Chapters 1-7: Algebra, number and structure & Functions, relations and graphs

Divide by a fraction: multiply by the flip!

Cubics don’t necessarily have a stat POI, sometimes just a POI
Chapter 1: Functions & Relations
Interval notation: (1a)
[ • ≤ ≥ including
( ◦ < > not including
{} denotes a set eg.{𝑥: − 3 < 𝑥 < 2}

Types of functions implied doms: (1c)

Relations & functions:
Relation: shows a relationship between 2 values
Function: a relation where each x-value has only 1 y-value, (each input has only 1 output),
satisfies vertical line test
Domain: set of all x-values
Range: set of all y-values
One-to-one function: satisfies horizontal line test

Implied domain: the set of all x-values for which the rule exists
When finding them, keep in mind:
𝑎
- Cannot divide by zero; 𝑏
, 𝑏≠0
- cannot find the square root of a -ve number; 𝑎, 𝑎 ≥ 0
- Cannot take a log of a -ve number; 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑏, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0

Piecewise (hybrid) functions: have a diff. rule for diff. domain, note if ◦ or • is required

Odd and even functions:

2
Even: symmetrical in the y-axis: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(− 𝑥) eg. 𝑦 = 𝑥
◦
Odd: graph remains unchanged after a rotation of 180 about the origin: 𝑓(− 𝑥) =− 𝑓(𝑥) eg.
3
𝑦 =𝑥
Some functions are neither even or odd
To check: evaluate 𝑓(− 𝑥) and see if it's = 𝑓(𝑥) or − 𝑓(𝑥)
Quick way: if all powers are even, function is even, same for odd a mixture is neither
Strictly increasing: if increases from left to right
Strictly decreasing: if decreases from left to right

Sums and products of functions: (1d)

2
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥
2
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥
3
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥
Basically, when finding sums or products of functions, simply add or multiply the functions!

For sums of functions, can use 'Addition of Ordinates'

1. Sketch the 2 functions
2. Mark a variety of key coordinates on both, (axis intercepts, intersection points,
asymptotes, etc.)
3. Add the y-coordinates at these points and mark them.
4. Sketch the resulting graph paying close attention to asymptotes
When graphing, look to see if the resulting function is similar so something you've seen
1
before! ie, (𝑣 + 𝑢)(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥
is similar to a hyperbola, and has an asymptote at 𝑦 = 𝑥

Domain of combined functions:

Domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 and 𝑓𝑔 is the intersection of both domains, values of 𝑥 for which both
functions are defined
The domain is where their own domains overlap

Composite functions: (1e)

Composite function: a function inside a function
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 = 'f of g of x'
The output of f(x) is the input to f(x)
To make a composite function, put 'inside' function where x appears in 'outside'

For composite functions to be defined, 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ⊆ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 (when you spit out values from
the inside function, they have to be able to go into the outside function)
The domain of a composite function is the 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 (unless dom has been restricted as
above)
Strategy: always write down dom and ran of both functions in a table

Inverse functions: (1f)

Inverse: swap x and y values, make y the subject
Rules:
1. Function only has inverse if it is one-to-one, (horizontal line test)
2. Graph of inverse is reflected over y=x (remember bottom right hand corner trick)
3. 𝑑𝑜𝑚 −1 = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓 and 𝑟𝑎𝑛 −1 = 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑓
𝑓 𝑓
−1
4. Inverse function: 𝑓 (𝑥)
5. Graph and its inverse ALWAYS intersect over y=x

If there is a fraction with a coordinate on top & bottom, do long division or propFrac on CAS

Power functions: (1g)

1
𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑄, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
Larger power: steeper, flatter bottom
4 types:
1. n is odd and +ve, cubic
2. n is even and +ve, quartic
3. n is odd and -ve, hyperbola
4. n is even and -ve, truncus
General shape depends on value of r (+ve/-ve, even/odd)
Fractional indices:
𝑚
𝑛 𝑚
𝑎 𝑛
= ( 𝑎) where m is the power and n is the root
1
𝑛 −1
Therefore, the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛

Applications of functions: (1h)

1. Read the problem carefully, highlight units & info
2. What do you know? What do you need to find out? Write it down!
3. Draw a labelled diagram
4. Construct an equation with the variable involved, may need to construct a second
equation so the first is in terms of 1 variable
5. Solve the equation for x (consider any restrictions on domain of x, think realistically, eg. a
length can't be <0
6. Re-read the question and check you have answered what is being asked

Chapter 2: Coordinate Geometry

Literal equations: (2b)
Literal equations: equations with solutions expressed with pronumerals rather than numbers
Tips:
- when walking with fractions, try to eliminate or put everything over one fraction
- if fractions are on either side of an '=' sign, cross multiply to cancel them out
- if the fractions are on the same side, cross multiply but keep them over 1 fraction
- always include ± when there is a square/cube etc. root
- when you divide something by a fraction, (greater than 0 but less than 1) it is larger than
before

Linear coordinate geometry: (2c)

2 2
Distance: (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)
𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1+𝑦2
Midpoint: ( 2
, 2
)
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑦2−𝑦1 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
Gradient: 𝑚 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛
= 𝑥2−𝑥1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ) = 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

Equations if straight lines: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 OR 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1)

Parallel: same gradient (𝑚)
−1
Perpendicular (Normal): negative reciprocal ( 𝑚
)
The angle between a straight line (or the tangent of a curve) and the positive direction if the
x-axis is found using: 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ)
If the line has a -ve m, the angle will be -ve so to find the angle, 180 - θ
The angle between 2 lines if found using: θ2 − θ1
Perpendicular bisector: a line with opposite gradient, intersecting the midpoint between 2
points

Simultaneous equations: (2e,2f)

What does solving simultaneous equations mean?
When the 2 graphs intersect or cross over each other, when something is 'true'
3 cases for a system of 2 linear equations:

Example Solutions Geometry

Case 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5 Unique/1 solution: 2 lines meeting at a point

1 𝑥−𝑦=4 x=3, y=-1 Diff. 'm'

Case 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5 No solutions Distinct parallel lines

2 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 7 Same 'm', diff. 'c'

Case 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5 Infinitely many 2 copies of the same line

3 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7 solutions Same 'm', same 'c'

