Transmission of Digital Data: Interfaces and Modems Once we have encoded our information into a format that can be transmitted, the next step is to investigate the transmission process itself Information-processing equipment generates encoded signals but ordinarily requires assistance to transmit those signals over a communication link. For example, a PC generates a digital signal but needs an additional device to modulate a carrier frequency before it is sent over a telephone line. How do we relay encoded data from the generating device to the next device in the pro- cess? The answer is a bundle of wires, sort of minicommunication link. called an interface. Because an interface links two devices not necessarily made by the same manufac- turer, its characteristics must be defined and standards must be established. Character- istics of an interface include its mechanical specifications (how many wires are used to transport the signal), its electrical specifications (the frequency, amplitude. and phase of the expected signal), and its functional specifications (if multiple wires are used. what does each one do?). These characteristics are all described by several popular standards and are incorporated in the physical layer of the OSI model. 6.1 DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION Of primary concern when considering the transmission of data from one device to another is the wiring, and of primary concern when considering the wiring is the data stream. Do we send one bit at a time, or do we group bits into larger groups and. if so. how? The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished either in paral- lel mode or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse. In serial mode, one bit is sent with each clock pulse. While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial transmission: synchronous and asynchronous (see Figure 6.1).ee Doane rrarnsmniasie” Figure 6.1 Parallel Transmission sncach ¢ sareting of Is and Os, may be organized into groups YW " aA oF : ‘om- Fo neatata in groups of bits muclt as WE conceive of and use spo- cords rather than Tetters. By grouping. we can send data This is called parallel transmission. illy simple one: use n wires ansmission is a concept ; and all n bits of one each bit has its own wire. device to another, Figure 6.2 pulse from on 8. Typically. the eight wires are bundled Binary dat puters produce and consume ee in the form of W ken lang n bits at a time instead of one. The mechanism for parallel tr: to send n bits at one time, That way group can be transmitted with each cloc show's how parallel transmission works for 1 = in a cable with a connector at each end. Figure 6.2. Parallel ransmission Receiver The advantage of parallel transmission i See ee All cise being Bar ee anc alee oe Lovee seri eae lene Guia ine (ennai) eae Patalelitansiissioneanire | et expensive, parallel transmission is el ‘ ransmit the cnn ee ally limited to short jcc - Because this is140 CHAPTER 6 TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL DATA: INTERFACE: AND MODEMS Figure 6.1 Data transmission Data transmission synchrenenrs Binary data. consisting of 1s and Os, may be organized into groups of n bits each Com. Puters produce and consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of Ken language in the form of words rather than letters. E n bits at a time instead of one. This is ca The mechanism for para to send n bits and use spe, we can send data groupin led parallel transmission. Hel transmission is a conceptually simple one: use n wires one time, That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another. Figure 6.9 shows how parallel transmission works for 1 = 8. Typically. the eight wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end. Figure 6.2 Parallel transmission ‘The eight bits are sent together S: a sean Sender We need eight lines. LL ‘The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission. Bur there is a significant disadvantage: cost. Parallel transmission requires n communi- cation lines (wires in the example) just to transmit the dat at Stream, Because this is expensive, parallel] transmission is usually limited to short di: ances,SECTION 6.1 DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION 141 Serial Transmission need only one communication ‘ata between two communicating devices (sce Figure 6.3 Serial ransmission ‘The eight bits ure sent one after another, Receiver ParalleV/serial converter _ The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communi- cation channel, serial transmissi ion reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n. Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the interface between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line andthe receiver (serial-to-parallel). Serial transmission occurs in one of two ways: asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous Transmission Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is unimpor- tant. Instead, information is received and translated by agreed-upon patterns. As long as those patterns are followed, the receiving device can retrieve the information without regard to the rhythm in which it is sent. Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group, usually eight bits, is sent along the link as a unit. The sending system handles each group independently, relaying it to the link whenever ready, with- out regard to a timer. Without a synchronizing pulse, the receiver cannot use timing to predict when the next group will arrive. To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra bit is added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit. To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually Is, are called stop bits. By this method, each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 are information and 2 or more are signals to the receiver. In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.142 CHAPTER 6 TRANSMIS SION OF DIGITAL DATA: INTERFACES AND MODEMS. C ning and one 1 byt ————L___ —__ The start and stop bits and the pap alert the reeviver to the heyinning ang ach byte and allow it w synehronize with the data stream. ‘This mechanism ig synchronous because, al the byte level, sender and receiver do not have ta ty ch byte, the receiver must still he synchronized with the j Th asynchronous transmission, we send one start bit (0) at the be OF Mote we bits (1s) at the end of each byte, There may be a gap between op Wd of Called synch ‘i : NCOMiny is, some synehronization is required, but only for the duration o ale byte. The receiving device resynehronizes at the onset of each new byte, Wr nized. But within e bit stream. Tha 1 1 sin ; hen the receiver detects start bis it sets timer and begins counting its they come in. aig nits, the receiver looks for a stop bit, As soon as it detects the stop bit, it ignores any received pulses until it detects the next start bit ‘Asynchronous here means " their durations the same, ynchronous atthe byte level,” but the bits are still synchronizca Figure 6.4 is a schematic illustration of asynchronous transmission. In this exam, ple, the start bits are Os, the stop bits are Is, and the gap is represented by an idle line rather than by additional stop bits. sion Figure 6.4 Asynchronous transmi Direction of flow Stop bit Start bit | | : | Data —> Sender Receiver 01101 To] Pinon To] [foo Jo] Gyn / Gaps between data units The addition of stop and start bits and the insertion of gaps into the bit stream make asynchronous transmission slower than forms of transmission that can operate without the addition of control information. But it is cheap and effective, two advantages that make it an attractive choice for situations like low-speed communication. For example, the connection of a terminal to a computer is a natural application for asynchronous transmission. A user types only one character at a time, types extremely slowly in data Processing terms, and leaves unpredictable gaps of time between each character. Synchronous Transm In synchronous transmission, the bit stream » r is combined into longer “frames,” which may contain multiple bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmissionSECTION 6.2 DTE-DCE INTERFACE 143 link wit i ink without a gap between it and the next one. It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding Purposes. In other words, data are transmitted as an that string into the bytes, or without start/stop bits or gaps. It Figure 6.5 gives drawn in the divisions Puts its data onto the line as one long rate bursts, the gaps between burs that means idle. The Teceiver counts units. 4 schematic illust between bytes. ration of synchronous transmission, We have {mn reality, those divisions do not exist; the sender string. If the sender wishes to send data in sepa- Must be filled with a special sequence of 0s and Is the bits as they arrive and groups them in cight-bit Figure 6.5 Synchronous transmission Direction of flow Sender | 10100011 Hinton }iitiono 11110111 | 00010000 Without gaps and start/stop bits, there is no built-in mechanism to help the receiv- ing device adjust its bit synchronization in midstream, Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the received information is completely dependent on the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits ae they come in. The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits or gaps to introduce at the sending e1 ‘nd and remove at the receiving end and, by extension, with fewer bits to move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchro- nous transmission. For this reason, it is more useful for high-speed applications like the transmission of data from one computer to another. Byte synchronization is accom. Plished in the data link layer. 