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MODERN ANTENNA DESIGN
Second Edition

THOMAS A. MILLIGAN

IEEE PRESS

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

MODERN ANTENNA DESIGN
MODERN ANTENNA DESIGN
Second Edition

THOMAS A. MILLIGAN

IEEE PRESS

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright  2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior
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the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax
978-646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be
addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030,
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in
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however, may not be available in electronic format.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Milligan, Thomas A.
Modern antenna design / by Thomas A. Milligan.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13 978-0-471-45776-3 (cloth)
ISBN-10 0-471-45776-0 (cloth)
1. Antennas (Electronics)–Design and construction. I. Title.

TK7871.6.M54 2005
621.382
4—dc22 2004059098

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Mary, Jane, and Margaret
CONTENTS

Preface xv

1 Properties of Antennas 1
1-1 Antenna Radiation, 2
1-2 Gain, 3
1-3 Effective Area, 6
1-4 Path Loss, 6
1-5 Radar Range Equation and Cross Section, 7
1-6 Why Use an Antenna? 9
1-7 Directivity, 10
1-8 Directivity Estimates, 11
1-8.1 Pencil Beam, 11
1-8.2 Butterfly or Omnidirectional Pattern, 13
1-9 Beam Efficiency, 16
1-10 Input-Impedance Mismatch Loss, 17
1-11 Polarization, 18
1-11.1 Circular Polarization Components, 19
1-11.2 Huygens Source Polarization, 21
1-11.3 Relations Between Bases, 22
1-11.4 Antenna Polarization Response, 23
1-11.5 Phase Response of Rotating Antennas, 25
1-11.6 Partial Gain, 26
1-11.7 Measurement of Circular Polarization Using
Amplitude Only, 26
1-12 Vector Effective Height, 27
1-13 Antenna Factor, 29
1-14 Mutual Coupling Between Antennas, 29
1.15 Antenna Noise Temperature, 30

vii
viii CONTENTS

1-16 Communication Link Budget and Radar Range, 35

1-17 Multipath, 36
1-18 Propagation Over Soil, 37
1-19 Multipath Fading, 39
References, 40

2 Radiation Structures and Numerical Methods 42

2-1 Auxiliary Vector Potentials, 43

2-1.1 Radiation from Electric Currents, 44
2-1.2 Radiation from Magnetic Currents, 49
2-2 Apertures: Huygens Source Approximation, 51
2-2.1 Near- and Far-Field Regions, 55
2-2.2 Huygens Source, 57
2-3 Boundary Conditions, 57
2-4 Physical Optics, 59
2-4.1 Radiated Fields Given Currents, 59
2-4.2 Applying Physical Optics, 60
2-4.3 Equivalent Currents, 65
2-4.4 Reactance Theorem and Mutual Coupling, 66
2-5 Method of Moments, 67
2-5.1 Use of the Reactance Theorem for the Method of
Moments, 68
2-5.2 General Moments Method Approach, 69
2-5.3 Thin-Wire Moment Method Codes, 71
2-5.4 Surface and Volume Moment Method Codes, 71
2-5.5 Examples of Moment Method Models, 72
2-6 Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 76
2-6.1 Implementation, 76
2-6.2 Central Difference Derivative, 77
2-6.3 Finite-Difference Maxwell’s Equations, 77
2-6.4 Time Step for Stability, 79
2-6.5 Numerical Dispersion and Stability, 80
2-6.6 Computer Storage and Execution Times, 80
2-6.7 Excitation, 81
2-6.8 Waveguide Horn Example, 83
2-7 Ray Optics and the Geometric Theory of Diffraction, 84
2-7.1 Fermat’s Principle, 85
2-7.2 H -Plane Pattern of a Dipole Located Over a Finite
Strip, 85
2-7.3 E-Plane Pattern of a Rectangular Horn, 87
2-7.4 H -Plane Pattern of a Rectangular Horn, 89
2-7.5 Amplitude Variations Along a Ray, 90
2-7.6 Extra Phase Shift Through Caustics, 93
2-7.7 Snell’s Laws and Reflection, 93
2-7.8 Polarization Effects in Reflections, 94
2-7.9 Reflection from a Curved Surface, 94
2-7.10 Ray Tracing, 96
 CONTENTS ix

2-7.11 Edge Diffraction, 96

2-7.12 Slope Diffraction, 98
2-7.13 Corner Diffraction, 99
2-7.14 Equivalent Currents, 99
2-7.15 Diffraction from Curved Surfaces, 99
References, 100

3 Arrays 102
3-1 Two-Element Array, 104
3-2 Linear Array of N Elements, 109
3-3 Hansen and Woodyard End-Fire Array, 114
3-4 Phased Arrays, 115
3-5 Grating Lobes, 117
3-6 Multiple Beams, 118
3-7 Planar Array, 120
3-8 Grating Lobes in Planar Arrays, 125
3-9 Mutual Impedance, 127
3-10 Scan Blindness and Array Element Pattern, 127
3-11 Compensating Array Feeding for Mutual Coupling, 128
3-12 Array Gain, 129
3-13 Arrays Using Arbitrarily Oriented Elements, 133
References, 135

4 Aperture Distributions and Array Synthesis 136

4-1 Amplitude Taper and Phase Error Efficiencies, 137
4-1.1 Separable Rectangular Aperture Distributions, 139
4-1.2 Circularly Symmetrical Distributions, 140
4-2 Simple Linear Distributions, 140
4-3 Taylor One-Parameter Linear Distribution, 144
4-4 Taylor n Line Distribution, 147
4-5 Taylor Line Distribution with Edge Nulls, 152
4-6 Elliott’s Method for Modified Taylor Distribution and
Arbitrary Sidelobes, 155
4-7 Bayliss Line-Source Distribution, 158
4-8 Woodward Line-Source Synthesis, 162
4-9 Schelkunoff’s Unit-Circle Method, 164
4-10 Dolph–Chebyshev Linear Array, 170
4-11 Villeneuve Array Synthesis, 172
4-12 Zero Sampling of Continuous Distributions, 173
4-13 Fourier Series Shaped-Beam Array Synthesis, 175
4-14 Orchard Method of Array Synthesis, 178
4-15 Series-Fed Array and Traveling-Wave Feed Synthesis, 188
4-16 Circular Apertures, 191
4-17 Circular Gaussian Distribution, 194
4-18 Hansen Single-Parameter Circular Distribution, 195
4-19 Taylor Circular-Aperture Distribution, 196
4-20 Bayliss Circular-Aperture Distribution, 200
x CONTENTS

