1 Definition of terms

Knowledge is the foundation of civilisation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Before starting, it is necessary to discuss some fundamentals that are important in

understanding analogue and digital transmission. The first area that is discussed is
what is meant by frequency. Also the make-up of complex waveforms such as
square and sawtooth waveforms is described. In order to understand a complex
waveform a knowledge of harmonic frequencies is necessary, and this is
explained.
Units of measurement are also very important, so an explanation of the gain
or loss of a network is given. The discussion then includes an explanation
of the decibel. Other common units such as dBm, dBr and dBmO are also
discussed.

1.2 FREQUENCIES
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to cycles per second: thus
1 Hz is 1 c/s. The SI measurement system is used to designate frequency
ranges. The common frequency ranges with their SI symbols are given in
Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Common frequency ranges

Frequency SI symbol

1 Hz 1 Hz
1000 Hz I kHz
1000 000 Hz 1 MHz
1000 000 000 Hz 1 GHz
2 Definition of terms

1.3 TYPES OF SIGNAL

There are only two different types of signal that are processed, transmitted and
received by telecommunication equipment. These are analogue and digital. Each
type has individual characteristics.

1.4 ANALOGUE SIGNAL

An analogue signal is defined as a continuous waveform having a positive peak
and a negative peak and having an infinite range of levels. This infinite range is
due to the fact that if two discrete points on the waveform are chosen then a
point halfway between these two points will yield a different amplitude. If the
distance between this new point and one of the previous points is halved then
a new point having a different amplitude will be obtained. This process will
continue an infinite number of times.
An analogue signal has no discontinuous points, i.e. it follows an unbroken
curve for its full duration. Typical analogue waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.1.

+2

+1

-1

-2
Sine wave
+2

+1

-1

-2
Cosine wave
+2

+1

-1

-2
Sinusoidal waveform
+2

+1

-1

-2
Typical speech waveform

Fig. 1.1 Analogue waveforms

 Digital signal 3

The frequencyf of the analogue wave is determined by the following formula:

f=l_ Hz
t
where t = time in seconds

The time t is the duration of one complete cycle, i.e. one wavelength.
The formula used to determine the wavelength A in free space (vacuum) is as
follows:
r
A=ym
where c = velocity of light in a vacuum
= 3 x 108 m / s

The waveforms shown in Fig. 1.1 are shown in the time domain, which means that
the amplitude is plotted against time.
A sine wave and a cosine wave consist of a single frequency. A sine wave can be
described as having a start phase of 0 ~ and an initial amplitude of zero. The wave
then starts to move towards the positive maximum amplitude. A cosine wave can
be described as having a start phase of 90 ~ and an initial positive maximum ampli-
tude. The wave then starts to move towards the zero amplitude point. A sinusoi-
dal wave has a start phase anywhere from 0 ~ to 360 ~ and an initial amplitude
anywhere between the positive maxima and the negative maxima. However, the
sinusoidal wave follows the shape of a sine wave.
A complex wave is a wave that consists of a number of different frequencies.

1.5 DIGITAL SIGNAL

A digital signal is a complex waveform and can be defined as a discontinuous

waveform having a finite range of levels.
A theoretical digital signal is shown in Fig. 1.2. At times t~, t2, t3, t4 and t5, the
signal assumes two states. These states are a logic 0 and a logic 1. It can be seen
that at these times the signal is discontinuous (i.e. there is a break).
A practical digital waveform is not a discontinuous waveform, but has a lead-
ing edge, which is also referred to as the positive edge, and a trailing edge, which is
referred to as a negative edge or lagging edge. A typical practical digital wave is
shown in Fig. 1.2.
In practice the leading edge has a finite rise time and the trailing edge has a finite
fall time. The rise time of the leading edge is the time taken for the output ampli-
tude to rise from 10% of the final steady-state value to 90% of the final steady-
state value. The fall time or decay time of the trailing edge is defined as the
time taken to fall from 90% of the initial output amplitude to 10% of the initial
output amplitude. The rise and decay times are shown in Fig. 1.2.
4 Definition of terms

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Practical digital signal
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+3
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Trailing edge expanded

Fig. 1.2 Digital waveforms

A digital signal has a pulse repetition time (PRT) which is the duration of one
full cycle (one wavelength). The fundamental frequency (i.e. the lowest frequency
in the wave) is determined by means of the following formula:
1
f = P R T Hz

1.6 WAVEFORMS
Different waveforms are produced using different harmonically related frequen-
cies. The harmonic frequencies are those frequencies which are directly related
to the fundamental frequency.
A fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency that exists in the complex
wave and its frequency is determined by the inverse of the duration of one
cycle. Some of these harmonic frequencies are given in Table 1.2.