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Design for Additive Manufacturing: Trends, opportunities, considerations, and

constraints

Thompson, Mary Kathryn; Moroni, Giovanni; Vaneker, Tom; Fadel, Georges; Campbell, R. Ian; Gibson,
Ian; Bernard, Alain; Schulz, Joachim; Graf, Patricia; Ahuja, Bhrigu; Martina, Filomeno
Published in:
C I R P Annals

Link to article, DOI:

10.1016/j.cirp.2016.05.004

Publication date:
2016

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Peer reviewed version

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Citation (APA):
Thompson, M. K., Moroni, G., Vaneker, T., Fadel, G., Campbell, R. I., Gibson, I., ... Martina, F. (2016). Design
for Additive Manufacturing: Trends, opportunities, considerations, and constraints. C I R P Annals, 24. DOI:
10.1016/j.cirp.2016.05.004

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 Loughborough University
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Design for additive

manufacturing: trends,
opportunities,
considerations, and
constraints

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Citation: THOMPSON, M.K. ...et al., 2016. Design for additive manufac-

turing: trends, opportunities, considerations, and constraints. CIRP Annals -

Manufacturing Technology, 65 (2), pp. 737-760.

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 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology

Journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cirp

Design for Additive Manufacturing: Trends, Opportunities, Considerations and Constraints

Mary Kathryn Thompsona, Giovanni Moronib (2), Tom Vanekerc (2), Georges Fadeld, R. Ian Campbelle, Ian Gibsonf,
Alain Bernardg (1), Joachim Schulzh (3), Patricia Grafh, Bhrigu Ahujai, Filomeno Martinaj
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
c
Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Netherlands
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
e
Loughborough Design School, Loughborough University, UK
f
School of Engineering, Deakin University, Australia
g
Université Bretagne Loire, Ecole Centrale de Nantes, IRCCyN UMR CNRS 6597, France
h
Aesculap AG, Germany
i
LPT, Institute of Photonic Technologies, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
j
Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre, Cranfield University, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK

The past few decades have seen substantial growth in Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies. However, this growth has mainly been process-driven. The
evolution of engineering design to take advantage of the possibilities afforded by AM and to manage the constraints associated with the technology has lagged
behind. This paper presents the major opportunities, constraints, and economic considerations for Design for Additive Manufacturing. It explores issues related to
design and redesign for direct and indirect AM production. It also highlights key industrial applications, outlines future challenges, and identifies promising
directions for research and the exploitation of AM’s full potential in industry.

Design, Manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing

overview of Additive Manufacturing, Design for Manufacturing, and

1. Introduction the need for DfAM. It presents the main design opportunities,
considerations and constraints related to AM technologies, including
The evolution of Additive Manufacturing (AM) over the past three production time and cost. It presents DfAM success stories from a
decades has been nothing less than extraordinary. AM has number of industries. Finally, it identifies promising directions for
experienced double-digit growth for 18 of the past 27 years, taking it research and development that will enable Design for Additive
from a promising set of uncommercialized technologies in the early Manufacturing to reach its full potential in industry.
1980s to a market that was worth over $4 billion in 2014. The AM
market is expected to grow to more than $21 billion by 2020 2. Additive Manufacturing
[354][355]. This growth has been made possible by improvements in
AM materials and technologies and is being driven by the market Additive Manufacturing processes produce physical objects from
factors that necessitate its use such as shorter product development digital information piece-by-piece, line-by-line, surface-by-surface, or
cycles, increasing demand for customized and personalized products, layer-by-layer [178][130]. This simultaneously defines the object’s
increased focus and regulations on sustainability, reduced geometry and determines its material properties. AM processes place,
manufacturing cost and lead times, and the introduction of new bond, and/or transform volumetric primitives or elements (voxels) of
business models [13][354][355]. raw material to build the final part. Each voxel’s shape and size and
During the past thirty years, the use of AM technology has also the strength of the bonds between the voxels are determined by the
undergone a transformation. Early AM applications focused on raw material(s), the manufacturing equipment (e.g. the build platform
models and prototypes [178][179]. As the technology matured, AM precision, nozzle geometry, light or laser beam wavelength, etc.), and
played a major role in producing rapid and soft tooling (e.g. vacuum the process parameters (e.g. the nozzle temperature, light or beam
and silicone casting molds) [187]. Today it is also used for the intensity, traverse speed, etc.). The overall part geometry is
production of end use parts and products. It is estimated that the determined by tool paths, projection patterns (digital masks), or a
market for AM end use parts was worth $1.748 billion in 2014 - up combination of the two. This allows AM technologies to fabricate
66% from the previous year. Strong double-digit growth in this area is parts without the need for intermediate shaping tools [155].
expected to continue for the next several years [355]. Leveraging the AM processes are characterized by increasing workpiece mass.
geometric and material freedoms of AM for end use parts creates a They represent one of three major classes of manufacturing
world of opportunity. However, not all parts are possible or cost technologies, along with subtractive processes where the workpiece
effective to produce using AM. This necessitates a better mass is reduced and formative processes where the workpiece mass is
understanding of when, why, and how to (re)design for the conserved [125][26]. Additive Manufacturing processes are also
opportunities and constraints associated with these technologies. distinct from chemical and thermal processes such as etching, plating,
The CIRP community has previously reported on advances in AM oxidation, and heat treatment, which act on all exposed (reactive)
processes [178][179][187][181][152], their role in rapid product surfaces and traditional processes to create composite materials.
development [42], and how they have been used in the biomedical
[36] and turbomachinery [176] industries. This paper explores the
opportunities, constraints, and economic considerations related to
Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM). It begins with a brief
2.1 History of Additive Manufacturing Meanwhile, commercial hobby printers and entry-level professional
machines have made AM technology available to the masses.
The foundations of Additive Manufacturing go back almost 150 If the current trends continue, we will soon enter a new stage of
years, with proposals to build freeform topographical maps and evolution where Additive Manufacturing becomes a design paradigm
photosculptures from two-dimensional (2D) layers [40][256][48]. in addition to a means of production.
Research efforts in the 1960s and 70s provided proof of concept and
patents for the first modern AM processes including 2.2 Digital workflow for Additive Manufacturing
photopolymerization in the late 1960s [356], powder fusion in 1972
[72], and sheet lamination in 1979 [243]. This work was enabled by Additive Manufacturing processes have a digital dataflow that
the invention of the computer in the late 1940s, the development of generates the instructions for the AM machine followed by a physical
photopolymer resins by DuPont in the 1950s, and commercial workflow that transforms the raw materials into final parts (Fig. 1).
availability of lasers in the 1960s. It followed advances in computer The process usually begins with a product idea, a 2D image such as a
aided design (CAD) and manufacturing (CAM), including the photograph, a set of 2D images like those derived from Computed
development of numerical control machine tools in the early 1950s, Tomography (CT) scans, or a physical 3D object like a prototype or a
computer graphics and CAD tools in the early 1960s, CAD/CAM part for reverse engineering. These are transformed into digital
systems in the late 1960s, and the availability of low cost computer models (e.g. volume models or facet models) using solid modelling,
monitors starting in early 1970s [71][356][258]. However, the metrology, or image reconstruction software. Next, the data is
technology was in its infancy with no commercial market and little checked for errors, the errors are corrected, and support structures are
support for research and development activities. added if needed. This is often done with AM-specific software such
The 1980s and early 1990s saw an increase in patents and academic as Magics from Materialise NV. Finally, the model is sliced or
publications; the development of new technologies such as MIT’s 3D otherwise discretized to create instructions for the machine. This is
printing process in 1989 [130], laser beam melting (LBM) processes often done using machine-specific software.
in the early 1990s [287], and the successful commercialization of New software formats have been developed and standardized to
process technologies including stereolithography (SL) in 1988; fused support AM data preparation and digital workflow. For example, the
deposition modelling (FDM), solid ground curing, and laminated AMF format, which has native support for color, materials, lattices,
object manufacturing in 1991 [356]; and laser sintering in 1992 [287]. and constellations, has been standardized and is intended to replace
These advances were made possible, in part, by improvements in the STL format. Other formats such as STEP, STEP-NC, and 3MF
geometric modelling capabilities [71] and the development of have integrated AM concepts to compete with AM-specific formats.
programmable logic controllers [130] during the 1960s and 1970s, the Kim et al. [174] recently proposed a systems approach for data flow
development of ink jet printing technology in the late 1970s [130], structuring and decomposition in several steps, clarifying the need for
and by the decreased cost and improved capabilities and availability data generation and transformation along the AM digital chain.
of computers and CAD/CAM systems in the 1980s [256]. However,
the high cost, limited material choices, and low dimensional accuracy 2D image physical model
product idea
of these machines limited their industrial application to rapid of object

prototyping and model making.

data acquisition
The 1990s and 2000s were a period of growth for AM. New 3D digitalization

processes such as electron beam melting (EBM) [22] were ASCII format

commercialized, existing technologies were improved, and attention point cloud

began to shift to developing AM related software. AM-specific file
formats such as STL (StereoLithography), CLI (Common Layer
Interface), LEAF (Layer Exchange Ascii Format), and LMI (Layer

data preparation
reverse Polygonisation/
Manufacturing Interface) [256] were introduced. AM-specific DXF
engineering triangulation
software programs, such as Clemson’s CIDES (1990) and 3D CAD
format

Materialise’s Magics (1992) were developed. New generations of modeling surface model
STEP, IGES,
commercial systems offered new and improved features. Quality VDA-FS
improved to the point that Additive Manufacturing technologies could format
volume model
be used to produce patterns, tooling, and final parts. The terms ‘Rapid
Tooling’, ‘Rapid Casting’, and ‘Rapid Manufacturing’ were created
to highlight the ability to use Additive Manufacturing technologies polygonisation/
triangulation
for production. Cheap, powerful computers helped to make new
generations of AM machines smaller and more affordable [131]. STL, VRMLformat

Advances in solid modelling software made it easy and inexpensive facet model
for students and professionals to design and model 3D objects.
Finally, the Internet made knowledge sharing easy and supported the
development of open-source hardware and software. This led to the slicing process
development of the first hobby AM machines from the RepRap
project in 2005.
The late 2000s saw the commoditization of the AM processes that sliced contour
data
were commercialized in the 1980s and were a period of growth for
the younger metal-based AM processes. The expiration of key patents result
additive fabrication
for a number of older AM processes opened the market to process process
competition. This, combined with a growing AM hobby community,
spurred innovation, leading to a major expansion of market supply
component
and demand. Today, AM products and services support a wide range
of activities including manufacturing, energy, transportation, art,
architecture, education, hobbies, space exploration, and the military. Fig. 1. Digital and physical workflow from product idea to actual component.
Wide scale adoption of AM for the direct manufacture of final parts Redrawn from [337].
has occurred in the medical, dental, and aerospace industries.
 Process categories and using AM-related design tools and methodologies. It is also a pre-
Example
Materials
materials
Vat photo-
Material Binder
Powder
Material
Directed
Sheet
requisite for developing design related AM standards. For example,
polymer- bed energy
ization
jetting jetting
fusion
extrusion
deposition
lamination ISO/ASTM DIS 20195 “Guide for Design for Additive
Thermoset Epooxies and Manufacturing” [157] is currently under development.
X X
Polymers acrylates

Thermo-
Polyamide,
plastic X X X X X
ABS, PPSF
polymers

Wood paper X
Steel,
Titanium
Metals X X X X
alloys, Cobalt
chromium
Alumina,
Industrial
Zirconia,
ceramic X X X X
Silicone
materials
nitride
Fig. 3. Outboard landing gear rib (24 kg) produced in Ti–6Al–4V by Wire +
Structural Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM): CAD model (left, courtesy of the
Cement,
ceramic
Foundry sand
X X X Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre at Cranfield University)
materials and printed part before machining (right, [352]).
Note: Combinations of the above material classes, e.g. a composite, are possible

Fig. 2.Additive Manufacturing process families and materials [155].