4-21 Planar Arrays, 202

4-22 Convolution Technique for Planar Arrays, 203
4-23 Aperture Blockage, 208
4-24 Quadratic Phase Error, 211
4-25 Beam Efficiency of Circular Apertures with Axisymmetric
Distribution, 214
References, 215

5 Dipoles, Slots, and Loops 217

5-1 Standing-Wave Currents, 218

5-2 Radiation Resistance (Conductance), 220
5-3 Babinet–Booker Principle, 222
5-4 Dipoles Located Over a Ground Plane, 223
5-5 Dipole Mounted Over Finite Ground Planes, 225
5-6 Crossed Dipoles for Circular Polarization, 231
5-7 Super Turnstile or Batwing Antenna, 234
5-8 Corner Reflector, 237
5-9 Monopole, 242
5-10 Sleeve Antenna, 242
5-11 Cavity-Mounted Dipole Antenna, 245
5-12 Folded Dipole, 247
5-13 Shunt Feeding, 248
5-14 Discone Antenna, 249
5-15 Baluns, 251
5-15.1 Folded Balun, 252
5-15.2 Sleeve or Bazooka Baluns, 253
5-15.3 Split Coax Balun, 255
5-15.4 Half-Wavelength Balun, 256
5-15.5 Candelabra Balun, 256
5-15.6 Ferrite Core Baluns, 256
5-15.7 Ferrite Candelabra Balun, 258
5-15.8 Transformer Balun, 258
5-15.9 Split Tapered Coax Balun, 259
5-15.10 Natural Balun, 260
5-16 Small Loop, 260
5-17 Alford Loop, 261
5-18 Resonant Loop, 263
5-19 Quadrifilar Helix, 264
5-20 Cavity-Backed Slots, 266
5-21 Stripline Series Slots, 266
5-22 Shallow-Cavity Crossed-Slot Antenna, 269
5-23 Waveguide-Fed Slots, 270
5-24 Rectangular-Waveguide Wall Slots, 271
5-25 Circular-Waveguide Slots, 276
5-26 Waveguide Slot Arrays, 278
5-26.1 Nonresonant Array, 279
5-26.2 Resonant Array, 282
 CONTENTS xi

5-26.3 Improved Design Methods, 282

References, 283

6 Microstrip Antennas 285

6-1 Microstrip Antenna Patterns, 287
6-2 Microstrip Patch Bandwidth and Surface-Wave
Efficiency, 293
6-3 Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna, 299
6-4 Quarter-Wave Patch Antenna, 310
6-5 Circular Microstrip Patch, 313
6-6 Circularly Polarized Patch Antennas, 316
6-7 Compact Patches, 319
6-8 Directly Fed Stacked Patches, 323
6-9 Aperture-Coupled Stacked Patches, 325
6-10 Patch Antenna Feed Networks, 327
6-11 Series-Fed Array, 329
6-12 Microstrip Dipole, 330
6-13 Microstrip Franklin Array, 332
6-14 Microstrip Antenna Mechanical Properties, 333
References, 334

7 Horn Antennas 336

7-1 Rectangular Horn (Pyramidal), 337
7-1.1 Beamwidth, 341
7-1.2 Optimum Rectangular Horn, 343
7-1.3 Designing to Given Beamwidths, 346
7-1.4 Phase Center, 347
7-2 Circular-Aperture Horn, 348
7-2.1 Beamwidth, 350
7-2.2 Phase Center, 352
7-3 Circular (Conical) Corrugated Horn, 353
7-3.1 Scalar Horn, 357
7-3.2 Corrugation Design, 357
7-3.3 Choke Horns, 358
7-3.4 Rectangular Corrugated Horns, 359
7-4 Corrugated Ground Plane, 359
7-5 Gaussian Beam, 362
7-6 Ridged Waveguide Horns, 365
7-7 Box Horn, 372
7-8 T-Bar-Fed Slot Antenna, 374
7-9 Multimode Circular Horn, 376
7-10 Biconical Horn, 376
References, 378

8 Reflector Antennas 380

8-1 Paraboloidal Reflector Geometry, 381
8-2 Paraboloidal Reflector Aperture Distribution Losses, 383
xii CONTENTS

8-3 Approximate Spillover and Amplitude Taper Trade-offs, 385

8-4 Phase Error Losses and Axial Defocusing, 387
8-5 Astigmatism, 389
8-6 Feed Scanning, 390
8-7 Random Phase Errors, 393
8-8 Focal Plane Fields, 396
8-9 Feed Mismatch Due to the Reflector, 397
8-10 Front-to-Back Ratio, 399
8-11 Offset-Fed Reflector, 399
8-12 Reflections from Conic Sections, 405
8-13 Dual-Reflector Antennas, 408
8-13.1 Feed Blockage, 410
8-13.2 Diffraction Loss, 413
8-13.3 Cassegrain Tolerances, 414
8-14 Feed and Subreflector Support Strut Radiation, 416
8-15 Gain/Noise Temperature of a Dual Reflector, 421
8-16 Displaced-Axis Dual Reflector, 421
8-17 Offset-Fed Dual Reflector, 424
8-18 Horn Reflector and Dragonian Dual Reflector, 427
8-19 Spherical Reflector, 429
8-20 Shaped Reflectors, 432
8-20.1 Cylindrical Reflector Synthesis, 433
8-20.2 Circularly Symmetrical Reflector Synthesis, 434
8-20.3 Doubly Curved Reflector for Shaped Beams, 437
8-20.4 Dual Shaped Reflectors, 439
8-21 Optimization Synthesis of Shaped and
Multiple-Beam Reflectors, 442
References, 443

