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INDEX
SL.NO. TOPIC PG NO.
1. Introduction 5
2. Before Life 6
3. Chemical evolution 7
4. Biological evolution 10
5. Evidences 11
6. Evolutionary history 22
7. Theory of organic evolution 23
8. Brief account on evolution 24
9. Bibliography 25
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AIM:
1. Study of evolution of life and evidences of
evolution.
2. Study of analogous and homologous structures
in plants and animals.
INTRODUCTION:
Evolution can be understood as a gradual change
in the characteristic features of a species, brought
about by the need to adapt to situations and the
environment through natural selection.
All organisms that we see on the earth are
believed to have “formed” or evolved from
precursors of these organisms over a gradual
period of time. Evidence of Evolution can be
backed up by various fossils of extinct organisms
that show features and characteristics present in
their modern-day relatives.
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BEFORE LIFE:
The earth was formed more than 4.5 billion years
ago from rotating dust and gas particles that
coalesced in a rough sphere. For nearly a billion
years, the earth was a very hostile place where life
could not possibly survive.
It was theorized that primitive earth had more
active volcanoes, rifts and tectonic plates than it
has now and this led to average temperatures to
soar over a blistering 200° C.
Oxygen was also not freely present in the
atmosphere during this period. Instead, it was
trapped along with water vapour in rocks, which
gradually escaped due to intense heat and
pressure.
3.8 billion years ago, temperatures finally
dropped below the boiling point of water and rain
began pouring down on earth. And it rained for a
very long time, probably thousands of years.
Eventually, basins began to fill up and the world
saw its very first oceans. But the oceans would
remain empty for a million years more.
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CHEMICAL EVOLUTION:
The concept of chemical evolution refers to the
origin of life from non-living or inorganic matter.
The first organic compound was said to have been
formed due to the ever-changing environmental
conditions of the primitive earth and a
combination of inorganic compounds.
In 1953, Urey and Miller conducted an experiment
which proved that organic compounds can be
formed from inorganic substances, giving support
to the theory of chemical evolution.
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Miller and Urey Experiment:
Stanley L. Muller and Harold C. Urey performed an
experiment to describe the origin of life on earth.
They were of the idea that the early earth’s
atmosphere was able to produce amino acids
from inorganic matter. The two biologists made
use of methane, water, hydrogen, and ammonia
which they considered were found in the early
earth’s atmosphere. The chemicals were sealed
inside sterile glass tubes and flasks connected
together in a loop and circulated inside the
apparatus.
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One flask is half-filled with water and the other
flask contains a pair of electrodes. The water
vapour was heated and the vapour released was
added to the chemical mixture. The released
gases circulated around the apparatus imitating
the earth’s atmosphere. The water in the flask
represents the water on the earth’s surface and
the water vapour is just like the water evaporating
from lakes, and seas. The electrodes were used to
spark the fire to imitate lightning and storm
through water vapour.
The vapours were cooled and the water
condensed. This condensed water trickles back
into the first water flask in a continuous cycle.
Miller and Urey examined the cooled water after a
week and observed that 10-15% of the carbon
was in the form of organic compounds. 2% of
carbon had formed 13 amino acids. Yet, the Miller
and Urey experiments were condemned by their
fellow scientists.
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BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION:
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EVIDENCES IN EVOLUTION:
1.PALAEONTOLOGICAL EVOLUTION:
-Fossils are the geological remnants and scientific
traces of species exhumed from the soil in the
past.
-Individual fossil studies are beneficial because
fossils or skeletons carry information about an
organism's life and habitat.
-Palaeontologists can deduce the environment
and conditions in which this oyster grew from its
shell.
-Palaeontology is the study of the evolution of life
on Earth using fossils as evidence.
-Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and single-celled
organisms that have been replaced by rock
material or impressions of species preserved in
rock are known as fossils.
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Evolution of horse by C . Marsh
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2.FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY:
HOMOLOGY:
-The organs found in different organisms which
have a common origin and same basic structure
but differ in the functions they carry out are called
homologous organs.
-Examples of homologous organs include the
forelimbs of a man, the forelimbs of a cat, the
flippers of a whale, and the wings of a bat.
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-The forelimbs of a man are used for grasping, the
cat uses the forelimbs for running, the whale uses
its flippers for swimming and the bat uses its
wings for flying.
ANALOGY:
-These are organs that have dissimilarities in
anatomical structure but have similarities in the
functions they perform.
-They are the result of convergent evolution.
