any kind
of hazards (natural or man-made) and sociopolitical unrest including issues of
law and order. In order to make sustainable urbanisation a reality, city
authority should focus on certain critical aspects. These include:

Sustainable Urban Economy

Improving economic health of cities has been the top priority of many city
governments. They actively foster local economic development by generating
job opportunities that build on their strategic locational advantages and
qualities. For instance, some cities are manufacturing hub like Dhaka, while
others are the center of innovation and entrepreneurship such as Bangalore.
In most cases, the strategies cities take to build an enabling ecosystem for
growth and development should rely on mutual understanding and
cooperation among different stakeholders (like employers, employees and
entrepreneur organisations, and informal laborers), based on an
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understanding of business opportunities and labor environment to target
skills, training, support local enterprises to flourish, and provide social security
support to informal laborers.

In many areas, informal economy offers financial services and social safety
nets through moneylending (microfinance), mutual savings groups, and
informal and indigenous health care. However, some cities do not welcome
many informal businesses like street vendors, hawkers, roadside eateries and
consider them as nuisance that disrupts smart environments required to lure
tourists and firms to invest. Other cities, on the other hand, choose to
acknowledge informal business as crucial driver of economic growth and
providers of goods and services, especially for urban poor and marginalised.
These informal businesses provide a critical foothold to the poor migrants and
other marginalised groups to earn their livelihoods and assimilate in to cities.
The degree to which a city allows space for and encourages informality is a
critical consideration conducive for business development and
entrepreneurship that drives job creation and innovation.

Socio-spatial Equality

Spatial inequalities within and between cities has been a growing concern.
With increasing population and limited resource base, cities choose various
spatial planning strategies to address them. However, many a time, faulty
spatial planning can result in ‘ghettoisation’ characterised by unemployment,
concentrated poverty, crime and poor access to basic services. In many
developing countries, linkages between peri-urban and urban areas are
crucial for sustainable urban development. These peri-urban areas are
seldom incorporated in landuse planning and governance systems and pose
significant challenges for poverty reduction and contribute to socio-spatial
inequality.

Sustainable Urban Transport

An unsustainable transport system has been the major urban development

challenge in the global south and a key contributor to GHG emissions. Cities
around the world choose diverse modes of transport to ease traffic. For
instance, firstly, personal motorised mode of transport (car centric) becomes
increasingly popular in every city. This is basically road transport system
having lower up-front costs, as roads can be constructed and improved in
incremental manner. Mass transit public transport tops in providing wider and
most affordable choices of public travel modes which include: electric buses,
taxis, suburban railways, metro, tram, auto/E-rickshaws, among others. This
mode of transport has higher up-front costs (i.e., initial investments for
infrastructure and service integration with existing transport options). However
some innovative approach like bus rapid transit can help mitigate these costs.
Finally, there is growing consensus regarding the potential benefits of sharing
transport modes (Bike-taxis, OLA/Uber), in helping cities save costs and
protect the environment. Actually preferences for particular modes of
transport (e.g. public, semi-public and non-motorised) are largely determined
by resident’s affordability. For instance, in Kolkata (India), public buses have
been the most affordable travel option for many, though it is dangerously
crowded and not very attractive/comfortable for tourists. Nonetheless, due to

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lack of holistic transport planning, many cities witness frequent road fatalities
and other traffic related problems. With decreasing public spaces in many
cities, providing integrated, smart, adequate, accessible and affordable
means of transport and ensuring safe, secure and inclusive urban mobility
has been a major challenge to the city government as urban mobility
significantly impacts productivity, health, internal security and environmental
footprints.

Sustainable Energy System

Sustainable energy solutions (solar, wind and hydro) contribute significantly to

various urban issues like GHG emissions, air quality, waste management,
efficient transport, better health and safety. Cities draw their energy
production from a single source or develop more heterogeneous energy
systems, thereby building strong resilience against shocks (e.g., natural
disaster or erratic fuel price hikes). However, there are certain concern not
just about the financial viability of sustainable and resilient energy
investments, but also regarding the policy and technical intricacy of planning
for and setting up municipal codes for energy efficiency and incentives
mechanisms. Such complexities often forced low-income countries to go for
conventional energy solutions (grid systems and coal or diesel generators),
despite the fact that these incur much higher long-term costs. Nonetheless,
cities have a greater role in transforming the current energy systems into a
more sustainable one, giving city residents access to affordable, reliable,
carbon neutral and climate resilient energy solutions.