9 Lens Antennas 447

9-1 Single Refracting Surface Lenses, 448
9-2 Zoned Lenses, 451
9-3 General Two-Surface Lenses, 454
9-4 Single-Surface or Contact Lenses, 459
9-5 Metal Plate Lenses, 461
9-6 Surface Mismatch and Dielectric Losses, 463
9-7 Feed Scanning of a Hyperboloidal Lens, 464
9-8 Dual-Surface Lenses, 465
9-8.1 Coma-Free Axisymmetric Dielectric Lens, 466
9-8.2 Specified Aperture Distribution Axisymmetric
Dielectric Lens, 468
9-9 Bootlace Lens, 470
9-10 Luneburg Lens, 472
References, 472

10 Traveling-Wave Antennas 474

10-1 General Traveling Waves, 475
 CONTENTS xiii

10-1.1 Slow Wave, 478

10-1.2 Fast Waves (Leaky Wave Structure), 480
10-2 Long Wire Antennas, 481
10-2.1 Beverage Antenna, 481
10-2.2 V Antenna, 482
10-2.3 Rhombic Antenna, 483
10-3 Yagi–Uda Antennas, 485
10-3.1 Multiple-Feed Yagi–Uda Antennas, 492
10-3.2 Resonant Loop Yagi–Uda Antennas, 495
10-4 Corrugated Rod (Cigar) Antenna, 497
10-5 Dielectric Rod (Polyrod) Antenna, 499
10-6 Helical Wire Antenna, 502
10-6.1 Helical Modes, 503
10-6.2 Axial Mode, 504
10-6.3 Feed of a Helical Antenna, 506
10-6.4 Long Helical Antenna, 507
10-6.5 Short Helical Antenna, 508
10-7 Short Backfire Antenna, 509
10-8 Tapered Slot Antennas, 512
10-9 Leaky Wave Structures, 516
References, 518

11 Frequency-Independent Antennas 521

SpiralAntennas, 522
11-1 Modal Expansion of Antenna Patterns, 524
11-2 Archimedean Spiral, 526
11-3 Equiangular Spiral, 527
11-4 Pattern Analysis of Spiral Antennas, 530
11-5 Spiral Construction and Feeding, 535
11-5.1 Spiral Construction, 535
11-5.2 Balun Feed, 536
11-5.3 Infinite Balun, 538
11-5.4 Beamformer and Coaxial Line Feed, 538
11-6 Spiral and Beamformer Measurements, 538
11-7 Feed Network and Antenna Interaction, 540
11-8 Modulated Arm Width Spiral, 541
11-9 Conical Log Spiral Antenna, 543
11-10 Mode 2 Conical Log Spiral Antenna, 549
11-11 Feeding Conical Log Spirals, 550
Log-Periodic Antennas, 550
11-12 Log-Periodic Dipole Antenna, 551
11-12.1 Feeding a Log-Periodic Dipole Antenna, 556
11-12.2 Phase Center, 558
11-12.3 Elevation Angle, 559
11-12.4 Arrays of Log-Periodic Dipole Antennas, 560
11-13 Other Log-Periodic Types, 561
11-14 Log-Periodic Antenna Feeding Paraboloidal Reflector, 563
xiv CONTENTS

11-15 V Log-Periodic Array, 567

11-16 Cavity-Backed Planar Log-Periodic Antennas, 569
References, 571

12 Phased Arrays 573

12-1 Fixed Phase Shifters (Phasers), 574
12-2 Quantization Lobes, 578
12-3 Array Errors, 580
12-4 Nonuniform and Random Element Existence Arrays, 582
12-4.1 Linear Space Tapered Array, 582
12-4.2 Circular Space Tapered Array, 584
12-4.3 Statistically Thinned Array, 587
12-5 Array Element Pattern, 588
12-6 Feed Networks, 590
12-6.1 Corporate Feed, 590
12-6.2 Series Feed, 592
12-6.3 Variable Power Divider and Phase Shifter, 592
12-6.4 Butler Matrix, 594
12-6.5 Space Feeding, 596
12-6.6 Tapered Feed Network with Uniform-Amplitude
Subarrays, 597
12-7 Pattern Null Formation in Arbitrary Array, 599
12-8 Phased Array Application to Communication Systems, 601
12-9 Near-Field Measurements on Phased Arrays, 602
References, 604

Index 607
PREFACE

I wrote this book from my perspective as a designer in industry, primarily for other
designers and users of antennas. On occasion I have prepared and taught antenna
courses, for which I developed a systematic approach to the subject. For the last
decade I have edited the “Antenna Designer’s Notebook” column in the IEEE antenna
magazine. This expanded edition adds a combination of my own design notebook and
the many other ideas provided to me by others, leading to this collection of ideas that
I think designers should know.
The book contains a systematic approach to the subject. Every author would like to
be read from front to back, but my own career assignments would have caused to me
to jump around in this book. Nevertheless, Chapter 1 covers those topics that every
user and designer should know. Because I deal with complete antenna design, which
includes mounting the antenna, included are the effects of nearby structures and how
they can be used to enhance the response. We all study ideal antennas floating in free
space to help us understand the basics, but the real world is a little different.
Instead of drawing single line graphs of common relationships between two param-
eters, I generated scales for calculations that I perform over and over. I did not supply
a set of computer programs because I seldom use collections supplied by others, and
younger engineers find my programs quaint, as each generation learns a different com-
puter language. You’ll learn by writing your own.
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society’s digital archive of all material published
from 1952 to 2000 has changed our approach to research. I have not included extensive
bibliographies, because I believe that it is no longer necessary. The search engine of the
archive can supply an exhaustive list. I referred only to papers that I found particularly
helpful. Complete sets of the transactions are available in libraries, whereas the wealth
of information in the archive from conferences was not. I have started mining this
information, which contains many useful design ideas, and have incorporated some
of them in this book. In this field, 40-year-old publications are still useful and we
should not reinvent methods. Many clever ideas from industry are usually published
xv
xvi PREFACE

only once, if at all, and personally, I’ll be returning to this material again and again,
because all books have limited space.
As with the first edition, I enjoyed writing this book because I wanted to express
my point of view of a rewarding field. Although the amount of information available
is overwhelming and the mathematics describing it can cloud the ideas, I hope my
explanations help you develop new products or use old ones.
I would like to thank all the authors who taught me this subject by sharing their ideas,
especially those working in industry. On a personal note I thank the designers at Lock-
heed Martin, who encouraged me and reviewed material while I wrote: in particular,
Jeannette McDonnell, Thomas Cencich, Donald Huebner, and Julie Huffman.