Chapter 3: Transformations (make sure to use mapping or function notation, don't just
guess!)
Combinations of transformations (3d)
Dilations and reflections affect the opposite coordinate
Dilations multiply the opposite coordinate
Use DRT (dilations, reflections, translations) unless otherwise specified
(x,y) is the original coordinate
(x',y') is the coordinate of the image (transformation)
Factorise if the coefficient of x ≠ 1 so that the coefficient of x = 1
𝑇
Function Notation: 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑓 (𝑥)
Opposite!
Outside: see as is
Inside: flipped
Translations for x flip
DR involving y are inside the bracket
DR involving x are outside the bracket
Write out new function after every transformation
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑓(𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑐)) + 𝑏
1
Dilation of scale factor A from the x axis, a dilation of scale factor 𝑛
from the y-axis, a
translation of b units in the positive direction of the y axis and a translation of c units in the
negative direction of the x axis.
Mapping Method: (x,y) → (x',y')
What you see is what you get!
Don't have to flip x
Want to write the transformed function as y' = in terms of x'

Transformation Mapping f(x) maps to…

Dilations by a scale factor of → (x, ky) → kf(x)

k from the x axis

Dilation by a scale factor of → (kx, y) 𝑥

→ f( 𝑘 )
k from the y axis
 Reflection in the x axis → (x, -y) → -f(x)

Reflection in the y axis → (-x, y) → f(-x)

Translation of a units in the → (x+a, y) → f(x-a)

positive direction of the x
axis

Translation of b units in the → (x, y+b) → f(x) + b

positive direction of the y
axis

Determining Transformations (3e)

We can use observation or can use mapping to find x' and y'
Using mapping:
Rewrite both equations so transformation to y on LHS and transformations to x on RHS
Match up y parts and x parts, x=x'
Find x' and y'
Read in order of BODMAS

'Going backwards'
Use same mapping method as before but only rearrange for x' and y' (already have)

Sketching Graphs (3f)

Sketch the basic graph, sketch the graph implementing only 1 transformation at a time.

Determining rule of Function from Graph: (3h)

Use key features from graphs, (asymptotes, axis intercepts, TPs, etc.) to find translations
Substitute other x and y coordinates to help find other parts of equations
Always remember dilations, (a)

A Notation For Transformations (3i)

Linear transformations: dilations, and reflections, also reflection in y=x
Composition of transformations: using multiple transformations (combinations of
transformations), do inside transformation first (working inside out)
2 2
𝑇 : 𝑅 → 𝑅 , 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) − (𝑎𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑘), 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0
2
𝑅 is in 2 dimensions, R in the x and R in the y
R is in 1 dimension of x
−1
𝑇 is the inverse of a transformation of 𝑇
−1 −1
𝑇 of 𝑇 and 𝑇 of 𝑇 produce the original function

Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions

Quadratics Review: (4a and 4b)
Always make a quadratic equation = 0 before doing anything!
General 2
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 y-int at 𝑦 = 𝑐 Axis of Determine rule if
Form symmetry at given 3 random
points
 Factorised 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑒)(𝑥 − 𝑓) x-int at 𝑥=
−𝑏 Determine rule of
2𝑎
Form 𝑥 = 𝑒, 𝑥 = 𝑓 −𝑏
given x-ints and
Sub 𝑥 = 2𝑎 another point
into equation to
Turning 2
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) = 𝑘 Turning point get y-coord of Determine rule if
Point Form (ℎ, 𝑘) TP given TP and
Completed Axis of TP = another point
the square symmetry −𝑏 −𝑏
2𝑎
, 𝑓( 2𝑎 )
𝑥=ℎ
If 𝑎 > 0, graph is +ve, TP is min
If 𝑎 < 0, graph is -ve, TP is max

Complete the square: (can only happen when a = 1, otherwise take 'a' out and factorise
𝑏
1. Half the coefficient of x (put in bracket) 2
𝑏 2
2. Subtract square from the constant ( 2 )
2
Quadratic formula: (finds x-ints when in form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)
2
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎
Discriminant: (used to determine the no. of solutions)
2
∆ = 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
If ∆ > 0, 2 solutions
If ∆ is a perfect square (whole no.), both solutions are rational, if not then both are irrational
2
If ∆ = 0, 1 repeated solution (equation is a perfect square; 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) )
If ∆ < 0, no solutions, (graph doesn;t cross x-axis)

Polynomials: (4c & d)

Leading term: x-term with highest index
Degree: index of leading term (monic polynomial leading term has index 1)
Can add, subtract, multiply and divide polynomials which results in a polynomial (except
division)
Degree (f+g) ≤ max of deg(f) or deg(g)
Degree (fxg) = deg(f) + deg(g)
Equating polynomials means to make the coefficient of each corresponding term the same,
and the polynomials the same

Division of Polynomials:
- can divide a polynomial by another by using long division, inspection or synthetic division

Remainder Theorem:
- When we divide 𝑃(𝑥) by (𝑥 − 𝑎) the remainder is 𝑃(𝑎)
𝑏
- When we divide 𝑃(𝑥) by (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎) the remainder is 𝑃(− 𝑎
)

Factor Theorem:
- If (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) then 𝑃(𝑎) = 0
𝑏
- If (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) then 𝑃(− 𝑎
)=0
Rational Root Theorem: (use to help find factors)
- For a given function, possible factors can be found by evaluating 𝑓(𝑥) when
± 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑥= ± 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
(often ± 1 or ± 2 work, sometimes ± the constant)

Cubic Functions: (4e)

Sums & Differences of Cubes:
𝑥3+𝑎3=(𝑥+𝑎)(𝑥2-𝑎𝑥+𝑎2)
𝑥3−𝑎3=(𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥2+𝑎𝑥+𝑎2)

- can have 1, 2 or 3 x-ints

- can have 0, 1 or 2 stationary points
- don't all have a stationary point (e.g. y = x3 + x doesn't have a TP)
- if a TP is on the x-axis, (𝑒, 0) it's a repeated factor/root and the equation is in the form
2
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑒) (𝑥 − 𝑓)
- Max/Min are the local maximum and minimum
- fmax/fmin are the total maximum and minimum

Polynomials of Higher Degree: (4f)

- quartics can have 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 x-ints
- quartics can have 1, 2 or 3 TP
- graphs of even degree may have no x-ints while graphs of an odd degree must have at
least 1

Determining Rules of Polynomial Graphs: (4g)