2.3 Additive Manufacturing processes and physical workflow

The physical workflow begins with one of the seven currently

recognized groups of AM technologies: binder jetting, directed
energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed
fusion, sheet lamination, and vat polymerization (Fig. 2) [26][155].
AM processes can be used for the direct production of models,
prototypes, end use parts, and assemblies, as well as fixtures, patterns,
and tooling for indirect production [155][337][66][71]. AM can be
integrated to create hybrid processes [163][166][168][182][317] or Fig. 4. Injection molding tooling produced by 3-axis Hybrid Layered
combined with other processes to form longer multi-stage process Manufacturing (Gas Metal Arc Welding plus CNC machining): CAD model
chains [149][327][337]. For example, parts can be printed to near net (left), near net shape molds (center), and finished molds (right) [317].
shape and then post-machined (Fig. 3), molds can be produced by
alternating printing and machining operations (Fig. 4), features can be
printed on top of formed components [14], and components can be
embedded within printed parts (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6).
Each process family has distinct operating principles, production
characteristics and compatible material types. These traits affect the
cost, quality, and sometimes the color and scale of the parts that can
be produced, and therefore can substantially impact design decisions. Fig. 5. Conformal cooling channels in an injection molding die. The cooling
tubes were inserted into the substrate mold (left), the tubes were ‘buried’ and
The consideration of process specific characteristics during the design
the die was completed using a laser-aided metal-based AM process (center),
process is even more important when AM is combined with other and the final tool was post-machined (right). Adapted from [59].
direct manufacturing processes (e.g. machining) and indirect
manufacturing processes (e.g. molding or casting) [43].

2.4 Current AM standards

Working groups for the development of AM-related standards have

been organized by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO/TC 261) and the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM F42). To date, they have produced standards related to Fig. 6. Timer circuit with embedded electronic components produced using a
terminology, individual processes, chains of processes (hardware and hybrid stereolithography / direct print (SL/DP) machine [193].
software), test procedures, quality parameters, customer-supplier
agreements, and fundamental elements. Recent additions address data 3. Design for Additive Manufacturing
processing [156] and consider the relevance of and specify variations
to existing standards [27][28] (Fig. 7). In 2013, ISO and ASTM The term ‘Design for Additive Manufacturing’ has been used
defined a common goal to produce one set of global standards extensively in the literature [10][19][31][70][77][74][91][122][142]
including general standards that are applicable to most AM materials, [150][262][284][335][336], however there have been only a few
processes, and applications; category standards that define the attempts to define it [271][272][130]. This section provides an
requirements for a material or a process category; and specialized overview of classical Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
standards for specific requirements to a material, process or (DfMA), examines the suitability of that definition and framework for
application [158]. AM standardization efforts are also taking place in AM applications, and outlines the need for the development of
Germany (VDI FA 105 and DIN NA 145-04-01AA), Spain Design for Additive Manufacturing expertise and education.
(AEN/CTN 116), France (AFNOR UNM 920), Sweden (SIS/TK
563), the US (SAE AMS-AM) and the UK (BSI AMT/8). The 3.1 Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Association of German Engineers published VDI 3404 and VDI 3405
as part of this work. DfMA is the practice of designing and optimizing a product
AM standards provide a common understanding of the field and a together with its production system to reduce development time and
shared lexicon from which to work. This is important for developing cost, and increase performance, quality, and profitability. This is done
by “simultaneously considering design goals and manufacturing [224][274]. Therefore a new body of knowledge is required to
constraints” [168] such as “user and market needs, materials, support DfAM. Finally, the unique characteristics of AM processes
processes, assembly and disassembly methods,” maintenance allow for and require different approaches to the design process and
requirements, etc. [228]. DfMA can be viewed from three levels of design practice [31][138][130][284][126]. This includes new
abstraction. At the first level, DfMA offers concrete tools, techniques, approaches to explore large, complex design spaces
and guidelines to adapt a design to a given set of downstream [70][271][272][348]; to incorporate material, mesostructures and
constraints. These are usually process-specific (e.g. Design for multi-scale design considerations [130][271][272]; and to overcome
Injection Molding) [46][260], feature-specific (e.g. how part size, the “cognitive barriers” imposed by past experience and the
weight, and symmetry affect insertion/assembly time) [46], or conventional fabrication techniques [284].
activity-specific (e.g. how to calculate the theoretical minimum The development of DfAM knowledge, tools, rules, processes and
assembly time) [45]. At the next level of abstraction, DfMA aims to methodologies has been cited as one of the technical principle
understand and quantify the effect of the design process on challenges of AM [19]. Insufficient understanding and application of
manufacturing (and vice versa). This is needed to improve the DfAM is said to be limiting the overall penetration of AM in industry
performance of the manufacturing system, the execution qualities of [122], holding back the use of AM for the production of end-use parts
the product (cost, functionality, customer satisfaction, etc.), the [10][122], preventing designers from fully benefitting from AM
evolution (through-life) qualities of the product (safety, reliability, [91][126], and preventing AM from reaching its full potential in
service and repair costs, etc.), and the long-term potential of the general [31][74]. Once Design for Additive Manufacturing is well
associated business case (e.g. the ability to respond to unexpected understood, that knowledge must be disseminated to current and
surges in product demand) [20]. In this context, DfMA is a subset of future members of industry. Thus, AM-specific design education
Design for X [183]. At the highest level, DfMA explores the [19][122][150] and design standards [19] are also needed.
relationship between design and manufacturing and its impact on the
designer, the design process, and design practice. In this context, it 4. Design opportunities, benefits, and freedoms of AM
addresses topics such as material and process selection, concurrent
engineering [231][291], and how to improve CAD to support DfMA This section provides an overview of design opportunities, benefits
[46]. and freedoms associated with Additive Manufacturing. These have
been divided into three levels: the part level with macro scale
General AM Standards (general concepts, common requirements, generally applicable) complexity, the material level with micro scale complexity, and the
product level with multi-scale complexity. Production and business
Terminology Processes / Materials Test Methods Design / Data Format
level benefits are discussion in section 6.
ASTM F 2792 ISO 17296-2 ISO 17296-3 ISO 17296-4
ISO / ASTM 52921 ASTM F 2971 ISO / ASTM 52915
ASTM F 3122 ISO / ASTM DIS
4.1 Design freedoms at the part level with macro scale complexity
20195 DRAFT
Incorporating the material and geometric freedoms of AM into
macro scale parts can provide a variety of aesthetic, functional,
Raw Materials Process / Equipment Finished Parts economic, emotional, and ergonomic benefits.
Materials Category- Process Category / Materials Standard Protocols for
Specific Specific Round Robin Testing 4.1.1 Material choice
Metal powders, polymer Powder Bed Fusion, Material Mechanical Test Methods,
powders, polymer resins, Extrusion, Directed Energy Parts Specification, etc. AM technologies can process a large range of materials.
ceramics, etc. Deposition, etc.
Commercial AM machines can process polymers, metals, and
ASTM F 3049 ASTM F 3091 / F3091M ceramic materials [155]. Sheet lamination processes are compatible
Materials-Specific Process/Materials-Specific Application-Specific
with paper, wood, cork, foam, and rubber [34]. Investment casting
Standards Standards Standards molds and cores have been printed in sand [343] and large structures
Material-Specific Size Process-Specific Performance Aerospace, Medical, have been printed in clay and concrete [171][173]. Research to print
Specification, Material- Test Methods, Process- Automotive, etc. Lunar and Martian habitats using locally available materials such as
Specific Chemical Specific Performance Test
Composition, Material- Artifacts, System Component lunar regolith is also underway [172]. Various AM processes have
Specific Viscosity Test Methods, etc. been used to print edible items such as chocolate, sugar, frosting,
Specification, etc.
pasta, spreads, cheese, scallop puree, ground beef, egg whites, insect
ASTM F 2924
ASTM F 3001 powders, and an entire pizza. Much of this work is motivated by the
ASTM F 3055 desire to produce novel shapes, flavors and textures; to provide
ASTM F 3056
personalized nutrition; to enhance the quality of life for individuals
Fig. 7. ASTM and ISO standards for AM. Updated and modified from [158]. who have difficulty swallowing; to increase food supply security; and
to improve dining in outer space [350][315][192]. (Some AM foods
3.2 The need for Design for Additive Manufacturing must be cooked, baked, or fried before consumption.) AM has also
been used to print biological and bio-compatible materials such as
The definition of DfMA above is valid for all processes and process cells, proteins, synthetic hydrogels, biological hydrogels, and
chains that involve AM. However, in practice the design knowledge, bioactive glasses [36]. This work could ultimately enable additive
tools, rules, processes and methodologies at all three levels of manufacture of tissues and organs.
abstraction will be substantially different for DfAM than traditional
DfMA. For example, AM can create different types of features and 4.1.2 Color
impose different types of constraints than other manufacturing
processes. Therefore, they require different process-specific design Some AM processes can create products in full color (Fig. 8). This
rules and tools [10][70][74][77][130][139][142][150][261][262][335] can be done by adding color to the raw materials (e.g. by ink jet
[336]. At the same time, the freedoms of AM reduce the need for, and printing on paper or powder), by using different color feedstock for
therefore the importance of, designing for activities such as assembly different parts of the model, or by inducing color change in a single
[149]. AM processes have different batch sizes, production times, and feedstock (e.g. resin) by in-process activation of pigments
cost drivers than traditional processes [29][148][275][276][366] and [169][263][318]. Additively manufacturing parts in color can reduce
require different approaches to metrology and quality control or eliminate downstream painting and decoration steps during
production and reduce chipping and flaking. In rapid prototyping and 4.1.3 Freeform geometry for art and aesthetics
model making, color can be used as a communication tool to
highlight features such as tumors in medical models and to map AM’s ability to create unique, intriguing, and appealing geometric
analytical data onto objects to make the information easier to forms has led to its adoption by artists, artisans, and industrial
understand and discuss [303][332]. designers. For example, AM is used in the jewelry industry for direct
production [104][218] and to produce patterns for investment casting
[94][97] (Fig. 9). It is also being used to enrich interior design with
high-end furniture, lighting fixtures, and accessories (Fig. 10) and to
explore new forms for clothing, shoes, purses, and other accessories
in the fashion industry (Fig. 11). In the past, AM applications that
emphasized form were mainly intended for exploration and
exhibition. However, additively manufactured designs are becoming
increasingly available for purchase and use.