THOMAS A. MILLIGAN
1
PROPERTIES OF ANTENNAS

One approach to an antenna book starts with a discussion of how antennas radiate.
Beginning with Maxwell’s equations, we derive electromagnetic waves. After that
lengthy discussion, which contains a lot of mathematics, we discuss how these waves
excite currents on conductors. The second half of the story is that currents radiate
and produce electromagnetic waves. You may already have studied that subject, or if
you wish to further your background, consult books on electromagnetics. The study of
electromagnetics gives insight into the mathematics describing antenna radiation and
provides the rigor to prevent mistakes. We skip the discussion of those equations and
move directly to practical aspects.
It is important to realize that antennas radiate from currents. Design consists of
controlling currents to produce the desired radiation distribution, called its pattern.
In many situations the problem is how to prevent radiation from currents, such as in
circuits. Whenever a current becomes separated in distance from its return current, it
radiates. Simply stated, we design to keep the two currents close together, to reduce
radiation. Some discussions will ignore the current distribution and instead, consider
derived quantities, such as fields in an aperture or magnetic currents in a slot or around
the edges of a microstrip patch. You will discover that we use any concept that provides
insight or simplifies the mathematics.
An antenna converts bound circuit fields into propagating electromagnetic waves
and, by reciprocity, collects power from passing electromagnetic waves. Maxwell’s
equations predict that any time-varying electric or magnetic field produces the oppo-
site field and forms an electromagnetic wave. The wave has its two fields oriented
orthogonally, and it propagates in the direction normal to the plane defined by the
perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. The electric field, the magnetic field, and
the direction of propagation form a right-handed coordinate system. The propagating
wave field intensity decreases by 1/R away from the source, whereas a static field