6.2 DTE-DCE INTERFACE At this point we must clarify two terms important to computer networking: data ter- minal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE). There are usually four basic functional units involved in the communication of data: 4 DTE and DCE on one end and a DCE and DTE on the other end, as shown in Figure 6.6. The DTE generates the data and passes them, along with any Recessary control characters, to a DCE, The DCE converts the signal to a format appropriate to the transmissionmedium and introducgs it onto the network link, ing end, this process is reversed, When the signal arrives ath ree iy Figure 6.6 DTEs and DCEs Network, DE Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) Data terminal equipment (DTE) includes any unit that functions either as @ Source of o¢ as a destination for binary digital data. At the physical layer, it can be a terminal, micro. computer, computer, printer, fax machine, or any other device that generates OF con- sumes digital data. DTEs do not often communicate directly with one another; they Senerate and consume information but need an intermediary to be able to communi. cate. Think of a DTE as operating the way your brain does when you talk. Let’s say you have an idea that you want to communicate to a friend. Your brain creates the idea but Cannot transmit that idea to your friend’s brain by itself. Unfortunately or fortunately, We are not a species of mind readers. Instead, your brain passes the idea to your vocal chords and mouth, which convert it to sound waves that can travel through the air or over a telephone line to your friend’s ear and from there to his or her brain, where itis converted back into information. In this model, your brain and your friend’s brain are DTEs. Your vocal chords and mouth are your DCE. His or her ear is also a DCE. The air or telephone wire is your transmission medium, [a DTE is any device that is a source of or destination for binary digital data. Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE) Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) includes any functional unit that transmits or receives data in the form of an analog or digital signal through a network. At the physical layer, a DCE takes data generated by a DTE, converts them to an appropriate signal, and then introduces the signal onto the telecommunication link. Commonly used DCEs at this layer include modems (modulator/demodulators, discussed in Section 6.4). In any network, a DTE generates digital data and passes them to a DCE: the DCE converts the data to a form acceptable to the transr ion medium and sends the oe verted signal to another DCE on the network. The second DCE takes the signal off theSECTION 6.2 PTE-DCE INTERFACE 445 1d delivers it, To m “I receiving DCES must use ul AY ThA HE you wa wike this communica: he same modula N10 communicate to some, anese, The wo DUES de not ne Who, «to be with its own DCE and the without loss. of imteprity I signal nection hetween a differ, each standard prox Mal characteristics of the connection, S any dovieg through a network, es data in the form of an analog or digital Over the years, Many stand; DTE anda DCE model tor the ards have been developed to define the co Though their solutions and funeti¢ (sce Figure 6.7), Mechanical, ele tric fine the mechanical acteristics of the E and the DCE izati i ved ii -DCE interface standards, the most active are Of the organizations involved in DTE-DC ' vem the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) and the International Telecommunicatio n Union-Telecommunication Standards Committee (ITU-T), The EIA standards are called, appropriately enough, EIA-232, EIA-442, EIA-449, and so on. The ITU-T stan- dards are called the V series and the X series. ing DTE-DCE interface standards, The -T have been involved in developing DT! 7 Sasa aie EIA-232, EIA-442, EIA-449, and so on. The ITU-T standards are stands called the V series and the X series. EIA-232 Interface = 232, which detines rtant interlace standard developed by the EIA is the B 233 «i as ae nechanical, electrical, and functional characteristics of the inte the mecl I.HAPTER 6 TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL DATA; INTERFACES AND MODEMS DTE and a DCE, Originally issued in 1962 as the RS-242 stan stand: (eeomn ay Meng nthe FA-2.2 hus heen revised several fies, The mst recent vera ne on, 1 232-D, defines not only the type