- in order to determine a rule in general form, 1 more coordinated than highest degree is
required (ie, 4 for a cubic)
- the y-intercept gives the constant
- can use simultaneous equations by hand or on CAS
𝑛
When solving 𝑎 = 𝑏:
𝑛
If n is even then 𝑎 =± 𝑏
𝑛
If n is odd then 𝑎 = 𝑏 (only 1 sign, takes sign of b)

Solution of literal equations and systems of equations: (4h)

Literal Equations: (don't use numbers!)
- treat the variables as normal numbers (easier said than done!)
- fractions can be harder, make sure denominators are the sum for + and -

Algebraic Fractions:
Simplifying algebraic fractions:
- First factorise the numerator and denominator
- Then cancel any factors common to the numerator and denominator
- If a -ve power is present, put under fraction

Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions:

- First obtain a common denominator and then add or subtract
Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions:
- First factorise each numerator and denominator completely
- Then complete the calculation by cancelling common factors
- Multiply numerator by numerator and denominator by denominator (straight across)
- Divide: Keep (first fraction same) Change (sign to x) Flip (second fraction)

𝑥
Chapter 5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 𝑦 = 𝑎 is equal to 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑦 = 𝑥

Shift 4: euler's number

Shift 5: ln(
Shift 6: log (choose base)
𝑥
Exponential function: (5a) 𝑦 = 𝑎
- domain is R and range is R+
- a y-int a (0,1)
- a horizontal asymptote at y=0 (can find my looking at constant outside)
- in general, one side moves towards asymptote and the other sides rises exponentially
- when a>1, function is strictly increasing
- when 0<a<1, function is strictly decreasing (a is a fraction) (since a fraction multiplied by
itself keeps getting smaller)
- one-to-one function
- as a increases, becomes closer to y-axis as it increases and is closer to x-axis in left hand
side
- if a is a fraction, graph is reflected in y-axis, since -ve indices go under a fraction
- has assymptote at vertical translation (+3, -x, etc.)
- if CAS isn't working, think of basic ex and identify the transfomations applied

𝑥
Exponential function: (5b) 𝑦 = 𝑒
- base is Euler's number, (approx. 2.718)
- just treat it as any other number
- its derivative is itself!
- natural base of exponential functions, looks like normal exponential

Exponential equations: (5c)

- see if you can substitute something in, (Hidden Quadratics are VCAA's fav thing!)
- try to write any numbers as a exponential, (base to power)
- remember that exponentials can't be -ve
One-to-one Property of Exponential Functions:
𝑥 𝑦
If 𝑎 = 𝑎 , then 𝑥 = 𝑦

Index laws: (bases must be the same)

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
𝑎 ×𝑎 =𝑎
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
𝑎 ÷𝑎 =𝑎
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
(𝑎 ) = 𝑎
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑏
 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
(𝑏) = 𝑥
𝑏
−𝑥 1 −𝑥 8
𝑎 = 𝑥 , 8𝑎 = 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 1
𝑎 = −𝑥
𝑎
0
𝑎 =1

Logarithms: (5d)
- To evaluate log𝑎𝑦 ask the question: '𝑎 to the power of what gives 𝑦?'
- base 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑥 is also ln( (log of a natural number, e)
- 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 x has to be +ve
𝑥
- 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑎 ) = 𝑥 (all x-values)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥
-𝑎 = 𝑥 (all +ve x values)

Laws of logarithms:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚𝑛) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑛
𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎( 𝑛
) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑚 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑛
𝑝
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚 ) = 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑚
−1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚 ) =− 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑎 = 1 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎1 = 0

Change of base:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔10(5)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎
, 𝑙𝑜𝑔4(5) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10(4)

Hints to solve log equations:

- write as an equivalent exponential and evaluate
- use log laws to simplify into 1 term
- simplify then write as exponential
- or can take logs of both sides and evaluate
- remember 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑎 = 1 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎1 = 0

Useful properties:
- 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑎 = 1
- 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎1 = 0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑥
- 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎
2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑥 ) 2
-𝑏 = 𝑎, 𝑒 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 =± 2

Inequalities:
- need to determine if multiplying or dividing by -ve, (if so, change direction of sign)
Eg. log of a fraction is -ve

Graphing Logs: (5e)

- the inverses of exponentials
- has an x-int at (1,0)
- has a vertical asymptote at x=0 (to find it, make inside log =0
- domain is R+ and range is R
- as the base increases, the graph comes closer to the x-axis and it 'flattens out'
quicker/increases slower
𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎)𝑥
-𝑎 =𝑏

Changing Base: (transformation)

- a base raised to log of the same base cancels
𝑥
𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔3𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥(𝑙𝑜𝑔3𝑒) 𝑥
3 ⇒3 ⇒ 𝑒 OR 3 ⇒ 3 ⇒𝑒

Determining Rules: (5f)

- if bases are equal, powers are equal
2
- 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 is the same as (𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥)

Inverses: (5h)
- to find the inverse, basically finding the rule to get from y to x
- swap x and y over, rearrange for y
−1
- write inverse as 𝑓
−1
- domain of 𝑓 is range of 𝑓
−1
- range of 𝑓 is domain of 𝑓
- if intersect, intersect on y=x

Exponential Growth and Decay: (5i)

- if the rate at which a quantity increases/decreases is proportional to current value, then
quantity obeys the law of exponential change
- therefore, can model change in quantity as an exponential equation (usually base e or 2)
- these questions often round up (since I have to go to that amount and then pass it, can't
not even reach it!)
- radioactive decay uses e as a base
𝑘𝑡
Form: 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴0 × 𝑏
𝐴0 is the initial amount/conc.
𝑏 is the rate of growth (often e or 2)
𝑘 is the constant of growth, if k>0 growth, if k<0 decay
𝑡 is the time (variable like x)
𝑦2−𝑦1
- average rate of decay = − 𝑥2−𝑥1
, decay implies reduction so the answer is negative, a +ve
answer indicates it decreases, whereas a -veg/year technically is an increase
Chapter 6: Circular Functions
Shift 1: sin(
Shift 2: cos(
Shift 3: tan(
Shift ): θ

Degrees and Radians: 6a

1 radian (1c) is the angle created when one moves 1 unit around the unit circle.
π
- degrees → radians, multiply by 180
(add pi to angle)
180
- radians → degrees multiply by π
(get rid of pi)
Anticlockwise: positive angle Clockwise: negative angle

Sine, Cosine & Tangent: 6b

Period: 2pi (key points every period/4)
Sine (half ∞): y-coordinate on unit circle from a particular
angle
Cosine: x-coordinate on unit circle from a particular angle
Period: pi, is undefined (when cosine = 0) (key points every
period/2)
Tangent: if a tangent was drawn at that point
Graphing circular functions: 6d

To graph:
1) Write down amp and period (highlight if sin or cos!)
2) Mark out axes with scale of pi/12 (makes way for any transformations or dilations)
3) Mark out endpoints of domain
4) Determine horizontal translations, mark on where key points move (it can be helpful to dot
out un-translated graph then shift each key point)
5) Find x-ints and y-ints (often if horizontally translated, y-int is the endpoint!)