Environmental Protection and Waste Management

Cities in most of the developing countries are in ‘modernisation mode’ at the

cost of environmental degradation. Air pollution, water contamination and
ground water depletion may be considered as critical ramifications of rapid
urbanisation and modernisation, given that, once cities become more
developed, the level of pollution and environmental degradation will reduce
and ultimately recede. Cities face a trade-off in various developmental
activities between options that have an immediate economic gain but are
often polluting. This, in turn, incurs huge long-term price for clean-up and
remediation. Cities also adopt sustainable waste management technology
(waste-to-energy), recycling and reusing as an economic opportunity and
ecosystem- based sewage treatment. Solid waste management measures
especially composting and producing energy from methane combustion can
be useful in reducing methane emissions in landfills, increasing forest carbon
sequestration and contribute to lowering GHG emissions.

Managing Risk and Building Resilience

Vulnerability to climate and disaster risks in cities is largely determined by

their locational/site specific characteristics, poverty, inequality, security of
tenure, livelihoods, access to social safety nets, ecosystem services, among
others. There is a growing consensus about the integration of disaster risk
management and climate change adaptation strategies into city’s Master Plan
to build sustainability and resilience against future climatic hazards and
disaster risks. Cities must adopt effective planning and institutional
mechanisms to restrict continued residential development on Eco sensitive
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zones and disaster prone areas. Informal settlements on these vulnerable
sites often invite other policy challenges related to relocation, compensation,
among others. Cities also need to come up with short-term and long-term
disaster risks management strategies. Better building codes and emergency
action plans are seldom well integrated into long-term disaster risks
management interventions. Many capacity-constrained ULBs in the global
south are not in a position to execute effective building codes and zoning
regulations.

Urban Conflict, Violence and Crime

Gang violence, conflict and crime increasingly ignite in cities, as they are the
center of economic and political power and social tensions and inequalities. In
many cities (e.g., Bogota and Medellin), better urban governance policy has
been found to be effectual in reducing urban violence through their ability to
establish social cohesion between elites and popular groupings.

19.4 TOWARDS THE CITY OF THE FUTURE

“The future of cities is basically outcome led- leveraging informed digital
technology to create an experience-centric and decentralised city model. The
future of cities is experience-driven and fuelled by informed digital
technologies”. - KPMG Global.

Cities across the globe are embracing the power of scientific innovations and
modern technology, and pursuing a critical new role for their leaders to tackle
the emergent climatic, ecological and institutional challenges that the global
development trajectories have brought to the forefront. The conventional ‘one-
size-fits-all model’ approach to urban governance and planning is increasingly
losing their credibility. Contemporary global challenges (e.g., Covid-19
pandemic) impact has unmistakably accelerated the pace of emerging
changes that now hold clear implications for the decline of the conventional
‘centralised-city’ model. Global adoption of smart, digital, experience-centric
solutions have become indispensable in tackling today’s urban challenges
and integrating city services to the future needs and well-being of the urban
residents. The strategic, risk-informed, outcome-based application of digital
technology (e.g., IoT, AI) will be critical for successfully shaping cities and
services for better tomorrow.

SAQ 2

Write your views on future cities.