4.1.4 Internal freeform geometry for functionality and performance

Additive Manufacturing enables the creation of complex internal

features to increase functionality and improve performance. For
example, AM has been used to create integrated air ducts
Fig. 8. AM objects in full color: frog and toad models printed using paper- [41][101][311][209] and wiring conduits [209] for industrial robots;
based selective deposition lamination on an Mcor IRIS and colored to appear 3D flexures for integrated actuators and universal grippers [134],
as aged copper (top left) [215]; bicycle seat colored to show simulated complex internal pathways for acoustic damping devices [285];
pressure distribution from a rider printed on an Objet Connex3 (top right) optimized fluid channels (Fig. 12), and internal micro vanes for
[294]; plates showing a 9x9x9 set of color options from a ZCorp ZPrinter 650 ocular surgical devices [69]. However, one of the most widely studied
before and after brushing (lower left) [92]; and a surgical planning model of a applications is conformal cooling. Conformal cooling channels follow
human liver printed on an Objet Connex3 in clear and colored resins [303].
the external geometry to provide more effective and consistent heat
transfer (Fig. 13). Early research [280][359][129][267] showed that
conformal cooling in injection molding tooling improves process
efficiency and quality. Industrial injection molding case studies have
confirmed these benefits with reports of reduced lead time, more
uniform temperature distributions, reduced cycle times, improved
quality, reduced reject rates, reduced corrosion, longer maintenance
intervals, and overall cost savings [98][108][112].

Fig. 9. Jewelery produced with AM: award winning Tiger Ring from OG-Art -
pattern printed in wax on a Solidscape machine (via [34]) (left), Kinetic Ring
from Vulcan Jewelry (available for purchase) (center, courtesy of Vulcan
Jewelery); custom R2D2 inspired ring from Uptown Diamond and Jewelry -
pattern printed in wax on a 3D Systems ProJet machine [4] (right).

Fig. 12. Solid model of a water redistribution manifold redesigned for AM:
original design made in PEEK with perpendicular drilled channels (left) and
optimized version printed in titanium (right). The redesign reduced turbulence
induced vibration forces by 90%. Images courtesy of ASML.

Fig. 10. Home furnishings produced with AM: the Monarch Stool from Future
Factories (left, via [90]), Quin.Mgx Pendant Light from Bathsheba Grossman
printed in polyamide using SLS (available for purchase) (center, courtesy of
Bathsheba Sculpture LLC), and decorative bowl by Carl Bass printed in Fig. 13. Schematic of conventional cooling channel (left) and conformal
stainless steel and bronze on an ExOne metal binder jet printer (available for cooling channel (right). Adapted from [17].
download) (right, [114]).
Conformal cooling is not limited to tooling. Fig. 14 shows two
versions of a thermal conditioning ring from the semiconductor
industry. The original design has circular cooling channels milled into
the outer circumference of the ring and enclosed by a welded cover
plate. The redesigned version was optimized for performance by
incorporating additively manufactured conformal cooling channels on
the top and side surfaces of the ring. The thermal behaviour of the
two rings is shown in Fig. 15. The redesign improved temperature
uniformity across the top surface of the ring by more than 6x,
Fig. 11. AM in the fashion industry: dress from Iris van Herpen’s Voltage reducing the temperature range across the top face from 13.8 milli-
haute couture collection produced using laser sintering (left [208]), one-of-a- Kelvin (mK) to 2.3mK and the temperature range over the thickness
kind purse from Kipling produced using laser sintering (center, [210]), and of the ring from 22mK to 3.7mK.
Mutatio shoes by Francis Bitonti produced using SLS and then gold plated
(available for purchase) (right, courtesy of Francis Bitonti Studio).
 4.1.6 Cost effective production of custom-fit and mass customized
products

AM’s direct digital workflow and freeform geometry can be

combined to fabricate objects with any degree of customization (Fig.
17). This includes products that can be custom-fit to an existing
Fig. 14. Thermal conditioning ring with milled cooling channels enclosed by a
person or object, products that can be personalized based on
welded cover (left) and with additively manufactured conformal cooling
channels (right). Courtesy of ASML. individual or group preferences, and mass-customized products that
can be produced with infinite variations.

Infinite
Personalized Bespoke
product product

Number of
choices Modularization
available

Fig. 15. Temperature plots from finite element models of the milled “One size fits
all” product
conditioning ring (left) and the additively manufactured conditioning ring
(right). Shown with the same temperature scale. Courtesy of ASML. None

None Few All

Recent studies have focused on new applications of conformal
Number of customizable features
cooling (e.g. hot sheet metal forming [240]), strategies for increased
performance (e.g. profiled conformal cooling channels [17]), and Fig. 17. Types of customization. Redrawn from [59].
indirect and hybrid AM for more efficient and cost effective
production (e.g. using AM to produce wax patterns for indirect In the medical and dental industries, AM is being used to produce a
tooling [17], using machining for the less complex geometries wide variety of personalized and bespoke products including hearing
followed by direct metal tooling for the part of the mold with the aids [214][93]; dental crowns, implants, and dentures [345][96][100]
cooling channels [121], and using direct metal tooling processes to [102]; biomedical implants for hard and soft tissues [1][8][9][47][99]
embed tubing inside near net shape molds [59] (Fig. 5)). [103][107][111][330] (Fig. 18), customized casts, splints and
orthotics [242][249][251] (Fig. 19), and prostheses [11][201][306].
4.1.5 Production of macro-structure topology optimized objects for AM is also used to produce patient-specific models to facilitate
reduced material and energy use surgical planning [216][299][307][302][341] and surgical guides to
improve accuracy and efficiency [95][301][305][309][310] (Fig. 20).
AM can also produce macro-structure topology optimized objects. For example, in orthopaedic surgery, cutting guides are used to
Topology optimization is a numerical approach that identifies where correctly position an implant for the individual patient’s anatomy.
material should be placed in a given domain to achieve a desired This improves the anatomical alignment of the implant and enhances
functionality (e.g. stiffness) for a given set of loads and constraints the efficiency of the surgical procedure. AM surgical guides have the
while optimizing for qualities such as minimal material usage/weight additional benefits of being lightweight (making them easier to
or uniform stress distribution. Macro structure topology optimization handle during surgery) and disposable (safer).
assumes that the structure is composed of a single homogeneous
material and that material is either present or absent in each part of
the design domain. Although the optimization is often only in the
structural domain, examples of multi-physics topology optimization
(e.g. with thermal and structural degrees of freedom) can be found in
the literature [119][135]. Macro structure topology optimization is
especially useful in the aerospace and automotive industries [273]
where weight reduction can lead to substantial energy savings over
the usable life of the product. Aerospace related examples can be
found in [23][49][241][329][105] (Fig. 16). Macro structure topology Fig. 18. Titanium implants for the skull (left, [103]) and pelvis (right, [107])
optimization has also been used to improve biomedical implants [61], produced using and EOSINT M 280.
investment casting processes [135], and more.

Fig. 19. Customized laser sintered foot orthoses from Materialise’s A-

Footprint project (left) and customized selective laser sintered wrist splint
Fig. 16. Brackets before and after topology optimization: Airbus A320 nacelle produced by Fraunhofer IPA. Images via [251].
hinge brackets as-designed for cast steel and optimized for titanium (left) and
Airbus A380 brackets as designed and optimized for stainless steel (right)
[105]. The optimized brackets were produced by direct metal laser sintering
(DMLS).
 4.2 Design freedoms at the material level and the micro scale

AM allows designers to modify and combine materials, micro-, and

meso-structures to create new properties, forms, and functionality.

4.2.1 Custom metallurgy, microstructure, and material composition

Because AM simultaneously creates an object’s material and

Fig. 20. Patient specific drilling guides for dental implants produced using an geometry, it can be used to create custom alloys and composite
Objet Eden260TM (left, [310]) and cutting guide for knee arthroplasty (right, materials. For example, it is possible to create custom mixes of
Courtesy of Aesculap AG). powders and binders [353], to alternate feedstock materials [81][357],
and to embed fibers [33][65][67] in order to create in situ composites,
AM is being used to produce custom-fit packaging and shipping increase mechanical strength, modify the thermal expansion
materials. For example, the Pack & Strat process from CIRTES in coefficient [67], and obtain electrically tuneable stiffness [281].
France uses a sheet lamination approach to produce custom-fit low Similarly, it is possible to control the porosity, microstructure, and
cost ‘direct digital packaging’ for fragile and high-value objects [34]. material properties of metal, polymer, and ceramic parts through the
The process begins either with a CAD model or a 3D scan of the choice of materials, process parameters, and build orientation
object to be packaged. The model is oriented and a bounding box is [75][292][353][362][365].
created around the model. The model is subtracted from the outer Postprocessing steps after each layer can also be used to control
volume and the remaining volume is sliced. Next, the slices are material properties. For example, Selective Laser Erosion and/or laser
arranged in sheets and the tool path is generated. Finally, the physical re-melting after each layer of a selective laser melting (SLM) process
slices are cut from sheet stock, assembled around the object, bound, increases part density and reduces surface roughness [362]. Cold
and placed in the shipping container (Fig. 21). This process is work by high-pressure interpass rolling of Ti–6Al–4V parts produced
compatible with many types of material including cardboard, wood, by SLM results in a refined, equiaxed, and texture-free microstructure
cork, polystyrene, polypropylene, and foam. It has been used to [202][203] with mechanical properties that are higher than the forged
package industrial components, machine tools, artwork, crystal, glass, material (ultimate tensile strength as high as 1078 MPa, and ductility
prototypes, models, and more (Fig. 22). up to 13%) [202]. Similarly, high-pressure interpass rolling of
aluminium alloys during Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing
(WAAM) reduces porosity [136] and increases strength due to finer
sub-grains and fewer mis-orientations [137]. Finally, postprocessing
of finished parts can control and improve material properties. For
example, heat treatment alters the grain structure and increases the
mechanical strength of metal parts [164][349][357] (Fig. 23).

Fig. 21. Schematic of the Pack & Strat process. Adapted from [34].

Fig. 23. SEM micrographs of etched surfaces showing the different grain
structures of as-wrought (a) and SLM TiAl6V4 (b) with post heat treatment at
700°C (c), 900 °C (d), or hot isostatic pressing (e). Adapted from [164].