Solving Equations: 6e
To Solve: (no dilation from y, nx)
1) Determine the reference/base angle
2) Determine which quadrants (ASTC) solutions are in
3) Add/subtract period until you find all solutions in the domain!

To Solve: (dilation from y, nx)

1) Solve normality and identify what inside (nx equals)
2) Divide and +/- these solutions to find what x equals
3) Add/subtract period until you find all solutions in the domain!

Sketching translations of graphs: 6f/g

Translations up/down: dot in median (upwards translation) as a centre point (often use
x-axis normally)

Translation left/right: dot-point normal graph and then show where key points move to

Additions of ordinates: 6h
(refer to 1d, basically add y-coordinates at special points)
Tip: if difference of ordinates, sketch the negative graph as -ve and then add both!

Determining rules: 6i
How to:
1) Find amplitude (difference between max and min)
2) Find period (horizontal distance for the function to repeat) If 2pi<, fraction
3) See if shifts (translations)

π π
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 − 2
) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 2
) (cos goes ← from sin)
Tangent Function: 6j

To sketch:
1) Identify period
2) Mark x-ints (0, then every period, unless vertical translation, solve)
3) Mark asymptotes (between x-ints)
4) Add/subtract horizontal translation

General Solutions: 6k

Application of Circular Functions: 6l

Questions: often about waves (things of cyclical nature), questions about max/min, median,
etc.
Sinusoidal: a circular function (not specifically 'sine'), like polynomials, etc.

Chapter 7: Further Functions

Function Notation & identities: (7d)
The function notation is useful in describing properties of functions, eg. ex satisfies…
Log Laws Function Notation Index Laws Function Notation

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑥) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑥𝑦) 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥𝑦) 𝑒𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 × 𝑒𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓(𝑦)

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑥) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒( 𝑦 ) 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑓( 𝑦 ) 𝑥−𝑦 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑒 = 𝑦
𝑒

In general; 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑓(𝑥𝑦) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓(𝑦)

Families of Functions and Solving Literal Equations: (7e)

Some families of functions:
𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅
3
𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅\{0}
𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 2 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅+
𝑚𝑥
𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑒 𝑚, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅\{0}
Parameters: opposite of variable, remains constant until function is modified
Parameters make it possible to describe general properties
2
eg. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (where a, b and c are parameters)

Chapters 9-11: Calculus

Chapter 9: Differentiation f'(x) gives the gradient of f(x), exists for EXACTLY same x-values
Review of Differentiation: (9a-9c)
- constants get cancelled! Only something with x or relevant variable stays in play
- Secant: straight line cutting a curve at 2 or more points
𝑦2−𝑦1
- * Average rate of change is the gradient: 𝑥2−𝑥1
(no units)
- * Instantaneous rate of change requires derivative
- Tangent line to the point (a, f(a)) is a straight line (y=mx+c) going through (a, f(a)) with the
gradient f'(a)
- Differentiate: for f(x) = xn, f'(x) = nxn-1, g(x) = xp/q g'(x) = (p/q)xp/q - 1
- a-m = 1/am (need to put as numerator, not under fraction, to differentiate)

Further differentiation: (9b-9d)

Angles:
- m = tanθ
- acute: positive gradient
- obtuse: negative gradient
- exact values! Another way of figuring out the gradient of a tangent.

- Strictly increasing: +ve m, y value is increasing as we look from left to right

- Strictly decreasing: -ve m, y-values decrease from left to right
- ALWAYS include the TPs when talking about strictly in/decreasing functions (since even
though m=0, the y-value is relevant)

Sketching derivative graphs: (constants have a gradient of 0)

- mark where f(x) m=0 (TPs) and mark on x-axis of the f'(x) graph
- highlight when m=+ve (for f(x)) above x-axis for f'(x)
- highlight when m=-ve (for f(s)) below x-axis for f'(s)

Derivative Rules:
Constant: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, 𝑓'(𝑥) = 0
Composite: 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), 𝐹'(𝑥) = 𝑔'(𝑥)𝑓'(𝑔(𝑥))
Multiple (k is a constant): 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑔(𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑔'(𝑥)
That is, the derivative of a number multiple is the multiple of the derivative.
Sum: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑔'(𝑥) + ℎ'(𝑥)
That is, the derivative of the sum is the sum of the derivatives.
Difference: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑔'(𝑥) − ℎ'(𝑥)
That is, the derivative of the difference is the difference of the derivatives.
𝑛 𝑛−1
Powers: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥

The Chain Rule & Differentiating Rational Powers (9e, f)

Chain rule: for differentiating functions in brackets and composite functions
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), 𝐹'(𝑥) = 𝑔'(𝑥)𝑓'(𝑔(𝑥))

Differentiating Rational Powers:

- need to convert roots to fractional indices before we differentiate
𝑚
𝑛 𝑚
- 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑛 (top stays as top?)

Differentiating Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: (9g,h)

5
Exponentials: (𝑒 may look like a variable but is a constant, cancelled when differentiated!)
𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑥
- for 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 , 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑒
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
- ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑒 , ℎ'(𝑥) = 𝑓'(𝑥)𝑒

Logs:
1
- 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑘𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑥
(k gets cancelled!)
𝑓'(𝑥)
- ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑓'(𝑥)), ℎ'(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

Quick Methods:
Bracket to power: bring power down, multiply by diff of inside and minus 1 from power!
e to the power of something: leave the expression alone, but multiply by diff. of power
ln of something: derivative of inside over inside

Differentiation of Circular Functions: (9i)

- If have powers, take the power out and simply treat it as the chain rule!
General rule: sin(x) → cos(x) → -sin(x) → -cos(x) → sin(x) etc.
Sin: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥)
Cos: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) =− 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥)
2 𝑘
Tan: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑘𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑘𝑥) = 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘𝑥)
1 −1
𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥) (look at the third letter!)
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥) (look at the third letter!)
1
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥) (look at the third letter!)
2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥) = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)]
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 1
sin
cos
-sin
-cos
(down is differentiate, up is integrate)
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
3 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 6𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑥)
3 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) =− 6𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑥(2𝑥)
 2 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥), 𝑓'(𝑥) = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥)𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥)
(Product rule)

The Product (x) Rule: (9j)

Used when differentiating 2 functions multiplied together.
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), 𝐹'(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔'(𝑥) + 𝑓'(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
Let f(x)=u and g(x)=v, F'(x)= vu' + uv' (add UV protection)
Or write out u and u' and v and v' and use the cross multiply method.