of connectors to he wsed Int also the specifi cay i Ic cable phigs and the functionality of each pin : : and -f 4 4 rel trical, and funetionat chy ] ACE AS 4 25. witg tached to either end. The fengih v so th nterface bewween a DTE and a DCE Mechanical Specification The mechani cable with ama | specification of the ELA-232 standard defines the intert e and a femate DB-25 pin connector att of the cable may not exceed 15 meters (about 50 feet). \ DB-25 connector isa plug with 25 pins or receptacte to a single wire with a speeitic function, With this design, sibility of 25 separate inter Hh of which is attached © FIA has created the poy. ctions between a DTE and a DCE, Fewer are actually gsoq in current practice, but the standard allows for future inelusion of functionality The EIA-232 calls for and at the other end by a female “able terminated at one end by a male connector ‘onnector, The term male connector refers to a plug with cach wire in the cable connecting to a pin. The term female connector refers to a receptacle with cach wire in the cable connecting to a metal tube, or sheath. In the DB-25 connector, these pins and tubes are arranged in two rows, with 13 on the top and 12 on the bottom. As we will see in the next section, another implementation of EIA-232 uses a 9-wire cable with a male and a female DB-9 pin connector attached to either end. Electrical Specification The electrical specification of the standard defines the voltage levels and the type of signal to be transmitted in either direction between the DTE and the DCE. Sending the Data The electrical specification for sending data is shown in Figure 6.8, EJA-232 states that all data must be transmitted as logical 1s and Os (called mark and space) using NRZ-L encoding, with 0 defined as a positive voltage and | defined as a negative voltage. However, rather than defining a single range bounded by highest and lowest amplitudes, EIA-232 defines two distinct ranges, one for positive voltages and one for negative. A receiver recognizes and accepts as an intentional signal any voltage that falls within these ranges, but no voltages that fall outside the ranges. To be recog- nized as data, the amplitude of a signal must fall between 3 and 15 volts or between -3 and -15 volts. By allowing valid signals to fall within two 12-volt ranges, ELA-232 makes it unlikely that degradation of a signal by noise will affect its recognizability. In other words, as long as a pulse falls within one of the acceptable ranges, the precision of that pulse is unimportant. Figure 6.8 shows a square wave degraded by noise into a curve. The amplitude of the fourth bit is lower than intended (compared to that of the second bit), and rather than staying at one single voltage, it covers a range of many voltages. If the receiver were looking only for a fixed voltage, the degradation of this pulse would have made itSECTION 6.2. DTE-DCE INTERTACE — BS" unrecoverable, The bit g oe Pit also woul have been unrecoverable if the receiver were looking eld a single voltage for their entire dura Control and Timing Only 4 wires out of the 25 available in an EIA-232 interface are used for data fune- tions. The remaining 21 are reserved for functions like control, timing. grounding. and testing. The electrical specifications for these other wires are similar to those govern- ing data transmission, but simpler. Any of the other functions is considered ON if it transmits a voltage of at least +3 and OFF if it transmits a voltage with a value less than ~3 volts. The electrical specific: OFF © less thar mn of ELA-232 defines that signals other than data must be sent using volts and ON © greater than +3 volts Figure 6.9 shows one of these signals. The specification for control signals is con- ceptually reversed from that for data transmission. A positive voltage means ON and a negative voltage means OFF. Also note that OFF is still signified by the transmission of a specific voltage range. An absence of voltage on one of these wires while the sys- tem is running means that something is not working properly, and not that the line is turned off. A final important function of the electrical specification is the definition of bit rate. EIA-232 allows for a maximum bit rate of 20 Kbps, although in practice this often is, exceeded. Functional Specification Two different implementations of EIA-232 are available: DB-25 and DB-9. DB-25 Implementation EIA-232 defines the functions assigned to each of the 25 pins in the DB-25 connector. Figure 6.10 shows the ordering and functionality of in of a male connector. Remember that a female connector will be the mirror each pil : ptacle, and so on. image of the male, so that pin | in the plug matches tube | in the rece|Figure 