4.2.2 Custom surfaces, textures, and porosity for improved

functionality

AM processes with micro or nano scale resolution can create

custom surfaces, textures, and porosities. In the consumer product
Fig. 22. Examples of products with custom-fit packaging: metal industrial industry, AM has been used to produce prototype luggage with a
component with cardboard packaging (left) and wooden sculpture “Océane” textured shell [212]. However, the most important application today
by Dominique Pollès with alternating polystyrene and foam layers (right) [34]. is the improved fixation and osseointegration of biomedical implants
compared to porous coatings [78]. For example, AM porous metal
AM is being used to produce custom-fit consumer products such as acetabular augments are now widely used to address bony defects in
running shoes [110][206] and ear buds [308]; personalized products patients undergoing revision total hip arthroplasty [319][351] (Fig. 24
such as eye glasses with customized messages [213]; and bespoke left). Porous acetabular cups offer similar benefits [78] (Fig. 24 right).
objects such as 3D busts created from photographs or 3D scans Implants with more complex surface structures for improved primary
[217][219][342]. Artists like Lionel Theodore Dean from fixation are also being developed [7] (Fig. 25).
FutureFactories.com are using AM to mass customize furniture,
lighting fixtures, and other home furniture so each piece sold is
unique. Finally, in the entertainment industry, AM is being used to
produce mass customized models for stop motion animation [2][295].
 stiff structures [374], auxetic structures [51][143][282] and the molds
for the unit cells for auxetic structures [32], and could be used to
produce the chiral honeycomb auxetic structures proposed by [177]. It
has also been used to produce unit cells for acoustic materials with a
negative refraction index [358]. In biomedical engineering, lattices
can be optimized for cell attachment and growth; transport of
nutrients and metabolic waste; biocompatibility, bioresorbability, and
Fig. 24. Porous acetabular augment for hip revision arthroplasty (left, courtesy degradation; and biomechanical properties [151]. Examples of
of Aesculap AG) and porous acetabular cup produced by EBM (right, [78]). additively manufactured lattices in biomedical engineering can be
found in [24][128][319]. The applicability of designer cellular
materials and lattices for biomedical engineering, especially for the
design and fabrication of orthopaedic implants and for bone and
tissue engineering, is discussed in [21][24][78][88][128][151].
Various optimization methods exist for the design of periodic meso-
scale cellular structures. Topology optimization is often used, but the
designer has to consider issues of homogenization (the individual cell
must be much smaller than the design space in all directions), and of
Fig. 25. OsteoAnchorTM implant with micro scale features to improve primary
periodicity (the material inside the cell must be such that it
fixation produced by DMLS [141].
corresponds to the material in the adjoining cell). Manufacturing
constraints, such as minimum wall thickness and minimum feature
4.2.3 Lattices, trusses, and cellular materials for custom material
size, must also be considered. Although uniform lattices are common,
properties and biofunctionality
there is no limit to the number of cell types and volume fractions that
can be used. For example, structures can be topology optimized using
AM can create three-dimensional lattices and trusses with specific
different cell types and volume fractions [49][348]. Cellular lattices
mechanical, thermal, optical, and biological properties. For example,
can also have spatial variations [120][279] (Fig. 30).
AM lattices can be used to produce high stiffness low weight
structures and photonic crystals (Fig. 26). Lattices and trusses can be
incorporated into sandwich structures [360] or used to line external
surfaces for increased strength [246]. Furthermore, enclosed lattices
can be used as internal support for flexible structures such as
inflatable (deployable) wings for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
[197][198]. In structural engineering, the orientation and diameter of
the individual struts within a truss or lattice can be optimized to
Fig. 28. Cell structures at 50% volume fraction (top) and an example cell with
improve stress distribution, strength, and manufacturability varying volume fractions (i.e. hole diameters) (bottom) [348].
[268][323][324] (Fig. 27).

Fig. 29. Schoen Gyroid as a unit cell (left), volume generated from Schoen
Gyroid unit cells (center left), Schoen Gyroid cellular structure with a 15%
volume fraction and unit cell size of 2mm (center right), and with a unit cell
Fig. 26. AM lattices: octet truss lattice (left, [31]) and square lattice (center, size of 8mm (right). Both samples produced by SLM [140].
[31]) produced using SLM, and photonic crystal with a micro woodpile
structure made using two-photon polymerization (right, [247]).

Fig. 27. Beams with lattice structures produced by SLM: periodic structure (a,
Fig. 30. Spatially variant self-collimating lattice produced using FDM (left)
left), flux of force adapted structure (b, center), and flux of force adapted
and a plot of the unit cell orientation over the part (right) [279].
structure with straightened struts (c, right) [324].
4.2.4 Multi-material parts and products
Cellular materials and structures are created by choosing the shape
and volume fraction of a unit cell (Fig. 28) and building up a volume
Some AM processes can produce parts with different materials or
based on the unit cell (Fig. 29). Examples of unit cells are shown in
material properties in different parts of the object. This is
[12][16][128][140][348]. The size, type, orientation, and boundary
accomplished by using different feedstock or binders for different
conditions of the periodic unit cell usually [12] (but not always [349])
parts of the model. Multi-material AM has been used to fabricate
affect the porosity, mechanical properties, and the deformation and
wrist splints [251][252] (Fig. 31), compliant mechanisms [223], art
failure mechanisms of the resulting materials. Therefore, the structure
[248], integrated electronics [333], and more. Multi-material AM can
of the unit cell can be chosen or designed to produce specific material
be used to produce multi-material topology optimized structures like
properties. For example, AM has been used to produce ultra light and
those described in [123][145][266][338][346]. It could also be used to
produce custom laminates and composites. For a review on multi- 4.3 Design freedoms and opportunities at the product level
material AM, see [333].
AM can provide additional design freedoms and opportunities at the
TangoBlack Plus FullCure VeroWhite product level including part consolidation, embedded parts, and the
direct production of assemblies.

4.3.1 Part consolidation

AM allows designers to consolidate the parts of an existing

assembly into a single printable object. This eliminates assembly time
and reduces inventory costs. It can also increase functionality and
DM9850FLX DM9840FLX improve performance. For example, GE Aviation redesigned the fuel
Fig. 31. Customized splint with multiple materials fabricated in a single build nozzles for its LEAP engines for production with metal AM, reducing
using an Objet Connex [252] the part count from 18 to 1. This also reduced the mass by 25%,
increased the durability by 500%, and improved efficiency by
4.2.5 Functionally graded materials and objects including features to reduce carbon build-up [355]. Other examples of
part consolidation in the literature include a redesigned aircraft duct
Some AM processes can vary the material percentage composition (reducing the part count from 16 to 1) [130], redesigned tractor
in different parts of the model to create functionally graded objects. control pod casing (reducing the part count from 6 to 1) [59],
The simplest case of this is to ‘blend’ a single material with void redesigned packaging for a medical injector system (reducing the part
space to create variable porosity within a single body. However, most count from 15 to 7) [298], and redesigned robot grippers with flexible
cases involve variable mixes of metals within an alloy system (Fig. 32 elements (reducing the part count from at least 9 to 1) [41].
and Fig. 33), variable mixes of polymers (e.g. Stratasys Connex
systems), or variable mixes of binders. While some AM processes 4.3.2 Embedded objects and electronics
such as the laser engineered net shaping (LENS) process and direct
metal deposition (DMD) can produce continuous variations in a AM allows objects such as “small metal parts (bolts, nuts,
material, most others can only produce discrete variations within a bushings)” [130], tubes for cooling channels [84], and shape memory
layer or at layer transitions. For a review of functionally graded alloys for actuated hinges [83] to be embedded in printed parts. In
materials, see [289]. addition, electrical components [146][193][195][253] (Fig. 6 and Fig.
34), conductive tracks [146][195][229][253][255], motors [130],
batteries [200][316], and sensors [199][253][288] can be embedded
or created in situ to print complete products and mechatronic devices
(Fig. 34). The first commercial 3D printer with the ability to print
conductive tracks and embed objects is scheduled to ship in 2016
[340]. For a review of sensor integration in AM, see [186].

Fig. 32. Functionally graded flywheel (outer radius 0.2m) composed of 320
stainless steel and copper coated nickel produced using the LENS process
[233].

Fig. 34. Examples of AM objects with integrated electronics printed using a

combination of stereolithography and direct print technologies [193] (left and
center) [195] (right).

4.3.3 Direct production of assemblies

Fig. 33. Cross section of a functionally graded flywheel as designed (right) Finally, AM can directly produce assemblies with moving or
and as produced (left). The white spots are cavities that resulted from movable parts such as crank and slider mechanisms [68], gears [56],
insufficient melting of the powder mix [233]. joints [55][56][68] (Fig. 35), and hinges [29]. It can also produce
“discontinuous interlinked structures” [79] (textiles) such as chain
4.2.6 Metamaterials
mail [44] and armor [162] (Fig. 36). AM textiles can offer “greater
levels of out-of-plane and shear flexibility” than traditional textiles
Finally, AM could be used for on-demand production of
and can also be custom fit [79]. However, assemblies and interlinked
metamaterials. Metamaterials are ordered composites that have
structures require a clearance between the individual bodies during
material properties not usually found in nature [80][289]. Traditional
fabrication. They also require any remaining interstitial material
metamaterials have a structured periodic lattice that interacts with an
(powder, resin, etc.) to be removed when completed.
applied wave to produce unusual and useful properties such as
artificial magnetism, negative refraction, near-field focusing, and
more [52][289]. Today, most optical and electromagnetic
metamaterials are produced using microfabrication techniques.
However, ‘mechanical metamaterials’ whose properties are
determined only by their structure (i.e. cellular materials) are being
produced using AM in research settings (see section 4.2.3).

Fig. 35. Articulated joints produced using selective laser sintering (SLS) [55].
 based on anatomical data [18] but it can also be used on hand-crafted
models in clay, foam, or other materials. Next, the raw scanned data
is refined. Then the shape can be developed further using a variety of
digital tools. From this point on, the geometry is usually in the form
of triangulated data rather than geometric primitives or NURBS
surfaces. Regardless of how they are generated, 3D CAD models
often need additional modifications and data preparation before they
Fig. 36. Additively manufactured chain mail (left, [44]) and laser sintered can be converted into machine instructions.
articulated stab-resistant armor (right, [162]). Options to model cellular and lattice materials and structures are
more limited. Past solutions have involved complete solid models of
4.4 Discussion and limitations truss structures using geometric modeling kernels such as ACIS
[347], algorithms [24][88][140], and unit cell libraries [16][70][246]
Although all of the design freedoms discussed in sections 4.1 (Fig. 37).
through 4.3 exist today, much of the work that was shown is still in
the proof of concept stage. Research and development are needed on
both the design and manufacturing side to bring all of these design
benefits to the market.