Quotient (/) Rule: (9k)

When 2 functions are divided AND cannot be simplified.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓'(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔'(𝑥)
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
, 𝐹'(𝑥) = 2
[𝑔(𝑥)]
Lo, di hi, hi di lo. Lo lo.
Let f(x)=u and g(x)=v
𝑣𝑢'−𝑢𝑣'
𝐹'(𝑥) = 2
𝑣

Limits, Continuity & Differentiability: (9l, m)

Limits: point you want to inspect, to evaluate, sub value that x approaches into function
(simplify first if you can)

Algebra of Limits: addition of ordinates

Sum: limit of the sum is the sum of the limits, add limits together
lim(𝑓(𝑥)+𝑔(𝑥)) = lim(f(x)) + lim(g(x))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Multiply:
limk(𝑓(𝑥)) = klim(f(x))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Product: multiply limits together
lim(𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)) = lim(f(x))lim(g(x))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Quotient: divide limits accordingly
lim(𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥)) = lim(f(x)) / lim(g(x))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim(𝑓(𝑥)) (approaching a from the right)

𝑥→𝑎+

lim(𝑓(𝑥)) (approaching a from the left)

𝑥→𝑎-

Continuity: Is my graph continuous? Breaks? Do graphs touch/have the same y-values?

𝑓(𝑥) is continuous if lim(𝑓(𝑥)) = (𝑓(𝑥)) = f(a)
𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎-
Also, if f(a) exists
Informally, if you can draw the function without lifting your pen, it is continuous.
Asymptotes are automatically points of discontinuity.
Discontinuous if not continuous, if pt doesn't exist/open circle, has an endpoint
Continuous everywhere: continuous for all real numbers eg. All the polynomial functions

Function is differentiable at x=a:

𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable if lim(𝑓('𝑥)) = (𝑓'(𝑥)) = f'(a)
𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎-
Also, if f'(a) exists
ie. derivative is the same from the LHS of the join and RHS of the join
Function MUST be continuous in order to be differentiable.
All differentiable functions are continuous, but not all continuous functions are differentiable
Informally, a function is differentiable when it is smooth and continuous
Not differentiable, at endpoints and 'pointed' sections of graph

Chapter 10: Applications of Differentiation

Tangents & Normals (10a)
Tangent: straight line, touches graph at a point and has the same gradient (as that point) and
same (x,y) values
How to find eq: (tangent)
1. Find y-value of given point by subbing x into og (or from Q)
2. Derive og function
3. Find value of derivative (m) at x-point by subbing x=value into f'(x)
4. Use the (x,y) coord and m to find eq of tangent:
y=mx+c OR y-y1=m(x-x1)

Normal: straight line, touches graph at a point and has the opposite gradient (as that point)
and same (x,y) values, perpendicular
mN=-1/mT OR mNmT=-1
How to find eq: (normal)
1. Find y-value of given point by subbing x into og (or from Q)
2. Derive og function
3. Find value of derivative (m) at x-point by subbing x=value into f'(x)
4. Use mN=-1/mT to find
5. Use the (x,y) coord and m to find eq of tangent:
y=mx+c OR y-y1=m(x-x1)

Often Qs will muck around with the steps or add a variable, need to find gradient given tan
line, ect.
If so, stick to same steps:
1. Find tan/norm-line with variable
2. Sub in pt (if given)
3. Solve for variable

Rates of Change → m formula (10b)

𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Average rate of change (for f(x) from [a, b]): 𝑏−𝑎
Instantaneous rate of change (for f(x) at x=a): f'(a)
Velocity: change in positive over time, gradient of displacement formula
Acceleration: change in velocity over time, gradient of velocity formula
Velocity and acceleration can be +ve, -ve or 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
𝑣= 𝑑𝑡
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡

Finding Stationary Points → m=0: (10c,d)

3 types: maximum, minimum, stationary POI
Maximum: +ve, 0, -ve
Minimum: -ve, 0, +ve
Stationary POI: m doesn't change (expect 0 at the point), halfway btwn max and min

To Sketch, Find stationary pts: make f'(x)=0, solve for x-coord, use f''(x) to name type, find
y-coord by subbing back into f(x)

If a Q ever says 'has no stationary pts' 'no solutions' '2 solutions' think discriminant, ∆
Standard to find m 2 different ways:
1. Calculus
𝑦2−𝑦1
2. 𝑥2−𝑥1
OR 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒

Minimums & Maximums: (10e,f)

Stationary pts: turning pts, local max/min, may not be highest/lowest pt given domain

Absolute, fmax/fmin: sketch graph (given domain), find stat pts, find y–coords of end pts,
choose greatest (max) and smallest (min) y-values

Optimisation:
1. Draw a diagram to illustrate the problem
2. Label the diagram, assign letters to variables & write constants. (Note the values that the
variables can take)
3. Write an expression for the quantity that is going to be maximised/minimised
4. Form an equation for this quantity in terms of a single independent variable. (This may
require some algebraic manipulation, simultaneous eqs, )
5. If 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) is the quantity to be maximised or minimised, find the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓′(𝑥)=0
6. Test each point for which 𝑓′(𝑥)=0 to determine whether it is a local maximum, a local
minimum or neither.
7. If the function 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) is defined on an interval, check the values of the function at the
endpoints

Value: y-coord

Maximum Rate of In/decrease:

- trying to find gradient at maximum, maximising the gradient function
- take derivative of gradient and solve when it equals 0, double derivative of og, derive
derivative

Families of Functions: (10g)