Modern Antenna Design, Second Edition, By Thomas A. Milligan

Copyright  2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1
Another random document with
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 Fig. 148.—The Earthern Vase, on one side of which is
seen, between two fleurs-de-lis, the figure of St. Paul
bitten by a serpent, bears a Latin inscription
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thou shalt drive out poison.” On the other side is
engraved in relief the cross of the Temple, between a
sword and a serpent. Another Vase bears the head of
a saint and a sword, and is surrounded by venomous
animals and herbs. On the Medal is represented a
dragon with an Italian legend signifying, “The grace of
St. Paul is proof against any poison.” These objects
were found in 1863 at Florence, on the site of the old
Church of the Templars, dedicated to St. Paul.—
Collection of M. Gancia.
The Templars were magnificent soldiers, and the annals of the
Crusades are full of their feats of arms. Few knights acquired the
fame they did in their expeditions across the seas; though always
inferior in number to the infidel, who held them in greater fear than
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The Templars in time reached the summit of their fortunes, the
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above the reach of even crowned heads: they seized and pillaged
without concern the property of both infidels and Christians.
Their jealousy of the Knights Hospitallers induced them to
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and to drive him from a castle he possessed in the neighbourhood of
their establishment at Margat. This caused a violent quarrel between
the two orders, which soon became a permanent struggle for
supremacy. The pope wrote to the grand masters of both orders to
exhort them to re-establish peace and good-will, and to forget their
mutual rancour, so dangerous for Christendom and so fatal to the
interests of the Holy Land. An apparent truce took place between
them; but the Templars had not forgotten their hatred, and they lost
no opportunity of showing it to the knights of St. John. Moreover,
they no longer cared to support the holy cause that had led to the
birth of their order. They signed a treaty of alliance with the Old Man
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 In short, the consciousness of their strength, of their wealth, and
of their power, inspired the Templars with an audacity that nothing
could restrain. Their pride, which had become proverbial, was
particularly offensive. Their belief and their morals were very far
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fusing their order in that of the Hospitallers. In the beginning of the
following century, Philippe le Bel, King of France, received weighty
accusations against them of most serious offences, accusations that
were generally believed to be true, and consulted Pope Clement V.
on the subject. Clement at first declared the crimes with which they
were accused to be altogether improbable, but the grand master
having insisted on a rigorous inquiry, the pope wrote to the king for
the details of his information. Philippe le Bel wished to decide the
matter himself, and proceeded to arrest all the Templars within his
jurisdiction, amongst them their grand master, Jacques de Molai,
who had just returned from Cyprus.
 Fig. 149.—Seal of the Knights of Christ (Thirteenth
Century).—Early Device of the Order of Templars,
representing two knights on one horse.
One hundred and forty knights were examined in Paris, and all
but three confessed that the order practised a secret initiation, in
which the aspirants were bound to deny Christ, and spit upon the
cross; and that, moreover, immoral customs were practised amongst
them. Many of them also confessed that they had committed acts of
idolatry. A learned contemporary writer, De Wilcke, a German
protestant clergyman, has epitomized the researches of two of his
co-religionists—Moldenhawer, who discovered in the National Library
in Paris the original records of the examination, and Munster, who
found in the library of the Vatican the original notes of the
proceedings that took place in England. This is De Wilcke’s
conclusion: “The two facts of the denial of Christ and the spitting on
the cross are attested by all the witnesses who were examined, with
one or two exceptions.”
In spite of the scandal caused by these confessions, Pope
Clement V. urgently protested against Philippe’s course of action,
and represented to him that the Templars were a religious body,
under the control of the Holy See alone, that the king was
consequently wrong to make himself their judge, and that he had no
authority over either their possessions or their persons.
Philippe unwillingly yielded to the pope’s remonstrances, and the
pontiff himself examined seventy-two Templars, whose confessions
tallied with the avowals made in the first instance at Paris.
An inquiry was instituted in England, in Italy, in Spain, and in
Germany. The answers extracted in the course of the different
examinations were not exactly coincident, but the confessions of
impiety and immorality were very numerous, except in Spain. The
Aragonese Templars took up arms and held themselves on the
defensive in their fortresses; they were however, conquered by King
James II., and thrown into prison as rebels. The Templars of Castile
were arrested, tried before an ecclesiastical tribunal, and declared
innocent.
 Fig. 150.—Council of Vienne.—Fresco executed in the Vatican Library by order of
Pope Pius V. (Sixteenth Century).
The pope acknowledged the existence of serious irregularities
amongst the knights of the order, but persisted in reserving to
himself the right to pronounce a final decision. He, however,
instructed every bishop in the Christian world to investigate the
cases within his own diocese, and to absolve the innocent, and
condemn the guilty Templars according to the utmost rigour of the
law.
The provincial council of Paris handed over the contumacious to
the secular authorities; fifty-nine of the guilty knights were burnt in
that city at the back of the abbey of St. Antoine. A second council, at
Senlis, in a similar manner delivered nine Templars to the mercies of
the secular judge, who sentenced them to be burnt at the stake. It
is said that the culprits retracted their confession on the scaffold,
and died protesting their innocence. As soon as the commissioners
appointed by the pope were informed of these executions they
suspended their sittings, declaring that the terror inspired by these
capital penalties deprived the prisoners of the tranquillity of mind
necessary to their defence. They further requested the council of
Paris to act with more deliberation.
When Pope Clement V. had obtained all the necessary information
he convoked the council of Vienne (Fig. 150), and there, on the
22nd of March, 1312, pronounced his decision, which rather
absolved than condemned the order, and placed their persons and
their property at his disposal and at that of the Church. In Spain and
in Portugal, this property was applied to the defence of the
Christians against the constant attacks of the Saracens and the
Moors (Fig. 151); but the greater portion of the possessions of the
Templars, and particularly those they held in France, was transferred
to the keeping of the Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, who
continued to devote themselves to the cause of the holy places, and
kept up the good works to perform which the Templars had received
so many and such costly donations.
The serious abuses and crimes which caused the suppression of
the order had not fortunately vitiated the whole of its members:
most of the Templars were set at liberty, many of them, preserving
their former rank, enrolled themselves in the Order of St. John. In