5. Constraints and quality considerations in Design for AM

While AM seems to have unlimited potential, it does not have

unlimited capabilities. Designers must take into account many types
of constraints, including those associated with CAD and the
digitization of their ideas; the digital and physical discretization of the
parts to be produced; the characteristics of AM processes and the
current capabilities of AM machines; the impact of AM processing on Fig. 37. Example of a unit cell library [246]
material properties and the requirements for processing materials
using various AM techniques; new challenges and requirements Researchers are working to overcome CAD and digitalization
associated with metrology and quality control; through-life constraints by developing new data formats that can handle material
requirements and considerations such as maintenance, repair and related information. (For a review, see [333].) Multi-material
recycling; and external factors including the regulatory environment. capability has also been built into the AMF format. However, there
While many of these constraints also apply to other types of remain many challenges when designing for heterogeneity taking into
manufacturing technologies, the bottom up nature of AM means they account the shape and material distribution in order to meet the
can have very different implications for designs, the design process, functionality, requirements or constraints of the artifact. Issues
and the intermediate artifacts that are created to support production. include what granularity to consider during the design exercise, how
to handle material variation analytically, and if the resulting design
5.1 Constraints associated with CAD and digitalization can be satisfactorily manufactured using a given AM process. The
coupling between the design, representation, analysis, optimization
Today, AM is a highly automated direct digital production and manufacture still needs to be resolved.
technique that discretizes a digital model of the artifact and generates
machine ‘tool’ paths, digital masks, and other instructions to produce 5.2 Constraints associated with discretization and directionality and
it. This imposes the first major constraint: designers must create the need for support and an appropriate build orientation
comprehensive and complete digital models of the final product.
Since there will be little or no human intervention in the translation of As noted in section 2, AM produces physical objects piece-by-
the digital model to the physical product, AM CAD models must be piece, line-by-line, surface-by-surface, or layer-by-layer. This has
higher quality and contain more complete information than has been several major implications for part quality and consistency.
traditionally needed for other process technology.
Producing digital models for AM is challenging because most 5.2.1 The impact of discretization and orientation on surface
commercially available CAD programs are parametric NURBS roughness and material properties
systems. These are well suited to modelling geometries associated
with traditional manufacturing processes (extrusions, revolves, lofts, The boundaries between the pieces, lines, surfaces, or layers of AM
etc.) but often inadequate for the more organic shapes [138] and parts are rarely, if ever, seamless. This adds a characteristic roughness
complex, multi-scale geometries associated with AM. In addition, at the length scales associated with the discretization (Fig. 38, Fig. 39
traditional CAD systems cannot generate multi-scale cellular and Fig. 40).
lattice structures, model or denote color, specify the material to use,
indicate material variation within an object, or specify tolerances. To
overcome these limitations, AM CAD systems require an interface
that can develop complex shapes and structures, and a data structure
that can store their properties.
Two common methods to overcome some of the bulk geometric
limitations of legacy CAD systems are haptic modelling and reverse
engineering. Haptic modelling is a virtual sculpting method that uses
a force-feedback hand-held tool to interact with a 3D CAD model. It
gives the user the sense that they are physically touching “virtual Fig. 38. Benchmark showing the surface roughness resulting for SLM parts
clay” [364] and therefore is much better suited to creating freeform with different build angles. Courtesy of ASML.
shapes [57]. An alternative to developing the organic shape ex nihil is
to start the modelling process by 3D scanning an existing physical
object. This is particularly well suited for the development of models
 optimized beam without support required 1.6 hours to print and
consumed 47.8 cm3 of build material but did not print successfully.
The optimized beam with columnar support required 5.7 hours to
print and consumed 47.8 cm3 of build material plus 41.9 cm3 of
support material. The self-supporting beam required 2.6 hours to print
and consumed 54.9 cm3 of build material.
Support strategies are always process specific. In some processes,
the raw material (e.g. powder or resin) acts as a natural support. Some
Fig. 39. EBM octet-truss unit cell (left), 3D reconstruction of a 1mm strut processes require a sacrificial build plate and/or support structures to
from x-ray tomography (center), and an isometric view of the strut showing anchor the part to a build plate. In these cases, support cannot be
the diameter variation by the inscribed and circumscribed diameters (right). eliminated entirely. In metal AM processes the support acts as a
Adapted from [314]. Note that the strut exhibits surface roughness at length
pathway for heat conduction. Thus, support is often needed to counter
scales associated with the layering and with the powder.
the effects of thermal residual stresses and reduce heat related
failures, even if the part is mechanically self-supporting. In these
cases, the support must be designed to fulfil both the mechanical and
thermal requirements [73][160].

Fig. 42. Topology optimized cantilever beam successfully built with support
(left) and redesigned to be self-supporting (right). Arrows indicate where build
failures occur if no support strategy is implemented. Adapted from [185].
Fig. 40. Surface roughness of FDM parts deposited at 0° before (top) and after
(bottom) chemical vapor polishing [50].

Since the characteristic lengths of the raw material and process

parameters such as layer height are often at different length scales, the
surface roughness is also often multi-scale [35][314]. The boundary
between newly created and existing material can act as an interface
where cracks and other types of failure can initiate. Since the Fig. 43. Closeup of build support strategies: failed build with no support (left),
discretization in modern AM processes is rarely isotropic, the surface successful build with support (center), and successful build of self-supporting
roughness and resulting material properties [113][268][274] are also structure (right). Adapted from [185].
usually anisotropic. One common method to address these
anisotropies is to modify the part [25][118][328] or assembly [232] Designers must also consider if and how the support will be
orientation to minimize their impact. Other options include finishing removed and the impact removing it will have on the final part
operations after each layer [362] (Fig. 41), finishing operations such quality. For example, in self-supporting processes, the supporting
as chemical [35][254] (Fig. 40) or mechanical polishing, or post material can become trapped in internal voids and may have to be
machining after the build is complete. removed from blind holes. In addition, removing the anchoring and
support material and other postprocessing steps add risk to the part
and can scar or damage the part [327]. Therefore, the choice of
process and the anchoring and support strategy can affect the quality
of a part even after the fabrication phase of production has finished.

5.2.3 Reducing process constraints to create new opportunities

Over time, process characteristics will relax and machine

Fig. 41. Cross section of a surface created using SLM only (left) and SLM capabilities will be extended, creating new opportunities and enabling
plus laser re-melting. Adapted from [362]. new DfAM strategies. For example, part orientation, once chosen, is
fixed in most AM processes. However, the possibility to change the
5.2.2 The need for support structures during production part orientation in-process does exist for some AM families.
Increasing the orientation degrees of freedom in space and time
Additively manufactured artifacts go through a large but finite increases the possibilities for controlling and therefore optimizing
number of states during the printing process. Each state must be able orientation-specific qualities such as surface roughness and material
to resist the forces that are applied to it, including gravitational body properties. Similarly, it increases the probability of being able to
loads, external forces applied by the printer, and internal forces from specify a build order of operations that will result in a self-supporting
thermal and residual stresses. While this is also true for subtractive structure and therefore eliminate the need for supports.
processes like machining, machined parts are usually in their Bi-direction deposition enables the exploitation of symmetry in the
strongest state at the beginning of the process and in their weakest deposited volume. For example, the build plate can be placed along a
state at the end. In contrast, AM parts are usually strongest when line of symmetry in the part (Fig. 3 and Fig. 44) or two parts can be
complete. Designers typically compensate for these mechanical built back-to-back (Fig. 45). If thermal-based processes deposit
effects by orienting the part to maximize its strength during the build, alternate layers in opposite directions, the two halves will have
by adding support structures to the part, or by designing the part to be identical but opposite residual stress states [352], balancing the
self-supporting throughout the printing process. All of these strategies component stress and reducing or eliminating distortion. This is
can increase the cost and time of production. For example, Leary et straightforward when the substrate divides the part in two equal
al. [185] produced topology optimized cantilever beams with and volumes; otherwise redesign of the part might be required. If parts are
without support structures using FDM (Fig. 42 and Fig. 43). The
built back-to-back, the cost and waste associated with buying, support requirements, options, and strategies; if material can become
preparing, and removing the sacrificial built plate is reduced. entrapped in internal voids and blind holes; and what postprocessing
procedures can or must be performed. These are constant for all
machines of a given type and are different for each class of AM
process listed in Fig. 2. Machine specific capabilities and
requirements include the input and data file requirements and options;
the minimum build resolution (usually in x, y, and z) and the other
resolutions that can be chosen; the maximum build dimensions
(usually in x, y, and z); the available and compatible materials that
can be used; the process parameters that can be varied and the options
for varying them; and the postprocessing parameters that can be
Fig. 44. Examples of unidirectional (far right) and bi-directional build
orientations along the three planes of symmetry for a wing rib. Based on [116]. varied and the options for varying them. These are rarely fundamental
Images courtesy of the Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre at limitations and can often be overcome by buying or building a
Cranfield University. different machine.
Together, the process specific characteristics, the machine specific
constraints, the choice of material(s), and in some cases the support
strategy place limitations on the parts that can be built and define the
qualities and characteristics of the parts. For example, they determine
the warpage, shrinkage, accuracy and precision of the part; the
dimensional stability of the part; the surface roughness of the part in
x, y, and z; the minimum feature size in x, y, and z; the minimum
spacing between features; the maximum aspect ratio of a feature; and
Fig. 45. Ti–6Al–4V wing spars (1.2m long) built back-to-back on a sacrificial the unsupported and supported feature shapes and sizes that can be
build plate for BAE Systems [352]: side view show one wing spar (left) and produced. Given these constraints, designers must choose an AM
top view showing both wing spars (right). process that can produce the specified part in the specified material
with the required quality, choose a non-AM process or combination
Multi-directional deposition can be adopted to minimise non-value- of AM and traditional processes that have the required capabilities, or
adding time. For example, WAAM deposition must be performed on modify the design and its production strategy to compensate for the
underlying material at a fixed temperature to consistent deposition constraints that are imposed by AM.
conditions. This can result in long machine idle times during cooling.
However, if a layer can cool while another is being deposited on the 5.3.1 AM design guides for general material and process specific
opposite side, the only non-value-adding activity is the part rotation. considerations and constraints
Finally, layers can be deposited out-of-position [165]. For example,
two deposition heads can work simultaneously on opposite sides of a A number of AM design guides have been published to outline
vertical starting plate. This doubles the deposition rate and still results process and machine specific constraints and considerations. For
in zero distortion. It does not help heat management because the two example, Materialise published 19 design guides for a variety of
volumes are being deposited at the same time, but this might not be materials [207]. Each guide provides a set of ‘design specifications’
an issue for large (multi-metre) parts. These considerations should be that include minimum wall thickness, minimum detail size, expected
taken into account when defining the design and production strategy. accuracy, maximum part size, clearance, and if interlocking or
Otherwise, they may result in costly redesign later in the product enclosed parts are possible. These are followed by a set of ‘basic
development process. rules, tips, and tricks’ that are material and process specific. Stratasys
published three guides that address DMLS [296], FDM [300], and
5.2.4 Discussion
laser sintering [304]. These are also process-specific with little
overlap in content. Shapeways has published design guidelines for 16
These issues are tightly coupled. It is rarely possible to
materials [286]. Each guide includes the minimum and maximum
simultaneously optimize the part orientation to reduce material usage
bounding box, minimum supported and unsupported wall thickness
and production cost, improve surface and overall build quality,
and wire size, minimum embossed and engraved detail, minimum
control the material properties, and eliminate the need for support. To
escape hole for entrapped material, if enclosed and interlocking parts
balance these considerations, researchers have used genetic
are possible, if multiple parts per file is possible, the expected
algorithms [54][60][205][257], swarm intelligence [127], multi-
accuracy, and the expected look and feel of material. Additional
objective optimization [82][245], and multi-attribute decision making
material specific information such as design tips and information
processes [368][369][371][372] to identify the most optimal
about handling and care of the final parts is also included. Finally, 3D
orientation for a given part. In addition, discretization and
systems published two design guides that focus on application
directionality are strongly tied to the characteristics of the AM
specific considerations for brass [3] and plastic [5] SLS components
process and the capabilities of the specific machine used. Thus, build
that include features such as internal channels, cages, assemblies,
orientation and support strategies cannot be developed independently
interlocking / woven parts, springs, hinges, snap fits, and threads.
from the process, machine, and process parameters.
In the academic literature, Adam and Zimmer [10] presented a
catalogue of design rules for laser sintering, laser melting, and FDM
5.3 Constraints due to process characteristics and machine
that address geometric constraints such as sharp edges, element
capabilities
transitions, unsupported features, and feature spacing. Additional
process-specific design rules have been proposed for FDM [322],
Every additively manufactured part is affected by the characteristics
SLM [325], EBM [336] and WAAM [220][221][222].
of its process family and the capabilities of the specific machine(s)
used. Process specific characteristics include the material deposition
5.3.2 AM benchmarks for material and machine specific
method, the recoating method (if any), and the bonding principle.
considerations and constraints
These determine the types (polymer, metal, etc.) and nature (e.g.
powder shape and size) of raw materials that can be processed; the
While design rules and guidelines can provide a useful starting
resulting material properties and characteristics; the anchoring and
point, they do not provide information about individual machines and
local capabilities. When more detailed information is needed to tensile strength and a lower breaking elongation than the bulk
support design, benchmarks can be used to study and compare AM material. This is undesirable when producing medical implants. A
processes, parameters, and production strategies. Early AM common countermeasure is to use postprocessing treatments to
benchmarks were used for process optimization, comparison, and achieve the desired mechanical properties. For example, post heat
selection. They were relatively large and contained features that were treating Ti-6Al-4V ELI at 800 °C for 2h leads to a significantly
easily characterized by CMMs [53][238][239]. Over time AM improved fracture elongation compared to the as-built condition [109]
benchmarks gained more ‘real’ features (holes, bosses, towers, (Table 1). Finally, the material properties can be influenced by the
angles, notches, thin walls, fine features, freeform structures, etc. proportion of recycled raw material used and by the recycling
[238]) that could be used to develop local rules for DfAM (Fig. 46). process. Thus the cost and waste associated with AM must be
Benchmarks have also become more specific over time, focusing on weighed against any potential degradation in quality.
design considerations such as surface roughness (Fig. 38), overhangs
and support structures (Fig. 47), and cellular materials (Fig. 48). Table 1. Mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V ELI used for medical implants:
Finally, benchmarks, such as Proto Labs’ torus design aid [265], are requirements according ASTM F136 for conventional and ASTM F3001 for
starting to be offered by AM service providers. AM bulk material compared to the typical mechanical properties of DMLS
processed sampled in the conditions as-built and heat treated [109].
Bulk AM bulk Typical DMLS Typical DMLS
material material as-built heat treated
ASTM F ASTM F (XY build (XY build
136 3001-14 direction) direction)
Tensile strength
Min. 860 Min. 860 1260 ±40 1075 ±30
[N/mm²]
Yield strength
Min. 795 Min. 795 1125 ±65 1000 ±40
[N/mm²]
Breaking
Min. 10 Min. 10 7±3 13 ± 3
elongation [%]