Parameter: quantity that influences output or behaviour of mathematical object, viewed as
being held constant
- closely related to variables, difference is a matter of perspective
- variables are viewed as changing while parameters either don't change or change more
slowly
- treat parameters as constant values, but can represent different values
- look closely at y-values for max/min value, if given y=0 and y=-a (and a is a +ve integer)
then y=0 must be max (since 0 is greater than -ve)

CAS techniques:
- use 'abc' for parameters and 'variables' for x to distinguish btwn 2
- use 'simplify' to neaten up expressions
- use 'ans' (shift exe) to use ans
- sub expressions into one another using given (shift ,)
- can solve simultaneous eqs for variables in terms of a parameter
- when graphing, use button w dotted lines to have sliders (to adjust value of parameter)

Newton's Method for Finding Solutions to Equations → precursor to pseudocode

(10h)
*the approxmation needs to occur twice to be true, use 2nd*
- use to find approximate solutions for f(x)=0 (x-ints)
- involves finding tangent to successive pts on the graph y=f(x), (pt where tangent intersects
x-axis, is the next pt for tangent)
- start with a chosen pt and get closer each time

𝑓(𝑥𝑛)
Iterative formula/General procedure: 𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑓'(𝑥𝑛)

- this process is often continued in a spreadsheet, as inputted on CAS

2
𝑎 −2
- can also produce on CAS by defining: 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑎 − 2𝑎
and repeatedly applying or by
using nests; 𝑔(𝑔(𝑔(𝑔(4)))) gives 4 iterations at once

Doesn't always work:

1. Oscillating sequence: oscillates btwn 2 no, since the gradient are parallel
2. Terminating sequence: initial guess is a stat. Pt, m=0, fraction is undefined

Chapter 11: Integration *+c* *sq. units* *sketch to find +ve or -ve area*
Review of integration (11a-11f)
Integration: area between curve and x-axis, opposite of differentiation, f'(x) → f(x)
Rule: add one to the power, divide by new power (where power isn't equal to -1)

Notation: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐 (indefinite integral, includes the variable 'c')

Area: can approximate by using rectangles or trapeziums

Left rectangles: top left point touches graph, underestimate (if graph is increasing), A=lw
Right rectangles: top right point touches graph, overestimate (if graph is increasing), A=lw
1
Trapezium: AVERAGE!, 𝐴 = 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ (h=x-axis length, a and b are equal to vertical lines)
The smaller the x-axis increments, the more accurate the estimate!

Exact area: definite integral

- if the are is -ve, need to flip terminals OR minus definite integral in order to obtain true
area, otherwise areas may cancel

Fundamental theorem of calculus

If 𝑓 is a continuous function on the interval [𝑎,𝑏], then
𝑏
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝑓'(𝑥)]𝑎 = 𝑓'(𝑏) − 𝑓'(𝑎)
𝑎

Properties of the definite integral:

𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (a<c<b)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

Finding area: *area of triangle: 0.5bh, often in linear graphs, easy MC marks)
1. Sketch the graph over given domain, (this shows whether the area is above or below the
x-axis)
2. Determine terminals a and b
3. Set up definite integral/s (may need 2 or more depending on how y-values of graph
change to +ve or -ve)
4. Make any area below the x-axis positive by swapping terminals or placing '-' in front of
integral
5. Integrate and evaluate the definite integral (often easier on CAS)

- if the function is greater than or equal to the x-axis for the domain, can use the definite
integral accordingly
- if the function is less than or equal to the x-axis for the domain, can use the definite integral
accordingly BUT flip terminals OR put -ve of integral
- may need to graph to figure this out and use definite integrals accordingly

If given a graph 'bounded by vertical lines' (eg. bounded by the lines x=2 and x=5) then
those are the x-terminals (2 and 5).

Do big integrals as 2 parts on CAS!

Indefinite Integrals & the Chain Rule (11b,c)

Indefinite Integral Rules:
∫𝑓(𝑥)+𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫𝑓(𝑥)−𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘∫𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where 𝑘 is a real number

- can find 'c' if given a coordinate of og function to find the constant

Chain Rule: may need to re-express as a mixed no. first

1
∫(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)r𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑟+1)
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑟+1+𝑐

For 𝑎𝑥+𝑏>0:
1 1
∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐

For 𝑎𝑥+𝑏<0:
1 1
∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(− 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐

For 𝑎𝑥+𝑏≠0:
1 1
∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐

Antiderivative of Exponentials: (11d)

𝑘𝑥 1 𝑘𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
𝑒 + 𝑐, 𝑘 ≠ 0

Remember to break up if in a fraction! (if you can)

Integration of Circular Functions: (11g)

sin(x) → -cos(x) → -sin(x) → cos(x) → sin(x) etc.
1
∫sin(𝑘𝑥+𝑎)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑥+𝑎)+𝑐
1
∫cos(𝑘𝑥+𝑎)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
sin(𝑘𝑥+𝑎)+𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠
(up is integrate, times by 1/coeff of x)

Integration by Recognition (11h)

- happenes when we are asked to differentiate a function outside the realm of methods
In exams, will happen by:
a) differentiate a function (using skills we know)
b) 'hence, find the antiderivative of…' OR 'hence find definite integral of…'
B will often involve a function similar to what was differentiated in a but NOT exactly same,
will use fundamental theorem of calculus to find the antiderivative
For B, write the antiderivate of what you found in a = original function from a
Manipulate by moving dissimilar things to find what antiderivate of B is, thenm solve as per
normal

The Area Between Two Curves (11i)

Method:
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Where f(x) is 'top' graph and g(x) is 'bottom' graph
- works when both are above or below x-axis
- find intersection pts (terminals) and solve, if they cross over may need >1 integral
- can use to find area of log graphs by find area of y=c - y=ex

The area often represents time taken for something to occur

When solving inequalities, for circular functions, (general solutions on CAS) read first as the
numbers at the end and the second as the first + number in front of general solution

Applications of Integration (11j)

𝑏
1
Average value: 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
- the height of a rectangle having the same area as the area under the graph for the same
interval
- uses signed area (doesn't care if +ve or -ve)
x(t) (displacement) s(t) (distance)
v(t) (velocity)
a(t) (acceleration)
down is derivative, up is for integration
When trying to evaluate a definite integral when already given part of it, dilations affect
terminals and area while translations only affect terminals (not area)