-For example, in plants, we see that the stem of
potato and the root of sweet potato show
vegetative propagation though their structure is
different they perform a similar function.
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-In animals, we also see wings of the insect and
birds shows convergent evolution as they perform
a similar function of flying but have different
anatomical structure.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION:
The phenomenon of adaptive radiation was first
observed by Darwin when he travelled to a place
called Galapagos Island. There he observed that
there were finches with different types of beaks.
So, he concluded that all of these inches radiated
on the same island from a single ancestor Finch.
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All of these finches developed beaks according to
the kind of food available to them. Hence, they
evolved from the conventional seed-eating finches
to vegetarian and insectivorous finches. They later
came to be known as Darwin’s finches.
According to Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, living
organisms change their physical and anatomical
structures over a long period of time for better
adaptations to the changing environment.
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3.EVIDENCES FROM VESTIGIAL
ORGANS:
These organs are generally homologous to organs
that function normally in other species, which is
why they can be considered as evidence of
evolution. The existence of vestigial traits can be
attributed to changes in the environment or
behaviour patterns of an organism. If a function
of a trait is no longer beneficial for the survival of
an organism, the chances of its future offspring
inheriting the trait’s normal form would be lower.
The transition will take place over many
generations and the trait may also be eliminated
through genetic drift and other random events.
It should be mentioned that gene mutation which
can result in a change in protein structures can
also give rise to vestigial organs.
Examples: Nictitating membrane, vermiform
appendix, coccyx, third molars, nipples in male etc
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4.EVIDENCES FROM
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION:
The earth has been divided in 6 regions on the
basis of distribution and range of plants and
animals.
Closely similar species exist at widely separated
places without any representatives called
discontinuous distribution. Example- alligators,
lung fishes, camels, etc.
Parts which are separated from the mainland
have unique flora and fauna are restricted
distribution. Example- pouched mammals and
egg-laying occur only in Australia.
Those organs which have the same basic
structure but different functions are called
homologous organs that show adaptive radiation.
Example- Darwin’s finches and marsupials of
Australia.
Two or more groups of unrelated animals come
to resemble each other for a similar mode of life
is called convergent evolution. Example-
Australian marsupials, placental mammals.
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5.EVIDENCES FROM BIOCHEMISTRY:
In all organisms the basic molecules of cell are
the same, e.g. carbohydrates, amino acids, lipids,
nucleic acids, enzymes, etc.
The nitrogen bases, the nucleotides, are the
same for all organisms, only the length and
sequence may vary.
Content of matrix (including plasma) are similar
for all the vertebrates Metabolic process of cell
are same in all organism. e.g. glycolysis, Kreb’s
cycle, oxidative phosphorylation and others. The
genetic code and the mechanism of protein
synthesis are also similar in all organisms.
Trypsin, the oldest known enzyme (ancestral
enzyme) is found in all animals from Protozoa to
Primates.
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6.EVIDENCES FROM EMBRYOLOGY:
The process of evolution is supported by many
processes and theories, like the presence of fossil
records, morphological evidence, molecular
evidence, embryological evidence, etc.
Embryological shreds of evidence show that the
embryos of different organisms show similarity
and are derived from common ancestors even
though the adult organisms of that embryo are
not similar.
For example when the embryo of fish and embryo
of human is observed, it can be seen that both the
embryos have gill slits but they have vanished in
humans before the birth of that human but in the
case of fish those gill slits develop and form gills
which form an essential part of the fish.
When embryos of reptiles, birds, fish, and
mammals are observed it can be seen that they
show many structural similarities. This shows that
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they all are derived from common ancestors and
the reason why only the embryos show
similarities is that adult organisms of different
species show different patterns of evolution.
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EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY:
Evolutionary history of vertebrates:
Evolutionary history of plant forms:
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Evolutionary history of humans:
Theory of organic evolution:
Lamarckism and Darwinism theory comparison:
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A BRIEF ACCOUNT ON EVOLUTION:
Universe- 20 bya (billion years ago)
Solar system and earth- 4.5 bya
Life appeared – 4 bya
Non cellular form of life- 3 bya
Cellular form of life – 2 bya
Invertebrates- 500 mya (million years ago)
Jawless fishes -350 mya
Sea weeds and few plants- 320 mya
Dinosaur’s disappearance- 65 mya
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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
-wikipedia.com
- NCERT biology
-google.com
-byjus.com
-vedantu.com
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THANKYOU
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