5.5 Constraints associated with metrology and quality control

While the unique capabilities of AM present great opportunities at

the beginning of the design process, they create major challenges for
metrology and quality control after production. These challenges are
Fig. 46. AM benchmarks with design related features from [239] (top left), related to the verification of materials, geometries, and surfaces.
[196] (top right), [180] (bottom left), [63] (bottom center), and [363] (bottom Because AM creates the part material and geometry at the same time,
right). Adapted from [239] and [363]. AM parts must be inspected for defects in the bulk material including
undesirable grain characteristics, unexpected porosity, and larger
internal voids. The challenge increases dramatically for functionally
graded materials. In addition, AM materials cannot be assumed to
have the same properties as their bulk counterparts. Thus,
characterization techniques for the mechanical or optical properties of
the material may need to be adjusted before they can be used.
The organic, freeform external geometries that can be created by
AM require more complex measurement techniques and greater data
processing capabilities. The first (and perhaps most important)
challenge is the mere fact that current specifications systems as
Fig. 47. Test parts to investigate the design of overhangs (left, [225] adapted defined in ISO [154] were not developed for complex freeform
from [264]) and support structures (right, [264]). shapes. In addition, it is not straightforward to assign a “tolerance
zone” to a freeform shape and connect this to its function and
manufacturability. There has been some research related to
communicating requirements for [175] and estimating form errors of
[64] freeform geometries in optics. However, little or not work has
been done in this area for AM. The verification of critical internal
features, such as conformal cooling channels, is even more
challenging [339] and will require improvements in non-destructive
imaging technologies such as ultrasound and computed tomography.
Fig. 48. Benchmarks to investigate the design of FDM porous structures [24].
The difficulty and importance of verifying internal geometries
increases substantially when considering multi-scale cellular and
5.4 Constraints associated with material properties and processing lattice-based structures and materials [334][360]. Here the challenge
lies both in imaging these bodies and in interpreting the results using
In many cases, raw materials can be used in AM processes without advanced methods as described in [161].
modification. However, some materials must be adapted before they Designers must keep in mind that the early choices they make in the
can be used. For example, laser sintering gold requires a change in the design process will have a major impact on the downstream
alloy to prevent the raw material from evaporating [104]. Similarly, requirements for production and quality control. Thus, designing for
the proportion of ingredients in additively manufactured food affects metrology and quality control must be a part of DfAM.
properties such as dimensional stability [192], requiring some recipes
to be optimized for AM. In addition, AM processing can change the 5.6 Through life constraints: maintenance, repair, and recycling
material properties of the final parts. Although this was presented as a
design freedom in section 4.2.1, it is also a design constraint. For Sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.3 presented embedded components and
example, Ti-6Al-4V ELI parts produced using DMLS have a higher printed assemblies as benefits. However, as-printed assemblies
usually cannot be disassembled for routine maintenance or repair maintenance), labour costs (operator, setup and post processing), and
[59]. If part of an assembly breaks and it cannot be disassembled and material costs (direct material costs and material cost for support
reassembled, then the whole assembly has to be replaced. This structures). The model was used to compare the direct printing cost of
increases the cost and the waste associated with the product two plastic parts produced by SL, FDM, laser sintering (LS), and
throughout its usable life. This is especially important because with injection molding. It indicated that the cost per AM part was driven
few exceptions [115][226], relatively little work is being done on by the production speed and the break-even point between LS and
determining and improving the wear properties of AM parts. The injection molding was driven by part size. It was estimated that LS
problem increases for objects with embedded components and multi- was economical up to 14,000 pieces for the smaller part (Fig. 50) and
material assemblies because they are also difficult to disassemble for up to 700 pieces for the larger part.
recycling and disposal. Design strategies to address and overcome Ruffo et al. [275][276][277][278] expanded upon that work to
these limitations must be developed in the future. create a more flexible and realistic cost model that included different
parts in a single build; indirect costs such as administrative costs, part
5.7 External and regulatory constraints design and production overhead; and the cost of powder material
reuse and waste. While Hopkinson and Dickens predicted a price per
The many benefits of AM described in section 4 led to widespread product that was independent of production numbers, Ruffo et al.
interest and early adoption of AM for end use parts in the aerospace found that the price per parts drops as the costs of part design are
and medical industries. However, both industries are highly regulated distributed over more products and when adding more parts to the
and require parts to gain regulatory approval before being put into same production layer. It jumps up again when new layers/builds are
use. Thus, the designer and the design are constrained by the need for used (Fig. 49). This results in a higher and more plausible cost for
testing and documentation to support the certification and approval lower production volumes and predicts higher costs for higher
process. Obtaining regulatory approval can be challenging since AM production volumes [277]. As a result, Ruffo et al. predict a lower
processes are relatively new and do not have the same historical data break-even point between LS and injection moulding for the smaller
that is available for conventional processes. In addition, AM part from [148] (9000 vs. 14,000 pieces).
machines have a higher inherent variability than is seen in more More recently, Atzeni and Salmi [29] developed a model to
mature technologies. As a result, in aerospace AM is currently being estimate the cost of DMLS metal parts. It included machine costs
used mainly for non-safety-critical parts and mostly on military rather (including interest and maintenance over a 5 year usable life),
than commercial aircraft [58]. More recently, some aerospace material costs (volume multiplied by 1.1 to compensate for support
manufacturers have commented on the wider use of AM parts [244]. and waste), and pre-, and postprocessing costs as labor. The model
To gain regulatory approval for these, the consistency of the AM was used to compare the cost of a 1:5 model of an aluminium airplane
process itself must be proven and stringent materials safety testing landing gear assembly (overall dimensions 70×210×70mm; mass
must be performed. 0.18kg) produced using DMLS and High Pressure Die Casting
Most medical applications of AM have been for medical models (HDPC). They estimated the cost of a single DMLS assembly to be
and removable prosthetics [58]. Where implants have been used, it 526.31 EUR (material cost 5%, pre-processing cost 1%, build costs
has often been on a ‘single-use, experimental’ basis where explicit 90%, post processing cost 4%) vs. 21.29 + 21,000/N EUR for HDPC.
permission is obtained from a specific patient. However, there are This results in a break-even point of 42 parts.
some notable exceptions such as the large-scale production of hip
implants. The manufacturers of such implants must also demonstrate
consistency of both process and material to gain regulatory approval.