Chapters 13-17: Data analysis, probability and statistics

Write binomial Pr to the number of dp required in ans +1
95%: 1.96 90%: 1.65

Chapter 13: Discrete Random Variables & Their Probability Distributions

Sample Spaces and Probability(13A)
Sample space: set of all possible outcomes, {} denoted by 𝜖
Event: a subset of the sample space
Equally likely outcomes: Pr(A) = no. of times A occurs/total outcomes
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
Overall: probability = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
Relative frequency/experimental probability is an estimate and based on experiments/trials,
as no. of trials increases, closeness to true value increases, relative frequency gets closer to
probability

Rules:
Pr(𝐴)≥0
𝐴⊆𝜀
Pr(∅)=0
Pr(𝜀)=1 (the sum of the probabilities of all outcomes of an experiment is 1)
Pr(A′)=1−Pr(A) (where 𝐴′ is the complement of 𝐴)
Pr(A∪B)=Pr(A)+Pr(B)−Pr(A∩B), (the addition rule)

If two events 𝐴and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive (i.e. if 𝐴 and 𝐵 have no outcomes in common),
then Pr(A∩B)=0 and therefore Pr(𝐴∪𝐵)=Pr(𝐴)+Pr(𝐵)

Need 3 bits of info to solve a Karnaugh Graph!

Figure out if you can get the same outcome from a different order and add that probability!
Eg. 10 and 20 + 20 and 10

Conditional Probability (13B)

- try to recognise when a condition is present:
‘the chance that a harvest is poorer than average is 0.5 when there is no disease present’
shows that 0. 5 = 𝑃𝑟(𝑃|𝐷') not 0. 5 = 𝑃𝑟(𝑃 ∩ 𝐷')

Conditional probability: the probability of one event occurring is dependent on the outcome
of another event
Pr(A|B) = ‘probability of A given B’ where A is the probability and B is the condition
𝑃𝑟(𝐴∩𝐵)
𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)
𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) × 𝑃𝑟(𝐵) (multiplication rule of probability)
𝑃𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵)𝑃𝑟(𝐵) + 𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵')𝑃𝑟(𝐵') (law of total probability)

- Tree diagrams can be helpful! (since when AF is an outcome, it is the probability of F given
A, the probability along the branch leading to F)
mu (µ) = mean
sigma (σ) = standard deviation

Independence: don’t affect each other

𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵')
𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)

Prove: 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴) × 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)

Discrete Random Variables (13C)

Discrete: defined: colour, age, etc.
Random variable is a function that assigns a number to each outcome in the sample space

All discrete probability distributions p(x) must:

1. Each probability must be between 0 and 1 (can include them)
2. Sum of all probabilities must equal 1

Expected Value (mean), Variance and Standard Deviation (13D)

Mean: average, expected value, 𝐸(𝑋), µ, (mu) the sum of 𝑥 × 𝑝(𝑥)
- 𝐸(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝐸(𝑎𝑥) = 𝐸(𝑏) = 𝐸(𝑎𝑥) + 𝑏
- 𝐸(𝑋 + 𝑌) = 𝐸(𝑋) + 𝐸(𝑌)
(where X and Y are discrete random variables and a and b are constants)

Variance: an average of averages, spread from mean, small variance = concentrated data,
2
σ
2 2
- 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝐸(𝑋 ) − [𝐸(𝑋)] (squared since a -ve expected value becomes +ve)
2
𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋)
𝑉𝑎𝑟(1 − 𝑋) = 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋)

Standard deviation: square root of the variance, σ (sigma)

- 𝑠𝑑(𝑋) = 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋)
- 𝑃𝑟(µ − 2σ ≤ 𝑋 ≤ µ + 2σ) ≈ 0. 95

Chapter 14: The Binomial Distribution

Bernoulli Sequences & Binomial Probability Distribution (14A)
Bernoulli sequence must satisify:
1. Each trial results in only 1 of 2 outcomes (often success/S and failure/F)
2. The probability of success (p) and probability of failure (1-p) is constant
3. Trials are independent

The number of successes, 𝑋, in a sequence of 𝑛 Bernoulli trials is called a binomial random

variable and has a binomial probability distribution, we write 𝑋∼ Bi(𝑛,𝑝) and:
𝑃𝑟(𝑋 = 𝑥) = ( )𝑝 (1 − 𝑝)
𝑛
𝑥
𝑥 𝑛−𝑥
, for 𝑥 = 1, 2, 3,..., 𝑛
Where, n=no. of trials, n/x=combinations, px=Pr(S) and pn-x=Pr(F)
- use PDF on CAS for 1 no. and CDF for a range

Graph, Expectation & Variance of a Binomial Distribution (14B)

If 𝑋 is the number of successes in 𝑛 trials, each with a probability of success 𝑝, then the
expected value and the variance of 𝑋 are given by:
𝐸(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝
𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

Finding the Sample Size (14C)

- where we are provided with p, x and Pr(X=x) and we need to find no. of trials (n)
1. Summarise info provided with, know what you are trying to find
2. Use binomial distribution formula to represent the info.
3. Simplify if can, by evaluating combinations part in terms of n
4. Use CAS to solve for n
More than 1 = 2 or more

Use ± ∞ as endpoints
Chapter 15: Continuous (can keep getting more specific, eg. d.p, measurement)
Random Variables & Their Probability Distributions
Continuous Random Variables (15A)
A probability density function must satisfy:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all x (or similar, y/z/a, etc.)
∞
2. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞

- continuous variables can never equal exactly a specific value, Pr(W=w)=0

- the area under the curve is 1
- probability of values is calculated by the area under the curve between values
- < and ≤ are used interchangeably
- Show is a probability density function: integrate, the area under curve = 1 unit2
- if there are no endpoints, then we look at the limit of the function

Mean & Percentiles for a Continuous Random Variable (15B)

- if trying to find the median or similar for a piecewise function, check the first part and see if
it is less than 0.5, if so, use the second part but if less than or equal to 0.5 just use the first
part of it
For a continuous random variable with a probability density function:
∞
- mean/expected value is µ = 𝐸(𝑋) = ∫ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞
∞
- the expected value of 𝑔(𝑥) is equal to 𝐸[𝑔(𝑋)] = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞
𝑝
- where ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞 p is called a percentile of the distribution
−∞
𝑚
- the median is the middle, 50%, ½, etc. can be found since from ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0. 5, it is the
−∞
x-value that splits the area in half

Measures of Spread (15C/D)