6.9 Electrical specification for control signals in EIA-232 cfined area Allowable area Each communications function has a mirror or answering function for traffic in th opposite direction, to allow for full-duplex operation. For example, pin 2 is for trans mitting data, while pin 3 is for receiving data. In this way, both parties can transmit ae at the same time. As you can see from Figure 6.10, not every pin is functional, Pins 9 and 10 are reserved for future use. Pin 11 is as yet unassigned. Figure 6.10 Functions of pins in E1A-232, DB-25 Received line Secondary ‘Transmitted Request DCE Signal Reserved received line Tovend ready detector (testing) signal detector Un- ‘common | (testing) | assigned Ring Secondary |Secondary| ining oe transmitted] received a data Transmitter — Receiver ‘signal __ signal element ' element timing — timing Secondary signal (DCE-DTE) (DCI ) request’ quality Data : ener gual, TaeECTION 6.2 DTE-DCE INTERFACE M9 DB-9 Implementation M essary in a single g . td 7 ae axynichronous connec, . DB-25 implementation are not nec aS O09 and shown in bipy ion. A simpler 9 12 ae sure pin version of EIA 242 known Gonship in the tw. Bure 6.11 was developed. Note 4, © implementations " ote that there is no pin-to-pin rela Figure 6.11 MCHONS of Pins in EIA.232, Dg Carrier Guier Receive Signa days get round bry rendy ‘Transmit data Request | Ring tosend | indicator Clear to send An Example This example, Figure 6.12, demonstrates the functioning of E full-duplex mode over a leased line using only the pri modems, and the DTEs are computers. There are five dist clearing. |A-232 in synchronous ry channel. The DCEs here are inct steps. from preparation to - This is a full-duplex model, so both computer/modem systems can transmit data concurrently. In terms of the EIA model, however, one system is still classified as the initiator and the other as the responder. Step 1 shows the preparation of the imterfaces for transmission. The two grounding circuits, 1 (shield) and 7 (signal ground), are active between both the sending com puter/modem combination (left) and the receiving computer/modem combination (right). Step 2 ensures that all four devices are ready for transmission. First the sending DTE activates pin 20 and sends a DTE ready message to its DCE. The DCE answers by activating pin 6 and returning a DCE ready message. This same sequence is pertormed by the remote computer and modem. Step 3 sets up the physical connection between the sending and receiving modems. This step can be thought of as the on switch for transmission. It is the first step that involves the network. First, the sending DTE activates pin + and sends ity DCE a request-to-send message. The DCE transmits a carrier signal to the idle receiving modem, When the receiving modem detects the cartier sivnal, it astivatey pin 8. the received line signal detector, telling its computer that a tranymiysion iy about to bean ‘After transmitting the carrier signal, the sending DCE aetivates,pin 5. sealing to a clear-to-send message. The remote computer and modem perform the saine step:Null Modem i ‘lc. wo work Suppose you need to commect two DTK. in the same huilding, far examph compat Setons OF a terminal to a workstation, Modems are not nceded fo enmanect Oe) NNT ible digital devices diveetly: the " telephone lines, and therefore does not need ta tye modulated Butt ¥ face to handle the exehany an BIA-232 DTE-DCE yg line transmission never needs to cross analog Hansmission never needs 14 vneedt an 10ter eipt, ete | post at (readiness establishment, data transfer, rece able does ‘The solution, provided by the EIA standard, is called a pall modem. A oul! modem provides the DTE-DTE interface without the DEES But why use a null modem? If all you need is the interface, why not just use a standard FIA 242 cable" Te understand the problem, examine Figure 6.13, Part a shows a connection using a tel phone network. The two DTES are exchanging information through DCEs Each OTF sends its data through pin 2 and the DCE receives it on pin 2, and cach TF recerves data through pin 3 that has been forwarded by the DCE using its own pin 3 As you eam see. the EIA-232 cable connects DTE pin 2.10 DCE pin 2 and DCE. pin 11 DTE pre § Tratfic using pin 2 is always omgoing from the DTEs. Traffic using pin 3 1s always incoming to the DTE: tothea A DCE recognizes the direction of a signal and passes it along propriate circuit, Figure 6.13 Using regular data pin connections with and without DCEs DCE DTE \ [2] tranemit Network ‘Transmit Receive ‘Transmit Receive b. DTEs connected directly Part b of the figure shows what happens when we use the same connections between two DTEs. Without DCEs to switch the signals to or from the