6. Costs and benefits of AM products and processes

The cost of AM is often viewed as one of the biggest barriers to

adoption in industry. However, there are many examples where the
value added by AM far outweighs the costs. This section explores the
costs and economic benefits of AM-based production as barriers,
motivations, and considerations for DfAM. It presents some of the
major cost models that have been developed for AM, considers the
requirements for successful AM business models, and presents a
series of case studies that explore the economic viability of DfAM. Fig. 49. Cost per part vs. the number of parts produced estimated using the
model from [276] applied to the lever from [148].
6.1 Costs of AM parts and production
Many variations of these cost models exist in the literature. Li [188]
AM costs are usually divided into well-structured direct production included labor costs for pre- and postprocessing, material costs (part
costs (e.g. labor, material, and machine costs) and ill-structured costs volume/0.7 to account for support and material waste), machine cost
(related to build failures, transportation, inventory, etc.) [326][354]. per hour (purchase cost over annual utilisation and years until return),
Traditional cost models focused on the well-structured costs and were and overhead (rent, electricity, etc.). Allen [15] considered labor,
intended to compare AM processes to each other or traditional material costs (part volume, raw material costs, and material usage
manufacturing processes and to identify strategies for process and efficiency), capital (machine) costs, power costs (including power
product cost optimization. More recent work has discussed the need conversion efficiency and power delivered to the part), the build rate,
for [190] and attempted to [170] evaluate the costs and economic and the cost of consumables. Grimm [133] considered pre-, printing,
benefits of AM by considering all life cycle costs. and postprocessing time; capital costs (machines, facilities, etc.);
annual operating costs (service, maintenance, consumables, material
6.1.1 Cost models for AM production disposal, etc.); and hourly costs (assuming a 60% utilization rate).
Baumers [37] considered total indirect cost per machine hour
Hopkinson and Dickens [148] proposed one of the earliest generic (machine costs, overhead, labor, utilisation rates, and usable
AM cost models. This model assumes that one product will be equipment lives), material cost, and electricity costs. Gibson et al.
produced on the same machine for the entire economic lifespan of the [130] included labor costs (including setting up the build,
machine. It includes machine costs (purchase, depreciation, and postprocessing, and cleaning and resetting the machine), machine
purchase cost (allocated based on the part build time and machine Table 2. Relative contribution of AM machine procurement cost to total
usable life), machine operation costs (including maintenance, utilities, product cost for FDM, SL, SLS [148], EBM, and DMLS [38]. A factor of 1.3
floor space, overhead, etc.), and material costs (based on part volume, was used to convert £ to € for the EBM and DMLS parts.
multiplied by up to 1.5 to account for support and multiplied by up to
Polymers (2003) Metal (2016)
7 to account for material waste). Lindemann et al. [190][191] built on
FDM SL LS EBM DMLS
the work of Gibson et al. with an extensive model to define machine Annual AM machine costs
costs. They also introduced a part complexity factor to allow for the 23 219 73 57 59
(k€)
increased time needed to design support structures and place complex AM machine cost per
parts in the build environment. Rickenbacher et al. [269] developed 2.64 3.92 0.52 513 1964
product / build (€)
one of the most comprehensive models to date. Their model includes Total cost per product / build
detailed cost estimates based on the full SLM process chain and is 4.47 5.25 2.20 1246 4183
(€)
suitable for jobs with different parts sizes, complexities and Relative AM machine cost
quantities. For a full review of AM cost models to date, see [326]. 59 75 24 41 47
per product/build (%)

6.1.2 Machine costs for AM production

The cost of hardware is a major contributor to the total cost of AM

products. Hardware costs are defined mainly by the capital equipment
costs, service and maintenance costs, build time, and machine
utilization. Table 2 shows the relative contribution of AM machine
cost to the total product cost for FDM, SL, and SLS for a plastic
hinge (Fig. 50) from 2003 [148] and for EBM and DMLS build plates Fig. 50. The plastic hinge used in calculations from [148]: CAD model (left,
with a variety of parts (Fig. 51) from 2016 [38]. For the polymer adapted from [276]) and printed part (right, [148])
processes, the contribution of hardware to the total part cost ranged
from 24-75%. SLS had a higher annual production volume than FDM
and SL and therefore the lowest cost per product and the lowest
relative contribution of the hardware to the cost. The SL hardware
had the highest contribution to the cost of the final product (75%)
because of (8x) higher hardware procurement costs. For the metal
processes, the estimated relative contribution of hardware was in the
range of 40-55%. The EBM and DMLS machines had comparable
procurement costs. The differences in the relative cost contribution of
the hardware to the total volumetric cost (3.26 €/cm3 for EBM and
Fig. 51. The build platform and printed parts used for the cost calculations in
8.41 €/cm3 for DMLS) stem from differences in layer height [38]: EBM layout (left, a) and DMLS layout (right, b).
(deposition rate), preheating and cooling, and postprocessing.
6.1.4 Material costs
6.1.3 Build time models for AM production
AM materials have relatively high procurement costs. Today,
Build time dictates how machine costs are allocated to a given part thermoplastic and photopolymer materials for AM cost $175-250 per
and is therefore essential for accurate AM cost estimations [87]. kg. This makes AM materials 58 to 125 times more expensive than
Existing build time models can be grouped into 3 categories: models the raw materials for injection moulding [355]. More specialized
dedicated to one process using a limit set of parameters; generic build thermoplastic materials cost up to 500 $/kg while PLA and ABS
time models that use many parameters to estimate build times; and filament for at-home printers sell for 15-50 $/kg. Metal powders have
parametric models that use neural networks to predict production a price range of 78-120 $/kg for stainless steel and up to 340-880 $/kg
times based on historic data. For example, Ruffo et al. [275] modelled for titanium (alloys) [354]. Wire feedstock is normally one order of
build time as a black box: part dimensions, volume, powder bed magnitude cheaper than powder. Material costs depend on the source.
volume and bounding box volume went in and a build time came out. Large variations have been observed in the cost of metal powders
The relationships between the inputs and outputs were determined when bought from a system manufacturer or purchased directly from
empirically. This approach requires very few input variables to obtain a metal spraying company.
a good estimate of build time (generally conservative and within 12% AM processes also have high relative contributions of material
of the actual build time), however only one type of machine was used costs to final costs. For example, the contribution of the material cost
and the settings were kept constant. Thus, the method is transferrable to the final cost of an aluminium part can be 9.9 times greater when
but the results are not. Byun and Lee [54] proposed a generic build using AM instead of a traditional process [29]. The contribution of
time model assuming that build time is “proportional to the sum of the material costs to the final product in metal powder-based AM
the idle time between layers (except for the curing, sintering or product can vary from 11% and 46% [326].
deposition operation), the time taken to fabricate a part, and the time
taken to generate the supports”. Gibson et al. [130] used a similar 6.1.5 Labour Costs
approach, assuming that build time is equal to the scan (or deposition)
time plus the recoat time between layers and the delay time. More Low labor intensity is thought to be one of the key benefits of AM.
recently, process-specific built time models have been proposed for However, the pre- and postprocessing stages often involve manual
SLM [269], SLS [367], and FDM [373]. Finally, di Angelo and di activities such as file repair, support structure design, build chamber
Stefano developed a neural network-based build time estimator [87]. layout, cleaning, support removal, sintering or heat-treating, and
After 72 training cases, they were able to estimate the build time of surface finishing. The impact of these costs on the product price can
six different FDM samples with errors ranging from 6.07 to 20.3%. be considerable, especially for low production volumes (Fig. 49).
For a full review of AM build time models to date, see [326]. Most cost models assume higher production volumes for a single
design and therefore underestimate the labor costs of AM products.
6.1.6 Energy consumption 6.3.1 On demand workpieces to reduce lead time, cost, and waste

Although the energy consumption of the AM processes is important Using AM to produce near net shape workpieces can substantially
from life cycle and sustainability perspectives [167], it plays a minor reduce lead time, cost, and material waste. This is especially
role in cost comparisons today. For example, it was estimated that important for the aerospace industry where many components require
energy costs in [148] and [38] contributed less than 2% of the total substantial material removal; are slow, difficult or expensive to
part cost. For a detailed analysis of energy and resource efficiency in machine; and have high material costs [15]. Fig. 52 shows a custom
SLM and SLS, see [167]. For a discussion and review of the AM 2.5mm thick truncated cone that was printed using WAAM and then
energy consumption literature, see [326][354]. welded to a commercially available flange. The printed workpiece
can be produced in a few hours. Purchasing the same workpiece made
6.2 Business cases for Design for Additive Manufacturing using conventional methods would cost almost ten times more and
take up to 6 months to receive. The buy-to-fly ratio (in this case, the
Competitive businesses cases can be made for Additive material purchased and used compared to material specified in the
Manufacturing when it adds sufficient value to a product to justify final CAD files) for the printed cone was 1.25. In comparison,
higher production costs, reduces product development costs, reduces aerospace parts machined from forged billets often have buy-to-fly
production costs, reduces costs over the entire value chain, reduces ratios in the range of 6 to 20 [15][352] and can be as high as 40 [352].
the cradle to grave costs of the product, or provides some [204] compares the cost of products with buy-to-fly ratios between 6
combination of these benefits. AM can be used to increase the and 37. Direct cost savings of up to 69% were found for WAAM
economic, ecological and experience values of products [59]. Other compared to milling the same parts from stock.
values such as the freedom to produce parts in-house (eliminating the
risks due to dependence on external suppliers and reducing supply
chain vulnerability) [278], protecting business secrets, and preventing
piracy [159] are difficult to quantify but nevertheless contribute to
profitability. The ‘tool-less’ nature of AM allows it to reduce direct
production costs when complexity and/or customization are high and
when volumes are low [76]. It can also shorten lead times compared
to conventional methods. As a result, AM can lead to an overall
reduction in time to market and time to profit.
Deradjat and Minshall [86] observed that business case for DfAM Fig. 52. Truncated cone produced in mild steel by Wire + Arc Additive
can be based on benefits from any part of the AM business Manufacturing: as printed (left, courtesy of the Welding Engineering and
framework: technology, operations, organizations, and external Laser Processing Centre at Cranfield University) and welded (right, [352]).
influences. For example, improvements in operations, organizations,
and external factors, especially in terms of over production and in the 6.3.2 Reduced part count, mass reduction, and increased usable life
areas of supply chain and inventory control, can enable lean, agile, or
Just-In-Time manufacturing [76][147][224][283][331][326] and GE aviation redesigned the fuel nozzle for its new LEAP engines
increase profitability. This increases the scope of DfAM from the for DMLS (Fig. 53, left). The redesigned nozzle reduces the number
design of the product to the design of the production system. The of brazes and welds from 25 to 5. It also increases the lifetime of the
potential for AM in the supply chain has been investigated in the fuel nozzle by a factor of 5 and reduces the mass by 25%. Production
aerospace industry [230], in the shipping industry [344], and by the rates of up to 40,000/year are expected [124][184].
air force [170] and navy [144]. These studies concluded that the
benefits of AM in the supply chain are not yet being realized in these
areas. However, industrial case studies in the medical and dental
industries show that these benefits are being realized today. For
example, customers’ dental models are being stored as digital files
instead of as physical parts, lowering costs and providing better
protection of the information [293][297]. Acist Medical Systems
reports that their inventory also takes the form of digital files on a
Fig. 53. Commercially successful AM products: GE Aviation fuel nozzle for
server. If a part breaks, the company prints a replacement and ships it
the LEAP engine (left, [124]) and hearing aids produced by vat polymerization
the next day [297]. And, ScriptPro is using AM to produce bezels for (center, [117]), and casing of the handheld Piblaster of Pinovo as produced by
their vial handling systems. Since they don't know which bezel will Materialise (right, [211]).
be needed for which machine and vial type until it is ordered, FDM is
used to produce the parts on demand in house [312]. 6.3.3 Reduced production costs of customized hearing aids
Finally, maximizing the business benefits of AM requires a
through-life approach that considers production, use, maintenance, Historically, personalized hearing aids (Fig. 53, center) were
repair, and disposal. For example, AM is currently being used to produced by investment casting using a wax model of the inner ear.
repair gas turbine blades [106][176]. It is also being used to produce This is being replaced by 3D scanning the wax model followed by
on demand parts for emergency repairs. For example, a recent case AM. This substantially reduces production costs. It is estimated that
study showed that printing a component for an emergency repair of a more than 10,000,000 AM hearing aids are in circulation today [117].
labelling system saved Anheuser-Busch “nearly 70% in production
costs alone” because of the quick delivery time [313]. 6.3.4 Improved safety and functionality and reduced waste