this wise, as is pointed out by Wilcke, Albert de Blacas, prior of Aix,
obtained the commandership of Saint-Maurice, as prior of the
Hospitallers; and Frederick, grand prior of Lower Germany, retained
the title in the Order of St. John of Jerusalem.
 Fig. 151.—Our Lady of Grace sheltering under the folds of
her mantle the first Grand Masters of the Military Order
of Montessa. This order was established in Spain in
1317 by James II., King of Aragon, with the approval of
John XXII., as a substitute for the Order of the Temple,
with whose possessions it was endowed.—From a
Painting on Wood of the Fifteenth Century, held in
veneration in the Church of the Temple, at Valencia; and
from the “Iconografia Española” of M. Carderera.
The pope had specially reserved his judgment in the case of the
grand master, Jacques de Molai, in that of the Visitor of France, and
in those of the commanders of Guyenne and of Normandy. Several
cardinals-legate, with some French bishops and doctors of the
University of Paris, constituted the tribunal which was to pass the
sentence in the name of the pontiff. After satisfying themselves that
these four eminent knights had repeated their avowals before a
second commission, the members of the tribunal, convinced of their
guilt, caused a scaffold to be erected in front of Notre-Dame, and
there, on Monday, March 18th, 1314, the four Templars were publicly
condemned to imprisonment for life. On the scaffold the grand
master and one of the others recanted their confession of guilt and
protested their innocence. The cardinals, surprised at this
recantation, committed the prisoners to the care of the provost of
Paris, with orders to bring them before them the next day, when the
tribunal had had time to deliberate on this fresh incident. But
Philippe le Bel, learning what was taking place, hurriedly assembled
his council, and had the grand master, and the other Templar who
had similarly persisted in denying his twice-avowed guilt, burnt alive
the same night. They underwent this horrible torture protesting their
innocence to the last. The two remaining knights who had
acknowledged their guilt were kept for some time in prison, but
were afterwards set at liberty.
Fig. 152.—Surrender of the Town of Montefrio, near Granada, in 1486. The alcids
and Moorish chiefs, after the siege, delivering the keys of the town to
Ferdinand the Catholic and Queen Isabella.—Bas-relief on the stalls of the
choir of the high altar of the cathedral, carved in wood in the Sixteenth
Century.
Other orders of knighthood, having more or less of a religious
character, were founded in the Middle Ages, or during the
Renaissance period: the principal were, in Spain, the Order of the
Knights of Calatrava; in Germany, the Order of the Teuton Knights;
the Order of the Golden Fleece in the Low Countries, in Spain, and in
Austria; that of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus in Savoy; that of St.
Stephen in Tuscany; and in France, those of St. Michael and of the
Holy Ghost, which were merely honorary orders, although the first
Order of the Holy Ghost, founded in 1352 by Louis d’Anjou, King of
Jerusalem and Sicily, had for its object the re-establishment of an
essentially military knighthood, as a means for bringing about a new
crusade.
 The Knights of Calatrava, on whom their founder, Don Raymond,
Abbot of Citeaux, imposed the regulations of his own monastery,
distinguished themselves by many brilliant feats of arms, particularly
against the Moors of Spain and Africa (Fig. 152); and the princes in
whose cause they had fought in these wars—termed, like the
Crusades in the East, holy—granted them large possessions and
considerable privileges. They were bound by a triple vow of poverty,
obedience, and chastity, and, like the Templars, wore a red cross
embroidered on a white mantle. From the days of Ferdinand the
Catholic and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain have always been the
grand masters of this order, which acquired and long retained a
considerable amount of importance, even when it had ceased to
signify anything but an indication of nobility. The order of Alcantara,
which had a similar origin to that of Calatrava, ran a like career and
was in like manner doomed to decay. Spain, too, was the only
country that possessed a military order for ladies. After the heroic
defence of Placentia against the English by the women of that city in
1390, John I., the sovereign of Castile, created in their honour the
order of the Ladies of the Sash, which was united at a later period to
the Order of the Belt, founded in the fourteenth century to do battle
against the Moors.
The Teutonic Knights, whose order had been founded in 1128, at
Jerusalem, by the German Crusaders, obeyed the rules of St.
Augustin. They were subject beside to special statutes somewhat
similar to those of the Knights of St. John and of the Temple, whose
privileges they also enjoyed. Their first grand master, Henri Walpot,
established his residence near St. Jean d’Acre.
This order was divided, like that of St. John, into knights,
chaplains, and serving brethren. Its members wore a white mantle
with a rather broad black cross, picked out with silver, on the left
sleeve. To gain admission into the order it was necessary for the
candidate to be over fifteen years of age, and to be of a strong,
robust build, in order to resist the fatigues of war. Its knights, bound
by a vow of chastity, were expected to avoid all intercourse with
women; they were not even allowed to give their own mothers a
filial kiss when they saluted them. They possessed no individual
property; they always left their cell doors open, so that everybody
might see what they were doing. Their arms were free from both
gold and silver ornaments, and for a long period they spent their
lives in great humility. Their most celebrated grand master, Hermann
de Salza, received in 1210, from Pope Honorius III. and the Emperor
Frederick II., whom he had reconciled, large possessions and high
honours.
The Teutonic Knights conquered Prussia, Livonia, and Courland,
and in 1283 became masters of the whole territory between the
Vistula and the Niemen. In 1309 they abandoned Venice, where,
twenty years earlier, their grand master had fixed his ordinary
residence, and selected Marienburg as their head-quarters. At that
date the order had reached the culminating point of its prosperity,
and its sway in Germany had the most fortunate results for Prussia.
But luxury soon began to undermine the religious faith of the
knights; and internal struggles, caused by the elections of their
grand masters, introduced fresh elements of decay into their
organization.
 Fig. 153.—Sancha de Roxas, who
died in 1437, wearing the
scarf which was the insignia
of the military order bearing
his name (Fifteenth
Century).—From the
“Iconografia Española” of M.
Carderera.
Dragged into endless conflicts with Lithuania and Poland, the
order lost its banners, its treasure, and its principal defenders in the
disastrous battle of Grümwald, in the year 1410, and would have
been utterly ruined but for Henry von Plauen. After the death of this
illustrious grand master, the knights, to whom the treaty of Thorn
had restored their territorial possessions, lost them one after the
other in the few years that elapsed between 1422 and 1436. For
thirteen years Casimir IV., King of Poland, summoned into Prussia by
the inhabitants, who had rebelled against the despotic sway of the
knights, laid waste the country that he had undertaken to protect.
The order, driven out of Marienburg and Konitz, only retained
possession of Eastern Prussia, and held even that under Polish rule;
its grand master, whose head-quarters were now at Königsberg,
was, in fact, a prince and a councillor of Poland. As Prussia was a fief
of the Church, the grand master of the Teutonic Order was bound by
vow to preserve it to the Church and to his own order. Albert of