appropriate pins, both DTEs are attempting to transmit over the same pin 2 wire—and to receive over the same pin 3 wire. The DTEs are transmitting to each other's transmit pins, not to their receive pins. The receive circuit (3) is void because it has been isolated completely from the transmission. The transmit circuit (2) therefore ends up full of collision noise and signals that can never be received by either DTE. No data can get through from one device to another. Crossing Connections For transmission to occur, the wires must be crossed so that pin 2 of the first DTE connects to pin 3 of the second DTE and. Pin 2 of the second DTETt overeat cater pitt “ These tee pire re thie priced Foypertset ain sets to pin Vat the fret Figure eonne similar probems and also need rewiring (se however, have Figure 6.14 Nill mote pin commer tions | | { | ne | i | cagnul growin Sipnal rind Rexliness Readiness | | | | set op | Setup | | Data teannter A Data transfer Timing Timing po |A null modem is an ELA-232 interface that completes the neces circuits the DTEs at either end into believing that they have DCEs and a net of k between them Because its purpose is to make connections, a null modem ean Pe cither a length of cable aaevice-or you can make one yourself using a standard BLA=232 cable and a break- ot bon thatallows you fo cross-connect wires in any Way you desire, OF these opuens, the cable is the most commonly used and the most convenient (see Figure 0.14) Other Differences Whereas an EIA-232 DTE-DCE interface cable has female con- hector at the DTE end and a male connector at the DCE end, « null modem hay female connectors at both ends to allow it to connect to the ELA-232 DTE ports, which are male > fool 6.3 OTHER INTERFACE STAN DARDS Both data rate and cable length (signal distance capability ) are restricted by ELA data rate 0 20 Kbps and cable length to 50 feet (15 meters). To meet the needs of users who require more speed and/or distance, the ELA and the ITU-T have introduced r tional interface standards: EIA-449, EIA-S30, and X.21 sbdstineehaienalEIA-449 pf two connectors: The mechanical specificati one with 37 pins pect of EIA-449 define a combination coins (3 Figure 6.15). ) and one with 9 pins (DB-9), for # combined 46 P Figure 6.15 £/A-449 pps o — —— -p > © 9 8 998 08080985008 [G9 oO Ue 9000000000000000/ ©| [\0%%4 DB-37 receptacle DB-Y receptacle Cane P| DB-37 plug DB-9 plug The functional specifications of the ELA-449 give the DB-37 pins properties Simi" lar to those of the DB-25. The major functional difference between the 25~ and 37-pir connectors is that all functions relating to the secondary channel have been removed from DB-37. Because the secondary channel is seldom used, EIA~449 separates those functions out and puts them in the second, 9-pin connector (DB-9). In this way, @ S&C ond channel is available to systems that need it. ‘ DB-37 Pin Functions To maintain compatibility with EIA-232, EIA-449 defines two cate used in exchanging data, control, and timing information (see Table 6-1). gories of pins to be Table 6.1 DB-37 pins Pin Function Category | Pin Function Category 1 Shield 20 | Receive Common Il 2 | Signal rate indicator 21 | Unassigned I 3 | Unassigned 22 | Send data I 4 | Send data I 23 | Send timing I 5 | Send timing I 24 | Receive data I 6 | Receive data 1 25 | Request to send . 7 | Request to send I 26 | Receive timing 1 8 | Receive timing I 27 | Clear to send I 9 | Clear to send I 28 | Terminal in service ITable 6.1 (continued) DB-37 pins \i Pin Function Category | Pin [Function Category 10. | Local loopback W 29 | Data mode 1 11 | Data mode I 30. | ‘Terminal ready I 12 | Terminal ready 1 31 | Receive ready 1 13 | Receive ready 1 32. | Select standby i" 14 | Remote loopback 33. | Signal quality 1S | Incoming call 34 | New signal aT 16 | Select frequency " 35. | ‘Terminal timing J 17 | Terminal timing I 36 | Standby indicator U 18 | Test mode u 37. | Send common i 19 | Signal ground Category I Pins _ ‘ Category I includes those pins whose functions are compatible with those eee ) (although most have been renamed), For each Category I pin, EIA-449 defines two Pins, one in the first column and one in the second column’ For example, both pins 4 and 22 are called send data. These two pins have the equivalent functionality of pin 2 in EJA-232. Both pins 5 and 23 are called send timing, and both pins 6 and a are called receive data, Even more interesting, these pairs of pins are vertically adjacent to one another in the connector, with the pin from the second column occupying the position essentially below its counterpart from the first column,)(Number the DB-37. connector based on the numbering of the DB-25 connector to see these relationships._ ) This