6.3 Successful examples of AM products in industry Pinovo designed a handheld pipe blaster (Fig. 53, right) with
housing shape and material requirements that could not be achieved
This section presents six examples from industry where AM added with injection moulding. Instead, the housing was produced using
value, improved functionality, and reduced time, cost, and waste. laser sintering of alumide. The new design reduced waste production
by 75-90%, increased operator safety, and improved flexibility in
responding to customer demands [211].
6.3.5 Reduced costs and lead time for an electrical enclosure of what is possible and affordable today. However, Design for
Additive Manufacturing is still in its infancy. There is insufficient
ASML redesigned an electrical enclosure for AM (Fig. 54). The understanding of when and how to design for AM and many of the
original enclosure was composed of 3 brazed parts and required a technologies needed to support it are not yet mature. This section
total of 34 steps in the process chain: 11 machining and joining steps, explores some of the future challenges and coming trends that will
7 material treatment and cleaning steps, 8 quality checks, and 8 shape DfAM and the technology it will enable.
packaging and transport steps. The overall lead-time was 21 weeks.
The part was redesigned for AM to optimize process flow and cost. 7.1 Guidelines for when and how to Design for AM
The redesigned part requires a total of 11 process steps: DMLS
followed by annealing, 3 machining and joining, 2 material treatment Although AM can be “an economically convenient alternative to
and cleaning, 2 quality checks, and 2 packaging and transport steps. conventional manufacturing processes” [30], it is agreed that parts
This reduced the lead-time by 70% and reduced costs by 20%. should be redesigned for AM and not simply reproduced using an
AM process [30][130][191][270]. Lindemann et al. [191] presented a
method to select candidates for AM from a larger pool of parts. The
2015 draft of ISO ASTM/DIS 20195 [157] also includes a procedure
for identifying the potential of AM for a given part. However, much
more work is needed to understand what kind and how much redesign
is necessary or optimal for a given situation, how to modify the
design process and the design strategy to maximize the benefit, and to
develop software to support this work.
Fig. 54. Exploded view of the solid model for the original brazed electrical One promising (re)design strategy is to take a functional surface
enclosure (left, [6]) and the final printed part (right, courtesy of ASML). approach [142][261][335][370] and design parts from the bottom up.
Fig. 56 shows the top down design of the monolithic manifold from
6.3.6 Weight reduction, functional optimization, and improved Fig. 55, starting with the maximum envelope and then removing
robustness in the semiconductor industry material to create the functional features and reduce mass. Fig. 57
shows a bottom up functional surface approach, starting with the
ASML also redesigned a manifold for AM. The original design was interfaces, defining the maximum envelope constraint, and then
composed of PEEK bodies connected by polyurethane hoses. They adding the functional features and structural reinforcement. While the
created two alternative designs: a monolithic milled design that functional surface approach results in a design that is half the mass of
replaced the hoses with solid channels sealed by welded cover plates its top down counterpart, it requires geometric modelling capabilities
and a design that was optimized for production by SLM (Fig. 55). A that are not yet common in commercial CAD packages. Functional
detailed cost breakdown of the three designs in shown in Table 3. surface design approaches also require a closer link between design
Redesigning for AM had benefits for both the product and the and analysis. Thus, the multi-physics capabilities that were once
process. The AM variation could be optimized for flow and therefore limited to high-end finite element programs may soon be needed in
had improved dynamic system performance. The AM variable was most major commercial CAD packages.
more robust and almost 10% lighter than the original. Using AM To receive the full benefits of AM, designers must learn to think
eliminated the welding and assembly steps. It also reduced the differently while focusing on creating robust industrial solutions with
amount and cost of machining necessary and reduced the cleaning added value. Design theories, processes, methods, tools, and
and other post treatments needed. However, in this example, the AM techniques [194] must be adapted or developed to address the
variation is still too costly. To make the AM part economically viable inherent coupling between material, geometry, and quality in these
in production, it is estimated that the direct AM costs must be reduced systems. Specialized and application-specific tools must be developed
by 50% (by increasing build speed), machining costs must be reduced to support the design of cellular structures, meta materials,
by 25% (by improving the accuracy and quality of the SLM process), heterogeneous artifacts, and biological scaffolds (e.g. [259]), and
and the overhead must be reduced by 20% for a final part that is no more. Finally, it must be acknowledged that each build is a design
more than 120% of the cost of the conventional design. artifact with its own requirements and constraints, and its own
features (e.g. support structures, part layout, etc.) to be designed and
7. Summary, conclusions, coming trends, and future work optimized. Thus DfAM must extend beyond the product to the
production system and consider the entire value chain.
This paper has presented some of the major design opportunities,
constraints, and costs associated with DfAM and demonstrated some

Fig. 55. Three designs of a manifold from the semiconductor industry: conventional design made of PEEK with hoses (110g) (left), monolithic design milled in
TiGr5 (200g) (center), and optimized design printed in TiGr5 using SLM (100g) (right). Courtesy of ASML.

Table 3. Cost breakdown of the three manifold designs shown in Fig. 55 as a percentage of the total cost of the conventional design. Courtesy of ASML.

Material & Welding / Treatments / Overhead / risk /

Concept AM cost Machining cost Total cost
standard parts assembly cost Cleaning / Quality profit
PEEK & hoses 15% 33% 21% 8% 21% 100%
TiGr5 milled 1% 59% 54% 4% 38% 156%
TiGr5 SLM 4% 113% 28% 3% 35% 185%
 part transfer between machines, will increase. This will lead to an
increase in sensors and information processing capabilities in AM
production systems. Eventually, most production scale AM will be
done with cyber-physical manufacturing systems. The direct digital
nature of AM combined with the use of cyber-physical systems will
allow for cloud-based AM [186]. The benefits of cloud-based
approaches have already been demonstrated in process optimization
Fig. 56. Top down design of a conventional manifold by starting with the [320], adaptive process planning [235], shop-floor planning [234],
maximum allowed volume (left), removing material for the functional surfaces
scheduling [236], and maintenance [237]. The benefits of higher
(center) and then reducing mass (right). Courtesy of ASML.
quality, hybrid, high DOF, cyber-physical, and cloud-based AM
systems are expected to be emergent. To take advantage of these
benefits, new classes of design tools [194], rules, strategies, and
production planning techniques will be required beyond what is
needed today.

Fig. 57. Manifold designed from the bottom up for AM starting with the
interfaces (left), defining the maximum envelope as a constraint (center), and
then adding functional features and reinforcement (right). Courtesy of ASML.

7.2 Redefining the roles of the designer and manufacturer

AM will continue to redefine the roles and relationships of the

designer and the manufacturer, making it easier to merge them into
one individual and location (enabling home production and supporting
small businesses) and to distribute them over many individuals and
locations for truly global product development [89]. For example, GE
Aviation has experimented with crowd sourced redesign of an aircraft
engine bracket for weight reduction [62]. The contest received 700
entries (Fig. 58) and was so successful that GE is considering another Fig. 59. Achievable tolerances of select traditional and AM processes [189]
40 crowdsourcing challenges in the future. Similarly, online
repositories of AM artifacts, such as Thingiverse, Fabbaloo, Bld3r,
Yeggi, Repables, and Youimagine, make it possible for individuals to 7.5 Design education
produce a wide range of artifacts without needing to design them.
Finally, all of the developments in tools, rules, theories, methods,
processes, and planning must be compiled and made available to
support design activities and training in educational institutions and in
industry. Design, as a field of study and practice, will have to be
adapted to AM processes. Design representation, analysis, and
optimization tools will have to be transferred from academia and
research (and the hobby community) to industry and practice. Thus,
Fig. 58. Examples of crowdsourced redesigned aerospace engine brackets [62] the future will bring educational materials related to DfAM at all
levels and for all engineering professions.
7.3 Improved quality and consistency and increased standardization
7.6 Conclusions
AM process quality, consistency, and capabilities will continue to
improve. Existing standards will be applied more to AM. AM-specific Advances in Additive Manufacturing are bringing about new design
standards will become more relevant and complete. And, new AM- possibilities, products, and production paradigms. While much work
specific standards will be developed. These trends are reflected in the will be required to bring Design for Additive Manufacturing to
literature. For example, Lieneke et al. [189] recently classified the maturity, businesses, both small and large, are exploring and adopting
achievable tolerances of several AM processes according to ISO 286-1 AM for end use parts in at an astounding rate. Progress is being driven
taking into account part orientation [153] (Fig. 59). Similar work has from the top down and the bottom up, from individuals and industry,
been done by Griesbach [132] for SLA, material jetting, material in research and practice. The results will rewrite the rules of product
extrusion, and SLS, and by Mintetol et al. [227] for FDM. Such efforts development and new product introduction. A new era is beginning.
will enable standards organizations to bring researchers and industry
together to establish standards that can be built upon to support Acknowledgements
process-specific DfAM, more general process selection, and process
chain development. The authors would like to thank the following individuals for their
contributions to this work: Gideon Levy, Denis Loncke and Hans
7.4 New manufacturing paradigms and a divergence of manufacturing Vermeulen (ASML); Tetsuo Tomiyama, Stewart Williams, and Jorn
system complexity Mehnen (Cranfield U.); Michael Schmidt (FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg);
Hans Nørgaard Hansen, Leonardo DeChiffre, Alessandro Stolfi, David
AM process chains will become simpler as postprocessing needs are Bue Pedersen, and Greta D'Angelo (DTU); Jean-Pierre Kruth (KU
reduced. They will also become more complex as AM technologies are Leuven); Marcelo Dapino (OSU); John W. Sutherland (Purdue U.);
better integrated into the production environment. More hybrid AM Semih Pilatin (TEI); Dirk Lehmhus (U. Bremen); Francois Villeneuve
processes will emerge and more commercial hybrid AM machines will (U. Grenoble Alpes); Dimitris Mourtzis and Katerina Vlachou (U.
become available. AM processes with more degrees of freedom will be Patras), Edward Morse (UNCC); Catherine Lubineau (UNM); Berok
developed. And, automation of AM, especially for postprocessing and
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