Brandenburg, its last grand master, was bound by this oath, and by
the triple vow of poverty, obedience, and chastity, which he had
taken on entering the order. To rid himself of the fetters of these
oaths he joined the Lutheran Church, and divided the possessions of
his order with his uncle, the aged Sigismund, King of Poland, who for
these considerations bestowed on him the title of hereditary Duke of
Prussia. This was the origin of the royal family of Prussia. After this
easy acquisition of title and territory, Albert of Brandenburg married
the daughter of the King of Denmark. As a matter of course, the
Order of the Teutonic Knights became extinct.
Fig. 154.—Teutonic Knight.—Fac-simile of a Woodcut
by Jost Amman, in his work entitled “Cleri totius
Romanæ ecclesiæ ... habitus:” 4to, Frankfort,
1585.
 Fig. 155.—Chapter of the Golden Fleece, held by Charles the Bold.—Manuscript
of the Fifteenth Century, in the Burgundian Library, Brussels.
The Order of the Knights of the Golden Fleece was not founded
till 1449. It was then instituted by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy
and Count of Flanders, in order to induce the nobles of his court to
join him in making war against the Turks, and to attach his subjects
by closer ties to the service of the state. The crusade never took
place, but the order survived, and still exists as an heraldic
distinction.
 This order, which was placed under the protection of St. Andrew,
was originally composed of twenty-four knights of high rank and
stainless character; their number was increased by the Duke of
Burgundy to thirty-one, and afterwards by Charles V. to fifty-one.
The election of the knights took place in the chapters of the order,
and were decided by a majority of votes. The distinguishing sign of
the order was a necklet of gold, enamelled with the duke’s device,
which was composed of two steels and two flints interlaced, with the
motto, Ante ferit quam micat (It strikes before it lights). From the
collar was suspended a golden sheep, or sheep’s fleece, with the
inscription, Pretium non vile laborum (Labour’s just reward) (Fig.
155). Since the marriage of Philippe le Beau, son of the Emperor
Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, with Jane of Aragon, in 1496, the
King of Spain and the Emperor of Austria are, in their own countries,
the sovereign chiefs of the order of the Golden Fleece.
Savoy also possessed an order of military knighthood which has
survived till our time. When Amadeus VIII., in whose person Savoy
had been raised to the rank of a duchy by the Emperor Sigismund,
determined to live as a recluse, he desired to create an order of
secular knighthood, with himself as its chief. He accordingly built a
retreat at Ripailles, near the Lake of Geneva, as a residence for the
new order, and placed it under the protection of St. Maurice, the
patron saint of Savoy. The first knights, only six in number, were
distinguished by a cross of white taffeta sewn on their dress. The
successors of Amadeus VIII., however, so neglected the order that it
was on the point of becoming extinct, when Duke Emanuel Philibert,
in 1572, obtained from Gregory XIII. a bull to reconstitute it; and
shortly afterwards, by a second bull, the knights of St. Lazarus and
those of St. Maurice were united.
The knights took the same triple vow as the Templars; they swore
fidelity to the Dukes of Savoy, and undertook to wage war against
the heretics who from Geneva were continually threatening the
frontiers of the duchy. The order possessed considerable property,
and its head-quarters were at Nice and Turin.
 The sign of the order was a white cross with flowered points,
beneath which was a second cross surrounded with green, with the
image of the two patron saints.
The Knights of St. Stephen, an order founded in 1562 by Cosmo
de Medicis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, played an active part in the sea-
fights of the Mediterranean, where they were constantly chasing the
Ottoman galleys or effecting landings on the shores of the
surrounding barbarian states. In the middle of the seventeenth
century they boasted that they had released, since the creation of
the order, upwards of five thousand six hundred Christian captives
and fifteen thousand slaves.
This order, in its customs and ceremonies, was strikingly like the
order of Malta; and, like it, was divided into military and
ecclesiastical knights.
 Fig. 156.—Reception of a Knight of the Order of St. Michael,
which was created on August 1, 1469, by Louis XI., at
the Castle of Amboise.—Fac-simile of a Miniature in the
“Statuts de l’Ordre,” dated from Plessis-les-Tours.
Manuscript of the Sixteenth Century, in the Library of M.
Ambr. Firmin-Didot.
Several orders of military knighthood existed in France, created by
its sovereigns; but their honorary character caused them to be
looked upon as rewards bestowed for good service rendered to the
monarchy, rather than as solemn engagements to take up arms in
any definite cause. It is hardly worth while to mention the Order of
the Star, which it has been attempted to trace back to King Robert
and to the year 1022, but the real origin of which only dates from
King John. The oldest royal military orders of knighthood are those
that Louis IX. founded to encourage his nobles to join him in his
expeditions beyond the seas, and to take part in the Crusades. The
Order of the Cosse de Geneste, instituted in 1254, was bestowed at
a later period on the sergeants of the king, a body-guard of a
hundred gentlemen specially entrusted with the duty of protecting
the sovereign’s person against the assassins sent by the Old Man of
the Mountains. The Order of the Ship, instituted in 1269, became
extinct shortly after the second crusade of St. Louis, who had
conferred it, before his departure, on some of his most illustrious
followers.
The Order of St. Michael was founded in 1469 by Louis XI. to fulfil
a vow made by his father, who had a particular veneration for that
saint, the tutelar angel and patron of France (Fig. 156). The image
of St. Michael was already embroidered in gold upon the banner of
the king, who created a new order of military knighthood “in
honour,” say the statutes, “of the first knight who in God’s quarrel
fought the ancient enemy of the human race and made him fall from
heaven.” The order was composed of thirty-six knights of stainless
name and arms, with the sovereign who had appointed them at their
head. The collar of the order was composed of golden shells inlaid
with the figure of St. Michael overthrowing Satan. The knights,
besides this collar, wore on occasions of ceremony a white mantle
with a hood of crimson velvet.
A, the door from which the knights issued, and then went along the terrace
marked B, out at the door marked C, and so to the place where the new
knights were initiated.
D, trumpets.
E, drums.
F, fifes and hautboys.
G, four heralds, walking two and two.
H, king-at-arms of France, walking by himself.
I, the Sieur de Bourgneuf, usher of the order, walking by himself.
K, the Sieur du Pont, herald of the order, walking by himself.
L, three officers of the order walking abreast—viz., MM. d’Achères, provost and
master of the ceremonies; Bouthillier, grand treasurer; and Duret-Chevry,
secretary.
M, M. de Bullion, keeper of the seals of the order, walking by himself.
N, the knights novices, walking two and two, each according to his rank.
O, the commanders, walking also two and two, each according to his rank.
P, the king, walking by himself, his train carried by M. le Marquis de Gesvres;
behind his majesty walks M. le Cardinal Duc de Richelieu, by himself, an
almoner carrying his train.
Fig. 157. Procession of the Knights of the Order of the Holy Ghost crossing the
courtyard of the Palace of Fontainebleau on their way to the chapel, for the
ceremony of the initiation of new knights.