struc- ture is what gives EIA-449 its power. How the pins relate will become clear later in this section, when we discuss the two alternate methods of signaling defined in the electri- cal specifications. Category II Pins Category II pins are those that have no equivalent in EIA-232 or have been redefined. The numbers and functions of these new pins are as follows: B® Local loopback. Pin 10 is used for local loopback testing. Remote loopback. Pin 14 is used for remote loopback testing, @ Select frequency. Pin 16 is used to choose between two different frequency rates. @ Test mode. Pin 18 is used to do testing at different levels. . Receive common. Pin 20 provides a common signal return line for unbalanced circuits from the DCE to the DTE. = Terminal in service. Pin 28 indicates to the DCE whether or not the DTE is operational,= Select standby. Pin 32 al Jb: equipment mn - ei e i f standby the event of feilure allows the DTE to request the use of © sig) i 7 f er nary @ New signal. Pin 34 is available for multiple-point applications where 4 PPM rs Coat gas me pe controls Several secondary DTPs, When activated, pin 44 indicates ha 2TE has finished its data exchange and a new one iv about te statl a m= Standby indicator, Pin 36 provides the confirmation signal from the DCE Fesponse to select standby (pin 32), m Send common. Pin 37 Provides a common signal return line for unbalanced cir cuits from the DTE to the DCE, DB-9 Pin Functions Table 6.2 lists the pin functions of the DB-9 connector. Note that the DB-9 connector here is different from the one discussed in EIA-232. Table 6.2 DB-9 pins Pin Function Shield Secondary receive ready Secondary send data Secondary receive data Signal ground Receive common Secondary request to send Secondary clear to send Send common COI AARYWN HK Electrical Specifications: RS-423 and RS-422 EIA-449 uses two standards to define its electrical specifications: RS-423 (for unbal- anced circuits) and RS-422 (for balanced circuits). RS-423: Unbalanced Mode (RS-423 is an unbalanced circuit specification, meaning that it defines only one line ‘for propagating a signal. All signals in this standard use a common return (or ground) to complete the circuit, Figure 6.16 gives a conceptual view of this type of circuit as well as the specifications for the standard. (In unbalanced-circuit mode, ELA-449 calls for the use of only the first pin of each pair of Category I pins and all Category II pins?)ee Figure 6.16 RS-423: Unbalanced mode ( | Distance Data rate won 100 Kbps 1000 1 1 Kbps Logie 1 RS-422: Balanced Mode RS-422 is a balanced circuit specification, meaning that it defines two lines for the propagation of each signal. Signals again use a common return (or ground) for the return of the signal, Figure 6.17 gives a conceptual view of and the specifications for this standard, In balanced mode, EIA-449 utilizes all pairs of pins in Category I but does not use the Category II pins. As you can see from the electrical specifications for this standard, the ratio of data rate to distance is much higher than that of the unbal- anced standard or of EIA-232: 10 Mbps for transmissions of 40 feet. Figure 6.17 RS-422: Balanced mode Distance | | | In balanced mode, two lines carry the same transmission. They do not, however, carry identical signals. The signal on one line is the complement of the signal on the other. When plotted, the complement looks like a mirror image of the original signal (see Figure 6.17). Instead of listening to either actual signal, the receiver detects theSECTIQ i IN 6, =) differences betwee, ° OTHER IrERPACE STANDARDS 187 {0 noise th; T the two, pp: N an unb; ©. This 1 ; alanced or tS Mechanig teste compen 24 cine and impos 4 balanced circuit less susceptible 2 differenti Signals 8 performance rent ‘ls ative , Wee first before intern 1). This mecqet Me Heveiver, they are put through a sub this subtraction ina Sethe nani Subtracts the second signal from the sa 8 the wer Moment the first sj Ubling of the value or emplement each ether, the result of 7 . Ne fir Voltage M Signal, For example. i » therefor Cond signal will have a vol at a given ge of ~5 . OFS, the 564 F noise is itive noise atte, result way (pos inated dy BatIve noise affects both negatively). As a F moda Ne Stbtraction proce introduced at the Volts, Th 88 (see Figure 6.14). For Point where the first signal is addition distorts the first signal to i: ~ StH equals 10, 1 a eutrali Oise that allows th « ) Wuals 10, 11 is this ability to neutralize Ows the superior data fates of balanced transmission. Figure 6, ig 18 Canceling of noise in the balanced mode (2) Original signal (b) Original and complement (c) Noise affecting both signals (d) Signals and noise fel 1, fe (©) After