19.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied so far:

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 Recent trends and patterns of urbanisation in the world with special focus
on the global south countries. The world is experiencing escalating pace
of urbanisation with more than half of its population residing in cities.
 Over 90% of future urban growth will be occurring in Asian and African
countries.
 Unplanned and haphazard urban growth and associated informality pose
tremendous challenges for equity, sustainability and inclusiveness of
many urban centers in the global south.
 Sustainable urbanisation seeks to achieve social equity and ecological
balance along with economic growth. It also aims to enhance the quality
of life of city dwellers, including its aesthetics, social, economic, cultural,
political, institutional, and ecological aspects without leaving a burden on
the future residents.
 Various challenges to sustainable urbanisation include: concentrated
urban poverty, urban environmental degradation (air pollution, water
scarcity, solid waste management), greater vulnerability to climate and
disaster risks (sea level rise, cyclones, storm water surge, flash floods,
landslides, among others), energy security, inter and intra city socio-
spatial inequality, growing urban employment and underemployment,
limited access to public space, endemic urban spatial poverty (inadequate
housing, insecure tenure, poor level of basic services), weak resource
base and poor governance capacity, socio-economic and governance
challenge in peri-urban interface, among others.
 Strategies for building sustainable and resilient cities include: sustainable
urban economy, tackling socio-spatial inequality, sustainable urban
mobility, sustainable energy systems, environmental protection and waste
management, disaster risks management and resilience building, tacking
urban gang violence, conflict and crime, among others.
 City of the future – an outcome led city model that leverage informed
digital technology to develop an experience-centric and decentralised
urban governance systems.

19.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Elucidate the concept of sustainable urbanisation.

2. Highlight the challenges to sustainable urban development in developing

countries.

3. Define the ‘City of the future’.

19.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. (a) Sustainable urbanisation refers to attaining social equity and
ecological balance along with economic growth. Sustainable urbanisation
is a way of planning cities that aims to improve the quality of life in city,

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including aesthetics, social, economic, cultural, political, institutional, and
ecological components without leaving a burden on the future generation.

(b) The developing countries have been experiencing messy and hidden
urbanisation characterised by unplanned and haphazard informal spatial
expansion and concentrated poverty. These pose serious challenges to
sustainable urbanisation in developing countries. For instance,
concentrated urban poverty, urban environmental degradation (air
pollution, water scarcity, solid waste management), greater vulnerability to
climate and disaster risks (sea level rise, cyclones, storm water surge,
flash floods, landslides, among others), energy security, inter and intra city
socio-spatial inequality, growing urban employment and
underemployment, limited access to public space, endemic urban spatial
poverty (inadequate housing, insecure tenure, poor level of basic
services), weak resource base and poor governance capacity, socio-
economic and governance challenge in peri-urban interface, among
others, are creating huge challenges to equity, sustainability and
inclusiveness in many growing cities.

2. The future of cities is basically outcome led- leveraging informed digital

technology to create an experience-centric and decentralised city model.
The future of cities is experience-driven and fuelled by informed digital
technologies.

19.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
1. Dobbs, R., Smit, S., Remes, J., Manyika, J., Roxburgh, C., & Restrepo, A.
(2011). Urban world: Mapping the economic power of cities.
2. Grant, U. (2010). Spatial inequality and urban poverty traps. Overseas
Development Institute. London, UK.
3. H.S. Andersen, H. S. (2003). Urban Sores-on the interaction between
segregation, urban decay and deprived neighbourhoods. Aldersot,
England: Ashgate.
4. Haque, I., Mehta, S., & Kumar, A. (2019). Towards sustainable and
inclusive cities: The case of Kolkata. ORF Special Report.
5. Haque, I., Rana, M. J., & Patel, P. P. (2020). Location matters:
Unravelling the spatial dimensions of neighborhood level housing quality
in Kolkata, India. Habitat International, 99, 102157.
6. Jameson, F. (2003). Future city. New left review, 21, 65.
7. Mitlin, D., & Satterthwaite, D. (2012). Urban poverty in the global south:
scale and nature. Routledge.
8. Moreno, E., & Warah, R. (2006). The State of the World’s Cities Report
2006/2007: 30 Years of Shaping the Habitat Agenda. UK, USA: UN
HABITAT.
9. Saroha, J. (2016). Sustainable urbanisation in India: experiences and
challenges. Spatial Diversity and Dynamics in Resources and Urban
Development: Volume II: Urban Development, 81-98.
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10. United Nations Development Programme. (2016). Sustainable
Urbanisation Strategy: UNDP’s Support to Sustainable, Inclusive and
Resilient Cities in the Developing World.

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