Fig. 158.—State Gloves of embroidered silk, gold, and silver, with

the Monogram of Christ, formerly belonging to Louis XIII.—
From the originals in the Collection of M. Jubinal.
The Order of the Holy Ghost was the last military order that the
sovereigns of France themselves conferred towards the close of the
sixteenth century. Both this and the Order of St. Michael were
termed orders of the king. Henry III., in 1579, created the order in
honour of God, and particularly in that of the Holy Ghost, under
whose inspiration he had accomplished “his best and most fortunate
exploits,” to use the exact words of the statutes of the order. From
the day of his ascending the throne he had always intended to found
this order, which had been suggested to him in his childhood by the
perusal of the statutes of the first Order of the Holy Ghost, instituted
at Naples, in 1352, by one of his ancestors, Louis of Anjou, King of
Jerusalem and Sicily. These statutes were carefully preserved in a
precious manuscript, the miniature of which represented with
marvellous art all the ceremonies of the order. The manuscript was a
present from the nobility of Venice to Henry III. on his return from
Poland. This prince, however, borrowed but little from these ancient
statutes, which had been drawn up in view of the military services
which the knights of the order, three hundred in number, might be
able to render towards the Crusades in Palestine. The new order of
the Holy Ghost, although a military one, was destined to gather
round the king, who was its supreme head, a body of a hundred
knights, selected from among the most eminent and the most
illustrious personages of the court, the Church, and the nobility. The
insignia of the order were a collar composed of golden fleurs-de-lis,
surmounted with enamelled flames, forming the initials of the king
and his wife Louise of Lorraine, with a cross bearing a silver dove,
emblem of the Holy Ghost. At the meetings of their order, the
knights were clad in costly round-caped mantles of blue velvet
spangled with fleurs-de-lis in gold (Fig. 157). These meetings, which
at first were held in the Church of the Augustines at Paris, where the
solemn receptions of the new members took place, were afterwards
transferred to the Louvre, where they were celebrated with
extraordinary pomp. It is true that the statutes enjoined on each lay
knight the duty of taking arms for his sovereign whenever the latter
was preparing to go to war for the defence of his dominions, or in
the interest of his crown; but they were never scrupulously obeyed
on this point, and the Order of the Holy Ghost, while preserving its
military and religious character on all ceremonial occasions, never
played any other part than one of display and heraldic pretension.
The sovereigns, however, at all times showed themselves extremely
jealous of the privilege of appointing its knights, and the latter for
more than three centuries composed the actual guard of honour of
the royal house of France.
Fig. 159.—St. George, the patron of warriors, vanquishing the Dragon.—From the
Tomb of Cardinal Georges d’Amboise, at Rouen (Sixteenth Century).
 LITURGY AND CEREMONIES.
Prayer.—Liturgy of St. James, of St. Basil, and of St. John-Chrysostom.
—Apostolical Constitutions.—The Sacrifice of the Mass.—
Administration of Baptism.—Canonical Penances.—Plan and
Arrangement of Churches.—Ecclesiastical Hierarchy.—The
Ceremony of Ordination.—Church Bells.—The Tocsin.—The Poetry
of Gothic Churches.—Breviary and Missal of Pius V.—Ceremonies
used at the Seven Sacraments.—Excommunication.—The Bull In
Cœnâ Domini.—Processions and Mystery Plays at the Easter
Solemnities.—Instrument of Peace.—Consecrated Bread.—The
Pyx.—The Dove.
t was the first Council of Nice, in the year 325, that
gave the dignity of canonical law to the custom of
prayer on bended knees, and it is a surprising fact
that none of the paintings of the Catacombs
represent a devotee in the act of kneeling. We,
however, know from the Acts of the Apostles that
from the very first days of Christianity it was
sometimes customary to kneel at prayer. As for the public prayers of
the early Christians, the text of the principal ones has survived
unaltered to our own days. As early as the close of the first century,
the younger Pliny, writing to Trajan, told him that the Christians were
accustomed to assemble at daybreak to sing a hymn in honour of
Christ, whom they worshipped as God. This is a valuable piece of
evidence, and it is moreover corroborated by the known custom that
prevailed at the same epoch in the Church of Antioch, of celebrating
the Holy Trinity (Figs. 160 and 161) by singing anthems, and of
glorifying Christ, the Word of God, by the intoning of canticles and
psalms. St. Irenæus, who wrote in the middle of the second century,
also mentions in his work against heresy, a kind of Gloria in excelsis,
which was chanted in Greek in Christian assemblies at the
consecration of the host, and which may be translated thus: “To
thee all glory, veneration, and thanksgiving; honour and worship to
the Father, to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and for
century upon century of infinite eternity!” The people responded,
“Amen!” In the dogmatic treatises written by Tertullian, at the end of
the second century, that great pagan philosopher, who had become
a convert to Christianity, alludes more than once to the first attempts
at a liturgy which the Church used in the administration of the
sacraments. He speaks of secret meetings where the psalms were
sung, the Scriptures read, and edifying discourses were delivered; he
mentions public prayers on behalf of the reigning sovereign, of his
ministers, and of the great functionaries of the State; he describes
ceremonies, forms of prayer, and religious chants which were used
according to certain rites authorised in the Latin Church, amongst
which may be distinguished the Pater of the New Testament, that
simple and yet sublime and touching invocation of feeble humanity
prostrated before the Almighty.
Fig. 160.—Symbol of the Trinity, arranged vertically—
the Son at the bottom, the Father at the top, and
the Holy Ghost in the centre. The Holy Ghost
descends from the mouth of the Father and settles
on the head of the Son, and proceeds from both.
Copied from a French Miniature by Count Horace
de Vielcastel (Fourteenth Century).
 Fig. 161.—The three faces of the Trinity on one head and
body. At first sight is read—“The Father is not the
Son; the Father is not the Holy Ghost; the Holy Ghost
is not the Son.” But, from the angles to the centre, is
also read—“The Father is God; the Son is God; the
Holy Ghost is God.” Printed by Simon Vostre in 1524.
The Church of Neo-Cesarea used from the first the liturgy of St.
James, the earliest of the Eastern liturgies, until St. Basil, justly
surnamed the great, for he was one of the most illustrious Fathers of
the Greek Church in the fourth century, modified and shortened it. A
little later it came to be known as the liturgy of St. Chrysostom, on
account of the important changes introduced into it by that Father of
the Church.

Fig. 162 to 171.—Monograms of Christ, belonging to the first centuries of the

Church, except the last two. They are mostly composed of the letters X and P
interlaced, letters which begin the word Christ (ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ); one is
accompanied by an N [Nazarenus); several have on either side the letters α
and ω, in allusion to the text, “I am the beginning and the end.” Two of these
monograms, from the Catacombs, recall the labarum of Constantine,
especially the one bearing the famous inscription, “In hoc signo vinces;” but it
is not certain whether they are rightly attributed. The last two are from the
Churches of St. Martin de Lescas (Gironde) and of St. Exupère d’Arreau
(Upper Pyrenees), edifices of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries.

The canons of the Council of Laodicea, held in 364, contain many

regulations for the recitation of the psalms and lessons, which, as
early as the second century, according to Tertullian, were recited at
Tierce, at Sexte, and at None, that is, at the third, sixth, and ninth
hour of the day—at vespers or evening prayer, and at the prayers
offered up by the bishops, whether at the ceremonies of baptism
and the eucharist, or over catechumens and penitents. It was not
until after the conversion of Constantine that public prayers became
general in Constantinople even amongst the troops. Constantine
built an oratory in his palace, where his whole court worshipped with
him. He desired that his soldiers, whether Christians or pagans,