negation of second signal (f) After adding as EIA-530 EIA-449 provides much “37 connector that the ind tl investment already put into mo the EIA developed a versio! better functionality than EIA-232) However, it requires a ee sry has been reluctant to embrace because of the amount ie i DB-25. To encourage acceptance of the new standard, * version of BIA-449 that uses DB-25 pins: BIA-530. )three pins from Category II (the loopback circuits) OF the EIA-239 been omitted, including ring indicator, signal quality detector, selector EIA-530 does not support a secondary circuit, ) (The pin funetions of EIA-530 are essentially those of EIA-449 Category | PINS, Some Pits >and data Signal ni ate X21 } | X.21 isan interface standard designed by the ITU-T to address many of the existing in the BIA interfaces and, at the same time, pave the way for alldiginy communication. Using Data Circuits for Control A large proportion of the circuits in the EIA interfaces are used for COnLTOW These j cuits are necessary because the standards implement contro functions as separa ie nals. With a separate line, control information is represented only by POSitive ang negative voltages, But, if control signals are encoded using meaningful Control charac. ters from a system such as ASCII, they can be transmitted over data lines, For this reason, X.21 eliminates most of the control circuits of the EIA Standards and instead directs their traffic over the data circuits. To make this Consolidation of functionality possible, both the DTE and the DCE must have added circuit logic that enables them to transform the control codes into bit streams that can be Sent over the data line. Both also need additional logic to discriminate between Control information and data upon receipt. This design allows X.21 not only to use fewer pins but also to be used in digital telecommunications where control information is sent from device to device over a net. Work rather than just between a DTE and a DCE. As digital technology emerges, more and more control information must be handled, including dialing, redialing, hold, and So on, X.21 is useful both as an interface to connect digital computers to analog devices such as modems and as a connector between digital computers and digital interfaces such as ISDN and X.25, described in Chapters 16 and 17. X.21 is designed to work with balanced circuits at 64 Kbps, a rate that is becoming the industry standard. Pin Functions Figure 6.19 shows the connector specified by X.21, the DB-15. As the name indicates, the DB-15 is a 15-pin connector. Figure 6.19 DB-15 connector ®©OQG©OO®@ ®©®©®©©OO®@ DB-IS receptacle DB-15 plug $ eeeeeceesecrione4 MODEMS = 1 & Byte timing, byte sy Anothe MEHL atin NANUARE Offered hy X21 ie thar of timing fines ty control 1 in addition to the bit synchronization provided hy the FIA Nyte t liming pulse (ping 7 and 14), X21 improves the over ANsMmissions = Controt : ai tial t nd initiation, Pins Vand § of the DRS ed for the int al handshake, or agreemen c § connector are usec Fequest Wo send, Pin 5 is the nt of for each pin, M to begin transmitting Pin Vis the equi equivalent of clear to send. Table 6 1 lists the Fane tions Table 6.3 DB.75 pins > Pin | Function Pin | Function ] L | Shi eee | ; eld 9 | Transmit data or control | - Transmit data or control 10 Control | 7 | Control IL | Receive data or control | 4 Receive data or control 12 | Indication | 5 cat Indication 13°] Signal clement timing | 6 | Signal element timing 14 | Byte timing | 7 | Byte timing 15 | Reserved | 8 _| Signal ground J 6.4 MODEMS The most familiar type of DCE is a modem. Anyone who has surfed the Internet, logged on to an office computer from home, or filed a news story from a word proces sor over a phone line has used a modem. The external or internal modem associated with your personal computer is what converts the digital signal generated by the com- puter into an analog signal to be carried by a public access phone line. It ts also the device that converts the analog signals received over a phone line into digital signals usable by your computer. The term modem is a composite word that refers to the two functional entities that make up the device: a signal modulator and a signal demodulator. The relationship of the two parts is shown in Figure 6.20. [ Modem stands for modulator/demodulator. ‘A modulator converts a digital signal into an analog signal using ASK, FSK, PSK, or QAM. A demodulator converts an analog signal into a digital signal. While a demodulator resembles an analog-to-digital converter, it is not in fact a converter of any ind. It does not sample a signal 10 create a digital facsimiles it merely reverses the pro~ cess of modulation—thal is, it performs demodulation,