- variance and standard deviation are measures of spread
2 2 2 2
- 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝐸(𝑋 ) − µ = 𝐸(𝑋 ) − [𝐸(𝑋)] (is the average distance left and right of mean)
- 𝑠𝑑(𝑋) = 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) (95% of data often iese 2 lengths left and right of mean)
2 2
- 𝐸(𝑋 ) is the integral from a to b of (𝑥 𝑓(𝑥))
- IQR/interquartilele range is the middle 50%
𝑄3 𝑄1

- 𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1 where ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0. 75 and ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0. 25

−∞ −∞
- 𝐸(𝑔(𝑥)) ≠ 𝐺(𝐸(𝑥)) unless g(x) is linear
- 𝐸(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎𝐸(𝑥) + 𝑏
2
- 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑥)
- 𝑠𝑑(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎𝑠𝑑(𝑥)
If x and y are independent continuous random variables then:
1. 𝐸(𝑋 + 𝑌) = 𝐸(𝑋) + 𝐸(𝑌)
2. 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋 + 𝑌) = 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) + 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑌)
Chapter 16: The Normal Distribution
The Normal Distribution (16A)
Normal distributions: mean=mode=median (all data symmetrical about the centre), 50% of
values greater than mean and 50% of values less than mean
2
X (random variable) is normally distributed: 𝑋 ∼ 𝑁(µ, σ )
Random variable Z follows a standard normal distribution where mean/µ = 0 and sd/σ = 1
Z score says the number of standard deviations (above or below the mean) a data point is:
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑥−µ
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
OR 𝑧 = σ
+ve indicates x value is above mean
-ve value indicates that x is below mean

Rule of the normal distribution:

Random variable Z follows a standard normal distribution where mean/µ = 0, sd/σ = 1 and
its probability density function has the rule:
2
1 −0.5𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒
2π
Function rule for Normally Distributed Random variables:
𝑥−µ 2
1 −0.5( σ
)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒
σ 2π
- can use to identify mean and standard deviation

Properties of Normal Distribution:

 𝑥−µ 2
1 −0.5( )
1. Defined by rule 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 σ

σ 2π
2. 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all x
3. Total area enclosed by graph and x-axis is 1 unit2
4. Area under the curve is the probability

Standardisation & the 68–95–99.7% rule (16B)

Determining Normal Probabilities (16C)

Symmetry properties:
Normal distributions contain symmetry so probabilities can be determined using this:
𝑃𝑟(𝑍 > 𝑎) = 1 − 𝑃𝑟(𝑍 ≤ 𝑎)
𝑃𝑟(𝑍 <− 𝑎) = 𝑃𝑟(𝑍 > 𝑎)
𝑃𝑟(− 𝑎 < 𝑍 < 𝑎) = 1 − 2𝑃𝑟(𝑍 ≥ 𝑎) = 1 − 2𝑃𝑟(𝑍 ≤− 𝑎)
The 69-95-99.7% rule is approximate so use your CAS if you can!
Use ± ∞ as upper and lower bounds if looking at less than or greater than

Solving Problems Using the Normal Distribution (16D)

When the mean and standard deviation of a normal distribution are unknown, it is sometimes
𝑋−µ
necessary to transform to the standard normal distribution (use 𝑍 = σ
, can find Z-value on
CAS)
Inverse Normal Problems: need to find terminals/bounds, probability is given: (use statistics
if dealing with 2 values to find!)
The dinosaur’s head faces away from the probability (its back is the probability!)
𝑋−µ
Can often solve these easily on CAS but will need to show working out using 𝑍 = σ

4 Main Problem Types:

The Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution (16E)

- only do if asked to ‘approximate’ or ‘use the normal approximation to the binomial

distribution’
- ≥ and > are equivalent
- use ± ∞ as terminals to ensure we cover everything!
Steps:
1. Calculate mean: µ = 𝑛𝑝
2. Calculate standard deviation: σ = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
3. Use these in normal cdf to calculate the probability

Chapter 17: Sampling & Estimation ≥ and > are NOT equivalent
Populations & Samples (17A)
Population: set of all eligible members of a group which we intend to study, whole group!

Sample: subset of the population which we select to make inferences about the population
(generalising from the sample to the population will not be useful unless the sample is
representative of the population)

A sample of size 𝑛 is called a simple random sample if it is selected from the population so
that every subset of size 𝑛 has an equal chance of being chosen as the sample. In particular,
every member of the population must have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Population proportion (𝑝) is the proportion of individuals in the entire population possessing a
particular attribute and is constant (probability!, total number of population, NOT sample)

Sample proportion (𝑝̂) proportion of individuals in a particular sample possessing the

attribute, and varies from sample to sample

The sample proportions 𝑝̂ are the values of a random variable 𝑃̂

𝑋
The sample proportion 𝑝̂ = 𝑛 is a random variable, where 𝑋 is the number of favourable
outcomes in a sample of size 𝑛

Parameter: charateristic of population

Statistic: characteristic of sample

The Exact Distribution of the Sample Proportion (17B)

The distribution of a statistic that is calculated from a sample is called a sampling distribution

The distribution of 𝑃̂ (capital p hat) is known as the sampling distribution of the sample
proportion

When the population is small, the sampling distribution of the sample proportion 𝑃̂ can be
determined using our knowledge of combinations

When the population is large, (lots, many, populations of people, etc.) the sampling is
assumed to be a binomial random variable with parameters 𝑛 and 𝑝. In this case, the mean
and standard deviation of 𝑃̂ are given by:
𝑝(1−𝑝)
𝐸(𝑃̂) = 𝑝 and 𝑠𝑑(𝑃̂) = 𝑛
Approximating the Distribution of the Sample Proportion (17C)
When the sample size n is large, the sample proportion 𝑃̂ has an approximately normal
𝑝(1−𝑝)
distribution, with mean µ = 𝑝 and standard deviation σ = 𝑛

Confidence intervals for the Population Proportion (17D)

p^ is the average of the values in the confidence interval (middle)
Interval width increases as confidence level increases, 90% confidence interval must be
narrower than 95%
Confidence intervals: ensure that one is confident that the approximation is close to the true
value if p^ lies in between, likely to be close to the true value
As the sample increases, the standard deviation decreases

Psuedocode
- set up a table to keep track of the changing values
- use lines to connect the while → end while loops (to stay on track)
- follow what the code is saying, just because Newton’s method is being asked does not
mean that our CAS can do it for us